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	diff --git a/lib/libbhyve/Makefile b/lib/libbhyve/Makefile
	--- a/lib/libbhyve/Makefile
	+++ b/lib/libbhyve/Makefile
	@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
	PACKAGE=lib${LIB}
	LIB= bhyve
	SRCS= config.c \
	+ net_backends.c \
	pci.c
	INCS= bhyve/config.h \
	bhyve/net_backends.h \
	diff --git a/lib/libbhyve/net_backends.c b/lib/libbhyve/net_backends.c
	new file mode 100644
	--- /dev/null
	+++ b/lib/libbhyve/net_backends.c
	@@ -0,0 +1,307 @@
	+/*
	+ *
	+ * Copyright (c) 2019 Vincenzo Maffione <vmaffione@FreeBSD.org>
	+ * Copyright (c) 2023 Mark Johnston <markj@FreeBSD.org>
	+ * Copyright (c) 2025 Bojan Novković <bnovkov@FreeBSD.org>
	+ *
	+ * SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-2-Clause
	+ */
	+
	+#include <sys/nv.h>
	+#include <sys/nv_namespace.h>
	+#include <sys/socket.h>
	+
	+#include <net/if.h>
	+#include <net/netmap.h>
	+#include <net/netmap_virt.h>
	+#define NETMAP_WITH_LIBS
	+#include <net/netmap_user.h>
	+
	+#include <assert.h>
	+#include <errno.h>
	+#include <fcntl.h>
	+#include <netgraph.h>
	+#include <stdbool.h>
	+#include <string.h>
	+#include <unistd.h>
	+
	+#include "bhyve/config.h"
	+#include "bhyve/net_backends.h"
	+#include "bhyve/pci.h"
	+#include "internal.h"
	+
	+struct netbe_info {
	+ const char *prefix;
	+ int (init_fds)(nvlist_t );
	+ bool (validate_hotplug_request)(nvlist_t );
	+};
	+
	+static int
	+slirp_init_fds(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ int error;
	+ int sockpair_fds[2];
	+
	+ error = socketpair(PF_LOCAL, SOCK_SEQPACKET \| SOCK_NONBLOCK, 0,
	+ sockpair_fds);
	+ if (error != 0) {
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error", "Unable to create pipe: %s",
	+ strerror(errno));
	+ return (error);
	+ }
	+
	+ nvlist_move_descriptor_array(nvl, "sockpair", sockpair_fds,
	+ sizeof(sockpair_fds));
	+
	+ return (0);
	+}
	+
	+static bool
	+slirp_validate_hotplug_request(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_descriptor_array(nvl, "sockpair")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "missing socket descriptor pair");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_descriptor_array(nvl, "pipe")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing pipe descriptor pair");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+
	+ return (true);
	+}
	+
	+static int
	+tap_init_fds(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ int fd;
	+ char tbuf[80];
	+ const char *devname;
	+
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_string(nvl, "backend")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing backend parameter");
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+
	+ devname = nvlist_get_string(nvl, "backend");
	+ strcpy(tbuf, "/dev/");
	+ strlcat(tbuf, devname, sizeof(tbuf));
	+ fd = open(tbuf, O_RDWR);
	+ if (fd == -1) {
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error",
	+ "open of tap device %s failed: %s", tbuf, strerror(errno));
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+ nvlist_move_descriptor(nvl, "devfd", fd);
	+
	+ return (0);
	+}
	+
	+static bool
	+tap_validate_hotplug_request(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_descriptor(nvl, "devfd")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "missing tap device file descriptor");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+ return (true);
	+}
	+
	+static int
	+ng_init_fds(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ int csp, dsp;
	+ const char *nodename;
	+
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_string(nvl, "socket")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing socket path");
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+ nodename = nvlist_get_string(nvl, "socket");
	+ if (NgMkSockNode(nodename, &csp, &dsp) < 0) {
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error", "can't get Netgraph sockets");
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+
	+ nvlist_move_descriptor(nvl, "csp", csp);
	+ nvlist_move_descriptor(nvl, "dsp", dsp);
	+
	+ return (0);
	+}
	+
	+static bool
	+ng_validate_hotplug_request(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_descriptor(nvl, "csp")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "missing control socket descriptor");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_descriptor(nvl, "dsp")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "missing data socket descriptor");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+
	+ return (true);
	+}
	+
	+static int
	+netmap_init_fds(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ struct nm_desc *nmd;
	+ const char *devname;
	+
