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Advanced NetworkingSynopsisThis chapter covers a number of advanced networking
topics.After reading this chapter, you will know:The basics of gateways and routes.How to set up USB tethering.How to set up &ieee; 802.11 and &bluetooth;
devices.How to make &os; act as a bridge.How to set up network PXE
booting.How to set up IPv6 on a &os;
machine.How to enable and utilize the features of the Common
Address Redundancy Protocol (CARP) in
&os;.How to configure multiple VLANs on
&os;.
+
+
+ Configure bluetooth headset.
+ Before reading this chapter, you should:Understand the basics of the
/etc/rc scripts.Be familiar with basic network terminology.Know how to configure and install a new &os; kernel
().Know how to install additional third-party software
().Gateways and RoutesCoranthGryphonContributed by routinggatewaysubnetRouting is the mechanism that allows
a system to find the network path to another system. A
route is a defined pair of addresses
which represent the destination and a
gateway. The route indicates that when trying
to get to the specified destination, send the packets through
the specified gateway. There are three types of destinations:
individual hosts, subnets, and default. The
default route is used if no other routes apply.
There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts,
interfaces, also called links, and Ethernet hardware
(MAC) addresses. Known routes are stored in
a routing table.This section provides an overview of routing basics. It
then demonstrates how to configure a &os; system as a router and
offers some troubleshooting tips.Routing BasicsTo view the routing table of a &os; system, use
&man.netstat.1;:&prompt.user; netstat -r
Routing tables
Internet:
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default outside-gw UGS 37 418 em0
localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0
test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 re0 77
10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421
example.com link#1 UC 0 0
host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0
host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 =>
host2.example.com link#1 UC 0 0
224 link#1 UC 0 0The entries in this example are as follows:defaultThe first route in this table specifies the
default route. When the local system
needs to make a connection to a remote host, it checks
the routing table to determine if a known path exists.
If the remote host matches an entry in the table, the
system checks to see if it can connect using the
interface specified in that entry.If the destination does not match an entry, or if
all known paths fail, the system uses the entry for the
default route. For hosts on a local area network, the
Gateway field in the default route is
set to the system which has a direct connection to the
Internet. When reading this entry, verify that the
Flags column indicates that the
gateway is usable (UG).The default route for a machine which itself is
functioning as the gateway to the outside world will be
the gateway machine at the Internet Service Provider
(ISP).localhostThe second route is the localhost
route. The interface specified in the
Netif column for
localhost is
lo0, also known as the loopback
device. This indicates that all traffic for this
destination should be internal, rather than sending it
out over the network.MAC addressThe addresses beginning with 0:e0: are
MAC addresses. &os; will
automatically identify any hosts,
test0 in the example, on the
local Ethernet and add a route for that host over the
Ethernet interface, re0. This type
of route has a timeout, seen in the
Expire column, which is used if the
host does not respond in a specific amount of time.
When this happens, the route to this host will be
automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using
the Routing Information Protocol
(RIP), which calculates routes to
local hosts based upon a shortest path
determination.subnet&os; will automatically add subnet routes for the
local subnet. In this example, 10.20.30.255 is the
broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30 and
example.com is the
domain name associated with that subnet. The
designation link#1 refers to the
first Ethernet card in the machine.Local network hosts and local subnets have their
routes automatically configured by a daemon called
&man.routed.8;. If it is not running, only routes which
are statically defined by the administrator will
exist.hostThe host1 line refers to the host
by its Ethernet address. Since it is the sending host,
&os; knows to use the loopback interface
(lo0) rather than the Ethernet
interface.The two host2 lines represent
aliases which were created using &man.ifconfig.8;. The
=> symbol after the
lo0 interface says that an alias
has been set in addition to the loopback address. Such
routes only show up on the host that supports the alias
and all other hosts on the local network will have a
link#1 line for such routes.224The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with
multicasting.Various attributes of each route can be seen in the
Flags column.
summarizes some of these flags and their meanings:
Commonly Seen Routing Table FlagsCommandPurposeUThe route is active (up).HThe route destination is a single host.GSend anything for this destination on to this
gateway, which will figure out from there where to
send it.SThis route was statically configured.CClones a new route based upon this route for
machines to connect to. This type of route is
normally used for local networks.WThe route was auto-configured based upon a local
area network (clone) route.LRoute involves references to Ethernet (link)
hardware.
On a &os; system, the default route can defined in
/etc/rc.conf by specifying the
IP address of the default gateway:defaultrouter="10.20.30.1"It is also possible to manually add the route using
route:&prompt.root; route add default 10.20.30.1Note that manually added routes will not survive a reboot.
For more information on manual manipulation of network
routing tables, refer to &man.route.8;.Configuring a Router with Static RoutesAlHoangContributed by dual homed hostsA &os; system can be configured as the default gateway, or
router, for a network if it is a dual-homed system. A
dual-homed system is a host which resides on at least two
different networks. Typically, each network is connected to a
separate network interface, though IP
aliasing can be used to bind multiple addresses, each on a
different subnet, to one physical interface.routerIn order for the system to forward packets between
interfaces, &os; must be configured as a router. Internet
standards and good engineering practice prevent the &os;
Project from enabling this feature by default, but it can be
configured to start at boot by adding this line to
/etc/rc.conf:gateway_enable="YES" # Set to YES if this host will be a gatewayTo enable routing now, set the &man.sysctl.8; variable
net.inet.ip.forwarding to
1. To stop routing, reset this variable to
0.BGPRIPOSPFThe routing table of a router needs additional routes so
it knows how to reach other networks. Routes can be either
added manually using static routes or routes can be
automatically learned using a routing protocol. Static routes
are appropriate for small networks and this section describes
how to add a static routing entry for a small network.For large networks, static routes quickly become
unscalable. &os; comes with the standard
BSD routing daemon &man.routed.8;, which
provides the routing protocols RIP,
versions 1 and 2, and IRDP. Support for
the BGP and OSPF
routing protocols can be installed using the
net/zebra package or port.Consider the following network:
INTERNET
| (10.0.0.1/24) Default Router to Internet
|
|Interface xl0
|10.0.0.10/24
+------+
| | RouterA
| | (FreeBSD gateway)
+------+
| Interface xl1
| 192.168.1.1/24
|
+--------------------------------+
Internal Net 1 | 192.168.1.2/24
|
+------+
| | RouterB
| |
+------+
| 192.168.2.1/24
|
Internal Net 2In this scenario, RouterA is a
&os; machine that is acting as a router to the rest of the
Internet. It has a default route set to 10.0.0.1 which allows it to
connect with the outside world.
RouterB is already configured to use
192.168.1.1 as its
default gateway.Before adding any static routes, the routing table on
RouterA looks like this:&prompt.user; netstat -nr
Routing tables
Internet:
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default 10.0.0.1 UGS 0 49378 xl0
127.0.0.1 127.0.0.1 UH 0 6 lo0
10.0.0.0/24 link#1 UC 0 0 xl0
192.168.1.0/24 link#2 UC 0 0 xl1With the current routing table,
RouterA does not have a route to the
192.168.2.0/24
network. The following command adds the Internal Net
2 network to RouterA's
routing table using 192.168.1.2 as the next
hop:&prompt.root; route add -net 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.1.2Now, RouterA can reach any host
on the 192.168.2.0/24 network.
However, the routing information will not persist if the &os;
system reboots. If a static route needs to be persistent, add
it to /etc/rc.conf:# Add Internal Net 2 as a persistent static route
static_routes="internalnet2"
route_internalnet2="-net 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.1.2"The static_routes configuration
variable is a list of strings separated by a space, where each
string references a route name. The variable
route_internalnet2
contains the static route for that route name.Using more than one string in
static_routes creates multiple static
routes. The following shows an example of adding static
routes for the 192.168.0.0/24 and
192.168.1.0/24
networks:static_routes="net1 net2"
route_net1="-net 192.168.0.0/24 192.168.0.1"
route_net2="-net 192.168.1.0/24 192.168.1.1"TroubleshootingWhen an address space is assigned to a network, the
service provider configures their routing tables so that all
traffic for the network will be sent to the link for the site.
But how do external sites know to send their packets to the
network's ISP?There is a system that keeps track of all assigned
address spaces and defines their point of connection to the
Internet backbone, or the main trunk lines that carry Internet
traffic across the country and around the world. Each
backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which
direct traffic for a particular network to a specific
backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service
providers until it reaches a particular network.It is the task of the service provider to advertise to
the backbone sites that they are the point of connection, and
thus the path inward, for a site. This is known as route
propagation.&man.traceroute.8;Sometimes, there is a problem with route propagation and
some sites are unable to connect. Perhaps the most useful
command for trying to figure out where routing is breaking
down is traceroute. It is useful when
ping fails.When using traceroute, include the
address of the remote host to connect to. The output will
show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt,
eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating
because of a lack of connection. For more information, refer
to &man.traceroute.8;.Multicast Considerationsmulticast routingkernel optionsMROUTING&os; natively supports both multicast applications and
multicast routing. Multicast applications do not require any
special configuration in order to run on &os;. Support for
multicast routing requires that the following option be
compiled into a custom kernel:options MROUTINGThe multicast routing daemon,
mrouted can be installed using the
net/mrouted package or port. This daemon
implements the DVMRP multicast routing
protocol and is configured by editing
/usr/local/etc/mrouted.conf in order to
set up the tunnels and DVMRP. The
installation of mrouted also
installs map-mbone and
mrinfo, as well as their associated
man pages. Refer to these for configuration examples.DVMRP has largely been replaced by
the PIM protocol in many multicast
installations. Refer to &man.pim.4; for more
information.Wireless NetworkingLoaderMarcFonvieilleMurrayStokelywireless networking802.11wireless networkingWireless Networking BasicsMost wireless networks are based on the &ieee; 802.11
standards. A basic wireless network consists of multiple
stations communicating with radios that broadcast in either
the 2.4GHz or 5GHz band, though this varies according to the
locale and is also changing to enable communication in the
2.3GHz and 4.9GHz ranges.802.11 networks are organized in two ways. In
infrastructure mode, one station acts as
a
master with all the other stations associating to it, the
network is known as a BSS, and the master
station is termed an access point (AP).
In a BSS, all communication passes through
the AP; even when one station wants to
communicate with another wireless station, messages must go
through the AP. In the second form of
network, there is no master and stations communicate directly.
This form of network is termed an IBSS
and is commonly known as an ad-hoc
network.802.11 networks were first deployed in the 2.4GHz band
using protocols defined by the &ieee; 802.11 and 802.11b
standard. These specifications include the operating
frequencies and the MAC layer
characteristics, including framing and transmission rates,
as communication can occur at various rates. Later, the
802.11a standard defined operation in the 5GHz band, including
different signaling mechanisms and higher transmission rates.
Still later, the 802.11g standard defined the use of 802.11a
signaling and transmission mechanisms in the 2.4GHz band in
such a way as to be backwards compatible with 802.11b
networks.Separate from the underlying transmission techniques,
802.11 networks have a variety of security mechanisms. The
original 802.11 specifications defined a simple security
protocol called WEP. This protocol uses a
fixed pre-shared key and the RC4 cryptographic cipher to
encode data transmitted on a network. Stations must all
agree on the fixed key in order to communicate. This scheme
was shown to be easily broken and is now rarely used except
to discourage transient users from joining networks. Current
security practice is given by the &ieee; 802.11i specification
that defines new cryptographic ciphers and an additional
protocol to authenticate stations to an access point and
exchange keys for data communication. Cryptographic keys
are periodically refreshed and there are mechanisms for
detecting and countering intrusion attempts. Another
security protocol specification commonly used in wireless
networks is termed WPA, which was a
precursor to 802.11i. WPA specifies a
subset of the requirements found in 802.11i and is designed
for implementation on legacy hardware. Specifically,
WPA requires only the
TKIP cipher that is derived from the
original WEP cipher. 802.11i permits use
of TKIP but also requires support for a
stronger cipher, AES-CCM, for encrypting data. The
AES cipher was not required in
WPA because it was deemed too
computationally costly to be implemented on legacy
hardware.The other standard to be aware of is 802.11e. It defines
protocols for deploying multimedia applications, such as
streaming video and voice over IP (VoIP),
in an 802.11 network. Like 802.11i, 802.11e also has a
precursor specification termed WME (later
renamed WMM) that has been defined by an
industry group as a subset of 802.11e that can be deployed now
to enable multimedia applications while waiting for the final
ratification of 802.11e. The most important thing to know
about 802.11e and
WME/WMM is that it
enables prioritized traffic over a wireless network through
Quality of Service (QoS) protocols and
enhanced media access protocols. Proper implementation of
these protocols enables high speed bursting of data and
prioritized traffic flow.&os; supports networks that operate using 802.11a,
802.11b, and 802.11g. The WPA and 802.11i
security protocols are likewise supported (in conjunction with
any of 11a, 11b, and 11g) and QoS and
traffic prioritization required by the
WME/WMM protocols are
supported for a limited set of wireless devices.Quick StartConnecting a computer to an existing wireless network is
a very common situation. This procedure shows the steps
required.Obtain the SSID (Service Set
Identifier) and PSK (Pre-Shared Key)
for the wireless network from the network
administrator.Identify the wireless adapter. The &os;
GENERIC kernel includes drivers for
many common wireless adapters. If the wireless adapter is
one of those models, it will be shown in the output from
&man.ifconfig.8;:&prompt.user; ifconfig | grep -B3 -i wirelessOn &os; 11 or higher, use this command
instead:&prompt.user; sysctl net.wlan.devicesIf a wireless adapter is not listed, an additional
kernel module might be required, or it might be a model
not supported by &os;.This example shows the Atheros ath0
wireless adapter.Add an entry for this network to
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf. If the
file does not exist, create it. Replace
myssid and
mypsk with the
SSID and PSK
provided by the network administrator.network={
ssid="myssid"
psk="mypsk"
}Add entries to /etc/rc.conf to
configure the network on startup:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="WPA SYNCDHCP"Restart the computer, or restart the network service
to connect to the network:&prompt.root; service netif restartBasic SetupKernel ConfigurationTo use wireless networking, a wireless networking card
is needed and the kernel needs to be configured with the
appropriate wireless networking support. The kernel is
separated into multiple modules so that only the required
support needs to be configured.The most
commonly used wireless devices are those that use parts made
by Atheros. These devices are supported by &man.ath.4;
and require the following line to be added to
/boot/loader.conf:if_ath_load="YES"The Atheros driver is split up into three separate
pieces: the driver (&man.ath.4;), the hardware support
layer that handles chip-specific functions
(&man.ath.hal.4;), and an algorithm for selecting the
rate for transmitting frames. When this support is loaded
as kernel modules, any dependencies are automatically
handled. To load support for a different type of wireless
device, specify the module for that device. This example
is for devices based on the Intersil Prism parts
(&man.wi.4;) driver:if_wi_load="YES"The examples in this section use an &man.ath.4;
device and the device name in the examples must be
changed according to the configuration. A list of
available wireless drivers and supported adapters can be
found in the &os; Hardware Notes, available on
the Release
Information page of the &os; website. If a
native &os; driver for the wireless device does not
exist, it may be possible to use the &windows; driver
with the help of the NDIS driver
wrapper.In addition, the modules that implement cryptographic
support for the security protocols to use must be loaded.
These are intended to be dynamically loaded on demand by
the &man.wlan.4; module, but for now they must be manually
configured. The following modules are available:
&man.wlan.wep.4;, &man.wlan.ccmp.4;, and &man.wlan.tkip.4;.
The &man.wlan.ccmp.4; and &man.wlan.tkip.4; drivers are
only needed when using the WPA or
802.11i security protocols. If the network does not use
encryption, &man.wlan.wep.4; support is not needed. To
load these modules at boot time, add the following lines to
/boot/loader.conf:wlan_wep_load="YES"
wlan_ccmp_load="YES"
wlan_tkip_load="YES"Once this information has been added to
/boot/loader.conf, reboot the &os;
box. Alternately, load the modules by hand using
&man.kldload.8;.For users who do not want to use modules, it is
possible to compile these drivers into the kernel by
adding the following lines to a custom kernel
configuration file:device wlan # 802.11 support
device wlan_wep # 802.11 WEP support
device wlan_ccmp # 802.11 CCMP support
device wlan_tkip # 802.11 TKIP support
device wlan_amrr # AMRR transmit rate control algorithm
device ath # Atheros pci/cardbus NIC's
device ath_hal # pci/cardbus chip support
options AH_SUPPORT_AR5416 # enable AR5416 tx/rx descriptors
device ath_rate_sample # SampleRate tx rate control for athWith this information in the kernel configuration
file, recompile the kernel and reboot the &os;
machine.Information about the wireless device should appear
in the boot messages, like this:ath0: <Atheros 5212> mem 0x88000000-0x8800ffff irq 11 at device 0.0 on cardbus1
ath0: [ITHREAD]
ath0: AR2413 mac 7.9 RF2413 phy 4.5Infrastructure ModeInfrastructure (BSS) mode is the
mode that is typically used. In this mode, a number of
wireless access points are connected to a wired network.
Each wireless network has its own name, called the
SSID. Wireless clients connect to the
wireless access points.&os; ClientsHow to Find Access PointsTo scan for available networks, use &man.ifconfig.8;.
This request may take a few moments to complete as it
requires the system to switch to each available wireless
frequency and probe for available access points. Only
the superuser can initiate a scan:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 up scan
SSID/MESH ID BSSID CHAN RATE S:N INT CAPS
dlinkap 00:13:46:49:41:76 11 54M -90:96 100 EPS WPA WME
freebsdap 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac 1 54M -83:96 100 EPS WPAThe interface must be before
it can scan. Subsequent scan requests do not require
the interface to be marked as up again.The output of a scan request lists each
BSS/IBSS network
found. Besides listing the name of the network, the
SSID, the output also shows the
BSSID, which is the
MAC address of the access point. The
CAPS field identifies the type of
each network and the capabilities of the stations
operating there:
Station Capability CodesCapability CodeMeaningEExtended Service Set
(ESS). Indicates that
the station is part of an infrastructure network
rather than an IBSS/ad-hoc
network.IIBSS/ad-hoc network.
Indicates that the station is part of an ad-hoc
network rather than an ESS
network.PPrivacy. Encryption is required for all
data frames exchanged within the
BSS using cryptographic means
such as WEP,
TKIP or
AES-CCMP.SShort Preamble. Indicates that the network
is using short preambles, defined in 802.11b High
Rate/DSSS PHY, and utilizes a 56 bit sync field
rather than the 128 bit field used in long
preamble mode.sShort slot time. Indicates that the 802.11g
network is using a short slot time because there
are no legacy (802.11b) stations present.
One can also display the current list of known
networks with:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 list scanThis information may be updated automatically by the
adapter or manually with a request.
Old data is automatically removed from the cache, so over
time this list may shrink unless more scans are
done.Basic SettingsThis section provides a simple example of how to make
the wireless network adapter work in &os; without
encryption. Once familiar with these concepts, it is
strongly recommend to use WPA to set up
the wireless network.There are three basic steps to configure a wireless
network: select an access point, authenticate the
station, and configure an IP address.
The following sections discuss each step.Selecting an Access PointMost of the time, it is sufficient to let the system
choose an access point using the builtin heuristics.
This is the default behavior when an interface is
marked as up or it is listed in
/etc/rc.conf:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="DHCP"If there are multiple access points, a specific
one can be selected by its
SSID:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="ssid your_ssid_here DHCP"In an environment where there are multiple access
points with the same SSID, which
is often done to simplify roaming, it may be necessary
to associate to one specific device. In this case, the
BSSID of the access point can be
specified, with or without the
SSID:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="ssid your_ssid_here bssid xx:xx:xx:xx:xx:xx DHCP"There are other ways to constrain the choice of an
access point, such as limiting the set of frequencies
the system will scan on. This may be useful for a
multi-band wireless card as scanning all the possible
channels can be time-consuming. To limit operation to a
specific band, use the
parameter:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="mode 11g ssid your_ssid_here DHCP"This example will force the card to operate in
802.11g, which is defined only for 2.4GHz frequencies
so any 5GHz channels will not be considered. This can
also be achieved with the
parameter, which locks
operation to one specific frequency, and the
parameter, to specify a list
of channels for scanning. More information about these
parameters can be found in &man.ifconfig.8;.AuthenticationOnce an access point is selected, the station
needs to authenticate before it can pass data.
Authentication can happen in several ways. The most
common scheme, open authentication, allows any station
to join the network and communicate. This is the
authentication to use for test purposes the first time
a wireless network is setup. Other schemes require
cryptographic handshakes to be completed before data
traffic can flow, either using pre-shared keys or
secrets, or more complex schemes that involve backend
services such as RADIUS. Open
authentication is the default setting. The next most
common setup is WPA-PSK, also
known as WPA Personal, which is
described in .If using an &apple; &airport; Extreme base
station for an access point, shared-key authentication
together with a WEP key needs to
be configured. This can be configured in
/etc/rc.conf or by using
&man.wpa.supplicant.8;. For a single &airport; base
station, access can be configured with:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="authmode shared wepmode on weptxkey 1 wepkey 01234567 DHCP"In general, shared key authentication should be
avoided because it uses the WEP key
material in a highly-constrained manner, making it
even easier to crack the key. If
WEP must be used for compatibility
with legacy devices, it is better to use
WEP with open
authentication. More information regarding
WEP can be found in .Getting an IP Address with
DHCPOnce an access point is selected and the
authentication parameters are set, an
IP address must be obtained in
order to communicate. Most of the time, the
IP address is obtained via
DHCP. To achieve that, edit
/etc/rc.conf and add
DHCP to the configuration for the
device:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="DHCP"The
wireless interface is now ready to bring up:&prompt.root; service netif startOnce the interface is running, use &man.ifconfig.8;
to see the status of the interface
ath0:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.1.100 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.1.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/54Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid dlinkap channel 11 (2462 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:13:46:49:41:76
country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 bmiss 7
scanvalid 60 bgscan bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7
roam:rate 5 protmode CTS wme burstThe status: associated line means
that it is connected to the wireless network. The
bssid 00:13:46:49:41:76 is the
MAC address of the access point and
authmode OPEN indicates that the
communication is not encrypted.Static IP AddressIf an IP address cannot be
obtained from a DHCP server, set a
fixed IP address. Replace the
DHCP keyword shown above with the
address information. Be sure to retain any other
parameters for selecting the access point:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="inet 192.168.1.100 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid your_ssid_here"WPAWi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is a
security protocol used together with 802.11 networks to
address the lack of proper authentication and the weakness
of WEP. WPA leverages the 802.1X
authentication protocol and uses one of several ciphers
instead of WEP for data integrity.
The only cipher required by WPA is the
Temporary Key Integrity Protocol
(TKIP). TKIP is a
cipher that extends the basic RC4 cipher used by
WEP by adding integrity checking,
tamper detection, and measures for responding to detected
intrusions. TKIP is designed to work
on legacy hardware with only software modification. It
represents a compromise that improves security but is
still not entirely immune to attack.
WPA also specifies the
AES-CCMP cipher as an alternative to
TKIP, and that is preferred when
possible. For this specification, the term
WPA2 or RSN is
commonly used.WPA defines authentication and
encryption protocols. Authentication is most commonly
done using one of two techniques: by 802.1X and a backend
authentication service such as RADIUS,
or by a minimal handshake between the station and the
access point using a pre-shared secret. The former is
commonly termed WPA Enterprise and the
latter is known as WPA Personal. Since
most people will not set up a RADIUS
backend server for their wireless network,
WPA-PSK is by far the most commonly
encountered configuration for
WPA.The control of the wireless connection and the key
negotiation or authentication with a server is done using
&man.wpa.supplicant.8;. This program requires a
configuration file,
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf, to run.
More information regarding this file can be found in
&man.wpa.supplicant.conf.5;.WPA-PSKWPA-PSK, also known as
WPA Personal, is based on a
pre-shared key (PSK) which is
generated from a given password and used as the master
key in the wireless network. This means every wireless
user will share the same key.
WPA-PSK is intended for small
networks where the use of an authentication server is
not possible or desired.Always use strong passwords that are sufficiently
long and made from a rich alphabet so that they will
not be easily guessed or attacked.The first step is the configuration of
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf with
the SSID and the pre-shared key of
the network:network={
ssid="freebsdap"
psk="freebsdmall"
}Then, in /etc/rc.conf,
indicate that the wireless device configuration will be
done with WPA and the
IP address will be obtained with
DHCP:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"Then, bring up the interface:&prompt.root; service netif start
Starting wpa_supplicant.
DHCPDISCOVER on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 5
DHCPDISCOVER on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 6
DHCPOFFER from 192.168.0.1
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67
DHCPACK from 192.168.0.1
bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/36Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
wme burst roaming MANUALOr, try to configure the interface manually using
the information in
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf:&prompt.root; wpa_supplicant -i wlan0 -c /etc/wpa_supplicant.conf
Trying to associate with 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac (SSID='freebsdap' freq=2412 MHz)
Associated with 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
WPA: Key negotiation completed with 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac [PTK=CCMP GTK=CCMP]
CTRL-EVENT-CONNECTED - Connection to 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac completed (auth) [id=0 id_str=]The next operation is to launch &man.dhclient.8;
to get the IP address from the
DHCP server:&prompt.root; dhclient wlan0
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67
DHCPACK from 192.168.0.1
bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/36Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
wme burst roaming MANUALIf /etc/rc.conf has an
ifconfig_wlan0="DHCP" entry,
&man.dhclient.8; will be launched automatically after
&man.wpa.supplicant.8; associates with the access
point.If DHCP is not possible or
desired, set a static IP address
after &man.wpa.supplicant.8; has authenticated the
station:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.0.100 netmask 255.255.255.0
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.100 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/36Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
wme burst roaming MANUALWhen DHCP is not used, the
default gateway and the nameserver also have to be
manually set:&prompt.root; route add default your_default_router
&prompt.root; echo "nameserver your_DNS_server" >> /etc/resolv.confWPA with
EAP-TLSThe second way to use WPA is with
an 802.1X backend authentication server. In this case,
WPA is called
WPA Enterprise to differentiate it
from the less secure WPA Personal.
