Index: head/zh_TW.UTF-8/books/handbook/book.xml
===================================================================
--- head/zh_TW.UTF-8/books/handbook/book.xml	(revision 49361)
+++ head/zh_TW.UTF-8/books/handbook/book.xml	(revision 49362)
@@ -1,68950 +1,67292 @@
 <?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
 <!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//FreeBSD//DTD DocBook XML V5.0-Based Extension//EN" "http://www.FreeBSD.org/XML/share/xml/freebsd50.dtd" [
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 --><!ENTITY % chapters SYSTEM "chapters.ent">
 <!--
      Creates entities for each chapter in the FreeBSD Handbook. Each entity
      is named chap.foo, where foo is the value of the id attribute on that
      chapter, and corresponds to the name of the directory in which that
      chapter's .xml file is stored.
 
      Chapters should be listed in the order in which they are referenced.
 
      $FreeBSD$
 --><!ENTITY chap.preface SYSTEM "preface/preface.xml">
 <!ENTITY % pgpkeys SYSTEM "../../../share/pgpkeys/pgpkeys.ent">
 <!-- $FreeBSD$ --><!-- PGP keyblocks --><!ENTITY pgpkey.aaron SYSTEM "aaron.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ache SYSTEM "ache.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.achim SYSTEM "achim.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.acm SYSTEM "acm.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.adamw SYSTEM "adamw.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.adrian SYSTEM "adrian.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ae SYSTEM "ae.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ahze SYSTEM "ahze.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ak SYSTEM "ak.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.alc SYSTEM "alc.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ale SYSTEM "ale.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.alepulver SYSTEM "alepulver.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.alex SYSTEM "alex.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.alexbl SYSTEM "alexbl.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.alexey SYSTEM "alexey.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.allanjude SYSTEM "allanjude.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.alonso SYSTEM "alonso.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.amdmi3 SYSTEM "amdmi3.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.anchie SYSTEM "anchie.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.anders SYSTEM "anders.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.andreas SYSTEM "andreas.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.andrew SYSTEM "andrew.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.anholt SYSTEM "anholt.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.anish SYSTEM "anish.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.anray SYSTEM "anray.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.antoine SYSTEM "antoine.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.araujo SYSTEM "araujo.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ariff SYSTEM "ariff.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.art SYSTEM "art.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.arun SYSTEM "arun.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.arundel SYSTEM "arundel.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.arved SYSTEM "arved.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.arybchik SYSTEM "arybchik.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.avatar SYSTEM "avatar.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.bakul SYSTEM "bakul.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.billf SYSTEM "billf.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.brucec SYSTEM "brucec.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.bschmidt SYSTEM "bschmidt.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.bvs SYSTEM "bvs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.bz SYSTEM "bz.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.carl SYSTEM "carl.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cel SYSTEM "cel.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ceri SYSTEM "ceri.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cherry SYSTEM "cherry.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.chinsan SYSTEM "chinsan.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cjc SYSTEM "cjc.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cjh SYSTEM "cjh.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.clement SYSTEM "clement.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.clive SYSTEM "clive.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.clsung SYSTEM "clsung.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cmt SYSTEM "cmt.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cokane SYSTEM "cokane.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.core-secretary SYSTEM "core-secretary.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cperciva SYSTEM "cperciva.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cpm SYSTEM "cpm.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.crees SYSTEM "crees.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cs SYSTEM "cs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cshumway SYSTEM "cshumway.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.csjp SYSTEM "csjp.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.culot SYSTEM "culot.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.cy SYSTEM "cy.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.daichi SYSTEM "daichi.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.damien SYSTEM "damien.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.danfe SYSTEM "danfe.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.danger SYSTEM "danger.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.danilo SYSTEM "danilo.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dannyboy SYSTEM "dannyboy.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.das SYSTEM "das.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.davidch SYSTEM "davidch.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.davide SYSTEM "davide.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.davidxu SYSTEM "davidxu.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.db SYSTEM "db.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dbn SYSTEM "dbn.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dchagin SYSTEM "dchagin.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dcs SYSTEM "dcs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dd SYSTEM "dd.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.deb SYSTEM "deb.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.decke SYSTEM "decke.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.deischen SYSTEM "deischen.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.delphij SYSTEM "delphij.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.demon SYSTEM "demon.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.den SYSTEM "den.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.des SYSTEM "des.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dfr SYSTEM "dfr.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dhartmei SYSTEM "dhartmei.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dhn SYSTEM "dhn.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dhw SYSTEM "dhw.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dim SYSTEM "dim.