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_string(nvl, "backend")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing backend parameter");
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+ devname = nvlist_get_string(nvl, "backend");
	+ nmd = nm_open(devname, NULL, NETMAP_NO_TX_POLL, NULL);
	+ if (nmd == NULL) {
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error",
	+ "Unable to nm_open(): interface '%s', errno (%s)", devname,
	+ strerror(errno));
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+ nvlist_move_binary(nvl, "nm_desc", nmd, sizeof(*nmd));
	+
	+ return (0);
	+}
	+
	+static bool
	+netmap_validate_hotplug_request(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ size_t size;
	+ struct nm_desc *nmd;
	+
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_binary(nvl, "nm_desc")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "missing netmap descriptor structure");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+
	+ (void)nvlist_get_binary(nvl, "nm_desc", &size);
	+ if (size != sizeof(*nmd)) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "mismatched netmap descriptor structure size");
	+ return (false);
	+ }
	+
	+ return (true);
	+}
	+
	+static struct netbe_info netbe_tap = {
	+ .prefix = "tap",
	+ .init_fds = tap_init_fds,
	+ .validate_hotplug_request = tap_validate_hotplug_request
	+};
	+
	+static struct netbe_info netbe_ngd = {
	+ .prefix = "ngd",
	+ .init_fds = tap_init_fds,
	+ .validate_hotplug_request = tap_validate_hotplug_request
	+};
	+
	+static struct netbe_info netbe_netmap = {
	+ .prefix = "netmap",
	+ .init_fds = netmap_init_fds,
	+ .validate_hotplug_request = netmap_validate_hotplug_request
	+};
	+
	+static struct netbe_info netbe_netgraph = {
	+ .prefix = "netgraph",
	+ .init_fds = ng_init_fds,
	+ .validate_hotplug_request = ng_validate_hotplug_request
	+};
	+
	+static struct netbe_info netbe_slirp = {
	+ .prefix = "slirp",
	+ .init_fds = slirp_init_fds,
	+ .validate_hotplug_request = slirp_validate_hotplug_request
	+};
	+
	+SET_DECLARE(net_backends_info, struct netbe_info);
	+DATA_SET(net_backends_info, netbe_netgraph);
	+DATA_SET(net_backends_info, netbe_slirp);
	+DATA_SET(net_backends_info, netbe_netmap);
	+DATA_SET(net_backends_info, netbe_tap);
	+DATA_SET(net_backends_info, netbe_ngd);
	+
	+static struct netbe_info *
	+find_netbe_info(const char *backend)
	+{
	+ struct netbe_info **nbe;
	+
	+ SET_FOREACH(nbe, net_backends_info) {
	+ if (strncmp(backend, (*nbe)->prefix,
	+ strlen((*nbe)->prefix)) == 0) {
	+ return (*nbe);
	+ }
	+ }
	+ return (NULL);
	+}
	+
	+int
	+netbe_init_fds(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ const char *backend;
	+ struct netbe_info *nbi;
	+
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_string(nvl, "backend")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing backend argument");
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+ backend = nvlist_get_string(nvl, "backend");
	+ nbi = find_netbe_info(backend);
	+ if (nbi == NULL) {
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error", "unknown backend '%s'",
	+ backend);
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+
	+ if (nbi->init_fds == NULL)
	+ return (0);
	+
	+ return (nbi->init_fds(nvl));
	+}
	+
	+int
	+netbe_legacy_config(nvlist_t nvl, const char opts)
	+{
	+ char backend, cp;
	+
	+ if (opts == NULL)
	+ return (0);
	+
	+ cp = strchr(opts, ',');
	+ if (cp == NULL) {
	+ set_config_value_node(nvl, "backend", opts);
	+ return (0);
	+ }
	+ backend = strndup(opts, cp - opts);
	+ set_config_value_node(nvl, "backend", backend);
	+ free(backend);
	+ return (pci_parse_legacy_config(nvl, cp + 1));
	+}
	+
	+bool
	+netbe_validate_hotplug_request(nvlist_t *nvl)
	+{
	+ const char *backend;
	+ struct netbe_info *nbi;
	+
	+ if (!nvlist_exists_string(nvl, "backend")) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing backend argument");
	+ return (-1);
	+ }
	+ backend = nvlist_get_string(nvl, "backend");
	+ nbi = find_netbe_info(backend);
	+
	+ if (nbi == NULL \|\| nbi->validate_hotplug_request == NULL)
	+ return (0);
	+
	+ return (nbi->validate_hotplug_request(nvl));
	+}
	diff --git a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netgraph.c b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netgraph.c
	--- a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netgraph.c
	+++ b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netgraph.c
	@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@
	{
	struct tap_priv *p = NET_BE_PRIV(be);
	struct ngm_connect ngc;
	- const char value, nodename;
	+ const char *value;
	int sbsz;
	int ctrl_sock;
	int flags;
	@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@