Authentication in WPA Enterprise is
based on the Extensible Authentication Protocol
(EAP).EAP does not come with an
encryption method. Instead, EAP is
embedded inside an encrypted tunnel. There are many
EAP authentication methods, but
EAP-TLS, EAP-TTLS,
and EAP-PEAP are the most
common.EAP with Transport Layer Security
(EAP-TLS) is a well-supported
wireless authentication protocol since it was the
first EAP method to be certified
by the Wi-Fi
Alliance. EAP-TLS requires
three certificates to run: the certificate of the
Certificate Authority (CA) installed
on all machines, the server certificate for the
authentication server, and one client certificate for
each wireless client. In this EAP
method, both the authentication server and wireless
client authenticate each other by presenting their
respective certificates, and then verify that these
certificates were signed by the organization's
CA.As previously, the configuration is done via
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf:network={
ssid="freebsdap"
proto=RSN
key_mgmt=WPA-EAP
eap=TLS
identity="loader"
ca_cert="/etc/certs/cacert.pem"
client_cert="/etc/certs/clientcert.pem"
private_key="/etc/certs/clientkey.pem"
private_key_passwd="freebsdmallclient"
}This field indicates the network name
(SSID).This example uses the RSN
&ieee; 802.11i protocol, also known as
WPA2.The key_mgmt line refers to
the key management protocol to use. In this
example, it is WPA using
EAP authentication.This field indicates the EAP
method for the connection.The identity field contains
the identity string for
EAP.The ca_cert field indicates
the pathname of the CA
certificate file. This file is needed to verify
the server certificate.The client_cert line gives
the pathname to the client certificate file. This
certificate is unique to each wireless client of the
network.The private_key field is the
pathname to the client certificate private key
file.The private_key_passwd field
contains the passphrase for the private key.Then, add the following lines to
/etc/rc.conf:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"The next step is to bring up the interface:&prompt.root; service netif start
Starting wpa_supplicant.
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 7
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 15
DHCPACK from 192.168.0.20
bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet DS/11Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
wme burst roaming MANUALIt is also possible to bring up the interface
manually using &man.wpa.supplicant.8; and
&man.ifconfig.8;.WPA with
EAP-TTLSWith EAP-TLS, both the
authentication server and the client need a certificate.
With EAP-TTLS, a client certificate
is optional. This method is similar to a web server
which creates a secure SSL tunnel
even if visitors do not have client-side certificates.
EAP-TTLS uses an encrypted
TLS tunnel for safe transport of
the authentication data.The required configuration can be added to
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf:network={
ssid="freebsdap"
proto=RSN
key_mgmt=WPA-EAP
eap=TTLS
identity="test"
password="test"
ca_cert="/etc/certs/cacert.pem"
phase2="auth=MD5"
}This field specifies the EAP
method for the connection.The identity field contains
the identity string for EAP
authentication inside the encrypted
TLS tunnel.The password field contains
the passphrase for the EAP
authentication.The ca_cert field indicates
the pathname of the CA
certificate file. This file is needed to verify
the server certificate.This field specifies the authentication
method used in the encrypted TLS
tunnel. In this example,
EAP with MD5-Challenge is used.
The inner authentication phase is
often called phase2.Next, add the following lines to
/etc/rc.conf:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"The next step is to bring up the interface:&prompt.root; service netif start
Starting wpa_supplicant.
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 7
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 15
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 21
DHCPACK from 192.168.0.20
bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet DS/11Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
wme burst roaming MANUALWPA with
EAP-PEAPPEAPv0/EAP-MSCHAPv2 is the most
common PEAP method. In this
chapter, the term PEAP is used to
refer to that method.Protected EAP (PEAP) is designed
as an alternative to EAP-TTLS and
is the most used EAP standard after
EAP-TLS. In a network with mixed
operating systems, PEAP should be
the most supported standard after
EAP-TLS.PEAP is similar to
EAP-TTLS as it uses a server-side
certificate to authenticate clients by creating an
encrypted TLS tunnel between the
client and the authentication server, which protects
the ensuing exchange of authentication information.
PEAP authentication differs from
EAP-TTLS as it broadcasts the
username in the clear and only the password is sent
in the encrypted TLS tunnel.
EAP-TTLS will use the
TLS tunnel for both the username
and password.Add the following lines to
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf to
configure the EAP-PEAP related
settings:network={
ssid="freebsdap"
proto=RSN
key_mgmt=WPA-EAP
eap=PEAP
identity="test"
password="test"
ca_cert="/etc/certs/cacert.pem"
phase1="peaplabel=0"
phase2="auth=MSCHAPV2"
}This field specifies the EAP
method for the connection.The identity field contains
the identity string for EAP
authentication inside the encrypted
TLS tunnel.The password field contains
the passphrase for the EAP
authentication.The ca_cert field indicates
the pathname of the CA
certificate file. This file is needed to verify
the server certificate.This field contains the parameters for the
first phase of authentication, the
TLS tunnel. According to the
authentication server used, specify a specific
label for authentication. Most of the time, the
label will be client EAP
encryption which is set by using
peaplabel=0. More information
can be found in &man.wpa.supplicant.conf.5;.This field specifies the authentication
protocol used in the encrypted
TLS tunnel. In the
case of PEAP, it is
auth=MSCHAPV2.Add the following to
/etc/rc.conf:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"Then, bring up the interface:&prompt.root; service netif start
Starting wpa_supplicant.
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 7
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 15
DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 21
DHCPACK from 192.168.0.20
bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet DS/11Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
wme burst roaming MANUALWEPWired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is
part of the original 802.11 standard. There is no
authentication mechanism, only a weak form of access
control which is easily cracked.WEP can be set up using
&man.ifconfig.8;:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.1.100 netmask 255.255.255.0 \
ssid my_net wepmode on weptxkey 3 wepkey 3:0x3456789012The weptxkey specifies which
WEP key will be used in the
transmission. This example uses the third key.
This must match the setting on the access point.
When unsure which key is used by the access point,
try 1 (the first key) for this
value.The wepkey selects one of the
WEP keys. It should be in the
format index:key. Key
1 is used by default; the index
only needs to be set when using a key other than the
first key.Replace the 0x3456789012
with the key configured for use on the access
point.Refer to &man.ifconfig.8; for further
information.The &man.wpa.supplicant.8; facility can be used to
configure a wireless interface with
WEP. The example above can be set up
by adding the following lines to
/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf:network={
ssid="my_net"
key_mgmt=NONE
wep_key3=3456789012
wep_tx_keyidx=3
}Then:&prompt.root; wpa_supplicant -i wlan0 -c /etc/wpa_supplicant.conf
Trying to associate with 00:13:46:49:41:76 (SSID='dlinkap' freq=2437 MHz)
Associated with 00:13:46:49:41:76Ad-hoc ModeIBSS mode, also called ad-hoc mode, is
designed for point to point connections. For example, to
establish an ad-hoc network between the machines
A and B,
choose two IP addresses and a
SSID.On A:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0 wlanmode adhoc
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid freebsdap
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g <adhoc>
status: running
ssid freebsdap channel 2 (2417 Mhz 11g) bssid 02:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60
protmode CTS wme burstThe adhoc parameter indicates that the
interface is running in IBSS mode.B should now be able to detect
A:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0 wlanmode adhoc
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 up scan
SSID/MESH ID BSSID CHAN RATE S:N INT CAPS
freebsdap 02:11:95:c3:0d:ac 2 54M -64:-96 100 IS WMEThe I in the output confirms that
A is in ad-hoc mode. Now, configure
B with a different
IP address:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.0.2 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid freebsdap
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.2 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g <adhoc>
status: running
ssid freebsdap channel 2 (2417 Mhz 11g) bssid 02:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60
protmode CTS wme burstBoth A and
B are now ready to exchange
information.&os; Host Access Points&os; can act as an Access Point (AP)
which eliminates the need to buy a hardware
AP or run an ad-hoc network. This can
be particularly useful when a &os; machine is acting as a
gateway to another network such as the Internet.Basic SettingsBefore configuring a &os; machine as an
AP, the kernel must be configured with
the appropriate networking support for the wireless card
as well as the security protocols being used. For more
details, see .The NDIS driver wrapper for
&windows; drivers does not currently support
AP operation. Only native &os;
wireless drivers support AP
mode.Once wireless networking support is loaded, check if
the wireless device supports the host-based access point
mode, also known as hostap mode:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 list caps
drivercaps=6f85edc1<STA,FF,TURBOP,IBSS,HOSTAP,AHDEMO,TXPMGT,SHSLOT,SHPREAMBLE,MONITOR,MBSS,WPA1,WPA2,BURST,WME,WDS,BGSCAN,TXFRAG>
cryptocaps=1f<WEP,TKIP,AES,AES_CCM,TKIPMIC>This output displays the card's capabilities. The
HOSTAP word confirms that this wireless
card can act as an AP. Various supported
ciphers are also listed: WEP,
TKIP, and AES. This
information indicates which security protocols can be used
on the AP.The wireless device can only be put into hostap mode
during the creation of the network pseudo-device, so a
previously created device must be destroyed first:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 destroythen regenerated with the correct option before setting
the other parameters:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0 wlanmode hostap
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid freebsdap mode 11g channel 1Use &man.ifconfig.8; again to see the status of the
wlan0 interface:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g <hostap>
status: running
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60
protmode CTS wme burst dtimperiod 1 -dfsThe hostap parameter indicates the
interface is running in the host-based access point
mode.The interface configuration can be done automatically at
boot time by adding the following lines to
/etc/rc.conf:wlans_ath0="wlan0"
create_args_wlan0="wlanmode hostap"
ifconfig_wlan0="inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid freebsdap mode 11g channel 1"Host-based Access Point Without Authentication or
EncryptionAlthough it is not recommended to run an
AP without any authentication or
encryption, this is a simple way to check if the
AP is working. This configuration is
also important for debugging client issues.Once the AP is configured, initiate
a scan from another wireless machine to find the
AP:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 up scan
SSID/MESH ID BSSID CHAN RATE S:N INT CAPS
freebsdap 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac 1 54M -66:-96 100 ES WMEThe client machine found the AP and
can be associated with it:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.0.2 netmask 255.255.255.0 ssid freebsdap
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
inet 192.168.0.2 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/54Mbps mode 11g
status: associated
ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 bmiss 7
scanvalid 60 bgscan bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7
roam:rate 5 protmode CTS wme burstWPA2 Host-based Access PointThis section focuses on setting up a &os;
access point using the WPA2
security protocol. More details regarding
WPA and the configuration of
WPA-based wireless clients can be found
in .The &man.hostapd.8; daemon is used to deal with client
authentication and key management on the
WPA2-enabled
AP.The following configuration operations are performed
on the &os; machine acting as the AP.
Once the AP is correctly working,
&man.hostapd.8; can be automatically started at boot
with this line in
/etc/rc.conf:hostapd_enable="YES"Before trying to configure &man.hostapd.8;, first
configure the basic settings introduced in .WPA2-PSKWPA2-PSK is intended for small
networks where the use of a backend authentication server
is not possible or desired.The configuration is done in
/etc/hostapd.conf:interface=wlan0
debug=1
ctrl_interface=/var/run/hostapd
ctrl_interface_group=wheel
ssid=freebsdap
wpa=2
wpa_passphrase=freebsdmall
wpa_key_mgmt=WPA-PSK
wpa_pairwise=CCMP Wireless interface used
for the access point.Level of verbosity used during the
execution of &man.hostapd.8;. A value of
1 represents the minimal
level.Pathname of the directory used by &man.hostapd.8;
to store domain socket files for communication
with external programs such as &man.hostapd.cli.8;.
The default value is used in this example.The group allowed to access the control
interface files.The wireless network name, or
SSID, that will appear in wireless
scans.Enable
WPA and specify which
WPA authentication protocol will
be required. A value of 2
configures the AP for
WPA2 and is recommended.
Set to 1 only if the obsolete
WPA is required.ASCII passphrase for
WPA authentication.Always use strong passwords that are at least
8 characters long and made from a rich alphabet so
that they will not be easily guessed or
attacked.The
key management protocol to use. This example
sets WPA-PSK.Encryption algorithms accepted by
the access point. In this example, only
the
CCMP (AES)
cipher is accepted. CCMP
is an alternative to TKIP
and is strongly preferred when possible.
TKIP should be allowed only when
there are stations incapable of using
CCMP.The next step is to start &man.hostapd.8;:&prompt.root; service hostapd forcestart&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8943<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,PROMISC,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 04:f0:21:16:8e:10
inet6 fe80::6f0:21ff:fe16:8e10%wlan0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x9
nd6 options=21<PERFORMNUD,AUTO_LINKLOCAL>
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11na <hostap>
status: running
ssid No5ignal channel 36 (5180 MHz 11a ht/40+) bssid 04:f0:21:16:8e:10
country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy MIXED deftxkey 2
AES-CCM 2:128-bit AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 17 mcastrate 6 mgmtrate 6
scanvalid 60 ampdulimit 64k ampdudensity 8 shortgi wme burst
dtimperiod 1 -dfs
groups: wlanOnce the AP is running, the
clients can associate with it. See for more details. It
is possible to see the stations associated with the
AP using ifconfig
wlan0 list
sta.WEP Host-based Access PointIt is not recommended to use WEP for
setting up an AP since there is no
authentication mechanism and the encryption is easily
cracked. Some legacy wireless cards only support
WEP and these cards will only support
an AP without authentication or
encryption.The wireless device can now be put into hostap mode and
configured with the correct SSID and
IP address:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0 wlanmode hostap
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 \
ssid freebsdap wepmode on weptxkey 3 wepkey 3:0x3456789012 mode 11gThe weptxkey indicates which
WEP key will be used in the
transmission. This example uses the third key as key
numbering starts with 1. This
parameter must be specified in order to encrypt the
data.The wepkey sets the selected
WEP key. It should be in the format
index:key. If the index is
not given, key 1 is set. The index
needs to be set when using keys other than the first
key.Use &man.ifconfig.8; to see the status of the
wlan0 interface:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0
wlan0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g <hostap>
status: running
ssid freebsdap channel 4 (2427 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy ON deftxkey 3 wepkey 3:40-bit
txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60 protmode CTS wme burst dtimperiod 1 -dfsFrom another wireless machine, it is now possible to
initiate a scan to find the AP:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev ath0
&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 up scan
SSID BSSID CHAN RATE S:N INT CAPS
freebsdap 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac 1 54M 22:1 100 EPSIn this example, the client machine found the
AP and can associate with it using the
correct parameters. See for more details.Using Both Wired and Wireless ConnectionsA wired connection provides better performance and
reliability, while a wireless connection provides flexibility
and mobility. Laptop users typically want to roam seamlessly
between the two types of connections.On &os;, it is possible to combine two or even more
network interfaces together in a failover
fashion. This type of configuration uses the most preferred
and available connection from a group of network interfaces,
and the operating system switches automatically when the link
state changes.Link aggregation and failover is covered in and an example for using
both wired and wireless connections is provided at .TroubleshootingThis section describes
a number of steps to help troubleshoot common wireless
networking problems.If the access point is not listed when scanning,
check that the configuration has not limited the wireless
device to a limited set of channels.If the device cannot associate with an access point,
verify that the configuration matches the settings on the
access point. This includes the authentication scheme and
any security protocols. Simplify the configuration as
much as possible. If using a security protocol such as
WPA or WEP,
configure the access point for open authentication and
no security to see if traffic will pass.Debugging support is provided by
&man.wpa.supplicant.8;. Try running this utility manually
with and look at the
system logs.Once the system can associate with the access point,
diagnose the network configuration using tools like
&man.ping.8;.There are many lower-level debugging tools.
Debugging messages can be enabled in the 802.11 protocol
support layer using &man.wlandebug.8;.
For example, to enable console messages related to
scanning for access points and the 802.11 protocol
handshakes required to arrange communication:&prompt.root; wlandebug -i wlan0 +scan+auth+debug+assoc
net.wlan.0.debug: 0 => 0xc80000<assoc,auth,scan>Many useful statistics are maintained by the 802.11
layer and wlanstats, found in /usr/src/tools/tools/net80211,
will dump this information. These statistics should
display all errors identified by the 802.11 layer.
However, some errors are identified in the device drivers
that lie below the 802.11 layer so they may not show up.
To diagnose device-specific problems, refer to the
drivers' documentation.If the above information does not help to clarify the
problem, submit a problem report and include output from the
above tools.USB TetheringtetherMany cellphones provide the option to share their data
connection over USB (often called "tethering"). This feature
uses either the RNDIS, CDC
or a custom &apple; &iphone;/&ipad;
protocol.&android; devices generally use the &man.urndis.4;
driver.&apple; devices use the &man.ipheth.4; driver.Older devices will often use the &man.cdce.4;
driver.Before attaching a device, load the appropriate driver
into the kernel:&prompt.root; kldload if_urndis
&prompt.root; kldload if_cdce
&prompt.root; kldload if_iphethOnce the device is attached
ue0 will be
available for use like a normal network device. Be sure that
the USB tethering option is enabled on the
device.BluetoothPavLucistnikWritten by pav@FreeBSD.orgBluetoothBluetooth is a wireless technology for creating personal
networks operating in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed band, with a
range of 10 meters. Networks are usually formed ad-hoc from
portable devices such as cellular phones, handhelds, and
laptops. Unlike Wi-Fi wireless technology, Bluetooth offers
higher level service profiles, such as
FTP-like file servers, file pushing, voice
transport, serial line emulation, and more.This section describes the use of a USB
Bluetooth dongle on a &os; system. It then describes the
various Bluetooth protocols and utilities.Loading Bluetooth SupportThe Bluetooth stack in &os; is implemented using the
&man.netgraph.4; framework. A broad variety of Bluetooth
USB dongles is supported by &man.ng.ubt.4;.
Broadcom BCM2033 based Bluetooth devices are supported by the
&man.ubtbcmfw.4; and &man.ng.ubt.4; drivers. The 3Com
Bluetooth PC Card 3CRWB60-A is supported by the
&man.ng.bt3c.4; driver. Serial and UART based Bluetooth
devices are supported by &man.sio.4;, &man.ng.h4.4;, and
&man.hcseriald.8;.Before attaching a device, determine which of the above
drivers it uses, then load the driver. For example, if the
device uses the &man.ng.ubt.4; driver:&prompt.root; kldload ng_ubtIf the Bluetooth device will be attached to the system
during system startup, the system can be configured to load
the module at boot time by adding the driver to
/boot/loader.conf:ng_ubt_load="YES"Once the driver is loaded, plug in the
USB dongle. If the driver load was
successful, output similar to the following should appear on
the console and in
/var/log/messages:ubt0: vendor 0x0a12 product 0x0001, rev 1.10/5.25, addr 2
ubt0: Interface 0 endpoints: interrupt=0x81, bulk-in=0x82, bulk-out=0x2
ubt0: Interface 1 (alt.config 5) endpoints: isoc-in=0x83, isoc-out=0x3,
wMaxPacketSize=49, nframes=6, buffer size=294To start and stop the Bluetooth stack, use its startup
script. It is a good idea to stop the stack before unplugging
- the device. When starting the stack, the output should be
- similar to the following:
+ the device. Starting the bluetooth stack might require
+ &man.hcsecd.8; to be started. When starting the stack, the
+ output should be similar to the following:
&prompt.root; service bluetooth start ubt0
BD_ADDR: 00:02:72:00:d4:1a
Features: 0xff 0xff 0xf 00 00 00 00 00
<3-Slot> <5-Slot> <Encryption> <Slot offset>
<Timing accuracy> <Switch> <Hold mode> <Sniff mode>
<Park mode> <RSSI> <Channel quality> <SCO link>
<HV2 packets> <HV3 packets> <u-law log> <A-law log> <CVSD>
<Paging scheme> <Power control> <Transparent SCO data>
Max. ACL packet size: 192 bytes
Number of ACL packets: 8
Max. SCO packet size: 64 bytes
Number of SCO packets: 8Finding Other Bluetooth DevicesHCIThe Host Controller Interface (HCI)
provides a uniform method for accessing Bluetooth baseband
capabilities. In &os;, a netgraph HCI node
is created for each Bluetooth device. For more details, refer
to &man.ng.hci.4;.One of the most common tasks is discovery of Bluetooth
devices within RF proximity. This
operation is called inquiry. Inquiry and
other HCI related operations are done using
&man.hccontrol.8;. The example below shows how to find out
which Bluetooth devices are in range. The list of devices
should be displayed in a few seconds. Note that a remote
device will only answer the inquiry if it is set to
discoverable mode.&prompt.user; hccontrol -n ubt0hci inquiry
Inquiry result, num_responses=1
Inquiry result #0
BD_ADDR: 00:80:37:29:19:a4
Page Scan Rep. Mode: 0x1
Page Scan Period Mode: 00
Page Scan Mode: 00
Class: 52:02:04
Clock offset: 0x78ef
Inquiry complete. Status: No error [00]The BD_ADDR is the unique address of a
Bluetooth device, similar to the MAC
address of a network card. This address is needed for further
communication with a device and it is possible to assign a
- human readable name to a BD_ADDR. Information regarding the
- known Bluetooth hosts is contained in
- /etc/bluetooth/hosts. The following
+ human readable name to a BD_ADDR.
+ Information regarding the known Bluetooth hosts is contained
+ in /etc/bluetooth/hosts. The following
example shows how to obtain the human readable name that was
assigned to the remote device:&prompt.user; hccontrol -n ubt0hci remote_name_request 00:80:37:29:19:a4
BD_ADDR: 00:80:37:29:19:a4
Name: Pav's T39If an inquiry is performed on a remote Bluetooth device,
it will find the computer as
your.host.name (ubt0). The name assigned to
the local device can be changed at any time.
+ Remote devices can be assigned aliases in
+ /etc/bluetooth/hosts. More information
+ about /etc/bluetooth/hosts file might be
+ found in &man.bluetooth.hosts.5;.
+
The Bluetooth system provides a point-to-point connection
between two Bluetooth units, or a point-to-multipoint
connection which is shared among several Bluetooth devices.
- The following example shows how to obtain the list of active
- baseband connections for the local device:
+ The following example shows how to create a connection to a
+ remote device:
+
+ &prompt.user; hccontrol -n ubt0hci create_connection BT_ADDR
+
+ create_connection accepts
+ BT_ADDR as well as host aliases in
+ /etc/bluetooth/hosts.
+
+ The following example shows how to obtain the list of
+ active baseband connections for the local device:&prompt.user; hccontrol -n ubt0hci read_connection_list
Remote BD_ADDR Handle Type Mode Role Encrypt Pending Queue State
00:80:37:29:19:a4 41 ACL 0 MAST NONE 0 0 OPENA connection handle is useful when
termination of the baseband connection is required, though
it is normally not required to do this by hand. The stack
will automatically terminate inactive baseband
connections.&prompt.root; hccontrol -n ubt0hci disconnect 41
Connection handle: 41
Reason: Connection terminated by local host [0x16]Type hccontrol help for a complete
listing of available HCI commands. Most
of the HCI commands do not require
superuser privileges.Device PairingBy default, Bluetooth communication is not authenticated,
and any device can talk to any other device. A Bluetooth
device, such as a cellular phone, may choose to require
authentication to provide a particular service. Bluetooth
authentication is normally done with a
PIN code, an ASCII
string up to 16 characters in length. The user is required
to enter the same PIN code on both devices.
Once the user has entered the PIN code,
both devices will generate a link key.
After that, the link key can be stored either in the devices
or in a persistent storage. Next time, both devices will
use the previously generated link key. This procedure is
called pairing. Note that if the link
key is lost by either device, the pairing must be
repeated.The &man.hcsecd.8; daemon is responsible for handling
Bluetooth authentication requests. The default configuration
file is /etc/bluetooth/hcsecd.conf. An
example section for a cellular phone with the
PIN code set to 1234 is
shown below:device {
bdaddr 00:80:37:29:19:a4;
name "Pav's T39";
key nokey;
pin "1234";
}The only limitation on PIN codes is
length. Some devices, such as Bluetooth headsets, may have
a fixed PIN code built in. The
switch forces &man.hcsecd.8; to stay in
the foreground, so it is easy to see what is happening. Set
the remote device to receive pairing and initiate the
Bluetooth connection to the remote device. The remote device
should indicate that pairing was accepted and request the
PIN code. Enter the same
PIN code listed in
hcsecd.conf. Now the computer and the
remote device are paired. Alternatively, pairing can be
initiated on the remote device.The following line can be added to
/etc/rc.conf to configure &man.hcsecd.8;
to start automatically on system start:hcsecd_enable="YES"The following is a sample of the &man.hcsecd.8; daemon
output:hcsecd[16484]: Got Link_Key_Request event from 'ubt0hci', remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
hcsecd[16484]: Found matching entry, remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4, name 'Pav's T39', link key doesn't exist
hcsecd[16484]: Sending Link_Key_Negative_Reply to 'ubt0hci' for remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
hcsecd[16484]: Got PIN_Code_Request event from 'ubt0hci', remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
hcsecd[16484]: Found matching entry, remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4, name 'Pav's T39', PIN code exists
hcsecd[16484]: Sending PIN_Code_Reply to 'ubt0hci' for remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4Network Access with
PPP ProfilesA Dial-Up Networking (DUN) profile can
be used to configure a cellular phone as a wireless modem for
connecting to a dial-up Internet access server. It can also
be used to configure a computer to receive data calls from a
cellular phone.Network access with a PPP profile can
be used to provide LAN access for a single
Bluetooth device or multiple Bluetooth devices. It can also
provide PC to PC
connection using PPP networking over serial
cable emulation.In &os;, these profiles are implemented with &man.ppp.8;
and the &man.rfcomm.pppd.8; wrapper which converts a
Bluetooth connection into something
PPP can use. Before a profile can be used,
a new PPP label must be created in
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf. Consult
&man.rfcomm.pppd.8; for examples.In this example, &man.rfcomm.pppd.8; is used to open a
connection to a remote device with a
BD_ADDR of
00:80:37:29:19:a4 on a
DUN RFCOMM
channel:&prompt.root; rfcomm_pppd -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4 -c -C dun -l rfcomm-dialupThe actual channel number will be obtained from the remote
device using the SDP protocol. It is
possible to specify the RFCOMM channel by
hand, and in this case &man.rfcomm.pppd.8; will not perform
the SDP query. Use &man.sdpcontrol.8; to
find out the RFCOMM channel on the remote
device.In order to provide network access with the
PPP LAN service,
&man.sdpd.8; must be running and a new entry for
LAN clients must be created in
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf. Consult
&man.rfcomm.pppd.8; for examples. Finally, start the
RFCOMM PPP server on a
valid RFCOMM channel number. The
RFCOMM PPP server will
automatically register the Bluetooth LAN
service with the local SDP daemon. The
example below shows how to start the RFCOMM
PPP server.&prompt.root; rfcomm_pppd -s -C 7 -l rfcomm-serverBluetooth ProtocolsThis section provides an overview of the various Bluetooth
protocols, their function, and associated utilities.Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol
(L2CAP)L2CAPThe Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol
(L2CAP) provides connection-oriented and
connectionless data services to upper layer protocols.