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dinoex SYSTEM "dinoex.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dru SYSTEM "dru.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dryice SYSTEM "dryice.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dteske SYSTEM "dteske.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dumbbell SYSTEM "dumbbell.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dutchdaemon SYSTEM "dutchdaemon.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dvl SYSTEM "dvl.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.dwmalone SYSTEM "dwmalone.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.eadler SYSTEM "eadler.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ebrandi SYSTEM "ebrandi.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ed SYSTEM "ed.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.edavis SYSTEM "edavis.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.edwin SYSTEM "edwin.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ehaupt SYSTEM "ehaupt.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.erj SYSTEM "erj.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.fabient SYSTEM "fabient.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.fanf SYSTEM "fanf.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.farrokhi SYSTEM "farrokhi.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.feld SYSTEM "feld.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.fjoe SYSTEM "fjoe.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.flo SYSTEM "flo.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.fluffy SYSTEM "fluffy.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.flz SYSTEM "flz.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.foxfair SYSTEM "foxfair.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.gabor SYSTEM "gabor.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.gad SYSTEM "gad.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.gahr SYSTEM "gahr.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ganbold SYSTEM "ganbold.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.garga SYSTEM "garga.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.garys SYSTEM "garys.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.glarkin SYSTEM "glarkin.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.glebius SYSTEM "glebius.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.grehan SYSTEM "grehan.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.grembo SYSTEM "grembo.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.gshapiro SYSTEM "gshapiro.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.hiren SYSTEM "hiren.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.hq SYSTEM "hq.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.hrs SYSTEM "hrs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ijliao SYSTEM "ijliao.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.imp SYSTEM "imp.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.issyl0 SYSTEM "issyl0.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jacula SYSTEM "jacula.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jadawin SYSTEM "jadawin.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jah SYSTEM "jah.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jamie SYSTEM "jamie.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jase SYSTEM "jase.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jbeich SYSTEM "jbeich.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jhb SYSTEM "jhb.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jinmei SYSTEM "jinmei.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jkh SYSTEM "jkh.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jkim SYSTEM "jkim.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jkois SYSTEM "jkois.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.jkoshy SYSTEM "jkoshy.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ken SYSTEM "ken.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.kensmith SYSTEM "kensmith.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.keramida SYSTEM "keramida.key">
+<!ENTITY pgpkey.kevlo SYSTEM "kevlo.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.kmoore SYSTEM "kmoore.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.oleg SYSTEM "oleg.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.olgeni SYSTEM "olgeni.key">
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 <!ENTITY pgpkey.se SYSTEM "se.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.seanc SYSTEM "seanc.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.secteam-secretary SYSTEM "secteam-secretary.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.security-officer SYSTEM "security-officer.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sem SYSTEM "sem.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sephe SYSTEM "sephe.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sepotvin SYSTEM "sepotvin.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sergei SYSTEM "sergei.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sgalabov SYSTEM "sgalabov.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.shaun SYSTEM "shaun.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sheldonh SYSTEM "sheldonh.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.shurd SYSTEM "shurd.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.simon SYSTEM "simon.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sjg SYSTEM "sjg.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.skra SYSTEM "skra.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.skreuzer SYSTEM "skreuzer.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.slm SYSTEM "slm.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.snb SYSTEM "snb.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sobomax SYSTEM "sobomax.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sson SYSTEM "sson.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ssouhlal SYSTEM "ssouhlal.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.stas SYSTEM "stas.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.stefan SYSTEM "stefan.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.stefanf SYSTEM "stefanf.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.stephane SYSTEM "stephane.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.stephen SYSTEM "stephen.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.stevek SYSTEM "stevek.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sunpoet SYSTEM "sunpoet.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.swills SYSTEM "swills.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.sylvio SYSTEM "sylvio.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.syrinx SYSTEM "syrinx.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.syuu SYSTEM "syuu.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tabthorpe SYSTEM "tabthorpe.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.taras SYSTEM "taras.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tcberner SYSTEM "tcberner.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tdb SYSTEM "tdb.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.theraven SYSTEM "theraven.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.thierry SYSTEM "thierry.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.thomas SYSTEM "thomas.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.thompsa SYSTEM "thompsa.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tijl SYSTEM "tijl.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.timur SYSTEM "timur.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tj SYSTEM "tj.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tmclaugh SYSTEM "tmclaugh.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tmm SYSTEM "tmm.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tmseck SYSTEM "tmseck.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tobez SYSTEM "tobez.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tota SYSTEM "tota.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.trasz SYSTEM "trasz.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.trevor SYSTEM "trevor.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.trhodes SYSTEM "trhodes.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.trociny SYSTEM "trociny.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.truckman SYSTEM "truckman.key">