	value = get_config_value_node(nvl, "path");
	if (value == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("path must be provided");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "path must be provided");
	return (-1);
	}
	strncpy(ngc.path, value, NG_PATHSIZ - 1);
	@@ -86,22 +86,18 @@

	value = get_config_value_node(nvl, "peerhook");
	if (value == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("peer hook must be provided");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "peer hook must be provided");
	return (-1);
	}
	strncpy(ngc.peerhook, value, NG_HOOKSIZ - 1);

	- nodename = get_config_value_node(nvl, "socket");
	- if (NgMkSockNode(nodename,
	- &ctrl_sock, &be->fd) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't get Netgraph sockets");
	- return (-1);
	- }
	+ ctrl_sock = nvlist_take_descriptor(nvl, "csp");
	+ be->fd = nvlist_take_descriptor(nvl, "dsp");

	if (NgSendMsg(ctrl_sock, ".",
	NGM_GENERIC_COOKIE,
	NGM_CONNECT, &ngc, sizeof(ngc)) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't connect to node");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "can't connect to node");
	close(ctrl_sock);
	goto error;
	}
	@@ -111,12 +107,12 @@
	flags = fcntl(be->fd, F_GETFL);

	if (flags < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't get socket flags");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "can't get socket flags");
	goto error;
	}

	if (fcntl(be->fd, F_SETFL, flags \| O_NONBLOCK) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't set O_NONBLOCK flag");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "can't set O_NONBLOCK flag");
	goto error;
	}

	@@ -128,7 +124,8 @@
	msbsz = sizeof(maxsbsz);
	if (sysctlbyname("kern.ipc.maxsockbuf", &maxsbsz, &msbsz,
	NULL, 0) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't get 'kern.ipc.maxsockbuf' value");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "can't get 'kern.ipc.maxsockbuf' value");
	goto error;
	}

	@@ -142,13 +139,13 @@

	if (setsockopt(be->fd, SOL_SOCKET, SO_SNDBUF, &sbsz,
	sizeof(sbsz)) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't set TX buffer size");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "can't set TX buffer size");
	goto error;
	}

	if (setsockopt(be->fd, SOL_SOCKET, SO_RCVBUF, &sbsz,
	sizeof(sbsz)) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("can't set RX buffer size");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "can't set RX buffer size");
	goto error;
	}

	@@ -163,7 +160,7 @@

	p->mevp = mevent_add_disabled(be->fd, EVF_READ, cb, param);
	if (p->mevp == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("Could not register event");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "Could not register event");
	goto error;
	}

	diff --git a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netmap.c b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netmap.c
	--- a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netmap.c
	+++ b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_netmap.c
	@@ -123,21 +123,15 @@
	}

	static int
	-netmap_init(struct net_backend be, const char devname,
	- nvlist_t nvl __unused, net_be_rxeof_t cb, void param)
	+netmap_init(struct net_backend be, const char devname, nvlist_t *nvl,
	+ net_be_rxeof_t cb, void *param)
	{
	struct netmap_priv *priv = NET_BE_PRIV(be);
	+ size_t size;

	strlcpy(priv->ifname, devname, sizeof(priv->ifname));
	priv->ifname[sizeof(priv->ifname) - 1] = '\0';
	-
	- priv->nmd = nm_open(priv->ifname, NULL, NETMAP_NO_TX_POLL, NULL);
	- if (priv->nmd == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("Unable to nm_open(): interface '%s', errno (%s)",
	- devname, strerror(errno));
	- return (-1);
	- }
	-
	+ priv->nmd = nvlist_take_binary(nvl, "nm_desc", &size);
	priv->memid = priv->nmd->req.nr_arg2;
	priv->tx = NETMAP_TXRING(priv->nmd->nifp, 0);
	priv->rx = NETMAP_RXRING(priv->nmd->nifp, 0);
	@@ -147,7 +141,7 @@

	priv->mevp = mevent_add_disabled(be->fd, EVF_READ, cb, param);
	if (priv->mevp == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("Could not register event");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "Could not register event");
	return (-1);
	}

	diff --git a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_slirp.c b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_slirp.c
	--- a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_slirp.c
	+++ b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backend_slirp.c
	@@ -88,12 +88,14 @@
	pid_t child;
	const char **argv;
	char sockname[32];
	- int error, s[2];
	+ int error, *s;
	+ size_t mtu, nitems;
	const char *mtu_value;
	- size_t mtu;

	- if (socketpair(PF_LOCAL, SOCK_SEQPACKET \| SOCK_NONBLOCK, 0, s) != 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("socketpair");
	+ s = nvlist_take_descriptor_array(nvl, "sockpair", &nitems);
	+ if (nitems != 2) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "mismatched number of socket descriptors");
	return (-1);
	}