L2CAP permits higher level protocols and
applications to transmit and receive
L2CAP data packets up to 64 kilobytes in
length.L2CAP is based around the concept of
channels. A channel is a logical
connection on top of a baseband connection, where each
channel is bound to a single protocol in a many-to-one
fashion. Multiple channels can be bound to the same
protocol, but a channel cannot be bound to multiple
protocols. Each L2CAP packet received on
a channel is directed to the appropriate higher level
protocol. Multiple channels can share the same baseband
connection.In &os;, a netgraph L2CAP node is
created for each Bluetooth device. This node is normally
connected to the downstream Bluetooth HCI
node and upstream Bluetooth socket nodes. The default name
for the L2CAP node is
devicel2cap. For more details refer to
&man.ng.l2cap.4;.A useful command is &man.l2ping.8;, which can be used to
ping other devices. Some Bluetooth implementations might
not return all of the data sent to them, so 0
bytes in the following example is normal.&prompt.root; l2ping -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=0 time=48.633 ms result=0
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=1 time=37.551 ms result=0
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=2 time=28.324 ms result=0
0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=3 time=46.150 ms result=0The &man.l2control.8; utility is used to perform various
operations on L2CAP nodes. This example
shows how to obtain the list of logical connections
(channels) and the list of baseband connections for the
local device:&prompt.user; l2control -a 00:02:72:00:d4:1a read_channel_list
L2CAP channels:
Remote BD_ADDR SCID/ DCID PSM IMTU/ OMTU State
00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 66/ 64 3 132/ 672 OPEN
&prompt.user; l2control -a 00:02:72:00:d4:1a read_connection_list
L2CAP connections:
Remote BD_ADDR Handle Flags Pending State
00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 41 O 0 OPENAnother diagnostic tool is &man.btsockstat.1;. It is
similar to &man.netstat.1;, but for Bluetooth
network-related data structures. The example below shows
the same logical connection as &man.l2control.8;
above.&prompt.user; btsockstat
Active L2CAP sockets
PCB Recv-Q Send-Q Local address/PSM Foreign address CID State
c2afe900 0 0 00:02:72:00:d4:1a/3 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 66 OPEN
Active RFCOMM sessions
L2PCB PCB Flag MTU Out-Q DLCs State
c2afe900 c2b53380 1 127 0 Yes OPEN
Active RFCOMM sockets
PCB Recv-Q Send-Q Local address Foreign address Chan DLCI State
c2e8bc80 0 250 00:02:72:00:d4:1a 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 3 6 OPENRadio Frequency Communication
(RFCOMM)The RFCOMM protocol provides
emulation of serial ports over the L2CAP
protocol. RFCOMM is a simple transport
protocol, with additional provisions for emulating the 9
circuits of RS-232 (EIATIA-232-E) serial ports. It
supports up to 60 simultaneous connections
(RFCOMM channels) between two Bluetooth
devices.For the purposes of RFCOMM, a
complete communication path involves two applications
running on the communication endpoints with a communication
segment between them. RFCOMM is intended
to cover applications that make use of the serial ports of
the devices in which they reside. The communication segment
is a direct connect Bluetooth link from one device to
another.RFCOMM is only concerned with the
connection between the devices in the direct connect case,
or between the device and a modem in the network case.
RFCOMM can support other configurations,
such as modules that communicate via Bluetooth wireless
technology on one side and provide a wired interface on the
other side.In &os;, RFCOMM is implemented at the
Bluetooth sockets layer.Service Discovery Protocol
(SDP)SDPThe Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)
provides the means for client applications to discover the
existence of services provided by server applications as
well as the attributes of those services. The attributes of
a service include the type or class of service offered and
the mechanism or protocol information needed to utilize the
service.SDP involves communication between a
SDP server and a SDP
client. The server maintains a list of service records that
describe the characteristics of services associated with the
server. Each service record contains information about a
single service. A client may retrieve information from a
service record maintained by the SDP
server by issuing a SDP request. If the
client, or an application associated with the client,
decides to use a service, it must open a separate connection
to the service provider in order to utilize the service.
SDP provides a mechanism for discovering
services and their attributes, but it does not provide a
mechanism for utilizing those services.Normally, a SDP client searches for
services based on some desired characteristics of the
services. However, there are times when it is desirable to
discover which types of services are described by an
SDP server's service records without any
prior information about the services. This process of
looking for any offered services is called
browsing.The Bluetooth SDP server,
&man.sdpd.8;, and command line client, &man.sdpcontrol.8;,
are included in the standard &os; installation. The
following example shows how to perform a
SDP browse query.&prompt.user; sdpcontrol -a 00:01:03:fc:6e:ec browse
Record Handle: 00000000
Service Class ID List:
Service Discovery Server (0x1000)
Protocol Descriptor List:
L2CAP (0x0100)
Protocol specific parameter #1: u/int/uuid16 1
Protocol specific parameter #2: u/int/uuid16 1
Record Handle: 0x00000001
Service Class ID List:
Browse Group Descriptor (0x1001)
Record Handle: 0x00000002
Service Class ID List:
LAN Access Using PPP (0x1102)
Protocol Descriptor List:
L2CAP (0x0100)
RFCOMM (0x0003)
Protocol specific parameter #1: u/int8/bool 1
Bluetooth Profile Descriptor List:
LAN Access Using PPP (0x1102) ver. 1.0Note that each service has a list of attributes, such
as the RFCOMM channel. Depending on the
service, the user might need to make note of some of the
attributes. Some Bluetooth implementations do not support
service browsing and may return an empty list. In this
case, it is possible to search for the specific service.
The example below shows how to search for the
OBEX Object Push
(OPUSH) service:&prompt.user; sdpcontrol -a 00:01:03:fc:6e:ec search OPUSHOffering services on &os; to Bluetooth clients is done
with the &man.sdpd.8; server. The following line can be
added to /etc/rc.conf:sdpd_enable="YES"Then the &man.sdpd.8; daemon can be started with:&prompt.root; service sdpd startThe local server application that wants to provide a
Bluetooth service to remote clients will register the
service with the local SDP daemon. An
example of such an application is &man.rfcomm.pppd.8;. Once
started, it will register the Bluetooth LAN service with the
local SDP daemon.The list of services registered with the local
SDP server can be obtained by issuing a
SDP browse query via the local control
channel:&prompt.root; sdpcontrol -l browseOBEX Object Push
(OPUSH)OBEXObject Exchange (OBEX) is a widely
used protocol for simple file transfers between mobile
devices. Its main use is in infrared communication, where
it is used for generic file transfers between notebooks or
PDAs, and for sending business cards or
calendar entries between cellular phones and other devices
with Personal Information Manager (PIM)
applications.The OBEX server and client are
implemented by obexapp, which can
be installed using the comms/obexapp
package or port.The OBEX client is used to push
and/or pull objects from the OBEX server.
An example object is a business card or an appointment.
The OBEX client can obtain the
RFCOMM channel number from the remote
device via SDP. This can be done by
specifying the service name instead of the
RFCOMM channel number. Supported service
names are: IrMC, FTRN,
and OPUSH. It is also possible to
specify the RFCOMM channel as a number.
Below is an example of an OBEX session
where the device information object is pulled from the
cellular phone, and a new object, the business card, is
pushed into the phone's directory.&prompt.user; obexapp -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4 -C IrMC
obex> get telecom/devinfo.txt devinfo-t39.txt
Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)
obex> put new.vcf
Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)
obex> di
Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)In order to provide the OPUSH
service, &man.sdpd.8; must be running and a root folder,
where all incoming objects will be stored, must be created.
The default path to the root folder is
/var/spool/obex. Finally, start the
OBEX server on a valid
RFCOMM channel number. The
OBEX server will automatically register
the OPUSH service with the local
SDP daemon. The example below shows how
to start the OBEX server.&prompt.root; obexapp -s -C 10Serial Port Profile (SPP)The Serial Port Profile (SPP) allows
Bluetooth devices to perform serial cable emulation. This
profile allows legacy applications to use Bluetooth as a
cable replacement, through a virtual serial port
abstraction.In &os;, &man.rfcomm.sppd.1; implements
SPP and a pseudo tty is used as a virtual
serial port abstraction. The example below shows how to
connect to a remote device's serial port service. A
RFCOMM channel does not have to be
specified as &man.rfcomm.sppd.1; can obtain it from the
remote device via SDP. To override this,
specify a RFCOMM channel on the command
line.&prompt.root; rfcomm_sppd -a 00:07:E0:00:0B:CA -t
rfcomm_sppd[94692]: Starting on /dev/pts/6...
/dev/pts/6Once connected, the pseudo tty can be used as serial
port:&prompt.root; cu -l /dev/pts/6The pseudo tty is printed on stdout and can be read by
wrapper scripts:PTS=`rfcomm_sppd -a 00:07:E0:00:0B:CA -t`
cu -l $PTSTroubleshootingBy default, when &os; is accepting a new connection, it
tries to perform a role switch and become master. Some older
Bluetooth devices which do not support role switching will not
be able to connect. Since role switching is performed when a
new connection is being established, it is not possible to ask
the remote device if it supports role switching. However,
there is a HCI option to disable role
switching on the local side:&prompt.root; hccontrol -n ubt0hci write_node_role_switch 0To display Bluetooth packets, use the third-party package
hcidump, which can be installed
using the comms/hcidump package or port.
This utility is similar to &man.tcpdump.1; and can be used to
display the contents of Bluetooth packets on the terminal and
to dump the Bluetooth packets to a file.BridgingAndrewThompsonWritten by IP subnetbridgeIt is sometimes useful to divide a network, such as an
Ethernet segment, into network segments without having to
create IP subnets and use a router to connect
the segments together. A device that connects two networks
together in this fashion is called a
bridge.A bridge works by learning the MAC
addresses of the devices on each of its network interfaces. It
forwards traffic between networks only when the source and
destination MAC addresses are on different
networks. In many respects, a bridge is like an Ethernet switch
with very few ports. A &os; system with multiple network
interfaces can be configured to act as a bridge.Bridging can be useful in the following situations:Connecting NetworksThe basic operation of a bridge is to join two or more
network segments. There are many reasons to use a
host-based bridge instead of networking equipment, such as
cabling constraints or firewalling. A bridge can also
connect a wireless interface running in hostap mode to a
wired network and act as an access point.Filtering/Traffic Shaping FirewallA bridge can be used when firewall functionality is
needed without routing or Network Address Translation
(NAT).An example is a small company that is connected via
DSL or ISDN to an
ISP. There are thirteen public
IP addresses from the
ISP and ten computers on the network.
In this situation, using a router-based firewall is
difficult because of subnetting issues. A bridge-based
firewall can be configured without any
IP addressing issues.Network TapA bridge can join two network segments in order to
inspect all Ethernet frames that pass between them using
&man.bpf.4; and &man.tcpdump.1; on the bridge interface or
by sending a copy of all frames out an additional
interface known as a span port.Layer 2 VPNTwo Ethernet networks can be joined across an
IP link by bridging the networks to an
EtherIP tunnel or a &man.tap.4; based solution such as
OpenVPN.Layer 2 RedundancyA network can be connected together with multiple
links and use the Spanning Tree Protocol
(STP) to block redundant paths.This section describes how to configure a &os; system as a
bridge using &man.if.bridge.4;. A netgraph bridging driver is
also available, and is described in &man.ng.bridge.4;.Packet filtering can be used with any firewall package
that hooks into the &man.pfil.9; framework. The bridge can be
used as a traffic shaper with &man.altq.4; or
&man.dummynet.4;.Enabling the BridgeIn &os;, &man.if.bridge.4; is a kernel module which is
automatically loaded by &man.ifconfig.8; when creating a
bridge interface. It is also possible to compile bridge
support into a custom kernel by adding
device if_bridge to the custom kernel
configuration file.The bridge is created using interface cloning. To create
the bridge interface:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge create
bridge0
&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0
bridge0: flags=8802<BROADCAST,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 96:3d:4b:f1:79:7a
id 00:00:00:00:00:00 priority 32768 hellotime 2 fwddelay 15
maxage 20 holdcnt 6 proto rstp maxaddr 100 timeout 1200
root id 00:00:00:00:00:00 priority 0 ifcost 0 port 0When a bridge interface is created, it is automatically
assigned a randomly generated Ethernet address. The
maxaddr and timeout
parameters control how many MAC addresses
the bridge will keep in its forwarding table and how many
seconds before each entry is removed after it is last seen.
The other parameters control how STP
operates.Next, specify which network interfaces to add as members
of the bridge. For the bridge to forward packets, all member
interfaces and the bridge need to be up:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 addm fxp0 addm fxp1 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig fxp0 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig fxp1 upThe bridge can now forward Ethernet frames between
fxp0 and fxp1. Add
the following lines to /etc/rc.conf so
the bridge is created at startup:cloned_interfaces="bridge0"
ifconfig_bridge0="addm fxp0 addm fxp1 up"
ifconfig_fxp0="up"
ifconfig_fxp1="up"If the bridge host needs an IP
address, set it on the bridge interface, not on the member
interfaces. The address can be set statically or via
DHCP. This example sets a static
IP address:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 inet 192.168.0.1/24It is also possible to assign an IPv6
address to a bridge interface. To make the changes permanent,
add the addressing information to
/etc/rc.conf.When packet filtering is enabled, bridged packets will
pass through the filter inbound on the originating interface
on the bridge interface, and outbound on the appropriate
interfaces. Either stage can be disabled. When direction
of the packet flow is important, it is best to firewall on
the member interfaces rather than the bridge itself.The bridge has several configurable settings for passing
non-IP and IP packets,
and layer2 firewalling with &man.ipfw.8;. See
&man.if.bridge.4; for more information.Enabling Spanning TreeFor an Ethernet network to function properly, only one
active path can exist between two devices. The
STP protocol detects loops and puts
redundant links into a blocked state. Should one of the
active links fail, STP calculates a
different tree and enables one of the blocked paths to restore
connectivity to all points in the network.The Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP
or 802.1w) provides backwards compatibility with legacy
STP. RSTP provides
faster convergence and exchanges information with neighboring
switches to quickly transition to forwarding mode without
creating loops. &os; supports RSTP and
STP as operating modes, with
RSTP being the default mode.STP can be enabled on member interfaces
using &man.ifconfig.8;. For a bridge with
fxp0 and fxp1 as the
current interfaces, enable STP with:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 stp fxp0 stp fxp1
bridge0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether d6:cf:d5:a0:94:6d
id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768 hellotime 2 fwddelay 15
maxage 20 holdcnt 6 proto rstp maxaddr 100 timeout 1200
root id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768 ifcost 0 port 0
member: fxp0 flags=1c7<LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP>
port 3 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
role designated state forwarding
member: fxp1 flags=1c7<LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP>
port 4 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
role designated state forwardingThis bridge has a spanning tree ID of
00:01:02:4b:d4:50 and a priority of
32768. As the root id
is the same, it indicates that this is the root bridge for the
tree.Another bridge on the network also has
STP enabled:bridge0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
ether 96:3d:4b:f1:79:7a
id 00:13:d4:9a:06:7a priority 32768 hellotime 2 fwddelay 15
maxage 20 holdcnt 6 proto rstp maxaddr 100 timeout 1200
root id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768 ifcost 400000 port 4
member: fxp0 flags=1c7<LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP>
port 4 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
role root state forwarding
member: fxp1 flags=1c7<LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP>
port 5 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
role designated state forwardingThe line root id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768
ifcost 400000 port 4 shows that the root bridge is
00:01:02:4b:d4:50 and has a path cost of
400000 from this bridge. The path to the
root bridge is via port 4 which is
fxp0.Bridge Interface ParametersSeveral ifconfig parameters are unique
to bridge interfaces. This section summarizes some common
uses for these parameters. The complete list of available
parameters is described in &man.ifconfig.8;.privateA private interface does not forward any traffic to
any other port that is also designated as a private
interface. The traffic is blocked unconditionally so no
Ethernet frames will be forwarded, including
ARP packets. If traffic needs to be
selectively blocked, a firewall should be used
instead.spanA span port transmits a copy of every Ethernet frame
received by the bridge. The number of span ports
configured on a bridge is unlimited, but if an
interface is designated as a span port, it cannot also
be used as a regular bridge port. This is most useful
for snooping a bridged network passively on another host
connected to one of the span ports of the bridge. For
example, to send a copy of all frames out the interface
named fxp4:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 span fxp4stickyIf a bridge member interface is marked as sticky,
dynamically learned address entries are treated as
static entries in the forwarding cache. Sticky entries
are never aged out of the cache or replaced, even if the
address is seen on a different interface. This gives
the benefit of static address entries without the need
to pre-populate the forwarding table. Clients learned
on a particular segment of the bridge cannot roam to
another segment.An example of using sticky addresses is to combine
the bridge with VLANs in order to
isolate customer networks without wasting
IP address space. Consider that
CustomerA
is on vlan100, CustomerB is on
vlan101, and the bridge has the
address 192.168.0.1:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 addm vlan100 sticky vlan100 addm vlan101 sticky vlan101
&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 inet 192.168.0.1/24In this example, both clients see 192.168.0.1 as their
default gateway. Since the bridge cache is sticky, one
host cannot spoof the MAC address of
the other customer in order to intercept their
traffic.Any communication between the
VLANs can be blocked using a firewall
or, as seen in this example, private interfaces:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 private vlan100 private vlan101The customers are completely isolated from each
other and the full /24 address range can be
allocated without subnetting.The number of unique source MAC
addresses behind an interface can be limited. Once the
limit is reached, packets with unknown source addresses
are dropped until an existing host cache entry expires
or is removed.The following example sets the maximum number of
Ethernet devices for CustomerA on
vlan100 to 10:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 ifmaxaddr vlan100 10Bridge interfaces also support monitor mode, where the
packets are discarded after &man.bpf.4; processing and are not
processed or forwarded further. This can be used to
multiplex the input of two or more interfaces into a single
&man.bpf.4; stream. This is useful for reconstructing the
traffic for network taps that transmit the RX/TX signals out
through two separate interfaces. For example, to read the
input from four network interfaces as one stream:&prompt.root; ifconfig bridge0 addm fxp0 addm fxp1 addm fxp2 addm fxp3 monitor up
&prompt.root; tcpdump -i bridge0SNMP MonitoringThe bridge interface and STP
parameters can be monitored via &man.bsnmpd.1; which is
included in the &os; base system. The exported bridge
MIBs conform to IETF
standards so any SNMP client or monitoring
package can be used to retrieve the data.To enable monitoring on the bridge, uncomment this line in
/etc/snmpd.config by removing the
beginning # symbol:begemotSnmpdModulePath."bridge" = "/usr/lib/snmp_bridge.so"Other configuration settings, such as community names and
access lists, may need to be modified in this file. See
&man.bsnmpd.1; and &man.snmp.bridge.3; for more information.
Once these edits are saved, add this line to
/etc/rc.conf:bsnmpd_enable="YES"Then, start &man.bsnmpd.1;:&prompt.root; service bsnmpd startThe following examples use the
Net-SNMP software
(net-mgmt/net-snmp) to query a bridge
from a client system. The
net-mgmt/bsnmptools port can also be used.
From the SNMP client which is running
Net-SNMP, add the following lines
to $HOME/.snmp/snmp.conf in order to
import the bridge MIB definitions:mibdirs +/usr/share/snmp/mibs
mibs +BRIDGE-MIB:RSTP-MIB:BEGEMOT-MIB:BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIBTo monitor a single bridge using the IETF BRIDGE-MIB
(RFC4188):&prompt.user; snmpwalk -v 2c -c public bridge1.example.com mib-2.dot1dBridge
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dBaseBridgeAddress.0 = STRING: 66:fb:9b:6e:5c:44
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dBaseNumPorts.0 = INTEGER: 1 ports
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpTimeSinceTopologyChange.0 = Timeticks: (189959) 0:31:39.59 centi-seconds
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpTopChanges.0 = Counter32: 2
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpDesignatedRoot.0 = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 01 02 4B D4 50
...
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortState.3 = INTEGER: forwarding(5)
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortEnable.3 = INTEGER: enabled(1)
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortPathCost.3 = INTEGER: 200000
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedRoot.3 = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 01 02 4B D4 50
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedCost.3 = INTEGER: 0
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedBridge.3 = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 01 02 4B D4 50
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedPort.3 = Hex-STRING: 03 80
BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortForwardTransitions.3 = Counter32: 1
RSTP-MIB::dot1dStpVersion.0 = INTEGER: rstp(2)The dot1dStpTopChanges.0 value is two,
indicating that the STP bridge topology has
changed twice. A topology change means that one or more links
in the network have changed or failed and a new tree has been
calculated. The
dot1dStpTimeSinceTopologyChange.0 value
will show when this happened.To monitor multiple bridge interfaces, the private
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB can be used:&prompt.user; snmpwalk -v 2c -c public bridge1.example.com
enterprises.fokus.begemot.begemotBridge
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseName."bridge0" = STRING: bridge0
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseName."bridge2" = STRING: bridge2
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseAddress."bridge0" = STRING: e:ce:3b:5a:9e:13
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseAddress."bridge2" = STRING: 12:5e:4d:74:d:fc
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseNumPorts."bridge0" = INTEGER: 1
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseNumPorts."bridge2" = INTEGER: 1
...
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTimeSinceTopologyChange."bridge0" = Timeticks: (116927) 0:19:29.27 centi-seconds
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTimeSinceTopologyChange."bridge2" = Timeticks: (82773) 0:13:47.73 centi-seconds
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTopChanges."bridge0" = Counter32: 1
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTopChanges."bridge2" = Counter32: 1
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpDesignatedRoot."bridge0" = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 40 95 30 5E 31
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpDesignatedRoot."bridge2" = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 50 8B B8 C6 A9To change the bridge interface being monitored via the
mib-2.dot1dBridge subtree:&prompt.user; snmpset -v 2c -c private bridge1.example.com
BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeDefaultBridgeIf.0 s bridge2Link Aggregation and FailoverAndrewThompsonWritten by laggfailoverFECLACPloadbalanceroundrobin&os; provides the &man.lagg.4; interface which can be used
to aggregate multiple network interfaces into one virtual
interface in order to provide failover and link aggregation.
Failover allows traffic to continue to flow as long as at least
one aggregated network interface has an established link. Link
aggregation works best on switches which support
LACP, as this protocol distributes traffic
bi-directionally while responding to the failure of individual
links.The aggregation protocols supported by the lagg interface
determine which ports are used for outgoing traffic and whether
or not a specific port accepts incoming traffic. The following
protocols are supported by &man.lagg.4;:failoverThis mode sends and receives traffic only through
the master port. If the master port becomes
unavailable, the next active port is used. The first
interface added to the virtual interface is the master
port and all subsequently added interfaces are used as
failover devices. If failover to a non-master port
occurs, the original port becomes master once it
becomes available again.fec / loadbalance&cisco; Fast ðerchannel; (FEC)
is found on older &cisco; switches. It provides a
static setup and does not negotiate aggregation with the
peer or exchange frames to monitor the link. If the
switch supports LACP, that should be
used instead.lacpThe &ieee; 802.3ad Link Aggregation Control Protocol
(LACP) negotiates a set of
aggregable links with the peer into one or more Link
Aggregated Groups (LAGs). Each
LAG is composed of ports of the same
speed, set to full-duplex operation, and traffic is
balanced across the ports in the
LAG with the greatest total speed.