+<!ENTITY pgpkey.tsoome SYSTEM "tsoome.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tuexen SYSTEM "tuexen.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.twinterg SYSTEM "twinterg.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.tz SYSTEM "tz.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ue SYSTEM "ue.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ume SYSTEM "ume.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.ups SYSTEM "ups.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.uqs SYSTEM "uqs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vangyzen SYSTEM "vangyzen.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vanilla SYSTEM "vanilla.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vd SYSTEM "vd.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.versus SYSTEM "versus.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vg SYSTEM "vg.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.viny SYSTEM "viny.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vkashyap SYSTEM "vkashyap.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vs SYSTEM "vs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.vsevolod SYSTEM "vsevolod.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wblock SYSTEM "wblock.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wen SYSTEM "wen.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.weongyo SYSTEM "weongyo.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wes SYSTEM "wes.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wg SYSTEM "wg.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.whu SYSTEM "whu.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wilko SYSTEM "wilko.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.will SYSTEM "will.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wkoszek SYSTEM "wkoszek.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wma SYSTEM "wma.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wollman SYSTEM "wollman.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.woodsb02 SYSTEM "woodsb02.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wosch SYSTEM "wosch.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.wxs SYSTEM "wxs.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.xmj SYSTEM "xmj.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.xride SYSTEM "xride.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.yoichi SYSTEM "yoichi.key">
+<!ENTITY pgpkey.yongari SYSTEM "yongari.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.yzlin SYSTEM "yzlin.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.zack SYSTEM "zack.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.zbb SYSTEM "zbb.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.zeising SYSTEM "zeising.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.zi SYSTEM "zi.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.zml SYSTEM "zml.key">
 <!ENTITY pgpkey.zont SYSTEM "zont.key">
 <!ENTITY section.pgpkeys-core SYSTEM "pgpkeys-core.xml">
 <!ENTITY section.pgpkeys-developers SYSTEM "pgpkeys-developers.xml">
 <!ENTITY section.pgpkeys-officers SYSTEM "pgpkeys-officers.xml">
 <!ENTITY section.pgpkeys-other SYSTEM "pgpkeys-other.xml">
 <!-- Part One --><!ENTITY chap.introduction SYSTEM "introduction/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.bsdinstall SYSTEM "bsdinstall/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.basics SYSTEM "basics/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.ports SYSTEM "ports/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.x11 SYSTEM "x11/chapter.xml">
 <!-- Part Two --><!ENTITY chap.desktop SYSTEM "desktop/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.multimedia SYSTEM "multimedia/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.kernelconfig SYSTEM "kernelconfig/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.printing SYSTEM "printing/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.linuxemu SYSTEM "linuxemu/chapter.xml">
 <!-- Part Three --><!ENTITY chap.config SYSTEM "config/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.boot SYSTEM "boot/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.security SYSTEM "security/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.jails SYSTEM "jails/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.mac SYSTEM "mac/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.audit SYSTEM "audit/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.disks SYSTEM "disks/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.geom SYSTEM "geom/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.zfs SYSTEM "zfs/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.filesystems SYSTEM "filesystems/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.virtualization SYSTEM "virtualization/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.l10n SYSTEM "l10n/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.cutting-edge SYSTEM "cutting-edge/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.dtrace SYSTEM "dtrace/chapter.xml">
 <!-- Part Four --><!ENTITY chap.serialcomms SYSTEM "serialcomms/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.ppp-and-slip SYSTEM "ppp-and-slip/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.mail SYSTEM "mail/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.network-servers SYSTEM "network-servers/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.firewalls SYSTEM "firewalls/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.advanced-networking SYSTEM "advanced-networking/chapter.xml">
 <!-- Part Five (appendices) --><!ENTITY chap.mirrors SYSTEM "mirrors/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.mirrors.lastmod.inc SYSTEM "mirrors.lastmod.inc">
 <!ENTITY chap.mirrors.ftp.index.inc SYSTEM "mirrors.xml.ftp.index.inc">
 <!ENTITY chap.mirrors.ftp.inc SYSTEM "mirrors.xml.ftp.inc">
 <!ENTITY chap.bibliography SYSTEM "bibliography/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.eresources SYSTEM "eresources/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.eresources.www.index.inc SYSTEM "eresources.xml.www.index.inc">
 <!ENTITY chap.eresources.www.inc SYSTEM "eresources.xml.www.inc">
 <!ENTITY chap.pgpkeys SYSTEM "pgpkeys/chapter.xml">
 <!ENTITY chap.freebsd-glossary SYSTEM "../../share/xml/glossary.ent">
 <!ENTITY chap.index "<index xmlns='http://docbook.org/ns/docbook'/>">
 <!ENTITY chap.colophon SYSTEM "colophon.xml">
 <!ENTITY % txtfiles SYSTEM "txtfiles.ent">
 <!--
      Creates entities for each .txt screenshot that is included in the
      Handbook.
 