	@@ -102,11 +104,13 @@
	* one end is inherited by the child.
	*/
	if (posix_spawn_file_actions_init(&fa) != 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("posix_spawn_file_actions_init");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "posix_spawn_file_actions_init");
	goto err;
	}
	if (posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose(&fa, s[0]) != 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose");
	posix_spawn_file_actions_destroy(&fa);
	goto err;
	}
	@@ -119,22 +123,23 @@
	&fa, NULL, __DECONST(char **, argv), environ);
	posix_spawn_file_actions_destroy(&fa);
	if (error != 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("posix_spawn(bhyve-slirp-helper): %s",
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error", "posix_spawn(bhyve-slirp-helper): %s",
	strerror(error));
	goto err;
	}

	config = nvlist_clone(nvl);
	if (config == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("nvlist_clone");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "nvlist_clone");
	goto err;
	}

	mtu_value = get_config_value_node(config, "mtu");
	if (mtu_value != NULL) {
	if (net_parsemtu(mtu_value, &mtu)) {
	- EPRINTLN("Could not parse MTU");
	- goto err;
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "Could not parse MTU");
	+ goto err;
	}
	} else {
	mtu = DEFAULT_MTU;
	@@ -144,7 +149,7 @@
	priv->mtu = mtu;
	priv->buf = malloc(mtu);
	if (priv->buf == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("Could not allocate buffer");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "Could not allocate MTU buffer");
	goto err;
	}

	@@ -152,14 +157,15 @@
	error = nvlist_send(s[0], config);
	nvlist_destroy(config);
	if (error != 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("nvlist_send");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "nvlist_send");
	goto err;
	}

	be->fd = s[0];
	priv->mevp = mevent_add_disabled(be->fd, EVF_READ, cb, param);
	if (priv->mevp == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("Could not register event");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "Could not register event");
	goto err;
	}

	diff --git a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backends.c b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backends.c
	--- a/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backends.c
	+++ b/usr.sbin/bhyve/net_backends.c
	@@ -85,11 +85,10 @@
	}

	static int
	-tap_init(struct net_backend be, const char devname,
	- nvlist_t nvl __unused, net_be_rxeof_t cb, void param)
	+tap_init(struct net_backend be, const char devname __unused, nvlist_t *nvl,
	+ net_be_rxeof_t cb, void *param)
	{
	struct tap_priv *priv = NET_BE_PRIV(be);
	- char tbuf[80];
	int opt = 1, up = IFF_UP;

	#ifndef WITHOUT_CAPSICUM
	@@ -97,31 +96,25 @@
	#endif

	if (cb == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("TAP backend requires non-NULL callback");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error",
	+ "TAP backend requires non-NULL callback");
	return (-1);
	}

	- strcpy(tbuf, "/dev/");
	- strlcat(tbuf, devname, sizeof(tbuf));
	-
	- be->fd = open(tbuf, O_RDWR);
	- if (be->fd == -1) {
	- EPRINTLN("open of tap device %s failed", tbuf);
	- goto error;
	- }
	+ be->fd = nvlist_take_descriptor(nvl, "devfd");

	/*
	* Set non-blocking and register for read
	* notifications with the event loop
	*/
	if (ioctl(be->fd, FIONBIO, &opt) < 0) {
	- EPRINTLN("tap device O_NONBLOCK failed");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "tap device O_NONBLOCK failed");
	goto error;
	}

	if (strncmp("ngd", be->prefix, 3) &&
	ioctl(be->fd, VMIO_SIOCSIFFLAGS, up)) {
	- EPRINTLN("tap device link up failed");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "tap device link up failed");
	goto error;
	}

	@@ -136,7 +129,7 @@

	priv->mevp = mevent_add_disabled(be->fd, EVF_READ, cb, param);
	if (priv->mevp == NULL) {
	- EPRINTLN("Could not register event");
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "Could not register event");
	goto error;
	}

	@@ -293,25 +286,6 @@
	DATA_SET(net_backend_set, vmnet_backend);
	DATA_SET(net_backend_set, ngd_backend);

	-int
	-netbe_legacy_config(nvlist_t nvl, const char opts)
	-{
	- char backend, cp;
	-
	- if (opts == NULL)
	- return (0);
	-
	- cp = strchr(opts, ',');
	- if (cp == NULL) {
	- set_config_value_node(nvl, "backend", opts);
	- return (0);
	- }
	- backend = strndup(opts, cp - opts);
	- set_config_value_node(nvl, "backend", backend);
	- free(backend);
	- return (pci_parse_legacy_config(nvl, cp + 1));
	-}
	-
	/*
	* Initialize a backend and attach to the frontend.
	* This is called during frontend initialization.
	@@ -335,6 +309,7 @@

	value = get_config_value_node(nvl, "backend");
	if (value == NULL) {
	+ nvlist_add_string(nvl, "error", "missing backend argument");
	return (-1);
	}
	devname = strdup(value);
	@@ -367,6 +342,7 @@

	*ret = NULL;
	if (tbe == NULL) {
	+ nvlist_add_stringf(nvl, "error", "unknown backend '%s'", type);
	free(devname);
	return (EINVAL);
	}

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