Typically, there is only one LAG
which contains all the ports. In the event of changes
in physical connectivity,
LACP will quickly converge to a new
configuration.LACP balances outgoing traffic
across the active ports based on hashed protocol header
information and accepts incoming traffic from any active
port. The hash includes the Ethernet source and
destination address and, if available, the
VLAN tag, and the
IPv4 or IPv6
source and destination address.roundrobinThis mode distributes outgoing traffic using a
round-robin scheduler through all active ports and
accepts incoming traffic from any active port. Since
this mode violates Ethernet frame ordering, it should be
used with caution.Configuration ExamplesThis section demonstrates how to configure a &cisco;
switch and a &os; system for LACP load
balancing. It then shows how to configure two Ethernet
interfaces in failover mode as well as how to configure
failover mode between an Ethernet and a wireless
interface.LACP Aggregation with a &cisco;
SwitchThis example connects two &man.fxp.4; Ethernet
interfaces on a &os; machine to the first two Ethernet ports
on a &cisco; switch as a single load balanced and fault
tolerant link. More interfaces can be added to increase
throughput and fault tolerance. Replace the names of the
&cisco; ports, Ethernet devices, channel group number, and
IP address shown in the example to match
the local configuration.Frame ordering is mandatory on Ethernet links and any
traffic between two stations always flows over the same
physical link, limiting the maximum speed to that of one
interface. The transmit algorithm attempts to use as much
information as it can to distinguish different traffic flows
and balance the flows across the available
interfaces.On the &cisco; switch, add the
FastEthernet0/1 and
FastEthernet0/2 interfaces to
channel group 1:interface FastEthernet0/1
channel-group 1 mode active
channel-protocol lacp
!
interface FastEthernet0/2
channel-group 1 mode active
channel-protocol lacpOn the &os; system, create the &man.lagg.4; interface
using the physical interfaces
fxp0 and
fxp1 and bring the interfaces up
with an IP address of
10.0.0.3/24:&prompt.root; ifconfig fxp0 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig fxp1 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0 create
&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0 up laggproto lacp laggport fxp0 laggport fxp110.0.0.3/24Next, verify the status of the virtual interface:&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0
lagg0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
options=8<VLAN_MTU>
ether 00:05:5d:71:8d:b8
inet 10.0.0.3 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
media: Ethernet autoselect
status: active
laggproto lacp
laggport: fxp1 flags=1c<ACTIVE,COLLECTING,DISTRIBUTING>
laggport: fxp0 flags=1c<ACTIVE,COLLECTING,DISTRIBUTING>Ports
marked as ACTIVE are part of the
LAG that has been negotiated with the
remote switch. Traffic will be transmitted and received
through these active ports. Add to the
above command to view the LAG
identifiers.To see the port status on the &cisco; switch:switch# show lacp neighbor
Flags: S - Device is requesting Slow LACPDUs
F - Device is requesting Fast LACPDUs
A - Device is in Active mode P - Device is in Passive mode
Channel group 1 neighbors
Partner's information:
LACP port Oper Port Port
Port Flags Priority Dev ID Age Key Number State
Fa0/1 SA 32768 0005.5d71.8db8 29s 0x146 0x3 0x3D
Fa0/2 SA 32768 0005.5d71.8db8 29s 0x146 0x4 0x3DFor more detail, type show lacp neighbor
detail.To retain this configuration across reboots, add the
following entries to
/etc/rc.conf on the &os; system:ifconfig_fxp0="up"
ifconfig_fxp1="up"
cloned_interfaces="lagg0"
ifconfig_lagg0="laggproto lacp laggport fxp0 laggport fxp110.0.0.3/24"Failover ModeFailover mode can be used to switch over to a secondary
interface if the link is lost on the master interface. To
configure failover, make sure that the underlying physical
interfaces are up, then create the &man.lagg.4; interface.
In this example, fxp0 is the
master interface, fxp1 is the
secondary interface, and the virtual interface is assigned
an IP address of
10.0.0.15/24:&prompt.root; ifconfig fxp0 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig fxp1 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0 create
&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0 up laggproto failover laggport fxp0 laggport fxp110.0.0.15/24The virtual interface should look something like
this:&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0
lagg0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
options=8<VLAN_MTU>
ether 00:05:5d:71:8d:b8
inet 10.0.0.15 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
media: Ethernet autoselect
status: active
laggproto failover
laggport: fxp1 flags=0<>
laggport: fxp0 flags=5<MASTER,ACTIVE>Traffic will be transmitted and received on
fxp0. If the link is lost on
fxp0,
fxp1 will become the active link.
If the link is restored on the master interface, it will
once again become the active link.To retain this configuration across reboots, add the
following entries to
/etc/rc.conf:ifconfig_fxp0="up"
ifconfig_fxp1="up"
cloned_interfaces="lagg0"
ifconfig_lagg0="laggproto failover laggport fxp0 laggport fxp110.0.0.15/24"Failover Mode Between Ethernet and Wireless
InterfacesFor laptop users, it is usually desirable to configure
the wireless device as a secondary which is only used when
the Ethernet connection is not available. With
&man.lagg.4;, it is possible to configure a failover which
prefers the Ethernet connection for both performance and
security reasons, while maintaining the ability to transfer
data over the wireless connection.This is achieved by overriding the physical wireless
interface's MAC address with that of the
Ethernet interface.In this example, the Ethernet interface,
bge0, is the master and the
wireless interface, wlan0, is
the failover. The wlan0 device
was created from iwn0 wireless
interface, which will be configured with the
MAC address of the Ethernet interface.
First, determine the MAC address of the
Ethernet interface:&prompt.root; ifconfig bge0
bge0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
options=19b<RXCSUM,TXCSUM,VLAN_MTU,VLAN_HWTAGGING,VLAN_HWCSUM,TSO4>
ether 00:21:70:da:ae:37
inet6 fe80::221:70ff:feda:ae37%bge0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x2
nd6 options=29<PERFORMNUD,IFDISABLED,AUTO_LINKLOCAL>
media: Ethernet autoselect (1000baseT <full-duplex>)
status: activeReplace bge0 to match the
system's Ethernet interface name. The
ether line will contain the
MAC address of the specified interface.
Now, change the MAC address of the
underlying wireless interface:&prompt.root; ifconfig iwn0 ether 00:21:70:da:ae:37Bring the wireless interface up, but do not set an
IP address:&prompt.root; ifconfig wlan0 create wlandev iwn0 ssid my_router upMake sure the bge0 interface
is up, then create the &man.lagg.4; interface with
bge0 as master with failover to
wlan0:&prompt.root; ifconfig bge0 up
&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0 create
&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0 up laggproto failover laggport bge0 laggport wlan0The virtual interface should look something like
this:&prompt.root; ifconfig lagg0
lagg0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> metric 0 mtu 1500
options=8<VLAN_MTU>
ether 00:21:70:da:ae:37
media: Ethernet autoselect
status: active
laggproto failover
laggport: wlan0 flags=0<>
laggport: bge0 flags=5<MASTER,ACTIVE>Then, start the DHCP client to
obtain an IP address:&prompt.root; dhclient lagg0To retain this configuration across reboots, add the
following entries to
/etc/rc.conf:ifconfig_bge0="up"
wlans_iwn0="wlan0"
ifconfig_wlan0="WPA"
create_args_wlan0="wlanaddr 00:21:70:da:ae:37"
cloned_interfaces="lagg0"
ifconfig_lagg0="up laggproto failover laggport bge0 laggport wlan0 DHCP"Diskless Operation with PXEJean-FrançoisDockèsUpdated by AlexDupreReorganized and enhanced by diskless workstationdiskless operationThe &intel; Preboot eXecution Environment
(PXE) allows an operating system to boot over
the network. For example, a &os; system can boot over the
network and operate without a local disk, using file systems
mounted from an NFS server.
PXE support is usually available in the
BIOS. To use PXE when the
machine starts, select the Boot from network
option in the BIOS setup or type a function
key during system initialization.In order to provide the files needed for an operating system
to boot over the network, a PXE setup also
requires properly configured DHCP,
TFTP, and NFS servers,
where:Initial parameters, such as an IP
address, executable boot filename and location, server name,
and root path are obtained from the
DHCP server.The operating system loader file is booted using
TFTP.The file systems are loaded using
NFS.When a computer PXE boots, it receives
information over DHCP about where to obtain
the initial boot loader file. After the host computer receives
this information, it downloads the boot loader via
TFTP and then executes the boot loader. In
&os;, the boot loader file is
/boot/pxeboot. After
/boot/pxeboot executes, the &os; kernel is
loaded and the rest of the &os; bootup sequence proceeds, as
described in .This section describes how to configure these services on a
&os; system so that other systems can PXE
boot into &os;. Refer to &man.diskless.8; for more
information.As described, the system providing these services is
insecure. It should live in a protected area of a network and
be untrusted by other hosts.Setting Up the PXE
EnvironmentCraigRodrigues
rodrigc@FreeBSD.org
Written by The steps shown in this section configure the built-in
NFS and TFTP servers.
The next section demonstrates how to install and configure the
DHCP server. In this example, the
directory which will contain the files used by
PXE users is
/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install. It is
important that this directory exists and that the same
directory name is set in both
/etc/inetd.conf and
/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf.Create the root directory which will contain a &os;
installation to be NFS mounted:&prompt.root; export NFSROOTDIR=/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install
&prompt.root; mkdir -p ${NFSROOTDIR}Enable the NFS server by adding
this line to /etc/rc.conf:nfs_server_enable="YES"Export the diskless root directory via
NFS by adding the following to
/etc/exports:/b -ro -alldirs -maproot=rootStart the NFS server:&prompt.root; service nfsd startEnable &man.inetd.8; by adding the following line to
/etc/rc.conf:inetd_enable="YES"Uncomment the following line in
/etc/inetd.conf by making sure it
does not start with a # symbol:tftp dgram udp wait root /usr/libexec/tftpd tftpd -l -s /b/tftpbootSome PXE versions require the
TCP version of
TFTP. In this case, uncomment the
second tftp line which contains
stream tcp.Start &man.inetd.8;:&prompt.root; service inetd startInstall the base system into
${NFSROOTDIR}, either by
decompressing the official archives or by rebuilding
the &os; kernel and userland (refer to
for more detailed
instructions, but do not forget to add
when running the
make installkernel and
make installworld commands.Test that the TFTP server works and
can download the boot loader which will be obtained via
PXE:&prompt.root; tftp localhost
tftp> get FreeBSD/install/boot/pxeboot
Received 264951 bytes in 0.1 secondsEdit ${NFSROOTDIR}/etc/fstab and
create an entry to mount the root file system over
NFS:# Device Mountpoint FSType Options Dump Pass
myhost.example.com:/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install / nfs ro 0 0Replace myhost.example.com
with the hostname or IP address of the
NFS server. In this example, the root
file system is mounted read-only in order to prevent
NFS clients from potentially deleting
the contents of the root file system.Set the root password in the PXE
environment for client machines which are
PXE booting :&prompt.root; chroot ${NFSROOTDIR}
&prompt.root; passwdIf needed, enable &man.ssh.1; root logins for client
machines which are PXE booting by
editing
${NFSROOTDIR}/etc/ssh/sshd_config and
enabling PermitRootLogin. This option
is documented in &man.sshd.config.5;.Perform any other needed customizations of the
PXE environment in
${NFSROOTDIR}. These customizations
could include things like installing packages or editing
the password file with &man.vipw.8;.When booting from an NFS root volume,
/etc/rc detects the
NFS boot and runs
/etc/rc.initdiskless. In this case,
/etc and /var need
to be memory backed file systems so that these directories are
writable but the NFS root directory is
read-only:&prompt.root; chroot ${NFSROOTDIR}
&prompt.root; mkdir -p conf/base
&prompt.root; tar -c -v -f conf/base/etc.cpio.gz --format cpio --gzip etc
&prompt.root; tar -c -v -f conf/base/var.cpio.gz --format cpio --gzip varWhen the system boots, memory file systems for
/etc and /var will
be created and mounted and the contents of the
cpio.gz files will be copied into
them. By default, these file systems have a maximum capacity
of 5 megabytes. If your archives do not fit, which is
usually the case for /var when binary
packages have been installed, request a larger size by putting
the number of 512 byte sectors needed (e.g., 5 megabytes
is 10240 sectors) in
${NFSROOTDIR}/conf/base/etc/md_size and
${NFSROOTDIR}/conf/base/var/md_size
files for /etc and
/var file systems respectively.Configuring the DHCP ServerDHCPdiskless operationThe DHCP server does not need to be the
same machine as the TFTP and
NFS server, but it needs to be accessible
in the network.DHCP is not part of the &os; base
system but can be installed using the
net/isc-dhcp43-server port or
package.Once installed, edit the configuration file,
/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf. Configure
the next-server,
filename, and
root-path settings as seen in this
example:subnet 192.168.0.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
range 192.168.0.2 192.168.0.3 ;
option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0 ;
option routers 192.168.0.1 ;
option broadcast-address 192.168.0.255 ;
option domain-name-servers 192.168.35.35, 192.168.35.36 ;
option domain-name "example.com";
# IP address of TFTP server
next-server 192.168.0.1 ;
# path of boot loader obtained via tftp
filename "FreeBSD/install/boot/pxeboot" ;
# pxeboot boot loader will try to NFS mount this directory for root FS
option root-path "192.168.0.1:/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install/" ;
}The next-server directive is used to
specify the IP address of the
TFTP server.The filename directive defines the path
to /boot/pxeboot. A relative filename is
used, meaning that /b/tftpboot is not
included in the path.The root-path option defines the path
to the NFS root file system.Once the edits are saved, enable DHCP
at boot time by adding the following line to
/etc/rc.conf:dhcpd_enable="YES"Then start the DHCP service:&prompt.root; service isc-dhcpd startDebugging PXE ProblemsOnce all of the services are configured and started,
PXE clients should be able to
automatically load &os; over the network. If a particular
client is unable to connect, when that client machine boots
up, enter the BIOS configuration menu and
confirm that it is set to boot from the network.This section describes some troubleshooting tips for
isolating the source of the configuration problem should no
clients be able to PXE boot.Use the net/wireshark package or
port to debug the network traffic involved during the
PXE booting process, which is
illustrated in the diagram below.On the
TFTP server, read
/var/log/xferlog to ensure that
pxeboot is being retrieved from
the correct location. To test this example
configuration:&prompt.root; tftp 192.168.0.1
tftp> get FreeBSD/install/boot/pxeboot
Received 264951 bytes in 0.1 secondsThe BUGS sections in &man.tftpd.8;
and &man.tftp.1; document some limitations with
TFTP.Make sure that the root file system can be mounted
via NFS. To test this example
configuration:&prompt.root; mount -t nfs 192.168.0.1:/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install /mntIPv6AaronKaplanOriginally Written by TomRhodesRestructured and Added by BradDavisExtended by IPv6 is the new version of the well known
IP protocol, also known as
IPv4. IPv6 provides
several advantages over IPv4 as well as many
new features:Its 128-bit address space allows for
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
addresses. This addresses the IPv4
address shortage and eventual IPv4
address exhaustion.Routers only store network aggregation addresses in
their routing tables, thus reducing the average space of a
routing table to 8192 entries. This addresses the
scalability issues associated with IPv4,
which required every allocated block of
IPv4 addresses to be exchanged between
Internet routers, causing their routing tables to become too
large to allow efficient routing.Address autoconfiguration (RFC2462).Mandatory multicast addresses.Built-in IPsec (IP
security).Simplified header structure.Support for mobile IP.IPv6-to-IPv4
transition mechanisms.&os; includes the http://www.kame.net/
IPv6 reference implementation and comes
with everything needed to use IPv6. This
section focuses on getting IPv6 configured
and running.Background on IPv6 AddressesThere are three different types of IPv6
addresses:UnicastA packet sent to a unicast address arrives at the
interface belonging to the address.AnycastThese addresses are syntactically indistinguishable
from unicast addresses but they address a group of
interfaces. The packet destined for an anycast address
will arrive at the nearest router interface. Anycast
addresses are only used by routers.MulticastThese addresses identify a group of interfaces. A
packet destined for a multicast address will arrive at
all interfaces belonging to the multicast group. The
IPv4 broadcast address, usually
xxx.xxx.xxx.255, is
expressed by multicast addresses in
IPv6.When reading an IPv6 address, the
canonical form is represented as
x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, where each
x represents a 16 bit hex value. An
example is
FEBC:A574:382B:23C1:AA49:4592:4EFE:9982.Often, an address will have long substrings of all zeros.
A :: (double colon) can be used to replace
one substring per address. Also, up to three leading
0s per hex value can be omitted. For
example, fe80::1 corresponds to the
canonical form
fe80:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001.A third form is to write the last 32 bits using the well
known IPv4 notation. For example,
2002::10.0.0.1 corresponds to the
hexadecimal canonical representation
2002:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0a00:0001,
which in turn is equivalent to
2002::a00:1.To view a &os; system's IPv6 address,
use &man.ifconfig.8;:&prompt.root; ifconfigrl0: flags=8943<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,PROMISC,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
inet 10.0.0.10 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
inet6 fe80::200:21ff:fe03:8e1%rl0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x1
ether 00:00:21:03:08:e1
media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX )
status: activeIn this example, the rl0 interface is
using fe80::200:21ff:fe03:8e1%rl0, an
auto-configured link-local address which was automatically
generated from the MAC address.Some IPv6 addresses are reserved. A
summary of these reserved addresses is seen in :
Reserved IPv6 AddressesIPv6 addressPrefixlength (Bits)DescriptionNotes::128 bitsunspecifiedEquivalent to 0.0.0.0 in
IPv4.::1128 bitsloopback addressEquivalent to 127.0.0.1 in
IPv4.::00:xx:xx:xx:xx96 bitsembedded IPv4The lower 32 bits are the compatible
IPv4 address.::ff:xx:xx:xx:xx96 bitsIPv4 mapped
IPv6 addressThe lower 32 bits are the IPv4
address for hosts which do not support
IPv6.fe80::/1010 bitslink-localEquivalent to 169.254.0.0/16 in
IPv4.fc00::/77 bitsunique-localUnique local addresses are intended for local
communication and are only routable within a set of
cooperating sites.ff00::8 bitsmulticast2000::-3fff:: 3 bitsglobal unicastAll global unicast addresses are assigned from
this pool. The first 3 bits are
001.
For further information on the structure of
IPv6 addresses, refer to RFC3513.Configuring IPv6To configure a &os; system as an IPv6
client, add these two lines to
rc.conf:ifconfig_rl0_ipv6="inet6 accept_rtadv"
rtsold_enable="YES"The first line enables the specified interface to receive
router advertisement messages. The second line enables the
router solicitation daemon, &man.rtsol.8;.If the interface needs a statically assigned
IPv6 address, add an entry to specify the
static address and associated prefix length:ifconfig_rl0_ipv6="inet6 2001:db8:4672:6565:2026:5043:2d42:5344 prefixlen 64"To assign a default router, specify its address:ipv6_defaultrouter="2001:db8:4672:6565::1"Connecting to a ProviderIn order to connect to other IPv6
networks, one must have a provider or a tunnel that supports
IPv6:Contact an Internet Service Provider to see if they
offer IPv6.Hurricane
Electric offers tunnels with end-points all
around the globe.Install the net/freenet6 package or
port for a dial-up connection.This section demonstrates how to take the directions from
a tunnel provider and convert them into
/etc/rc.conf settings that will persist
through reboots.The first /etc/rc.conf entry creates
the generic tunneling interface
gif0:cloned_interfaces="gif0"Next, configure that interface with the
IPv4 addresses of the local and remote
endpoints. Replace MY_IPv4_ADDR
and REMOTE_IPv4_ADDR with the
actual IPv4 addresses:create_args_gif0="tunnel MY_IPv4_ADDR REMOTE_IPv4_ADDR"To apply the IPv6 address that has been
assigned for use as the IPv6 tunnel
endpoint, add this line, replacing
MY_ASSIGNED_IPv6_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR
with the assigned address:ifconfig_gif0_ipv6="inet6 MY_ASSIGNED_IPv6_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR"Then, set the default route for the other side of the
IPv6 tunnel. Replace
MY_IPv6_REMOTE_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR
with the default gateway address assigned by the
provider:ipv6_defaultrouter="MY_IPv6_REMOTE_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR"If the &os; system will route IPv6
packets between the rest of the network and the world, enable
the gateway using this line:ipv6_gateway_enable="YES"Router Advertisement and Host Auto ConfigurationThis section demonstrates how to setup &man.rtadvd.8; to
advertise the IPv6 default route.To enable &man.rtadvd.8;, add the following to
/etc/rc.conf:rtadvd_enable="YES"It is important to specify the interface on which to
do IPv6 router advertisement. For example,
to tell &man.rtadvd.8; to use
rl0:rtadvd_interfaces="rl0"Next, create the configuration file,
/etc/rtadvd.conf as seen in this
example:rl0:\
:addrs#1:addr="2001:db8:1f11:246::":prefixlen#64:tc=ether:Replace rl0 with the interface
to be used and 2001:db8:1f11:246::
with the prefix of the allocation.For a dedicated /64 subnet, nothing else needs
to be changed. Otherwise, change the
prefixlen# to the correct value.IPv6 and IPv6
Address MappingWhen IPv6 is enabled on a server, there
may be a need to enable IPv4 mapped
IPv6 address communication. This
compatibility option allows for IPv4
addresses to be represented as IPv6
addresses. Permitting IPv6 applications
to communicate with IPv4 and vice versa
may be a security issue.This option may not be required in most cases and is
available only for compatibility. This option will allow
IPv6-only applications to work with
IPv4 in a dual stack environment. This
is most useful for third party applications which may not
support an IPv6-only environment. To
enable this feature,
add the following to /etc/rc.conf:ipv6_ipv4mapping="YES"Reviewing the information in RFC 3493,
section 3.6 and 3.7 as well as RFC 4038
section 4.2 may be useful to some administrators.Common Address Redundancy Protocol
(CARP)TomRhodesContributed by AllanJudeUpdated by CARPCommon Address Redundancy ProtocolThe Common Address Redundancy Protocol
(CARP) allows multiple hosts to share the
same IP address and Virtual Host ID
(VHID) in order to provide high
availability for one or more services. This means
that one or more hosts can fail, and the other hosts will
transparently take over so that users do not see a service
failure.In addition to the shared IP address,
each host has its own IP address for
management and configuration. All of the machines that share an
IP address have the same
VHID. The VHID for each
virtual IP address must be unique across the
broadcast domain of the network interface.High availability using CARP is built
into &os;, though the steps to configure it vary slightly
depending upon the &os; version. This section provides the same
example configuration for versions before and equal to or after
&os; 10.This example configures failover support with three hosts,
all with unique IP addresses, but providing
the same web content. It has two different masters named
hosta.example.org and
hostb.example.org, with a shared backup
named hostc.example.org.These machines are load balanced with a Round Robin
DNS configuration. The master and backup
machines are configured identically except for their hostnames
and management IP addresses. These servers
must have the same configuration and run the same services.
When the failover occurs, requests to the service on the shared
IP address can only be answered correctly if
the backup server has access to the same content. The backup
machine has two additional CARP interfaces,
one for each of the master content server's
IP addresses. When a failure occurs, the
backup server will pick up the failed master machine's
IP address.Using CARP on &os; 10 and
LaterEnable boot-time support for CARP by
adding an entry for the carp.ko kernel
module in /boot/loader.conf:carp_load="YES"To load the module now without rebooting:&prompt.root; kldload carpFor users who prefer to use a custom kernel, include the
following line in the custom kernel configuration file and
compile the kernel as described in :device carpThe hostname, management IP address and
subnet mask, shared IP address, and
VHID are all set by adding entries to
/etc/rc.conf. This example is for
hosta.example.org:hostname="hosta.example.org"
ifconfig_em0="inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_em0_alias0="inet vhid 1 pass testpass alias 192.168.1.50/32"The next set of entries are for
hostb.example.org. Since it
represents a second master, it uses a different shared
IP address and VHID.
However, the passwords specified with
must be identical as CARP will only listen
to and accept advertisements from machines with the correct
password.hostname="hostb.example.org"
ifconfig_em0="inet 192.168.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_em0_alias0="inet vhid 2 pass testpass alias 192.168.1.51/32"The third machine,
hostc.example.org, is configured to
handle failover from either master. This machine is
configured with two CARP
VHIDs, one to handle the virtual
IP address for each of the master hosts.
The CARP advertising skew,
, is set to ensure that the backup
host advertises later than the master, since
controls the order of precedence when
there are multiple backup servers.hostname="hostc.example.org"
ifconfig_em0="inet 192.168.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_em0_alias0="inet vhid 1 advskew 100 pass testpass alias 192.168.1.50/32"
ifconfig_em0_alias1="inet vhid 2 advskew 100 pass testpass alias 192.168.1.51/32"Having two CARP
VHIDs configured means that
hostc.example.org will notice if
either of the master servers becomes unavailable. If a master
fails to advertise before the backup server, the backup server
will pick up the shared IP address until
the master becomes available again.If the original master server becomes available again,
hostc.example.org will not release
the virtual IP address back to it
automatically. For this to happen, preemption has to be
enabled. The feature is disabled by default,
it is controlled via the &man.sysctl.8; variable
net.inet.carp.preempt. The administrator
can force the backup server to return the
IP address to the master:&prompt.root; ifconfig em0 vhid 1 state backupOnce the configuration is complete, either restart
networking or reboot each system. High availability is now
enabled.CARP functionality can be controlled
via several &man.sysctl.8; variables documented in the
&man.carp.4; manual pages. Other actions can be triggered
from CARP events by using
&man.devd.8;.Using CARP on &os; 9 and
EarlierThe configuration for these versions of &os; is similar to
the one described in the previous section, except that a
CARP device must first be created and
referred to in the configuration.Enable boot-time support for CARP by
loading the if_carp.ko kernel module in
/boot/loader.conf:if_carp_load="YES"To load the module now without rebooting:&prompt.root; kldload carpFor users who prefer to use a custom kernel, include the
following line in the custom kernel configuration file and
compile the kernel as described in :device carpNext, on each host, create a CARP
device:&prompt.root; ifconfig carp0 createSet the hostname, management IP
address, the shared IP address, and
VHID by adding the required lines to
/etc/rc.conf. Since a virtual
CARP device is used instead of an alias,
the actual subnet mask of /24 is used
instead of /32. Here are the entries for
hosta.example.org:hostname="hosta.example.org"
ifconfig_fxp0="inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.0"
cloned_interfaces="carp0"
ifconfig_carp0="vhid 1 pass testpass192.168.1.50/24"On hostb.example.org:hostname="hostb.example.org"
ifconfig_fxp0="inet 192.168.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.0"
cloned_interfaces="carp0"
ifconfig_carp0="vhid 2 pass testpass192.168.1.51/24"The third machine,
hostc.example.org, is configured to
handle failover from either of the master hosts:hostname="hostc.example.org"
ifconfig_fxp0="inet 192.168.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.0"
cloned_interfaces="carp0 carp1"
ifconfig_carp0="vhid 1 advskew 100 pass testpass192.168.1.50/24"
ifconfig_carp1="vhid 2 advskew 100 pass testpass192.168.1.51/24"Preemption is disabled in the
GENERIC &os; kernel. If
preemption has been enabled with a custom kernel,
hostc.example.org may not release
the IP address back to the original
content server. The administrator can force the backup
server to return the IP address to the
master with the command:&prompt.root; ifconfig carp0 down && ifconfig carp0 upThis should be done on the carp
interface which corresponds to the correct host.Once the configuration is complete, either restart
networking or reboot each system. High availability is now
enabled.VLANsVLANsVirtual LANsVLANs are a way of virtually dividing up
a network into many different subnetworks, also referred
to as segmenting. Each segment will have its
own broadcast domain and be isolated from other
VLANs.On &os;, VLANs must be supported by the
network card driver. To see which drivers support vlans, refer
to the &man.vlan.4; manual page.When configuring a VLAN, a couple pieces
of information must be known. First, which network interface?