      Each entity is named txt.dir.foo, where dir is the directory in
      which it is stored, and foo is its filename, without the '.txt'
      extension.
 
      Entities should be listed in alphabetical order.
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->]>
 <book xmlns="http://docbook.org/ns/docbook" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="5.0" xml:lang="zh_TW">
 
   <info>
     <title>FreeBSD 使用手冊</title>
 
     <author><orgname>FreeBSD 文件計劃</orgname></author>
 
     <pubdate xml:lang="en">$FreeBSD$</pubdate>
 
     <releaseinfo xml:lang="en">$FreeBSD$</releaseinfo>
 
     <copyright xml:lang="en">
       <year>1995</year>
       <year>1996</year>
       <year>1997</year>
       <year>1998</year>
       <year>1999</year>
       <year>2000</year>
       <year>2001</year>
       <year>2002</year>
       <year>2003</year>
       <year>2004</year>
       <year>2005</year>
       <year>2006</year>
       <year>2007</year>
       <year>2008</year>
       <year>2009</year>
       <year>2010</year>
       <year>2011</year>
       <year>2012</year>
       <year>2013</year>
       <year>2014</year>
       <year>2015</year>
       <holder>The FreeBSD Documentation Project</holder>
     </copyright>
 
     
 <legalnotice xml:id="legalnotice">
   <title>版權</title>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">Redistribution and use in source (XML DocBook) and 'compiled'
     forms (XML, HTML, PDF, PostScript, RTF and so forth) with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
     met:</para>
 
   <orderedlist>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">Redistributions of source code (XML DocBook) must retain the
         above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
         disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified.</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">Redistributions in compiled form (transformed to other DTDs,
         converted to PDF, PostScript, RTF and other formats) must
         reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and
         the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other
         materials provided with the distribution.</para>
     </listitem>
   </orderedlist>
 
   <important>
     <para xml:lang="en">THIS DOCUMENTATION IS PROVIDED BY THE FREEBSD DOCUMENTATION
       PROJECT "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING,
       BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
       FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL
       THE FREEBSD DOCUMENTATION PROJECT BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
       INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING,
       BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS
       OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND
       ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR
       TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE
       USE OF THIS DOCUMENTATION, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
       DAMAGE.</para>
   </important>
 </legalnotice>
 
 
     <legalnotice xml:id="trademarks" role="trademarks">
       <para>FreeBSD 是 FreeBSD 基金會的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>3Com 和 HomeConnect 是 3Com Corporation 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>3ware 是 3ware Inc 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>ARM 是 ARM Limited. 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Adaptec 是 Adaptec, Inc. 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Adobe, Acrobat, Acrobat Reader, Flash 以及 PostScript 是 Adobe Systems Incorporated 在美國和/或其他國家的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Apple, AirPort, FireWire, iMac, iPhone, iPad, Mac, Macintosh, Mac OS, Quicktime 以及 TrueType 是 Apple Inc. 在美國以及其他國家的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Android 是 Google Inc 的商標。</para>
       <para>Heidelberg, Helvetica, Palatino 以及 Times Roman 是 Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG 在美國以及其他國家的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>IBM, AIX, OS/2, PowerPC, PS/2, S/390 以及 ThinkPad 是 International Business Machines Corporation 在美國和其他國家的商標。</para>
       <para>IEEE, POSIX 以及 802 是 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 在美國的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Intel, Celeron, Centrino, Core, EtherExpress, i386, i486, Itanium, Pentium 以及 Xeon 是 Intel Corporation 及其分支機構在美國和其他國家的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Intuit 和 Quicken 是 Intuit Inc., 或其子公司在美國和其他國家的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Linux 是 Linus Torvalds 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>LSI Logic, AcceleRAID, eXtremeRAID, MegaRAID 以及 Mylex 是 LSI Logic Corp 的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Microsoft, IntelliMouse, MS-DOS, Outlook, Windows, Windows Media 以及 Windows NT 是 Microsoft Corporation 在美國和/或其他國家的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Motif, OSF/1 以及 UNIX 是 The Open Group 在美國和其他國家的註冊商標； IT DialTone 和 The Open Group 是其商標。</para>
       <para>Oracle 是 Oracle Corporation 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>RealNetworks, RealPlayer, 和 RealAudio 是 RealNetworks, Inc. 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Red Hat, RPM, 是 Red Hat, Inc. 在美國和其他國家的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>Sun, Sun Microsystems, Java, Java Virtual Machine, JDK, JRE, JSP, JVM, Netra, OpenJDK, Solaris, StarOffice, SunOS 以及 VirtualBox 是 Sun Microsystems, Inc. 在美國和其他國家的商標或註冊商標。</para>
       <para>MATLAB 是 The MathWorks, Inc. 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>SpeedTouch 是 Thomson 的商標。</para>
       <para>VMware 是 VMware, Inc. 的商標。</para>
       <para>Mathematica 是 Wolfram Research, Inc 的註冊商標。</para>
       <para>XFree86 是 The XFree86 Project, Inc 的商標。</para>
       <para>Ogg Vorbis 以及 Xiph.Org 是 Xiph.Org 的商標。</para>
       <para>許多製造商和經銷商使用一些稱為商標的圖案或文字設計來區別自己的產品。 本文件中出現的眾多商標，以及 FreeBSD Project 本身廣所人知的商標，後面將以 <quote>™</quote> 或 <quote>®</quote> 符號來標示。</para>
     </legalnotice>
 
     <abstract>
       <para>歡迎使用 FreeBSD！ 本使用手冊涵蓋範圍包括了 <emphasis>FreeBSD 9.3-RELEASE</emphasis> 與 <emphasis>FreeBSD 10.3-RELEASE</emphasis>。 這份使用手冊是很多人的集體創作，而且仍然『持續不斷』的進行中。 許多章節仍未完成，已完成的部份也有些需要更新。 如果您有興趣協助本計畫的話，請寄電子郵件至 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-doc">FreeBSD 文件專案郵遞論壇</link>。</para>
 