Second, what is the VLAN tag?To configure VLANs at run time, with a
NIC of em0 and a
VLAN tag of 5 the
command would look like this:&prompt.root; ifconfig em0.5 create vlan 5 vlandev em0 inet 192.168.20.20/24See how the interface name includes the
NIC driver name and the
VLAN tag, separated by a period? This is a
best practice to make maintaining the VLAN
configuration easy when many VLANs are
present on a machine.To configure VLANs at boot time,
/etc/rc.conf must be updated. To duplicate
the configuration above, the following will need to be
added:vlans_em0="5"
ifconfig_em0_5="inet 192.168.20.20/24"Additional VLANs may be added, by simply
adding the tag to the
vlans_em0
field and adding an additional line configuring the network on
that VLAN tag's interface.It is useful to assign a symbolic name to an interface so
that when the associated hardware is changed, only a few
configuration variables need to be updated. For example,
security cameras need to be run over VLAN 1 on
em0. Later, if the em0
card is replaced with a card that uses the &man.ixgb.4; driver,
all references to em0.1 will not have to
change to ixgb0.1.To configure VLAN
5, on the
NIC em0, assign the
interface name cameras, and assign the
interface an IP address of 192.168.20.20
with a 24-bit prefix,
use this command:&prompt.root; ifconfig em0.5 create vlan 5 vlandev em0 name cameras inet 192.168.20.20/24For an interface named video, use the
following:&prompt.root; ifconfig video.5 create vlan 5 vlandev video name cameras inet 192.168.20.20/24To apply the changes at boot time, add the following lines to
/etc/rc.conf:vlans_video="camera"
create_args_camera="vlan 5"
ifconfig_camera="inet 192.168.20.20/24"
Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.xml
===================================================================
--- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.xml (revision 52743)
+++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.xml (revision 52744)
@@ -1,1633 +1,1680 @@
MultimediaRossLippertEdited by Synopsis&os; supports a wide variety of sound cards, allowing users
to enjoy high fidelity output from a &os; system. This includes
the ability to record and play back audio in the MPEG Audio Layer
3 (MP3), Waveform Audio File
(WAV), Ogg Vorbis, and other formats. The
&os; Ports Collection contains many applications for editing
recorded audio, adding sound effects, and controlling attached
MIDI devices.&os; also supports the playback of video files and
DVDs. The &os; Ports Collection contains
applications to encode, convert, and playback various video
media.This chapter describes how to configure sound cards, video
playback, TV tuner cards, and scanners on &os;. It also
describes some of the applications which are available for
using these devices.After reading this chapter, you will know how to:Configure a sound card on &os;.Troubleshoot the sound setup.Playback and encode MP3s and other audio.Prepare a &os; system for video playback.Play DVDs, .mpg,
and .avi files.Rip CD and DVD
content into files.Configure a TV card.Install and setup MythTV on &os;Configure an image scanner.
+
+
+ Configure a Bluetooth headset.
+ Before reading this chapter, you should:Know how to install applications as described in
.Setting Up the Sound CardMosesMooreContributed by MarcFonvieilleEnhanced by PCIsound cardsBefore beginning the configuration, determine the model of
the sound card and the chip it uses. &os; supports a wide
variety of sound cards. Check the supported audio devices
list of the Hardware
Notes to see if the card is supported and which &os;
driver it uses.kernelconfigurationIn order to use the sound device, its device driver must be
loaded. The easiest way is to load a kernel module for the
sound card with &man.kldload.8;. This example loads the driver
for a built-in audio chipset based on the Intel
specification:&prompt.root; kldload snd_hdaTo automate the loading of this driver at boot time, add the
driver to /boot/loader.conf. The line for
this driver is:snd_hda_load="YES"Other available sound modules are listed in
/boot/defaults/loader.conf. When unsure
which driver to use, load the snd_driver
module:&prompt.root; kldload snd_driverThis is a metadriver which loads all of the most common
sound drivers and can be used to speed up the search for the
correct driver. It is also possible to load all sound drivers
by adding the metadriver to
/boot/loader.conf.To determine which driver was selected for the sound card
after loading the snd_driver metadriver,
type cat /dev/sndstat.Configuring a Custom Kernel with Sound SupportThis section is for users who prefer to statically compile
in support for the sound card in a custom kernel. For more
information about recompiling a kernel, refer to .When using a custom kernel to provide sound support, make
sure that the audio framework driver exists in the custom
kernel configuration file:device soundNext, add support for the sound card. To continue the
example of the built-in audio chipset based on the Intel
specification from the previous section, use the following
line in the custom kernel configuration file:device snd_hdaBe sure to read the manual page of the driver for the
device name to use for the driver.Non-PnP ISA sound cards may require the IRQ and I/O port
settings of the card to be added to
/boot/device.hints. During the boot
process, &man.loader.8; reads this file and passes the
settings to the kernel. For example, an old Creative
&soundblaster; 16 ISA non-PnP card will use the
&man.snd.sbc.4; driver in conjunction with
snd_sb16. For this card, the following
lines must be added to the kernel configuration file:device snd_sbc
device snd_sb16If the card uses the 0x220 I/O port and
IRQ 5, these lines must also be added to
/boot/device.hints:hint.sbc.0.at="isa"
hint.sbc.0.port="0x220"
hint.sbc.0.irq="5"
hint.sbc.0.drq="1"
hint.sbc.0.flags="0x15"The syntax used in /boot/device.hints
is described in &man.sound.4; and the manual page for the
driver of the sound card.The settings shown above are the defaults. In some
cases, the IRQ or other settings may need to be changed to
match the card. Refer to &man.snd.sbc.4; for more information
about this card.Testing SoundAfter loading the required module or rebooting into the
custom kernel, the sound card should be detected. To confirm,
run dmesg | grep pcm. This example is
from a system with a built-in Conexant CX20590 chipset:pcm0: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> at nid 5 on hdaa0
pcm1: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> at nid 6 on hdaa0
pcm2: <Conexant CX20590 (Analog 2.0+HP/2.0)> at nid 31,25 and 35,27 on hdaa1The status of the sound card may also be checked using
this command:&prompt.root; cat /dev/sndstat
FreeBSD Audio Driver (newpcm: 64bit 2009061500/amd64)
Installed devices:
pcm0: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> (play)
pcm1: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> (play)
pcm2: <Conexant CX20590 (Analog 2.0+HP/2.0)> (play/rec) defaultThe output will vary depending upon the sound card. If no
pcm devices are listed, double-check
that the correct device driver was loaded or compiled into the
kernel. The next section lists some common problems and their
solutions.If all goes well, the sound card should now work in &os;.
If the CD or DVD drive
is properly connected to the sound card, one can insert an
audio CD in the drive and play it with
&man.cdcontrol.1;:&prompt.user; cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0 play 1Audio CDs have specialized encodings
which means that they should not be mounted using
&man.mount.8;.Various applications, such as
audio/workman, provide a friendlier
interface. The audio/mpg123 port can be
installed to listen to MP3 audio files.Another quick way to test the card is to send data to
/dev/dsp:&prompt.user; cat filename > /dev/dspwhere
filename can
be any type of file. This command should produce some noise,
confirming that the sound card is working.The /dev/dsp* device nodes will
be created automatically as needed. When not in use, they
do not exist and will not appear in the output of
&man.ls.1;.
+
+
+
+ Setting up Bluetooth Sound Devices
+
+
+ Bluetooth audio
+
+
+ Connecting to a Bluetooth device is out of scope for this
+ chapter. Refer to for more information.
+
+ To get Bluetooth sound sink working with FreeBSD's sound
+ system, users have to install
+ audio/virtual_oss first:
+
+ &prompt.root; pkg install virtual_oss
+
+ audio/virtual_oss requires
+ cuse to be loaded into the kernel:
+
+ &prompt.root; kldload cuse
+
+ To load cuse during system startup, run
+ this command:
+
+ &prompt.root; sysrc -f /boot/loader.conf cuse_load=yes
+
+ To use headphones as a sound sink with
+ audio/virtual_oss, users need to create a
+ virtual device after connecting to a Bluetooth audio
+ device:
+
+ &prompt.root; virtual_oss -C 2 -c 2 -r 48000 -b 16 -s 768 -R /dev/null -P /dev/bluetooth/headphones -d dsp
+
+
+ headphones in this example is
+ a hostname from /etc/bluetooth/hosts.
+ BT_ADDR could be used instead.
+
+
+ Refer to &man.virtual_oss.8; for more information.Troubleshooting Sounddevice nodesI/O portIRQDSP
lists some common error messages and their solutions:
Common Error MessagesErrorSolutionsb_dspwr(XX) timed
outThe I/O port is not set
correctly.bad irq XXThe IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure
that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the
same.xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of
memoryThere is not enough available memory to
use the device.xxx: can't open
/dev/dsp!Type fstat | grep
dsp to check if another application is
holding the device open. Noteworthy troublemakers are
esound and
KDE's sound
support.
Modern graphics cards often come with their own sound
driver for use with HDMI. This sound
device is sometimes enumerated before the sound card meaning
that the sound card will not be used as the default playback
device. To check if this is the case, run
dmesg and look for
pcm. The output looks something like
this:...
hdac0: HDA Driver Revision: 20100226_0142
hdac1: HDA Driver Revision: 20100226_0142
hdac0: HDA Codec #0: NVidia (Unknown)
hdac0: HDA Codec #1: NVidia (Unknown)
hdac0: HDA Codec #2: NVidia (Unknown)
hdac0: HDA Codec #3: NVidia (Unknown)
pcm0: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 0 nid 1 on hdac0
pcm1: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 1 nid 1 on hdac0
pcm2: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac0
pcm3: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 3 nid 1 on hdac0
hdac1: HDA Codec #2: Realtek ALC889
pcm4: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #0 Analog> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
pcm5: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #1 Analog> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
pcm6: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #2 Digital> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
pcm7: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #3 Digital> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
...In this example, the graphics card
(NVidia) has been enumerated before the
sound card (Realtek ALC889). To use the
sound card as the default playback device, change
hw.snd.default_unit to the unit that should
be used for playback:&prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.default_unit=nwhere n is the number of the sound
device to use. In this example, it should be
4. Make this change permanent by adding
the following line to
/etc/sysctl.conf:hw.snd.default_unit=4Utilizing Multiple Sound SourcesMunishChopraContributed by It is often desirable to have multiple sources of sound
that are able to play simultaneously. &os; uses
Virtual Sound Channels to multiplex the sound
card's playback by mixing sound in the kernel.Three &man.sysctl.8; knobs are available for configuring
virtual channels:&prompt.root; sysctl dev.pcm.0.play.vchans=4
&prompt.root; sysctl dev.pcm.0.rec.vchans=4
&prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4This example allocates four virtual channels, which is a
practical number for everyday use. Both
dev.pcm.0.play.vchans=4 and
dev.pcm.0.rec.vchans=4 are configurable
after a device has been attached and represent the number of
virtual channels pcm0 has for playback
and recording. Since the pcm module can
be loaded independently of the hardware drivers,
hw.snd.maxautovchans indicates how many
virtual channels will be given to an audio device when it is
attached. Refer to &man.pcm.4; for more information.The number of virtual channels for a device cannot be
changed while it is in use. First, close any programs using
the device, such as music players or sound daemons.The correct pcm device will
automatically be allocated transparently to a program that
requests /dev/dsp0.Setting Default Values for Mixer ChannelsJosefEl-RayesContributed by The default values for the different mixer channels are
hardcoded in the source code of the &man.pcm.4; driver. While
sound card mixer levels can be changed using &man.mixer.8; or
third-party applications and daemons, this is not a permanent
solution. To instead set default mixer values at the driver
level, define the appropriate values in
/boot/device.hints, as seen in this
example:hint.pcm.0.vol="50"This will set the volume channel to a default value of
50 when the &man.pcm.4; module is
loaded.MP3 AudioChernLeeContributed by This section describes some MP3
players available for &os;, how to rip audio
CD tracks, and how to encode and decode
MP3s.MP3 PlayersA popular graphical MP3 player is
Audacious. It supports
Winamp skins and additional
plugins. The interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic
equalizer, and more. Those familiar with
Winamp will find
Audacious simple to use. On &os;,
Audacious can be installed from the
multimedia/audacious port or package.
Audacious is a descendant of XMMS.The audio/mpg123 package or port
provides an alternative, command-line MP3
player. Once installed, specify the MP3
file to play on the command line. If the system has multiple
audio devices, the sound device can also be specified:&prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3
High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layers 1, 2 and 3
version 1.18.1; written and copyright by Michael Hipp and others
free software (LGPL) without any warranty but with best wishes
Playing MPEG stream from Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 ...
MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereoAdditional MP3 players are available in
the &os; Ports Collection.Ripping CD Audio TracksBefore encoding a CD or
CD track to MP3, the
audio data on the CD must be ripped to the
hard drive. This is done by copying the raw
CD Digital Audio (CDDA)
data to WAV files.The cdda2wav tool, which is installed
with the sysutils/cdrtools suite, can be
used to rip audio information from
CDs.With the audio CD in the drive, the
following command can be issued as
root to rip an
entire CD into individual, per track,
WAV files:&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -BIn this example, the
indicates
the SCSI device 0,1,0
containing the CD to rip. Use
cdrecord -scanbus to determine the correct
device parameters for the system.To rip individual tracks, use to
specify the track:&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7To rip a range of tracks, such as track one to seven,
specify a range:&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7To rip from an ATAPI
(IDE) CDROM drive,
specify the device name in place of the
SCSI unit numbers. For example, to rip
track 7 from an IDE drive:&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D /dev/acd0 -t 7Alternately, dd can be used to extract
audio tracks on ATAPI drives, as described
in .Encoding and Decoding MP3sLame is a popular
MP3 encoder which can be installed from the
audio/lame port. Due to patent issues, a
package is not available.The following command will convert the ripped
WAV file
audio01.wav to
audio01.mp3:&prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 --tt "Foo Song Title" --ta "FooBar Artist" --tl "FooBar Album" \
--ty "2014" --tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" --tg "Genre" audio01.wav audio01.mp3The specified 128 kbits is a standard
MP3 bitrate while the 160 and 192 bitrates
provide higher quality. The higher the bitrate, the larger
the size of the resulting MP3. The
turns on the
higher quality but a little slower
mode. The options beginning with
indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain
song information, to be embedded within the
MP3 file. Additional encoding options can
be found in the lame manual
page.In order to burn an audio CD from
MP3s, they must first be converted to a
non-compressed file format. XMMS
can be used to convert to the WAV format,
while mpg123 can be used to convert
to the raw Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM)
audio data format.To convert audio01.mp3 using
mpg123, specify the name of the
PCM file:&prompt.root; mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcmTo use XMMS to convert a
MP3 to WAV format, use
these steps:Converting to WAV Format in
XMMSLaunch XMMS.Right-click the window to bring up the
XMMS menu.Select Preferences under
Options.Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer
Plugin.Press Configure.Enter or browse to a directory to write the
uncompressed files to.Load the MP3 file into
XMMS as usual, with volume at
100% and EQ settings turned off.Press Play. The
XMMS will appear as if it is
playing the MP3, but no music will be
heard. It is actually playing the MP3
to a file.When finished, be sure to set the default Output
Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to
MP3s again.Both the WAV and PCM
formats can be used with cdrecord.
When using WAV files, there will be a small
tick sound at the beginning of each track. This sound is the
header of the WAV file. The
audio/sox port or package can be used to
remove the header:&prompt.user; sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 track.wav track.rawRefer to for more
information on using a CD burner in
&os;.Video PlaybackRossLippertContributed by Before configuring video playback, determine the model and
chipset of the video card. While
&xorg; supports a wide variety of
video cards, not all provide good playback performance. To
obtain a list of extensions supported by the
&xorg; server using the card, run
xdpyinfo while
&xorg; is running.It is a good idea to have a short MPEG test file for
evaluating various players and options. Since some
DVD applications look for
DVD media in /dev/dvd by
default, or have this device name hardcoded in them, it might be
useful to make a symbolic link to the proper device:&prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/cd0 /dev/dvdDue to the nature of &man.devfs.5;, manually created links
will not persist after a system reboot. In order to recreate
the symbolic link automatically when the system boots, add the
following line to /etc/devfs.conf:link cd0 dvdDVD decryption invokes certain functions
that require write permission to the DVD
device.To enhance the shared memory
&xorg; interface, it is recommended
to increase the values of these &man.sysctl.8;
variables:kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864
kern.ipc.shmall=32768Determining Video CapabilitiesXVideoSDLDGAThere are several possible ways to display video under
&xorg; and what works is largely
hardware dependent. Each method described below will have
varying quality across different hardware.Common video interfaces include:&xorg;: normal output using
shared memory.XVideo: an extension to the
&xorg; interface which
allows video to be directly displayed in drawable objects
through a special acceleration. This extension provides
good quality playback even on low-end machines. The next
section describes how to determine if this extension is
running.SDL: the Simple Directmedia Layer
is a porting layer for many operating systems, allowing
cross-platform applications to be developed which make
efficient use of sound and graphics.
SDL provides a low-level abstraction to
the hardware which can sometimes be more efficient than
the &xorg; interface. On &os;,
SDL can be installed using the
devel/sdl20 package or port.DGA: the Direct Graphics Access is
an &xorg; extension which
allows a program to bypass the
&xorg; server and directly
alter the framebuffer. Because it relies on a low level
memory mapping, programs using it must be run as
root. The
DGA extension can be tested and
benchmarked using &man.dga.1;. When
dga is running, it changes the colors
of the display whenever a key is pressed. To quit, press
q.SVGAlib: a low level console graphics layer.XVideoTo check whether this extension is running, use
xvinfo:&prompt.user; xvinfoXVideo is supported for the card if the result is
similar to:X-Video Extension version 2.2
screen #0
Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine"
number of ports: 1
port base: 43
operations supported: PutImage
supported visuals:
depth 16, visualID 0x22
depth 16, visualID 0x23
number of attributes: 5
"XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 2110)
"XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
"XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
"XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
"XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024
Number of image formats: 7
id: 0x32595559 (YUY2)
guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 16
number of planes: 1
type: YUV (packed)
id: 0x32315659 (YV12)
guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 12
number of planes: 3
type: YUV (planar)
id: 0x30323449 (I420)
guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 12
number of planes: 3
type: YUV (planar)
id: 0x36315652 (RV16)
guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
bits per pixel: 16
number of planes: 1
type: RGB (packed)
depth: 0
red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00
id: 0x35315652 (RV15)
guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
bits per pixel: 16
number of planes: 1
type: RGB (packed)
depth: 0
red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800
id: 0x31313259 (Y211)
guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 6
number of planes: 3
type: YUV (packed)
id: 0x0
guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
bits per pixel: 0
number of planes: 0
type: RGB (packed)
depth: 1
red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0The formats listed, such as YUV2 and YUV12, are not
present with every implementation of XVideo and their
absence may hinder some players.If the result instead looks like:X-Video Extension version 2.2
screen #0
no adaptors presentXVideo is probably not supported for the card. This
means that it will be more difficult for the display to meet
the computational demands of rendering video, depending on
the video card and processor.Ports and Packages Dealing with Videovideo portsvideo packagesThis section introduces some of the software available
from the &os; Ports Collection which can be used for video
playback.MPlayer and
MEncoderMPlayer is a command-line
video player with an optional graphical interface which aims
to provide speed and flexibility. Other graphical
front-ends to MPlayer are
available from the &os; Ports Collection.MPlayerMPlayer can be installed
using the multimedia/mplayer package or
port. Several compile options are available and a variety
of hardware checks occur during the build process. For
these reasons, some users prefer to build the port rather
than install the package.When compiling the port, the menu options should be
reviewed to determine the type of support to compile into
the port. If an option is not selected,
MPlayer will not be able to
display that type of video format. Use the arrow keys and
spacebar to select the required formats. When finished,
press Enter to continue the port compile
and installation.By default, the package or port will build the
mplayer command line utility and the
gmplayer graphical utility. To encode
videos, compile the multimedia/mencoder
port. Due to licensing restrictions, a package is not
available for MEncoder.The first time MPlayer is
run, it will create ~/.mplayer in the
user's home directory. This subdirectory contains default
versions of the user-specific configuration files.This section describes only a few common uses. Refer to
mplayer(1) for a complete description of its numerous
options.To play the file
testfile.avi,
specify the video interfaces with , as
seen in the following examples:&prompt.user; mplayer -vo xv testfile.avi&prompt.user; mplayer -vo sdl testfile.avi&prompt.user; mplayer -vo x11 testfile.avi&prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga testfile.avi&prompt.root; mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' testfile.aviIt is worth trying all of these options, as their
relative performance depends on many factors and will vary
significantly with hardware.To play a DVD, replace
testfile.avi
with , where
N is the title number to play and
DEVICE is the device node for the
DVD. For example, to play title 3 from
/dev/dvd:&prompt.root; mplayer -vo xv dvd://3 -dvd-device /dev/dvdThe default DVD device can be
defined during the build of the
MPlayer port by including the
WITH_DVD_DEVICE=/path/to/desired/device
option. By default, the device is
/dev/cd0. More details can be found
in the port's
Makefile.options.To stop, pause, advance, and so on, use a keybinding.
To see the list of keybindings, run mplayer
-h or read mplayer(1).Additional playback options include , which engages fullscreen mode, and
, which helps performance.Each user can add commonly used options to their
~/.mplayer/config like so:vo=xv
fs=yes
zoom=yesmplayer can be used to rip a
DVD title to a .vob.
To dump the second title from a
DVD:&prompt.root; mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob dvd://2 -dvd-device /dev/dvdThe output file, out.vob, will be
in MPEG format.Anyone wishing to obtain a high level of expertise with
&unix; video should consult mplayerhq.hu/DOCS
as it is technically informative. This documentation should
be considered as required reading before submitting any bug
reports.mencoderBefore using mencoder, it is a good
idea to become familiar with the options described at mplayerhq.hu/DOCS/HTML/en/mencoder.html.
There are innumerable ways to improve quality, lower
bitrate, and change formats, and some of these options may
make the difference between good or bad performance.
Improper combinations of command line options can yield
output files that are unplayable even by
mplayer.Here is an example of a simple copy:&prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac copy -ovc copy -o output.aviTo rip to a file, use with
mplayer.To convert
input.avi to
the MPEG4 codec with MPEG3 audio encoding, first install the
audio/lame port. Due to licensing
restrictions, a package is not available. Once installed,
type:&prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \
-ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o output.aviThis will produce output playable by applications such
as mplayer and
xine.input.avi
can be replaced with and run as root to re-encode a
DVD title directly. Since it may take a
few tries to get the desired result, it is recommended to
instead dump the title to a file and to work on the
file.The xine Video
Playerxine is a video player with a
reusable base library and a modular executable which can be
extended with plugins. It can be installed using the
multimedia/xine package or port.In practice, xine requires
either a fast CPU with a fast video card, or support for the
XVideo extension. The xine video
player performs best on XVideo interfaces.By default, the xine player
starts a graphical user interface. The menus can then be
used to open a specific file.Alternatively, xine may be
invoked from the command line by specifying the name of the
file to play:&prompt.user; xine -g -p mymovie.aviRefer to
xine-project.org/faq for more information and
troubleshooting tips.The Transcode
UtilitiesTranscode provides a suite of
tools for re-encoding video and audio files.
Transcode can be used to merge
video files or repair broken files using command line tools
with stdin/stdout stream interfaces.In &os;, Transcode can be
installed using the multimedia/transcode
package or port. Many users prefer to compile the port as
it provides a menu of compile options for specifying the
support and codecs to compile in. If an option is not
selected, Transcode will not be
able to encode that format. Use the arrow keys and spacebar
to select the required formats. When finished, press
Enter to continue the port compile and
installation.This example demonstrates how to convert a DivX file
into a PAL MPEG-1 file (PAL VCD):&prompt.user; transcode -i input.avi -V --export_prof vcd-pal -o output_vcd
&prompt.user; mplex -f 1 -o output_vcd.mpg output_vcd.m1v output_vcd.mpaThe resulting MPEG file,
output_vcd.mpg,
is ready to be played with
MPlayer. The file can be burned
on a CD media to create a video
CD using a utility such as
multimedia/vcdimager or
sysutils/cdrdao.In addition to the manual page for
transcode, refer to transcoding.org/cgi-bin/transcode
for further information and examples.TV CardsJosefEl-RayesOriginal contribution by MarcFonvieilleEnhanced and adapted by TV cardsTV cards can be used to watch broadcast or cable TV on a
computer. Most cards accept composite video via an
RCA or S-video input and some cards include a
FM radio tuner.&os; provides support for PCI-based TV cards using a
Brooktree Bt848/849/878/879 video capture chip with the
&man.bktr.4; driver. This driver supports most Pinnacle PCTV
video cards. Before purchasing a TV card, consult &man.bktr.4;
for a list of supported tuners.Loading the DriverIn order to use the card, the &man.bktr.4; driver must be
loaded. To automate this at boot time, add the following line
to /boot/loader.conf:bktr_load="YES"Alternatively, one can statically compile support for
the TV card into a custom kernel. In that case, add the
following lines to the custom kernel configuration
file:device bktr
device iicbus
device iicbb
device smbusThese additional devices are necessary as the card
components are interconnected via an I2C bus. Then, build and
install a new kernel.To test that the tuner is correctly detected, reboot the
system. The TV card should appear in the boot messages, as
seen in this example:bktr0: <BrookTree 848A> mem 0xd7000000-0xd7000fff irq 10 at device 10.0 on pci0
iicbb0: <I2C bit-banging driver> on bti2c0
iicbus0: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only
iicbus1: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only
smbus0: <System Management Bus> on bti2c0
bktr0: Pinnacle/Miro TV, Philips SECAM tuner.The messages will differ according to the hardware. If
necessary, it is possible to override some of the detected
parameters using &man.sysctl.8; or custom kernel configuration
options. For example, to force the tuner to a Philips SECAM
tuner, add the following line to a custom kernel configuration
file:options OVERRIDE_TUNER=6or, use &man.sysctl.8;:&prompt.root; sysctl hw.bt848.tuner=6Refer to &man.bktr.4; for a description of the available
&man.sysctl.8; parameters and kernel options.Useful ApplicationsTo use the TV card, install one of the following
applications:multimedia/fxtv
provides TV-in-a-window and image/audio/video capture
capabilities.multimedia/xawtv
is another TV application with similar features.audio/xmradio
provides an application for using the FM radio tuner of a
TV card.More applications are available in the &os; Ports
Collection.TroubleshootingIf any problems are encountered with the TV card, check
that the video capture chip and the tuner are supported by
&man.bktr.4; and that the right configuration options were
used. For more support or to ask questions about supported TV
cards, refer to the &a.multimedia.name; mailing list.MythTVMythTV is a popular, open source Personal Video Recorder
(PVR) application. This section demonstrates
how to install and setup MythTV on &os;. Refer to mythtv.org/wiki
for more information on how to use MythTV.MythTV requires a frontend and a backend. These components
can either be installed on the same system or on different
machines.The frontend can be installed on &os; using the
multimedia/mythtv-frontend package or port.
&xorg; must also be installed and
configured as described in . Ideally, this
system has a video card that supports X-Video Motion
Compensation (XvMC) and, optionally, a Linux
Infrared Remote Control (LIRC)-compatible
remote.To install both the backend and the frontend on &os;, use
the multimedia/mythtv package or port. A
&mysql; database server is also required and should
automatically be installed as a dependency. Optionally, this
system should have a tuner card and sufficient storage to hold
recorded data.HardwareMythTV uses Video for Linux (V4L) to
access video input devices such as encoders and tuners. In
&os;, MythTV works best with USB DVB-S/C/T
cards as they are well supported by the
multimedia/webcamd package or port which
provides a V4L userland application. Any
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) card
supported by webcamd should work
with MythTV. A list of known working cards can be found at
wiki.freebsd.org/WebcamCompat.
Drivers are also available for Hauppauge cards in the
multimedia/pvr250 and
multimedia/pvrxxx ports, but they provide a
non-standard driver interface that does not work with versions
of MythTV greater than 0.23. Due to licensing restrictions,
no packages are available and these two ports must be
compiled.The wiki.freebsd.org/HTPC
page contains a list of all available DVB
drivers.Setting up the MythTV BackendTo install MythTV using binary packages:&prompt.root; pkg install mythtvAlternatively, to install from the Ports Collection:&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mythtv
&prompt.root; make installOnce installed, set up the MythTV database:&prompt.root; mysql -uroot -p < /usr/local/share/mythtv/database/mc.sqlThen, configure the backend:&prompt.root; mythtv-setupFinally, start the backend:&prompt.root; sysrc mythbackend_enable=yes
&prompt.root; service mythbackend startImage ScannersMarcFonvieilleWritten by image scannersIn &os;, access to image scanners is provided by
SANE (Scanner Access Now Easy), which
is available in the &os; Ports Collection.
SANE will also use some &os; device
drivers to provide access to the scanner hardware.&os; supports both SCSI and
USB scanners. Depending upon the scanner
interface, different device drivers are required. Be sure the
scanner is supported by SANE prior
to performing any configuration. Refer to
http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html
for more information about supported scanners.This chapter describes how to determine if the scanner has
been detected by &os;. It then provides an overview of how to
configure and use SANE on a &os;
system.Checking the ScannerThe GENERIC kernel includes the
device drivers needed to support USB
scanners. Users with a custom kernel should ensure that the
following lines are present in the custom kernel configuration
file:device usb
device uhci
device ohci
device ehciTo determine if the USB scanner is
detected, plug it in and use dmesg to
determine whether the scanner appears in the system message
buffer. If it does, it should display a message similar to
this:ugen0.2: <EPSON> at usbus0In this example, an &epson.perfection; 1650
USB scanner was detected on
/dev/ugen0.2.If the scanner uses a SCSI interface,
it is important to know which SCSI
controller board it will use. Depending upon the
SCSI chipset, a custom kernel configuration
file may be needed. The GENERIC kernel
supports the most common SCSI controllers.
Refer to /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES to
determine the correct line to add to a custom kernel
configuration file. In addition to the
SCSI adapter driver, the following lines
are needed in a custom kernel configuration file:device scbus
device passVerify that the device is displayed in the system message
buffer:pass2 at aic0 bus 0 target 2 lun 0
pass2: <AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> Fixed Scanner SCSI-2 device
pass2: 3.300MB/s transfersIf the scanner was not powered-on at system boot, it is
still possible to manually force detection by performing a
SCSI bus scan with
camcontrol:&prompt.root; camcontrol rescan all
Re-scan of bus 0 was successful
Re-scan of bus 1 was successful
Re-scan of bus 2 was successful
Re-scan of bus 3 was successfulThe scanner should now appear in the
SCSI devices list:&prompt.root; camcontrol devlist
<IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 5 lun 0 (pass0,da0)
<IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 6 lun 0 (pass1,da1)
<AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> at scbus1 target 2 lun 0 (pass3)
<PHILIPS CDD3610 CD-R/RW 1.00> at scbus2 target 0 lun 0 (pass2,cd0)Refer to &man.scsi.4; and &man.camcontrol.8; for more
details about SCSI devices on &os;.SANE ConfigurationThe SANE system is split in two
parts: the backends
(graphics/sane-backends) and the frontends
(graphics/sane-frontends or
graphics/xsane). The backends provide
access to the scanner. Refer to http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html
to determine which backend supports the scanner. The
frontends provide the graphical scanning interface.
graphics/sane-frontends installs
xscanimage while
graphics/xsane installs
xsane.To install the two parts from binary packages:&prompt.root; pkg install xsane sane-frontendsAlternatively, to install from the Ports Collection&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/sane-frontends
&prompt.root; make install clean
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/xsane
&prompt.root; make install cleanAfter installing the
graphics/sane-backends port or package, use
sane-find-scanner to check the scanner
detection by the SANE
system:&prompt.root; sane-find-scanner -q
found SCSI scanner "AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10" at /dev/pass3The output should show the interface type of the scanner
and the device node used to attach the scanner to the system.
The vendor and the product model may or may not appear.Some USB scanners require firmware to
be loaded. Refer to sane-find-scanner(1) and sane(7) for
details.Next, check if the scanner will be identified by a
scanning frontend. The SANE
backends include scanimage which can be
used to list the devices and perform an image acquisition.
Use to list the scanner devices. The
first example is for a SCSI scanner and the
second is for a USB scanner:&prompt.root; scanimage -L
device `snapscan:/dev/pass3' is a AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 flatbed scanner
&prompt.root; scanimage -L
device 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scannerIn this second example,
'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is
the backend name (epson2) and
/dev/ugen0.2 is the device node used by the
scanner.If scanimage is unable to identify the
scanner, this message will appear:&prompt.root; scanimage -L
No scanners were identified. If you were expecting something different,
check that the scanner is plugged in, turned on and detected by the
sane-find-scanner tool (if appropriate). Please read the documentation
which came with this software (README, FAQ, manpages).If this happens, edit the backend configuration file in
/usr/local/etc/sane.d/ and define the
scanner device used. For example, if the undetected scanner
model is an &epson.perfection; 1650 and it uses the
epson2 backend, edit
/usr/local/etc/sane.d/epson2.conf. When
editing, add a line specifying the interface and the device
node used. In this case, add the following line:usb /dev/ugen0.2Save the edits and verify that the scanner is identified
with the right backend name and the device node:&prompt.root; scanimage -L
device 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scannerOnce scanimage -L sees the scanner, the
configuration is complete and the scanner is now ready to
use.While scanimage can be used to perform
an image acquisition from the command line, it is often
preferable to use a graphical interface to perform image
scanning. The graphics/sane-frontends
package or port installs a simple but efficient graphical
interface, xscanimage.Alternately, xsane, which is
installed with the graphics/xsane package
or port, is another popular graphical scanning frontend. It
offers advanced features such as various scanning modes, color
correction, and batch scans. Both of these applications are
usable as a GIMP plugin.Scanner PermissionsIn order to have access to the scanner, a user needs read
and write permissions to the device node used by the scanner.
In the previous example, the USB scanner
uses the device node /dev/ugen0.2 which
is really a symlink to the real device node
/dev/usb/0.2.0. The symlink and the
device node are owned, respectively, by the wheel and operator groups. While
adding the user to these groups will allow access to the
scanner, it is considered insecure to add a user to
wheel. A better
solution is to create a group and make the scanner device
accessible to members of this group.This example creates a group called usb:&prompt.root; pw groupadd usbThen, make the /dev/ugen0.2 symlink
and the /dev/usb/0.2.0 device node
accessible to the usb group with write
permissions of 0660 or
0664 by adding the following lines to
/etc/devfs.rules:[system=5]
add path ugen0.2 mode 0660 group usb
add path usb/0.2.0 mode 0666 group usbFinally, add the users to usb
in order to allow access to the scanner:&prompt.root; pw groupmod usb -m joeFor more details refer to &man.pw.8;.
Index: head/share/xml/man-refs.ent
===================================================================
--- head/share/xml/man-refs.ent (revision 52743)
+++ head/share/xml/man-refs.ent (revision 52744)
@@ -1,11295 +1,11297 @@
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ascii2addr3">
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at_quick_exit3">
atan3">
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atanhf3">
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atanl3">
atexit3">
atf-c3">
atf-c-api3">
atf-c..3">
atf-c++-api3">
atf-sh3">
atf-sh-api3">
atof3">
atoi3">
atol3">
atoll3">
atomic_compare_exchange_strong3">
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au_bsm_to_fcntl_cmd3">
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au_socket_type_to_bsm3">
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au_to_arg323">
au_to_arg643">
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au_to_header323">
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au_to_in_addr_ex3">
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au_to_me3">
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au_to_return323">
au_to_return643">
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border_set3">
bottom_panel3">
box3">
box_set3">
bread3">
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bsearch3">
bsm3">
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bsnmpclient3">
bsnmplib3">
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btowc3">
btree3">
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c16rtomb3">
c32rtomb3">
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cacosh3">
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cacosl3">
calendar3">
call_once3">
calloc3">
callrpc3">
cam3">
cam_cdbparse3">
cam_close_device3">
cam_close_spec_device3">
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cam_open_btl3">
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cap_sandboxed3">
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cap_service_open3">
cap_set_flag3">
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cap_sysctl3">
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cap_xfer_nvlist3">
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catan3">
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catgets3">
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cbreak_sp3">
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cbrtl3">
ccos3">
ccosf3">
ccosh3">
ccoshf3">
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ceill3">
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cexpf3">
cfgetispeed3">
cfgetospeed3">
cfmakeraw3">
cfmakesane3">
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cftime3">
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chgat3">
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cimagf3">
cimagl3">
cipher3">
clear3">
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clearerr_unlocked3">
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clog3">
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clrtoeol3">
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csin3">
csinf3">
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ftello3">
ftime3">
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geom_stats_open3">
geom_stats_resync3">
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geom_stats_snapshot_next3">
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getauevent_r3">
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getauevnam_r3">
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getauevnonam_r3">
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getauevnum_r3">
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getauuserent_r3">
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gpib3">
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gpio_pin_opendrain3">
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heapsort3">
heim_ntlm_build_ntlm1_master3">
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hx509_cert_get_issuer_unique_id3">
hx509_cert_get_notAfter3">
hx509_cert_get_notBefore3">
hx509_cert_get_serialnumber3">
hx509_cert_get_subject3">
hx509_cert_get_subject_unique_id3">
hx509_cert_init3">
hx509_cert_init_data3">
hx509_cert_keyusage_print3">
hx509_cert_ref3">
hx509_cert_set_friendly_name3">
hx509_certs_add3">
hx509_certs_append3">
hx509_certs_end_seq3">
hx509_certs_filter3">
hx509_certs_find3">
hx509_certs_free3">
hx509_certs_info3">
hx509_certs_init3">
hx509_certs_iter_f3">
hx509_certs_merge3">
hx509_certs_next_cert3">
hx509_certs_start_seq3">
hx509_certs_store3">
hx509_ci_print_names3">
hx509_clear_error_string3">
hx509_cms3">
hx509_cms_create_signed_13">
hx509_cms_envelope_13">
hx509_cms_unenvelope3">
hx509_cms_unwrap_ContentInfo3">
hx509_cms_verify_signed3">
hx509_cms_wrap_ContentInfo3">
hx509_context_free3">
hx509_context_init3">
hx509_context_set_missing_revoke3">
hx509_crl_add_revoked_certs3">
hx509_crl_alloc3">
hx509_crl_free3">
hx509_crl_lifetime3">
hx509_crl_sign3">
hx509_crypto3">
hx509_env3">
hx509_env_add3">
hx509_env_add_binding3">
hx509_env_find3">
hx509_env_find_binding3">
hx509_env_free3">
hx509_env_lfind3">
hx509_err3">
hx509_error3">
hx509_free_error_string3">
hx509_free_octet_string_list3">
hx509_general_name_unparse3">
hx509_get_error_string3">
hx509_get_one_cert3">
hx509_keyset3">
hx509_lock3">
hx509_misc3">
hx509_name3">
hx509_name_binary3">
hx509_name_cmp3">
hx509_name_copy3">
hx509_name_expand3">
hx509_name_free3">
hx509_name_is_null_p3">
hx509_name_to_Name3">
hx509_name_to_string3">
hx509_ocsp_request3">
hx509_ocsp_verify3">
hx509_oid_print3">
hx509_oid_sprint3">
hx509_parse_name3">
hx509_peer3">
hx509_peer_info_add_cms_alg3">
hx509_peer_info_alloc3">
hx509_peer_info_free3">
hx509_peer_info_set_cert3">
hx509_peer_info_set_cms_algs3">
hx509_print3">
hx509_print_cert3">
hx509_print_stdout3">
hx509_query3">
hx509_query_alloc3">
hx509_query_free3">
hx509_query_match_cmp_func3">
hx509_query_match_eku3">
hx509_query_match_friendly_name3">
hx509_query_match_issuer_serial3">
hx509_query_match_option3">
hx509_query_statistic_file3">
hx509_query_unparse_stats3">
hx509_revoke3">
hx509_revoke_add_crl3">
hx509_revoke_add_ocsp3">
hx509_revoke_free3">
hx509_revoke_init3">
hx509_revoke_ocsp_print3">
hx509_revoke_verify3">
hx509_set_error_string3">
hx509_set_error_stringv3">
hx509_unparse_der_name3">
hx509_validate_cert3">
hx509_validate_ctx_add_flags3">
hx509_validate_ctx_free3">
hx509_validate_ctx_init3">
hx509_validate_ctx_set_print3">
hx509_verify3">
hx509_verify_attach_anchors3">
hx509_verify_attach_revoke3">
hx509_verify_ctx_f_allow_default_trustanchors3">
hx509_verify_destroy_ctx3">
hx509_verify_hostname3">
hx509_verify_init_ctx3">
hx509_verify_path3">
hx509_verify_set_max_depth3">
hx509_verify_set_proxy_certificate3">
hx509_verify_set_strict_rfc3280_verification3">
hx509_verify_set_time3">
hx509_verify_signature3">
hx509_xfree3">
hypot3">
hypotf3">
hypotl3">
i386_clr_watch3">
i386_set_watch3">
ibnd_debug3">
ibnd_destroy_fabric3">
ibnd_discover_fabric3">
ibnd_find_node_dr3">
ibnd_find_node_guid3">
ibnd_iter_nodes3">
ibnd_iter_nodes_type3">
ibnd_show_progress3">
ibv_alloc_mw3">
ibv_alloc_pd3">
ibv_attach_mcast3">
ibv_bind_mw3">
ibv_create_ah3">
ibv_create_ah_from_wc3">
ibv_create_comp_channel3">
ibv_create_cq3">
ibv_create_cq_ex3">
ibv_create_flow3">
ibv_create_qp3">
ibv_create_qp_ex3">
ibv_create_rwq_ind_table3">
ibv_create_srq3">
ibv_create_srq_ex3">
ibv_create_wq3">
ibv_event_type_str3">
ibv_fork_init3">
ibv_get_async_event3">
ibv_get_cq_event3">
ibv_get_device_guid3">
ibv_get_device_list3">
ibv_get_device_name3">
ibv_get_srq_num3">
ibv_inc_rkey3">
ibv_modify_qp3">
ibv_modify_srq3">
ibv_modify_wq3">
ibv_open_device3">
ibv_open_qp3">
ibv_open_xrcd3">
ibv_poll_cq3">
ibv_post_recv3">
ibv_post_send3">
ibv_post_srq_recv3">
ibv_query_device3">
ibv_query_device_ex3">
ibv_query_gid3">
ibv_query_pkey3">
ibv_query_port3">
ibv_query_qp3">
ibv_query_rt_values_ex3">
ibv_query_srq3">
ibv_rate_to_mbps3">
ibv_rate_to_mult3">
ibv_reg_mr3">
ibv_req_notify_cq3">
ibv_rereg_mr3">
ibv_resize_cq3">
iconv3">
iconv_canonicalize3">
iconv_close3">
iconv_open3">
iconv_open_into3">
iconvctl3">
iconvlist3">
idcok3">
idlok3">
ieee3">
ieee_test3">
if_freenameindex3">
if_indextoname3">
if_nameindex3">
if_nametoindex3">
ilogb3">
ilogbf3">
ilogbl3">
imaxabs3">
imaxdiv3">
immedok3">
in_lt3">
in_ltm3">
in_ltms3">
in_lts3">
in_wch3">
in_wchnstr3">
in_wchstr3">
inch3">
inchnstr3">
inchstr3">
index3">
inet3">
inet_addr3">
inet_aton3">
inet_lnaof3">
inet_makeaddr3">
inet_net3">
inet_net_ntop3">
inet_net_pton3">
inet_netof3">
inet_network3">
inet_ntoa3">
inet_ntoa_r3">
inet_ntop3">
inet_pton3">
inet6_opt_append3">
inet6_opt_find3">
inet6_opt_finish3">
inet6_opt_get_val3">
inet6_opt_init3">
inet6_opt_next3">
inet6_opt_set_val3">
inet6_option_alloc3">
inet6_option_append3">
inet6_option_find3">
inet6_option_init3">
inet6_option_next3">
inet6_option_space3">
inet6_rth_add3">
inet6_rth_getaddr3">
inet6_rth_init3">
inet6_rth_reverse3">
inet6_rth_segments3">
inet6_rth_space3">
inet6_rthdr_add3">
inet6_rthdr_getaddr3">
inet6_rthdr_getflags3">
inet6_rthdr_init3">
inet6_rthdr_lasthop3">
inet6_rthdr_reverse3">
inet6_rthdr_segments3">
inet6_rthdr_space3">
init_color3">
init_color_sp3">
init_dialog3">
init_pair3">
init_pair_sp3">
initgroups3">
initscr3">
initstate3">
innetgr3">
innstr3">
innwstr3">
ins_nwstr3">
ins_wch3">
ins_wstr3">
insch3">
insdelln3">
insertln3">
insnstr3">
insque3">
insstr3">
instr3">
intrflush3">
intrflush_sp3">
intro3">
inwstr3">
ipsec_dump_policy3">
ipsec_get_policylen3">
ipsec_set_policy3">
ipsec_strerror3">
ipx3">
ipx_addr3">
ipx_ntoa3">
iruserok3">
iruserok_sa3">
is_cleared3">
is_idcok3">
is_idlok3">
is_immedok3">
is_keypad3">
is_leaveok3">
is_linetouched3">
is_nodelay3">
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is_term_resized_sp3">
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iscntrl3">
isdialuptty3">
isdigit3">
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isfinite3">
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isgreaterequal3">
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ispunct3">
ispunct_l3">
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isspace3">
isspace_l3">
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iswalnum_l3">
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iswalpha_l3">
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iswcntrl_l3">
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iswctype_l3">
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iswdigit_l3">
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iswhexnumber_l3">
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iswlower_l3">