       <para>在 <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/">FreeBSD 網站</link> 可以找到這份文件的最新版本，舊版文件可從 <uri xlink:href="http://docs.FreeBSD.org/doc/">http://docs.FreeBSD.org/doc/</uri> 取得，也可以從 <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/">FreeBSD FTP 伺服器</link> 或是眾多 <link linkend="mirrors-ftp">鏡像網站</link> 下載不同格式的資料。 如果比較偏好實體書面資料，那可以在 <link xlink:href="http://www.freebsdmall.com/">FreeBSD 商城</link> 購買。 此外，您可在 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/search/index.html">搜尋頁面</link> 中搜尋本文件或其他文件的資料。</para>
     </abstract>
   </info>
 
   
 <!--
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <preface version="5.0" xml:id="book-preface">
   <title>序</title>
 
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-audience" renderas="sect1">給讀者的話</bridgehead>
 
-  <para>若您是第一次接觸 FreeBSD 的新手，可以在本書第一部分找到 FreeBSD 的安裝方法，同時會逐步介紹 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 的基礎概念與一些常用、共通的東西。而閱讀這部分並不難，只需要您有探索的精神和接受新概念。</para>
+  <para>若您是第一次接觸 FreeBSD 的新手，可以在本書第一部分找到 FreeBSD 的安裝程序，同時會逐步介紹 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 的基礎概念與一些常用、共通的東西。而閱讀這部分並不難，只需要您有探索的精神和接受新概念。</para>
 
   <para>讀完這些之後，手冊中的第二部分花很長篇幅介紹的各種廣泛主題，相當值得系統管理者去注意。 在閱讀這些章節的內容時所需要的背景知識，都註釋在該章的大綱裡面，若不熟的話，可在閱讀前先預習一番。</para>
 
   <para>延伸閱讀方面，可參閱 <xref linkend="bibliography"/>。</para>
 
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-changes-from3" renderas="sect1">自第三版後的主要修訂</bridgehead>
 
   <para>您目前看到的這本手冊代表著上百位貢獻者歷時 10 年所累積的心血之作。以下為自 2014 年發佈的兩冊第三版後所做的主要修訂：</para>
 
   <itemizedlist>
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="dtrace"/> 增加說明有關強大的 DTrace 效能分析工具的資訊。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="filesystems"/> 增加有關 FreeBSD 非原生檔案系統的資訊，如：來自 <trademark>Sun</trademark> 的 ZSF。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="audit"/> 增加的內容涵蓋 FreeBSD 的新稽查功能及其使用說明。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="virtualization"/> 增加有關在虛擬化軟體安裝 FreeBSD  的資訊。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="bsdinstall"/> 增加的內容涵蓋使用新安裝工具 <application>bsdinstall</application> 來安裝 FreeBSD。</para>
     </listitem>
   </itemizedlist>
 
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-changes-from2" renderas="sect1">自第二版後的主要修訂 (2004)</bridgehead>
 
   <para>您目前看到的這本手冊第三版是 FreeBSD 文件計劃的成員歷時兩年完成的心血之作。因文件內容成長到一定大小，印刷版需要分成兩冊發佈。新版的主要修訂部分如下：</para>
 
   <itemizedlist>
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="config-tuning"/> 已針對新內容作更新，如：ACPI 電源管理、<command>cron</command> 以及其他更多的核心調校選項說明內容。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
-      <para><xref linkend="security"/> 增加了虛擬私人網路(VPN)、檔案系統的存取控制(ACL)，以及安全報告。</para>
+      <para><xref linkend="security"/> 增加了虛擬私人網路 (VPN)、檔案系統的存取控制 (ACL)，以及安全報告。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="mac"/> 是此版本新增的章節。該章介紹：什麼是 MAC 機制？以及如何運用它來使您的 FreeBSD 系統更安全。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
-      <para><xref linkend="disks"/> 新增了像是：USB 隨身碟、檔案系統快照(snapshot)、檔案系統配額(quota) 、檔案及網路的備援檔案系統、以及如何對硬碟分割區作加密等詳解。</para>
+      <para><xref linkend="disks"/> 新增了像是：USB 隨身碟、檔案系統快照 (Snapshot)、檔案系統配額 (Quota) 、檔案及網路的備援檔案系統、以及如何對硬碟分割區作加密等詳解。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="ppp-and-slip"/> 增加了疑難排解的章節。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="mail"/> 新增有關如何使用其它的傳輸代理程式、SMTP 認證、UUCP、<application>fetchmail</application>、<application>procmail</application> 的運用以及其它進階主題。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="network-servers"/> 是該版中全新的一章。這一章介紹了如何架設 <application>Apache HTTP 伺服器</application>、<application>ftpd</application> 以及用於支援 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 客戶端的 <application>Samba</application>。其中有些段落來自原先的 <xref linkend="advanced-networking"/> 。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para><xref linkend="advanced-networking"/> 新增有關在 FreeBSD 中使用<trademark class="registered">藍牙</trademark>裝置、設定無線網路以及使用非同步傳輸模式 (Asynchronous Transfer Mode, ATM)  網路的介紹。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para>增加詞彙表，用以說明全書中出現的術語。</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para>重新美編書中所列的圖表。</para>
     </listitem>
   </itemizedlist>
 