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iswnumber_l3">
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iswphonogram_l3">
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iswprint_l3">
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iswpunct_l3">
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iswrune_l3">
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iswspecial_l3">
iswupper3">
iswupper_l3">
iswxdigit3">
iswxdigit_l3">
isxdigit3">
item_count3">
item_description3">
item_index3">
item_init3">
item_name3">
item_opts3">
item_opts_off3">
item_opts_on3">
item_term3">
item_userptr3">
item_value3">
item_visible3">
j03">
j0f3">
j13">
j1f3">
jail3">
jail_getid3">
jail_getname3">
jail_getv3">
jail_setv3">
jailparam3">
jailparam_all3">
jailparam_export3">
jailparam_free3">
jailparam_get3">
jailparam_import3">
jailparam_import_raw3">
jailparam_init3">
jailparam_set3">
jdate3">
jemalloc3">
jn3">
jnf3">
jrand483">
k_afs_cell_of_file3">
k_hasafs3">
k_pioctl3">
k_setpag3">
k_unlog3">
kadm5_pwcheck3">
kafs3">
kafs_set_verbose3">
kafs_settoken3">
kafs_settoken_rxkad3">
kafs_settoken53">
kafs53">
key_decryptsession3">
key_defined3">
key_defined_sp3">
key_encryptsession3">
key_gendes3">
key_name3">
key_setsecret3">
keybound3">
keybound_sp3">
keycap3">
keyname3">
keyname_sp3">
keyok3">
keyok_sp3">
keypad3">
kgetent3">
kgetflag3">
kgetnum3">
kgetstr3">
kiconv3">
kiconv_add_xlat16_cspair3">
kiconv_add_xlat16_cspairs3">
kiconv_add_xlat16_table3">
killchar3">
killchar_sp3">
killwchar3">
kinfo_getallproc3">
kinfo_getfile3">
kinfo_getproc3">
kinfo_getvmmap3">
kinfo_getvmobject3">
kld3">
kld_isloaded3">
kld_load3">
krb_afslog3">
krb_afslog_uid3">
krb53">
krb5_425_conv_principal3">
krb5_425_conv_principal_ext3">
krb5_524_conv_principal3">
krb5_acc_ops3">
krb5_acl_match_file3">
krb5_acl_match_string3">
krb5_add_et_list3">
krb5_add_extra_addresses3">
krb5_add_ignore_addresses3">
krb5_addlog_dest3">
krb5_addlog_func3">
krb5_addr2sockaddr3">
krb5_address3">
krb5_address_compare3">
krb5_address_order3">
krb5_address_prefixlen_boundary3">
krb5_address_search3">
krb5_afslog3">
krb5_afslog_uid3">
krb5_allow_weak_crypto3">
krb5_aname_to_localname3">
krb5_anyaddr3">
krb5_appdefault3">
krb5_appdefault_boolean3">
krb5_appdefault_string3">
krb5_appdefault_time3">
krb5_append_addresses3">
krb5_auth3">
krb5_auth_con_free3">
krb5_auth_con_genaddrs3">
krb5_auth_con_getaddrs3">
krb5_auth_con_getflags3">
krb5_auth_con_getkey3">
krb5_auth_con_getlocalsubkey3">
krb5_auth_con_getrcache3">
krb5_auth_con_getremotesubkey3">
krb5_auth_con_getuserkey3">
krb5_auth_con_init3">
krb5_auth_con_initivector3">
krb5_auth_con_setaddrs3">
krb5_auth_con_setaddrs_from_fd3">
krb5_auth_con_setflags3">
krb5_auth_con_setivector3">
krb5_auth_con_setkey3">
krb5_auth_con_setlocalsubkey3">
krb5_auth_con_setrcache3">
krb5_auth_con_setremotesubkey3">
krb5_auth_con_setuserkey3">
krb5_auth_context3">
krb5_auth_getauthenticator3">
krb5_auth_getcksumtype3">
krb5_auth_getkeytype3">
krb5_auth_getlocalseqnumber3">
krb5_auth_getremoteseqnumber3">
krb5_auth_setcksumtype3">
krb5_auth_setkeytype3">
krb5_auth_setlocalseqnumber3">
krb5_auth_setremoteseqnumber3">
krb5_build_principal3">
krb5_build_principal_ext3">
krb5_build_principal_va3">
krb5_build_principal_va_ext3">
krb5_c_enctype_compare3">
krb5_c_make_checksum3">
krb5_cc_cache_end_seq_get3">
krb5_cc_cache_get_first3">
krb5_cc_cache_match3">
krb5_cc_cache_next3">
krb5_cc_clear_mcred3">
krb5_cc_close3">
krb5_cc_copy_cache3">
krb5_cc_copy_creds3">
krb5_cc_copy_match_f3">
krb5_cc_default3">
krb5_cc_default_name3">
krb5_cc_destroy3">
krb5_cc_end_seq_get3">
krb5_cc_gen_new3">
krb5_cc_get_config3">
krb5_cc_get_flags3">
krb5_cc_get_friendly_name3">
krb5_cc_get_full_name3">
krb5_cc_get_kdc_offset3">
krb5_cc_get_lifetime3">
krb5_cc_get_name3">
krb5_cc_get_ops3">
krb5_cc_get_prefix_ops3">
krb5_cc_get_principal3">
krb5_cc_get_type3">
krb5_cc_get_version3">
krb5_cc_initialize3">
krb5_cc_last_change_time3">
krb5_cc_move3">
krb5_cc_new_unique3">
krb5_cc_next_cred3">
krb5_cc_register3">
krb5_cc_remove_cred3">
krb5_cc_resolve3">
krb5_cc_retrieve_cred3">
krb5_cc_set_config3">
krb5_cc_set_default_name3">
krb5_cc_set_flags3">
krb5_cc_set_friendly_name3">
krb5_cc_set_kdc_offset3">
krb5_cc_start_seq_get3">
krb5_cc_store_cred3">
krb5_cc_support_switch3">
krb5_cc_switch3">
krb5_ccache3">
krb5_ccache_intro3">
krb5_cccol_cursor_free3">
krb5_cccol_cursor_new3">
krb5_cccol_cursor_next3">
krb5_cccol_last_change_time3">
krb5_change_password3">
krb5_check_transited3">
krb5_checksum_is_collision_proof3">
krb5_checksum_is_keyed3">
krb5_checksumsize3">
krb5_cksumtype_to_enctype3">
krb5_clear_error_message3">
krb5_clear_error_string3">
krb5_closelog3">
krb5_compare_creds3">
krb5_config3">
krb5_config_file_free3">
krb5_config_free_strings3">
krb5_config_get_bool3">
krb5_config_get_bool_default3">
krb5_config_get_list3">
krb5_config_get_string3">
krb5_config_get_string_default3">
krb5_config_get_strings3">
krb5_config_get_time3">
krb5_config_get_time_default3">
krb5_config_parse_file_multi3">
krb5_config_parse_string_multi3">
krb5_config_vget_bool3">
krb5_config_vget_bool_default3">
krb5_config_vget_list3">
krb5_config_vget_string3">
krb5_config_vget_string_default3">
krb5_config_vget_strings3">
krb5_config_vget_time3">
krb5_config_vget_time_default3">
krb5_context3">
krb5_copy_address3">
krb5_copy_addresses3">
krb5_copy_context3">
krb5_copy_creds3">
krb5_copy_creds_contents3">
krb5_copy_data3">
krb5_copy_host_realm3">
krb5_copy_keyblock3">
krb5_copy_keyblock_contents3">
krb5_copy_principal3">
krb5_copy_ticket3">
krb5_create_checksum3">
krb5_create_checksum_iov3">
krb5_credential3">
krb5_creds3">
krb5_creds_get_ticket_flags3">
krb5_crypto3">
krb5_crypto_destroy3">
krb5_crypto_fx_cf23">
krb5_crypto_getblocksize3">
krb5_crypto_getconfoundersize3">
krb5_crypto_getenctype3">
krb5_crypto_getpadsize3">
krb5_crypto_init3">
krb5_crypto_iov3">
krb5_data3">
krb5_data_alloc3">
krb5_data_cmp3">
krb5_data_copy3">
krb5_data_ct_cmp3">
krb5_data_free3">
krb5_data_realloc3">
krb5_data_zero3">
krb5_decrypt3">
krb5_decrypt_EncryptedData3">
krb5_decrypt_iov_ivec3">
krb5_deprecated3">
krb5_digest3">
krb5_digest_probe3">
krb5_eai_to_heim_errno3">
krb5_encrypt3">
krb5_encrypt_EncryptedData3">
krb5_encrypt_iov_ivec3">
krb5_enctype_disable3">
krb5_enctype_enable3">
krb5_enctype_valid3">
krb5_enctypes_compatible_keys3">
krb5_error3">
krb5_expand_hostname3">
krb5_expand_hostname_realms3">
krb5_fcc_ops3">
krb5_fileformats3">
krb5_find_padata3">
krb5_free_address3">
krb5_free_addresses3">
krb5_free_config_files3">
krb5_free_context3">
krb5_free_cred_contents3">
krb5_free_creds3">
krb5_free_creds_contents3">
krb5_free_data3">
krb5_free_data_contents3">
krb5_free_error_string3">
krb5_free_host_realm3">
krb5_free_keyblock3">
krb5_free_keyblock_contents3">
krb5_free_krbhst3">
krb5_free_principal3">
krb5_free_ticket3">
krb5_free_unparsed_name3">
krb5_fwd_tgt_creds3">
krb5_generate_random_block3">
krb5_generate_subkey3">
krb5_generate_subkey_extended3">
krb5_get_all_client_addrs3">
krb5_get_all_server_addrs3">
krb5_get_cred_from_kdc3">
krb5_get_cred_from_kdc_opt3">
krb5_get_credentials3">
krb5_get_creds3">
krb5_get_default_config_files3">
krb5_get_default_in_tkt_etypes3">
krb5_get_default_principal3">
krb5_get_default_realm3">
krb5_get_default_realms3">
krb5_get_dns_canonicalize_hostname3">
krb5_get_extra_addresses3">
krb5_get_fcache_version3">
krb5_get_forwarded_creds3">
krb5_get_host_realm3">
krb5_get_ignore_addresses3">
krb5_get_in_cred3">
krb5_get_in_tkt_with_keytab3">
krb5_get_in_tkt_with_password3">
krb5_get_in_tkt_with_skey3">
krb5_get_init_creds3">
krb5_get_init_creds_keyblock3">
krb5_get_init_creds_keytab3">
krb5_get_init_creds_opt_alloc3">
krb5_get_init_creds_opt_free3">
krb5_get_init_creds_opt_get_error3">
krb5_get_init_creds_opt_init3">
krb5_get_init_creds_password3">
krb5_get_kdc_sec_offset3">
krb5_get_krb_admin_hst3">
krb5_get_krb_changepw_hst3">
krb5_get_krb524hst3">
krb5_get_krbhst3">
krb5_get_max_time_skew3">
krb5_get_use_admin_kdc3">
krb5_get_validated_creds3">
krb5_getportbyname3">
krb5_h_addr2addr3">
krb5_h_addr2sockaddr3">
krb5_h_errno_to_heim_errno3">
krb5_init_context3">
krb5_init_creds_free3">
krb5_init_creds_get3">
krb5_init_creds_get_error3">
krb5_init_creds_init3">
krb5_init_creds_intro3">
krb5_init_creds_set_keytab3">
krb5_init_creds_set_password3">
krb5_init_creds_set_service3">
krb5_init_creds_step3">
krb5_init_ets3">
krb5_initlog3">
krb5_introduction3">
krb5_is_config_principal3">
krb5_is_thread_safe3">
krb5_kerberos_enctypes3">
krb5_keyblock3">
krb5_keyblock_get_enctype3">
krb5_keyblock_init3">
krb5_keyblock_zero3">
krb5_keytab3">
krb5_keytab_intro3">
krb5_keytab_key_proc3">
krb5_keytype_to_enctypes3">
krb5_keytype_to_enctypes_default3">
krb5_keytype_to_string3">
krb5_krbhst_format_string3">
krb5_krbhst_free3">
krb5_krbhst_get_addrinfo3">
krb5_krbhst_init3">
krb5_krbhst_next3">
krb5_krbhst_next_as_string3">
krb5_krbhst_reset3">
krb5_kt_add_entry3">
krb5_kt_close3">
krb5_kt_compare3">
krb5_kt_copy_entry_contents3">
krb5_kt_default3">
krb5_kt_default_modify_name3">
krb5_kt_default_name3">
krb5_kt_destroy3">
krb5_kt_end_seq_get3">
krb5_kt_free_entry3">
krb5_kt_get_entry3">
krb5_kt_get_full_name3">
krb5_kt_get_name3">
krb5_kt_get_type3">
krb5_kt_have_content3">
krb5_kt_next_entry3">
krb5_kt_read_service_key3">
krb5_kt_register3">
krb5_kt_remove_entry3">
krb5_kt_resolve3">
krb5_kt_start_seq_get3">
krb5_kuserok3">
krb5_log3">
krb5_log_msg3">
krb5_make_addrport3">
krb5_make_principal3">
krb5_max_sockaddr_size3">
krb5_mcc_ops3">
krb5_mk_req3">
krb5_mk_safe3">
krb5_openlog3">
krb5_pac3">
krb5_pac_get_buffer3">
krb5_pac_verify3">
krb5_parse_address3">
krb5_parse_name3">
krb5_parse_name_flags3">
krb5_parse_nametype3">
krb5_password_key_proc3">
krb5_plugin_register3">
krb5_prepend_config_files_default3">
krb5_princ_realm3">
krb5_princ_set_realm3">
krb5_principal3">
krb5_principal_compare3">
krb5_principal_compare_any_realm3">
krb5_principal_get_comp_string3">
krb5_principal_get_num_comp3">
krb5_principal_get_realm3">
krb5_principal_get_type3">
krb5_principal_intro3">
krb5_principal_is_krbtgt3">
krb5_principal_match3">
krb5_principal_set_realm3">
krb5_principal_set_type3">
krb5_print_address3">
krb5_random_to_key3">
krb5_rcache3">
krb5_rd_error3">
krb5_rd_req_ctx3">
krb5_rd_req_in_ctx_alloc3">
krb5_rd_req_in_set_keytab3">
krb5_rd_req_in_set_pac_check3">
krb5_rd_req_out_ctx_free3">
krb5_rd_req_out_get_server3">
krb5_rd_safe3">
krb5_realm_compare3">
krb5_ret_address3">
krb5_ret_addrs3">
krb5_ret_authdata3">
krb5_ret_creds3">
krb5_ret_creds_tag3">
krb5_ret_data3">
krb5_ret_int163">
krb5_ret_int323">
krb5_ret_int83">
krb5_ret_keyblock3">
krb5_ret_principal3">
krb5_ret_string3">
krb5_ret_stringz3">
krb5_ret_times3">
krb5_ret_uint163">
krb5_ret_uint323">
krb5_ret_uint83">
krb5_set_config_files3">
krb5_set_default_in_tkt_etypes3">
krb5_set_default_realm3">
krb5_set_dns_canonicalize_hostname3">
krb5_set_error_message3">
krb5_set_error_string3">
krb5_set_extra_addresses3">
krb5_set_fcache_version3">
krb5_set_home_dir_access3">
krb5_set_ignore_addresses3">
krb5_set_kdc_sec_offset3">
krb5_set_max_time_skew3">
krb5_set_password3">
krb5_set_real_time3">
krb5_set_use_admin_kdc3">
krb5_sname_to_principal3">
krb5_sock_to_principal3">
krb5_sockaddr_uninteresting3">
krb5_sockaddr2address3">
krb5_sockaddr2port3">
krb5_storage3">
krb5_storage_clear_flags3">
krb5_storage_emem3">
krb5_storage_free3">
krb5_storage_from_data3">
krb5_storage_from_fd3">
krb5_storage_from_mem3">
krb5_storage_from_readonly_mem3">
krb5_storage_get_byteorder3">
krb5_storage_get_eof_code3">
krb5_storage_is_flags3">
krb5_storage_read3">
krb5_storage_seek3">
krb5_storage_set_byteorder3">
krb5_storage_set_eof_code3">
krb5_storage_set_flags3">
krb5_storage_set_max_alloc3">
krb5_storage_to_data3">
krb5_storage_truncate3">
krb5_storage_write3">
krb5_store_address3">
krb5_store_addrs3">
krb5_store_authdata3">
krb5_store_creds3">
krb5_store_creds_tag3">
krb5_store_data3">
krb5_store_int163">
krb5_store_int323">
krb5_store_int83">
krb5_store_keyblock3">
krb5_store_principal3">
krb5_store_string3">
krb5_store_stringz3">
krb5_store_times3">
krb5_store_uint163">
krb5_store_uint323">
krb5_store_uint83">
krb5_string_to_key3">
krb5_string_to_keytype3">
krb5_support3">
krb5_ticket3">
krb5_ticket_get_authorization_data_type3">
krb5_ticket_get_client3">
krb5_ticket_get_endtime3">
krb5_ticket_get_flags3">
krb5_ticket_get_server3">
krb5_timeofday3">
krb5_unparse_name3">
krb5_unparse_name_fixed3">
krb5_unparse_name_fixed_flags3">
krb5_unparse_name_fixed_short3">
krb5_unparse_name_flags3">
krb5_unparse_name_short3">
krb5_us_timeofday3">
krb5_v4compat3">
krb5_verify_checksum3">
krb5_verify_checksum_iov3">
krb5_verify_init_creds3">
krb5_verify_opt_init3">
krb5_verify_opt_set_flags3">
krb5_verify_opt_set_keytab3">
krb5_verify_opt_set_secure3">
krb5_verify_opt_set_service3">
krb5_verify_user3">
krb5_verify_user_lrealm3">
krb5_verify_user_opt3">
krb5_vlog3">
krb5_vlog_msg3">
krb5_vset_error_string3">
krb5_vwarn3">
krb524_convert_creds_kdc3">
krb524_convert_creds_kdc_ccache3">
kvm3">
kvm_close3">
kvm_counter_u64_fetch3">
kvm_dpcpu_setcpu3">
kvm_getargv3">
kvm_getcptime3">
kvm_getenvv3">
kvm_geterr3">
kvm_getfiles3">
kvm_getloadavg3">
kvm_getmaxcpu3">
kvm_getpcpu3">
kvm_getprocs3">
kvm_getswapinfo3">
kvm_native3">
kvm_nlist3">
kvm_nlist23">
kvm_open3">
kvm_open23">
kvm_openfiles3">
kvm_read3">
kvm_read_zpcpu3">
kvm_read23">
kvm_write3">
l64a3">
l64a_r3">
labs3">
lcong483">
ldexp3">
ldexpf3">
ldexpl3">
ldiv3">
leaveok3">
legacy_coding3">
lfind3">
lgamma3">
lgammaf3">
lgammal3">
lib802113">
libalias3">
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libradius3">
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libusb_close3">
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libusb_detach_kernel_driver_np3">
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libusb_free_streams3">
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libusb_get_active_config_descriptor3">
libusb_get_bus_number3">
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libusb_get_config_descriptor_by_value3">
libusb_get_configuration3">
libusb_get_container_id_descriptor3">
libusb_get_device3">
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libusb_get_device_descriptor3">
libusb_get_device_list3">
libusb_get_device_speed3">
libusb_get_driver3">
libusb_get_driver_np3">
libusb_get_max_iso_packet_size3">
libusb_get_max_packet_size3">
libusb_get_next_timeout3">
libusb_get_pollfds3">
libusb_get_port_number3">
libusb_get_ss_endpoint_companion_descriptor3">
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libusb_get_string_descriptor_ascii3">
libusb_get_usb_2_0_extension_descriptor3">
libusb_get_version3">
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libusb_handle_events_completed3">
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libusb_handle_events_timeout3">
libusb_handle_events_timeout_completed3">
libusb_hotplug_deregister_callback3">
libusb_hotplug_register_callback3">
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libusb_set_debug3">
libusb_set_interface_alt_setting3">
libusb_set_pollfd_notifiers3">
libusb_strerror3">
libusb_submit_transfer3">
libusb_transfer_get_stream_id3">
libusb_transfer_set_stream_id3">
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libusb_unlock_events3">
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libusb_wait_for_event3">
libusb203">
libusb20_be_add_dev_quirk3">
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libusb20_be_device_foreach3">
libusb20_be_enqueue_device3">
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libusb20_be_get_quirk_name3">
libusb20_be_get_template3">
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libusb20_be_set_template3">
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libusb20_dev_alloc3">
libusb20_dev_alloc_config3">
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libusb20_dev_free3">
libusb20_dev_get_address3">
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libusb20_dev_get_debug3">
libusb20_dev_get_desc3">
libusb20_dev_get_device_desc3">
libusb20_dev_get_fd3">
libusb20_dev_get_iface_desc3">
libusb20_dev_get_info3">
libusb20_dev_get_mode3">
libusb20_dev_get_parent_address3">
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libusb20_dev_get_port_path3">
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libusb20_me_encode3">
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libusb20_tr_bulk_intr_sync3">
libusb20_tr_callback_wrapper3">
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libusb20_tr_get_max_total_length3">
libusb20_tr_get_pointer3">
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libusb20_tr_get_priv_sc13">
libusb20_tr_get_status3">
libusb20_tr_get_time_complete3">
libusb20_tr_open3">
libusb20_tr_pending3">
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libusb20_tr_set_callback3">
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libusb20_tr_set_priv_sc03">
libusb20_tr_set_priv_sc13">
libusb20_tr_set_timeout3">
libusb20_tr_set_total_frames3">
libusb20_tr_setup_bulk3">
libusb20_tr_setup_control3">
libusb20_tr_setup_intr3">
libusb20_tr_setup_isoc3">
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libusb20_tr_stop3">
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libusbhid3">
libxo3">
line_edit3">
link_addr3">
link_field3">
link_fieldtype3">
link_ntoa3">
linkaddr3">
llabs3">
lldiv3">
llrint3">
llrintf3">
llrintl3">
llround3">
llroundf3">
llroundl3">
localeconv3">
localeconv_l3">
localtime3">
localtime_r3">
lockf3">
log3">
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log_category_is_active3">
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log_free_channel3">
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log2l3">
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logbl3">
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logging3">
login3">
login_auth3">
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login_getcaptime3">
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login_times3">
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logl3">
logout3">
logwtmp3">
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longname3">
lrand483">
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lroundl3">
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lwres_resutil3">
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mac_from_text3">
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mac_is_present_np3">
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malloc_stats_print3">
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mallocx3">
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memstat_kvm_all3">
memstat_kvm_malloc3">
memstat_kvm_uma3">
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memstat_mtl_geterror3">
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memstat_sysctl_malloc3">
memstat_sysctl_uma3">
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nc_sperror3">
ncurses3">
ndaysg3">
ndaysj3">
nearbyint3">
nearbyintf3">
nearbyintl3">
netgraph3">
netname2host3">
netname2user3">
network3">
new_field3">
new_fieldtype3">
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new_form_sp3">
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new_menu_sp3">
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nexttoward3">
nexttowardf3">
nexttowardl3">
nextwctype3">
nextwctype_l3">
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nl_langinfo_l3">
nl_sp3">
nlist3">
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nocbreak_sp3">
nodelay3">
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noecho_sp3">
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nonl3">
nonl_sp3">
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noraw_sp3">
notimeout3">
nrand483">
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ns_get323">
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ns_put323">
nsdispatch3">
ntlm_buf3">
ntlm_core3">
ntlm_type13">
ntlm_type23">
ntlm_type33">
ntoa3">
ntohl3">
ntohs3">
nv3">
nvis3">
offsetof3">
open_memstream3">
open_wmemstream3">
opendir3">
openlog3">
openpam3">
openpam_borrow_cred3">
openpam_free_data3">
openpam_free_envlist3">
openpam_get_feature3">
openpam_get_option3">
openpam_log3">
openpam_nullconv3">
openpam_readline3">
openpam_readlinev3">
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openpam_straddch3">
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openpam_ttyconv3">
openpty3">
overlay3">
overwrite3">
pair_content3">
pair_content_sp3">
pam3">
pam_acct_mgmt3">
pam_authenticate3">
pam_chauthtok3">
pam_close_session3">
pam_conv3">
pam_end3">
pam_error3">
pam_fail_delay3">
pam_get_authtok3">
pam_get_data3">
pam_get_item3">
pam_get_user3">
pam_getenv3">
pam_getenvlist3">
pam_info3">
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pam_prompt3">
pam_putenv3">
pam_set_data3">
pam_set_item3">
pam_setcred3">
pam_setenv3">
pam_sm_acct_mgmt3">
pam_sm_authenticate3">
pam_sm_chauthtok3">
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pam_sm_open_session3">
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pam_strerror3">
pam_verror3">
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pcap_file3">
pcap_fileno3">
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pcap_freealldevs3">
pcap_freecode3">
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pcap_inject3">
pcap_is_swapped3">
pcap_lib_version3">
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pcap_list_tstamp_types3">
pcap_lookupdev3">
pcap_lookupnet3">
pcap_loop3">
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pcap_minor_version3">
pcap_next3">
pcap_next_ex3">
pcap_offline_filter3">
pcap_open_dead3">
pcap_open_live3">
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pcap_set_buffer_size3">
pcap_set_datalink3">
pcap_set_immediate_mode3">
pcap_set_promisc3">
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pcap_set_rfmon3">
pcap_set_snaplen3">
pcap_set_timeout3">
pcap_set_tstamp_precision3">
pcap_set_tstamp_type3">
pcap_setdirection3">
pcap_setfilter3">
pcap_setnonblock3">
pcap_snapshot3">
pcap_stats3">
pcap_statustostr3">
pcap_strerror3">
pcap_tstamp_type_name_to_val3">
pcap_tstamp_type_val_to_name3">
pclose3">
pecho_wchar3">
pechochar3">
perror3">
pidfile3">
pidfile_close3">
pidfile_fileno3">
pidfile_open3">
pidfile_remove3">
pidfile_write3">
pmap_getmaps3">
pmap_getport3">
pmap_rmtcall3">
pmap_set3">
pmap_unset3">
pmc3">
pmc_allocate3">
pmc_atom3">
pmc.atom3">
pmc_atomsilvermont3">
pmc.atomsilvermont3">
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pmc_capabilities3">
pmc_configure_logfile3">
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pmc.core3">
pmc_core23">
pmc.core23">
pmc_corei73">
pmc.corei73">
pmc_corei7uc3">
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pmc_detach3">
pmc_disable3">
pmc_enable3">
pmc_event_names_of_class3">
pmc_flush_logfile3">
pmc_get_driver_stats3">
pmc_get_msr3">
pmc_haswell3">
pmc.haswell3">
pmc_haswelluc3">
pmc.haswelluc3">
pmc_haswellxeon3">
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pmc_iaf3">
pmc.iaf3">
pmc_init3">
pmc_ivybridge3">
pmc.ivybridge3">
pmc_ivybridgexeon3">
pmc.ivybridgexeon3">
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pmc.k83">
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pmc_name_of_class3">
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pmc_name_of_mode3">
pmc_name_of_state3">
pmc_ncpu3">
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pmc_p43">
pmc.p43">
pmc_p53">
pmc.p53">
pmc_p63">
pmc.p63">
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pmc_read3">
pmc_release3">
pmc_rw3">
pmc_sandybridge3">
pmc.sandybridge3">
pmc_sandybridgeuc3">
pmc.sandybridgeuc3">
pmc_sandybridgexeon3">
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pmc_soft3">
pmc.soft3">
pmc_start3">
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pmc_tsc3">
pmc.tsc3">
pmc_ucf3">
pmc.ucf3">
pmc_westmere3">
pmc.westmere3">
pmc_westmereuc3">
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pmc_write3">
pmc_writelog3">
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pmc.xscale3">
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pmclog_feed3">
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pnoutrefresh3">
poll_dispatch3">
poll_register3">
poll_start_timer3">