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-changes" renderas="sect1">自第一版後的主要修訂 (2001)</bridgehead>
 
     <para>本手冊的第二版是 FreeBSD 文件計劃的成員歷時兩年完成的心血之作。第二版包的主要變動如下︰</para>
 
 <!-- Talk a little about justification and other stylesheet changes? -->
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>增加完整的目錄索引。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>所有的 ASCII 圖表均改成圖檔格式的圖表。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>每個章節均加入概述，以便快速的瀏覽該章節內容摘要、讀者所欲了解的部分。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>內容架構重新組織成三大部分: <quote>入門</quote>、<quote>系統管理</quote> 以及 <quote>附錄</quote>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para><xref linkend="basics"/> 新增了程序、Daemon 以及 Signal 的介紹。</para>
+	<para><xref linkend="basics"/> 新增了程序、Daemon 以及信號 (Signal) 的介紹。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para><xref linkend="ports"/> 新增了介紹如何管理 binary 套件的資訊。</para>
+	<para><xref linkend="ports"/> 新增了介紹如何管理 Binary 套件的資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="x11"/> 經過全面改寫，著重於在 <trademark>XFree86</trademark> 4.X 上的現代桌面技術，如： <application>KDE</application> 和 <application>GNOME</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="boot"/> 更新相關內容。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="disks"/> 分別以兩個章節 <quote>磁碟</quote> 與 <quote>備份</quote> 來撰寫。我們認為這樣子會比單一章節來得容易瞭解。還有關於 RAID (包含硬體、軟體 RAID) 的段落也新增上去了。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="serialcomms"/> 架構重新改寫，並更新至 FreeBSD 4.X/5.X 的內容。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="ppp-and-slip"/> 有相當程度的更新。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="advanced-networking"/> 加入許多新內容。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="mail"/> 大量新增了設定 <application>sendmail</application> 的介紹。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><xref linkend="linuxemu"/> 增加許多有關安裝 <application><trademark class="registered">Oracle</trademark></application> 以及 <application><trademark class="registered">SAP</trademark> <trademark class="registered">R/3</trademark></application> 的介紹。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>此外，第二版還新加章節，以介紹下列新主題：</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para><xref linkend="config-tuning"/>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para><xref linkend="multimedia"/>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <bridgehead xml:id="preface-overview" renderas="sect1">本書架構</bridgehead>
 
   <para>本書主要分為五大部分，第一部份<emphasis>入門</emphasis>：介紹 FreeBSD 的安裝、基本操作。 讀者可根據自己的程度，循序或者跳過一些熟悉的主題來閱讀； 第二部分<emphasis>一般作業</emphasis>：介紹 FreeBSD 常用功能，這部分可以不按順序來讀。 每章前面都會有概述，概述會描述本章節涵蓋的內容和讀者應該已知的， 這主要是讓讀者可以挑喜歡的章節閱讀； 第三部分<emphasis>系統管理</emphasis>：介紹 FreeBSD 老手所感興趣的各種主題部分； 第四部分<emphasis>網路通訊</emphasis>：則包括網路和各式伺服器主題；而第五部分則為附錄包含各種有關 FreeBSD 的資源。</para>
 
   <variablelist>
 
 <!-- Part I - Introduction -->
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="introduction"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>向新手介紹 FreeBSD。該篇說明了 FreeBSD 計劃的歷史、目標和開發模式。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="bsdinstall"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>帶領使用者走一次使用 <application>bsdinstall</application> 在 FreeBSD 9.<replaceable>x</replaceable> 及之後版本的完整安裝流程。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="basics"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>涵蓋 FreeBSD 作業系統的基礎指令及功能。若您熟悉 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 或其他類 UNIX® 系統，您則可跳過此章。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="ports"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>涵蓋如何使用 FreeBSD 獨創的 <quote>Ports 套件集</quote> 與標準 Binary 套件安裝第三方軟體。</para>
+	<para>涵蓋如何使用 FreeBSD 獨創的 <quote>Port 套件集</quote> 與標準 Binary 套件安裝第三方軟體。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="x11"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>介紹 X Windows 系統概要及在 FreeBSD 上使用 X11，同時也會介紹常用的桌面環境如 <application>KDE</application> 與 <application>GNOME</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
 <!-- Part II Common Tasks -->
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="desktop"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>列出一些常用的桌面應用程式，例如：網頁瀏覽器、辦工工具並介紹如何安裝這些應用程式到 FreeBSD。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="multimedia"/></emphasis></term>
       <listitem>
 	<para>示範如何在您的系統設定音效及影像播放支援，同時會介紹幾個代表性的音訊及視訊應用程式。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="kernelconfig"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>說明為何需要設定新的核心並會提供設定、編譯與安裝的詳細操作說明。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="printing"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>介紹如何在 FreeBSD 管理印表機，包含橫幅頁面、列印帳務以及初始設定等資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="linuxemu"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>介紹 FreeBSD 的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 相容性功能，同時提供許多熱門的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 應用程式詳細的安裝操作說明，例如 <application><trademark class="registered">Oracle</trademark></application> 及 <application><trademark class="registered">Mathematica</trademark></application>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
 <!-- Part III - System Administration -->
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="config-tuning"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>介紹可供系統管理者用來調校 FreeBSD 系統的可用參數來最佳化效率，同時也介紹 FreeBSD 用到的各種設定檔以及到何處尋找這些設定檔。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="boot"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>介紹 FreeBSD 開機流程並說明如何使用設定選項控制開機流程。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="security"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>介紹許多可讓您的  FreeBSD 系統更安全的各種工具，包含 Kerberos, IPsec 及 OpenSSH。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="jails"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes the jails framework, and the improvements of
-	  jails over the traditional chroot support of FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>介紹 Jail Framework，以及 Jail 改進那些 FreeBSD 傳統 chroot 不足的地方。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="mac"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Explains what Mandatory Access Control (MAC) is and
-	  how this mechanism can be used to secure a FreeBSD
-	  system.</para>
+	<para>說明什麼是強制存取控制 (Mandatory Access Control, MAC) 及這個機制如何用來確保 FreeBSD 系統的安全。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="audit"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes what FreeBSD Event Auditing is, how it can be
-	  installed, configured, and how audit trails can be inspected
-	  or monitored.</para>
+	<para>介紹什麼事 FreeBSD 事件稽查，如何安裝與設定，以及如何檢查與監控稽查線索。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="disks"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes how to manage storage media and filesystems
-	  with FreeBSD.  This includes physical disks, RAID arrays,
-	  optical and tape media, memory-backed disks, and network
-	  filesystems.</para>
+	<para>介紹如何在 FreeBSD 管理儲存媒體及檔案系統，這包含了實體磁碟、RAID 陣列、光碟與磁帶媒體、記憶體為基礎的磁碟以及網路檔案系統。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="geom"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes what the GEOM framework in FreeBSD is and how
-	  to configure various supported RAID levels.</para>
+	<para>介紹在 FreeBSD 中的 GEOM Framework 是什麼，以及如何設定各種支援的 RAID 階層。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="filesystems"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Examines support of non-native file systems in FreeBSD,
-	  like the Z File System from <trademark>Sun</trademark>.</para>
+	<para>查看 FreeBSD 還支援那些非原生檔案系統，如 <trademark>Sun</trademark> 的 Z 檔案系統。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="virtualization"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes what virtualization systems offer, and how
-	  they can be used with FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>介紹虛擬化系統提供了那些功能，以及如何在 FreeBSD 上使用。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="l10n"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes how to use FreeBSD in languages other than
-	  English.  Covers both system and application level
-	  localization.</para>
+	<para>介紹如何在 FreeBSD 使用非英文的語言，這涵蓋了系統及應用層的在地化。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="updating-upgrading"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Explains the differences between FreeBSD-STABLE,
-	  FreeBSD-CURRENT, and FreeBSD releases.  Describes which users
-	  would benefit from tracking a development system and
-	  outlines that process.  Covers the methods users may take
-	  to update their system to the latest security
-	  release.</para>
+	<para>說明 FreeBSD-STABLE、FreeBSD-CURRENT 以及 FreeBSD 發佈版之間的差異，並介紹那些使用者適何追蹤開發系統以及程序的概述，這涵蓋了使用者更新系統到最新安全性發佈版本的方法。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="dtrace"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes how to configure and use the DTrace tool
-	  from <trademark>Sun</trademark> in FreeBSD.  Dynamic tracing can help locate
-	  performance issues, by performing real time system
-	  analysis.</para>
+	<para>介紹如何在 FreeBSD 設定及使用 <trademark>Sun</trademark> 的 DTrace 工具，動態追蹤可以透過執行真實時間系統分析來協助定位效能問題。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
 <!-- Part IV - Network Communications -->
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="serialcomms"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Explains how to connect terminals and modems to your
-	  FreeBSD system for both dial in and dial out
-	  connections.</para>
+	<para>介紹如何使用撥入及撥出連線到您的 FreeBSD 系統的終端機與數據機。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="ppp-and-slip"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes how to use PPP to connect to remote systems
-	  with FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>介紹如何在 FreeBSD 使用 PPP 來連線遠端的系統。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="mail"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Explains the different components of an email server
-	  and dives into simple configuration topics for the most
-	  popular mail server software:
-	  <application>sendmail</application>.</para>
+	<para>說明組成電子郵件伺服器的各種元件，並深入說明如何設定最熱門的郵件伺服器軟體：<application>sendmail</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="network-servers"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Provides detailed instructions and example configuration
-	  files to set up your FreeBSD machine as a network filesystem
-	  server, domain name server, network information system
-	  server, or time synchronization server.</para>
+	<para>提供詳細的操作說明與範例設定檔，讓您可安裝您的 FreeBSD 機器為網路檔案伺服器、網域名稱伺服器、網路資訊系統伺服器或時間同步伺服器。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="firewalls"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Explains the philosophy behind software-based firewalls
-	  and provides detailed information about the configuration
-	  of the different firewalls available for FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>說明軟體為基礎的防火牆背後的理念，並提供可用於 FreeBSD 中不同的防火牆設定的詳細資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="advanced-networking"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes many networking topics, including sharing an
-	  Internet connection with other computers on your LAN,
-	  advanced routing topics, wireless networking, <trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark>,
-	  ATM, IPv6, and much more.</para>
+	<para>介紹許多網路主題，包含在您的區域網路 (LAN) 分享網際網路連線給其他電腦、進階路由主題、無線網路、<trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark>、ATM、IPv6 以及更多相關主題。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
 <!-- Part V - Appendices -->
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="mirrors"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Lists different sources for obtaining FreeBSD media on
-	  CDROM or DVD as well as different sites on the Internet
-	  that allow you to download and install FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>列出取得 FreeBSD CDROM 或 DVD 媒體的各種來源，以及在網際網路上的各種網站，讓您可以下載並安裝 FreeBSD。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="bibliography"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">This book touches on many different subjects that may
-	  leave you hungry for a more detailed explanation.  The
-	  bibliography lists many excellent books that are referenced
-	  in the text.</para>
+	<para>本書觸及許多不同主題，可能會讓您想更深入的了解，參考書目列出了在文中引用的許多優秀書籍。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="eresources"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Describes the many forums available for FreeBSD users to
-	  post questions and engage in technical conversations about
-	  FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>介紹了可讓 FreeBSD 使用者提出問題以及參與有關 FreeBSD 技術會談的許多論壇。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis><xref linkend="pgpkeys"/></emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Lists the PGP fingerprints of several FreeBSD
-	  Developers.</para>
+	<para>列出了數個 FreeBSD 開發人員的 PGP 指紋。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
   </variablelist>
 