poll_stop_timer3">
poll_unregister3">
popen3">
pos_form_cursor3">
pos_menu_cursor3">
posix_memalign3">
posix_spawn3">
posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose3">
posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup23">
posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen3">
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posix_spawn_file_actions_init3">
posix_spawnattr_destroy3">
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posix_spawnattr_getpgroup3">
posix_spawnattr_getschedparam3">
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posix_spawnattr_getsigdefault3">
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posix_spawnattr_init3">
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posix_spawnattr_setsigdefault3">
posix_spawnattr_setsigmask3">
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posix1e3">
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post_form3">
post_menu3">
pow3">
powf3">
powl3">
prefresh3">
printf3">
printf_l3">
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procstat_close3">
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procstat_getargv3">
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property3">
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pselect3">
psignal3">
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pthread_rwlock_trywrlock3">
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ptsname3">
pty3">
publickey3">
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putc_unlocked3">
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putchar_unlocked3">
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putp_sp3">
puts3">
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putw3">
putwc3">
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pw_copy3">
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pw_edit3">
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pw_fini3">
pw_init3">
pw_lock3">
pw_make3">
pw_make_v73">
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pwcache3">
qiflush3">
qiflush_sp3">
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qsort_r3">
querylocale3">
queue3">
quick_exit3">
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quota_open3">
quota_qfname3">
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quota_statfs3">
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quotafile3">
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rad_auth_open3">
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rad_config3">
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rad_cvt_addr3">
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rad_cvt_string3">
rad_demangle3">
rad_demangle_mppe_key3">
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rad_get_vendor_attr3">
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rallocx3">
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rand483">
random3">
raw3">
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rdma_get_peer_addr3">
rdma_get_recv_comp3">
rdma_get_request3">
rdma_get_send_comp3">
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rdma_post_recv3">
rdma_post_recvv3">
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rdma_post_sendv3">
rdma_post_ud_send3">
rdma_post_write3">
rdma_post_writev3">
rdma_reg_msgs3">
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rdma_resolve_addr3">
rdma_resolve_route3">
rdma_set_option3">
re_comp3">
re_exec3">
readdir3">
readdir_r3">
readline3">
readpassphrase3">
realhostname3">
realhostname_sa3">
realloc3">
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reallocf3">
realpath3">
recno3">
redrawwin3">
refresh3">
regcomp3">
regerror3">
regex3">
regexec3">
regexp3">
regfree3">
registerrpc3">
regsub3">
rel2abs3">
remainder3">
remainderf3">
remainderl3">
remove3">
removeFromUtmp3">
removeLineFromUtmp3">
remque3">
remquo3">
remquof3">
remquol3">
replace_panel3">
replaceall3">
request_init3">
request_set3">
res_init3">
res_mkquery3">
res_query3">
res_search3">
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resize_term3">
resize_term_sp3">
resizeterm3">
resizeterm_sp3">
resolver3">
restartterm3">
restartterm_sp3">
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rewinddir3">
rexec3">
rfork_thread3">
rindex3">
rint3">
rintf3">
rintl3">
ripemd3">
ripoffline3">
ripoffline_sp3">
rlhistory3">
round3">
roundf3">
roundl3">
rpc3">
rpc_broadcast3">
rpc_broadcast_exp3">
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rresvport_af3">
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sallocx3">
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savetty_sp3">
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sbwrite3">
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scalblnf3">
scalblnl3">
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scrollok3">
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seed483">
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sha3843">
sha5123">
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sigemptyset3">
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siginfo3">
siginterrupt3">
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siglongjmp3">
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sinh3">
sinhf3">
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sinl3">
skein3">
skein10243">
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skein5123">
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skeylookup3">
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sl_init3">
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sp_funcs3">
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srand483">
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srandom3">
srandomdev3">
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sscanf_l3">
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statvfs3">
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stdio3">
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stpncpy3">
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strcasecmp_l3">
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strcasestr_l3">
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strcoll3">
strcoll_l3">
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strcpy3">
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strdup3">
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strerror_r3">
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strfmon3">
strfmon_l3">
strftime3">
strftime_l3">
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string3">
stringlist3">
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strncasecmp_l3">
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strnvis3">
strnvisx3">
strpbrk3">
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strspn3">
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strtod3">
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strtok3">
strtok_r3">
strtol3">
strtold3">
strtoll3">
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strtonum3">
strtoq3">
strtoul3">
strtoull3">
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strunvis3">
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strvis3">
strvisx3">
strwidth3">
strxfrm3">
strxfrm_l3">
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subpad3">
subwin3">
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svc_control3">
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swprintf3">
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syncok3">
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sysctlbyname3">
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tanf3">
tanh3">
tanhf3">
tanhl3">
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tcgetpgrp3">
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tgetflag3">
tgetflag_sp3">
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tgetnum_sp3">
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tgmath3">
tgoto3">
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timerisset3">
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times3">
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timezone3">
timingsafe_bcmp3">
tmpfile3">
tmpnam3">
toascii3">
tok_end3">
tok_init3">
tok_line3">
tok_reset3">
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tolower3">
top_panel3">
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touchline3">
touchwin3">
toupper3">
towctrans3">
towctrans_l3">
towlower3">
towlower_l3">
towupper3">
towupper_l3">
tparm3">
tputs3">
tputs_sp3">
trace3">
tree3">
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tree_mung3">
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tree_trav3">
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truncf3">
truncl3">
tsearch3">
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ttyname_r3">
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tzset3">
tzsetwall3">
ualarm3">
ucontext3">
ufs_disk_close3">
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ufs_disk_write3">
ulimit3">
ulog_login3">
ulog_login_pseudo3">
ulog_logout3">
ulog_logout_pseudo3">
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unctrl3">
unctrl_sp3">
unget_wch3">
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ungetmouse3">
ungetmouse_sp3">
ungetwc3">
uniaddr3">
unifunc3">
unimsg3">
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unistruct3">
unlockpt3">
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untouchwin3">
unvis3">
update_panels3">
update_panels_sp3">
usb3">
usb_bulk_read3">
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usb_check_connected3">
usb_claim_interface3">
usb_clear_halt3">
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usb_control_msg3">
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usb_device3">
usb_fetch_and_parse_descriptors3">
usb_find_busses3">
usb_find_devices3">
usb_get_busses3">
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usb_get_string3">
usb_get_string_simple3">
usb_init3">
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usb_open3">
usb_parse_configuration3">
usb_parse_descriptor3">
usb_release_interface3">
usb_reset3">
usb_resetep3">
usb_set_altinterface3">
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usb_set_debug3">
usb_strerror3">
usbhid3">
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uselocale3">
user_from_uid3">
user2netname3">
usleep3">
utempter_add_record3">
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utmpx3">
uu_lock3">
uu_lock_txfr3">
uu_lockerr3">
uu_unlock3">
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uuid3">
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wcwidth3">
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wecho_wchar3">
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week3">
weekday3">
wenclose3">
werase3">
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xo_close_list_h3">
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y0f3">
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y1f3">
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ynf3">
zlib3">
zopen3">
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FDT4">
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SCSI4">
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SW_WATCHDOG4">
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abtn4">
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aout4">
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arcmsr4">
arl4">
arp4">
asc4">
asmc4">
asr4">
ast4">
ata4">
atapicam4">
ataraid4">
atf-test-case4">
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ath_ahb4">
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ath_pci4">
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atkbdc4">
atp4">
atrtc4">
atse4">
attimer4">
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auxio4">
awi4">
axe4">
axge4">
bce4">
bcma4">
bfe4">
bge4">
bhnd4">
bhnd_chipc4">
bhnd_pmu4">
bhndb4">
bhndb_pci4">
bhyve4">
bktr4">
blackhole4">
bnxt4">
bpf4">
bridge4">
brooktree4">
bt4">
bwi4">
bwn4">
bxe4">
bytgpio4">
cam4">
capsicum4">
cardbus4">
carp4">
cas4">
cbb4">
cc_cdg4">
cc_chd4">
cc_cubic4">
cc_dctcp4">
cc_hd4">
cc_htcp4">
cc_newreno4">
cc_vegas4">
ccd4">
ccr4">
cd4">
cdce4">
ce4">
central4">
cfi4">
cfid4">
cfiscsi4">
cfumass4">
ch4">
chromebook_platform4">
chvgpio4">
ciss4">
clkbrd4">
cloudabi4">
cloudabi644">
cm4">
cmx4">
cnw4">
coda4">
coretemp4">
cp4">
cpuctl4">
cpufreq4">
creator4">
crypto4">
cryptodev4">
cs4">
csa4">
ct4">
ctau4">
ctl4">
cue4">
cx4">
cxgb4">
cxgbe4">
cxgbev4">
cxl4">
cy4">
cyapa4">
da4">
daic4">
dc4">
dcons4">
dcons_crom4">
ddb4">
de4">
devctl4">
dgb4">
digi4">
disc4">
divert4">
dpms4">
dpt4">
ds13074">
ds32314">
dtrace_io4">
dtrace_ip4">
dtrace_lockstat4">
dtrace_proc4">
dtrace_sched4">
dtrace_sctp4">
dtrace_tcp4">
dtrace_udp4">
dtrace_udplite4">
dummynet4">
e6060sw4">
ebus4">
ed4">
edsc4">
eeprom4">
ef4">
efidev4">
ehci4">
el4">
em4">
emu10k14">
en4">
ena4">
enc4">
ep4">
epair4">
esp4">
est4">
et4">
etherswitch4">
eventtimers4">
ex4">
exa4">
exca4">
faith4">
fast_ipsec4">
fatm4">
fbdevhw4">
fd4">
fdc4">
fdt4">
fdt_pinctrl4">
fdtbus4">
fe4">
fea4">
ffclock4">
fhc4">
filemon4">
firewire4">
fla4">
fpa4">
full4">
fwe4">
fwip4">
fwohci4">
fxp4">
gbde4">
gdb4">
gem4">
geom4">
geom_fox4">
geom_linux_lvm4">
geom_map4">
geom_uncompress4">
geom_uzip4">
gif4">
glxsb4">
gpib4">
gpio4">
gpiobus4">
gpioiic4">
gpioled4">
gre4">
gsc4">
gusc4">
gx4">
h_ertt4">
harp4">
hatm4">
hifn4">
hme4">
hpet4">
hpt27xx4">
hptiop4">
hptmv4">
hptnr4">
hptrr4">
hv_ata_pci_disengage4">
hv_kvp4">
hv_netvsc4">
hv_storvsc4">
hv_utils4">
hv_vmbus4">
hv_vss4">
hwpmc4">
i4b4">
i4bcapi4">
i4bctl4">
i4bing4">
i4bipr4">
i4bisppp4">
i4bq9214">
i4bq9314">
i4brbch4">
i4btel4">
i4btrc4">
i82544">
iavc4">
iavf4">
ichsmb4">
ichwd4">
icmp4">
icmp64">
ida4">
idt4">
ie4">
ieee13944">
ieee802114">
if_ae4">
if_age4">
if_alc4">
if_ale4">
if_an4">
if_ath4">
if_ath_pci4">
if_aue4">
if_axe4">
if_bce4">
if_bfe4">
if_bge4">
if_bridge4">
if_bwi4">
if_bwn4">
if_bxe4">
if_cas4">
if_cdce4">
if_cue4">
if_cxgb4">
if_cxgbe4">
if_cxl4">
if_dc4">
if_de4">
if_disc4">
if_ed4">
if_edsc4">
if_em4">
if_en4">
if_enc4">
if_epair4">
if_et4">
if_fatm4">
if_fwe4">
if_fwip4">
if_fxp4">
if_gem4">
if_gif4">
if_gre4">
if_hatm4">
if_hme4">
if_igb4">
if_ipheth4">
if_ipsec4">
if_ipw4">
if_iwi4">
if_iwm4">
if_iwn4">
if_ix4">
if_ixgb4">
if_ixgbe4">
if_ixl4">
if_ixlv4">
if_jme4">
if_kue4">
if_lagg4">
if_le4">
if_lge4">
if_lmc4">
if_malo4">
if_mn4">
if_mos4">
if_msk4">
if_mwl4">
if_mxge4">
if_my4">
if_ndis4">
if_nf10bmac4">
if_nfe4">
if_nge4">
if_ntb4">
if_nxge4">
if_otus4">
if_patm4">
if_pcn4">
if_qlxgb4">
if_qlxgbe4">
if_qlxge4">
if_ral4">
if_re4">
if_rl4">
if_rsu4">
if_rue4">
if_rum4">
if_run4">
if_sf4">
if_sfxge4">
if_sge4">
if_sis4">
if_sk4">
if_smsc4">
if_sn4">
if_ste4">
if_stf4">
if_stge4">
if_tap4">
if_ti4">
if_tl4">
if_tun4">
if_tx4">
if_txp4">
if_uath4">
if_udav4">
if_upgt4">
if_ural4">
if_ure4">
if_urndis4">
if_urtw4">
if_urtwn4">
if_vge4">
if_vlan4">
if_vmx4">
if_vr4">
if_vte4">
if_vtnet4">
if_vxge4">
if_vxlan4">
if_wb4">
if_wi4">
if_wpi4">
if_xe4">
if_xl4">
if_zyd4">
iflib4">
ifmib4">
ifpi4">
ifpi24">
ig44">
igb4">
igmp4">
ihfc4">
iic4">
iicbb4">
iicbus4">
iicsmb4">
iir4">
imcsmb4">
imm4">
inet4">
inet64">
intpm4">
intro4">
io4">
ioat4">
ip4">
ip64">
ipaccounting4">
ipacct4">
ipf4">
ipfilter4">
ipfirewall4">
ipfw4">
ipheth4">
ipl4">
ipmi4">
ipnat4">
ips4">
ipsec4">
ipw4">
ipwfw4">
isci4">
iscsi4">
iscsi_initiator4">
iser4">
isic4">
isl4">
ismt4">
isp4">
ispfw4">
itjc4">
iwi4">
iwic4">
iwifw4">
iwm4">
iwmfw4">
iwn4">
iwnfw4">
ix4">
ixgb4">
ixgbe4">
ixl4">
ixlv4">
jedec_dimm4">
jedec_ts4">
jme4">
joy4">
k8temp4">
kame4">
kbdmux4">
keyboard4">
kld4">
kmem4">
ksyms4">
ksz8995ma4">
ktr4">
kue4">
labpc4">
lagg4">
le4">
led4">
lge4">
lindev4">
linux4">
liquidio4">
lkm4">
lm754">
lmc4">
lnc4">
lo4">
lomac4">
longrun4">
loop4">
lp4">
lpbb4">
lpt4">
mac4">
mac_biba4">
mac_bsdextended4">
mac_ifoff4">
mac_lomac4">
mac_mls4">
mac_none4">
mac_ntpd4">
mac_partition4">
mac_portacl4">
mac_seeotheruids4">
mac_stub4">
mac_test4">
machfb4">
maestro34">
malo4">
matcd4">
mcd4">
mce4">
md4">
mdio4">
me4">
mem4">
meteor4">
mfi4">
mfi_linux4">
mfip4">
miibus4">
mk48txx4">
mld4">
mlx4">
mlx4en4">
mlx4ib4">
mlx5en4">
mlx5ib4">
mlx5io4">
mly4">
mmc4">
mmcsd4">
mn4">
mod_cc4">
mos4">
mouse4">
mpi4">
mpr4">
mps4">
mpt4">
mrsas4">
mse4">
msk4">
mtio4">
muge4">
multicast4">
mvs4">
mwl4">
mwlfw4">
mxge4">
my4">
nand4">
nandsim4">
natm4">
natmip4">
ncr4">
ncv4">
nda4">
ndis4">
net4">
net802114">
netdump4">
netfpga10g_nf10bmac4">
netgraph4">
netintro4">
netmap4">
networking4">
nfe4">
nfsmb4">
nfsv44">
ng_UI4">
ng_async4">
ng_atm4">
ng_atmllc4">
ng_atmpif4">
ng_bluetooth4">
ng_bpf4">
ng_bridge4">
ng_bt3c4">
ng_btsocket4">
ng_car4">
ng_ccatm4">
ng_checksum4">
ng_cisco4">
ng_deflate4">
ng_device4">
ng_echo4">
ng_eiface4">
ng_etf4">
ng_ether4">
ng_ether_echo4">
ng_fec4">
ng_frame_relay4">
ng_gif4">
ng_gif_demux4">
ng_h44">
ng_hci4">
ng_hole4">
ng_hub4">
ng_iface4">
ng_ip_input4">
ng_ipfw4">
ng_ksocket4">
ng_l2cap4">
ng_l2tp4">
ng_lmi4">
ng_mppc4">
ng_nat4">
ng_netflow4">
ng_one2many4">
ng_patch4">
ng_ppp4">
ng_pppoe4">
ng_pptpgre4">
ng_pred14">
ng_rfc14904">
ng_socket4">
ng_source4">
ng_split4">
ng_sppp4">
ng_sscfu4">
ng_sscop4">
ng_tag4">
ng_tcpmss4">
ng_tee4">
ng_tty4">
ng_ubt4">
ng_uni4">
ng_vjc4">
ng_vlan4">
ngatmbase4">
nge4">
nis4">
nmdm4">
npe4">
npx4">
nsp4">
ntb4">
ntb_hw4">
ntb_hw_intel4">
ntb_hw_plx4">
ntb_transport4">
null4">
numa4">
nvd4">
nve4">
nvme4">
nvram4">
nxge4">
oce4">
ocs_fc4">
ofw_console4">
ohci4">
oldcard4">
oltr4">
onewire4">
openfirm4">
openprom4">
opie4">
orm4">
otus4">
otusfw4">
ow4">
ow_temp4">
owc4">
padlock4">
pae4">
pass4">
patm4">
pbio4">
pccard4">
pccbb4">
pcf4">
pci4">
pcib4">
pcic4">
pcii4">
pcm4">
pcn4">
pcvt4">
perfmon4">
pf4">
pflog4">
pfsync4">
pim4">
plip4">
pms4">
pmspcv4">
pnfs4">
pnfsserver4">
pnp4">
pnpbios4">
polling4">
ppbus4">
ppc4">
ppi4">
ppp4">
procdesc4">
proto4">
psm4">
pst4">
pt4">
pts4">
pty4">
puc4">
qlnxe4">
qlxgb4">
qlxgbe4">
qlxge4">
raid4">
ral4">
random4">
rawip4">
ray4">
rc4">
rctl4">
rdp4">
re4">
rgephy4">
rights4">
rl4">
rndtest4">
route4">
rp4">
rr232x4">
rsu4">
rsufw4">
rtc4">
rtwn4">
rtwn_pci4">
rtwn_usb4">
rtwnfw4">
rue4">
rum4">
run4">
runfw4">
sa4">
sab4">
safe4">
sb4">
sbc4">
sbni4">
sbp4">
sbp_targ4">
sbsh4">
sbus4">
sc4">
scbus4">
scc4">
scd4">
sched_4bsd4">
sched_core4">
sched_ule4">
screen4">
screensaver4">
scsi4">
sctp4">
sd4">
sdhci4">
sem4">
send4">
ses4">
sf4">
sfxge4">
sge4">
si4">
siba4">
siftr4">
siis4">
simplebus4">
sio4">
sis4">
sk4">
skey4">
sl4">
smapi.44">
smartpqi4">
smb4">
smbus4">
smp4">
smsc4">
smu4">
sn4">
snc4">
snd4">
snd_ad18164">
snd_ak452x4">
snd_als40004">
snd_atiixp4">
snd_audiocs4">
snd_cmi4">
snd_cs42814">
snd_csa4">
snd_ds14">
snd_emu10k14">
snd_emu10kx4">
snd_envy244">
snd_envy24ht4">
snd_es137x4">
snd_ess4">
snd_fm8014">
snd_gusc4">
snd_hda4">
snd_hdspe4">
snd_ich4">
snd_maestro4">
snd_maestro34">
snd_mss4">
snd_neomagic4">
snd_sb164">
snd_sb84">
snd_sbc4">
snd_solo4">
snd_spicds4">
snd_t4dwave4">
snd_uaudio4">
snd_via82334">
snd_via82c6864">
snd_vibes4">
snp4">
sound4">
speaker4">
spic4">
spigen4">
spkr4">
splash4">
sppp4">
sr4">
st4">
stderr4">
stdin4">
stdout4">
ste4">
stf4">
stg4">
stge4">
stl4">
stli4">
streams4">
sunkbd4">
svr44">
sym4">
syncache4">
syncer4">
syncookies4">
syscons4">
sysmouse4">
tap4">
targ4">
tcp4">
tdfx4">
tdfx_linux4">
terasic_mtl4">
termios4">
textdump4">
ti4">
timecounters4">
tl4">
tnt48824">
tpm4">
trm4">
trunk4">
ttcp4">
tty4">
tun4">
tw4">
twa4">
twe4">
tws4">
tx4">
txp4">
u3g4">
u3gstub4">
uark4">
uart4">
uath4">
uaudio4">
ubsa4">
ubsec4">
ubser4">
ubtbcmfw4">
uchcom4">
ucom4">
ucycom4">
udav4">
udbp4">
udl4">
udp4">
udplite4">
uep4">
ufm4">
ufoma4">
uftdi4">
ugen4">
ugold4">
uhci4">
uhid4">
uhidev4">
uhso4">
uipaq4">
ukbd4">
uled4">
ulpt4">
umass4">
umcs4">
umct4">
umodem4">
umoscom4">
ums4">
unix4">
update4">
upgt4">
uplcom4">
ural4">
ure4">
urio4">
urndis4">
urtw4">
urtwn4">
urtwnfw4">
usb4">
usb_quirk4">
usb_template4">
uscanner4">
usfs4">
uslcom4">
utopia4">
uvisor4">
uvscom4">
vale4">
vga4">
vge4">
viapm4">
viawd4">
vinum4">
virtio4">
virtio_balloon4">
virtio_blk4">
virtio_console4">
virtio_random4">
virtio_scsi4">
vkbd4">
vlan4">
vmm4">
vmx4">
vn4">
vpd4">
vpo4">
vr4">
vt4">
vte4">
vtnet4">
vx4">
vxge4">
vxlan4">
watchdog4">
wb4">
wbwd4">
wd4">
wfd4">
wi4">
witness4">
wl4">
wlan4">
wlan_acl4">
wlan_amrr4">
wlan_ccmp4">
wlan_tkip4">
wlan_wep4">
wlan_xauth4">
wmt4">
worm4">
wpi4">
wsp4">
wst4">
wt4">
wx4">
xe4">
xen4">
xhci4">
xl4">
xnb4">
xpt4">
zero4">
zyd4">
ati4">
i8104">
intel4">
kbd4">
mousedrv4">
nv4">
r1284">
radeon4">
vesa4">
INDEX5">
a.out5">
acct5">
adduser.conf5">
aliases5">
amd.conf5">
ar5">
audit_class5">
audit_control5">
audit_event5">
audit.log5">
audit_user5">
audit_warn5">
auditdistd.conf5">
auth.conf5">
auto_master5">
autofs5">
big55">
blacklistd.conf5">
bluetooth.conf5">
bluetooth.device.conf5">
bluetooth.hosts5">
bluetooth.protocols5">
boot.config5">
bootparams5">
bootptab5">
cached.conf5">
cd96605">
config5">
conserver.cf5">
core5">
cpio5">
crontab5">
ctf5">
ctl.conf5">
ctm5">
cvs5">
devd.conf5">
devfs5">
devfs.conf5">
devfs.rules5">
device.hints5">
dhclient.conf5">
dhclient.leases5">
dhcp-eval5">
dhcp-options5">
dhcpd.conf5">
dhcpd.leases5">
dir5">
dirent5">
disklabel5">
disktab5">
dm.conf5">
drivers.conf5">
editrc5">
elf5">
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euc5">
eui645">
exports5">
ext2fs5">
fbtab5">
fdesc5">
fdescfs5">
finger.conf5">
fonts-conf5">
forward5">
freebsd-update.conf5">
fs5">
fstab5">
ftpchroot5">
ftpd.conf5">
ftpusers5">
gb180305">
gb23125">
gbk5">
gettytab5">
groff_font5">
groff_out5">
groff_tmac5">
group5">
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hcsecd.conf5">
hesiod.conf5">
hostapd.conf5">
hosts5">
hosts_access5">
hosts.allow5">
hosts.equiv5">
hosts.lpd5">
hosts_options5">
inetd.conf5">
info5">
inode5">
intro5">
iovctl.conf5">
ipf5">
ipf.conf5">
ipf6.conf5">
ipfilter5">
ipnat5">
ipnat.conf5">
ippool5">
ipsend5">
iscsi.conf5">
isdnd.acct5">
isdnd.rates5">
isdnd.rc5">
jail.conf5">
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kernfs5">
keycap5">
keymap5">
krb5.conf5">
lastlog5">
libarchive-formats5">
libmap.conf5">
link5">
linprocfs5">
linsysfs5">
lj4_font5">
loader.conf5">
local-unbound_conf5">
login.access5">
login.conf5">
mac.conf5">
magic5">
mailer.conf5">
make.conf5">
malloc.conf5">
man.conf5">
master.passwd5">
mech5">
modems5">
moduli5">
motd5">
mount_conf5">
mqueuefs5">
msdos5">
msdosfs5">
mskanji5">
mtree5">
named.conf5">
netconfig5">
netgroup5">
netid5">
networks5">
newsyslog.conf5">
nologin5">
nscd.conf5">
nsmb.conf5">
nsswitch.conf5">
ntp.conf5">
ntp.keys5">
nullfs5">
opieaccess5">
opiekeys5">
pam.conf5">
pam.d5">
passwd5">
pbm5">
pcap-savefile5">
pccard.conf5">
periodic.conf5">
pf.conf5">
pf.os5">
phones5">
pim6dd.conf5">
pim6sd.conf5">
pkg-repository5">
pkg.conf5">
portindex5">
portsnap.conf5">
printcap5">
procfs5">
procmailex5">
protocols5">
publickey5">
pw.conf5">
qop5">
quota.group5">
quota.user5">
radius.conf5">
ranlib5">
rc.conf5">
rc.conf.local5">
rcsfile5">
rctl.conf5">
regdomain5">
reiserfs5">
remote5">
resolv.conf5">
resolvconf.conf5">
resolver5">
rhosts5">
rndc_conf5">
rpc5">
rrenumd.conf5">
rtadvd.conf5">
services5">
shells5">
skey.access5">
src-env.conf5">
src.conf5">
ssh_config5">
sshd_config5">
stab5">
stablerestart5">
style.Makefile5">
sysctl.conf5">
syslog.conf5">
tacplus.conf5">
tar5">
term5">
termcap5">
terminfo5">
texinfo5">
tmac5">
tmpfs5">
ttys5">
types5">
tzfile5">
unbound.conf5">
usbd.conf5">
utf25">
utf85">
utmp5">
uuencode5">
uuencode.format5">
vgrindefs5">
wpa_supplicant.conf5">
wtmp5">
xfs5">
xo_format5">
ypldap.conf5">
adventure6">
arithmetic6">
atc6">
backgammon6">
banner6">
battlestar6">
bcd6">
bs6">
caesar6">
canfield6">
cfscores6">
cribbage6">
factor6">
fish6">
fortune6">
grdc6">
hack6">
hangman6">
intro6">
larn6">
mille6">
morse6">
number6">
phantasia6">
piano6">
pig6">
pom6">
ppt6">
primes6">
quiz6">
rain6">
random6">
robots6">
rogue6">
rot136">
sail6">
snake6">
snscore6">
trek6">
wargames6">
worm6">
worms6">
wump6">
X7">
adding_user7">
arch7">
as7">
ascii7">
atf7">
binutils7">
bsd.snmpmod.mk7">
build7">
c7">
c787">
c897">
c907">
c997">
clocks7">
crypto7">
development7">
diff7">
ditroff7">
environ7">
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