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-conv" renderas="sect1">本書的編排體裁</bridgehead>
 
     <para>為方便閱讀本書，以下是一些本書所遵循的編排體裁：</para>
 
     <bridgehead xml:id="preface-conv-typographic" renderas="sect2">文字編排體裁</bridgehead>
 
   <variablelist>
     <varlistentry>
       <term><emphasis>斜體字</emphasis></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para><emphasis>斜體字</emphasis>用於：檔名、目錄、網址(URL)、 強調語氣、以及第一次提及的技術詞彙。</para>
+	<para><emphasis>斜體字</emphasis>用於：檔名、目錄、網址 (URL)、 強調語氣、以及第一次提及的技術詞彙。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><literal>等寬字</literal></term>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><literal>等寬字</literal>用於： 錯誤訊息、指令、環境變數、Port 名稱、主機名稱、帳號、群組、裝置名稱、變數、程式碼等。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
 
     <varlistentry>
       <term><application>粗體字</application></term>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>以<keycap>粗體字</keycap>表示：應用程式、命令、按鍵。</para>
+	<para>以<keycap>粗體字</keycap>表示：應用程式、指令、按鍵。</para>
       </listitem>
     </varlistentry>
   </variablelist>
 
 <!-- Var list -->
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-conv-commands" renderas="sect2">使用者輸入</bridgehead>
 
   <para>鍵盤輸入以<keycap>粗體字</keycap>表示，以便與一般文字做區隔。 組合鍵是指同時按下一些按鍵，我們以 `<literal>+</literal>' 來表示連接，像是：</para>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">
     <keycombo action="simul">
       <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
       <keycap>Alt</keycap>
       <keycap>Del</keycap></keycombo></para>
 
   <para>是說，一起按 <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>、 <keycap>Alt</keycap> 以及 <keycap>Del</keycap> 鍵。</para>
 
-  <para>若要逐一按鍵，那麼會以逗號(,)來表示，像是：</para>
+  <para>若要逐一按鍵，那麼會以逗號 (,) 來表示，像是：</para>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">
     <keycombo action="simul">
       <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
       <keycap>X</keycap>
     </keycombo>,
     <keycombo action="simul">
       <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
       <keycap>S</keycap></keycombo></para>
 
   <para>是說：先同時按下 <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> 與 <keycap>X</keycap> 鍵， 然後放開後再同時按 <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> 與 <keycap>S</keycap> 鍵。</para>
 
 <!-- How to type in key stokes, etc.. -->
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-conv-examples" renderas="sect2">範例</bridgehead>
 
-  <para>範例以  <filename>C:\&gt;</filename> 為開頭代表 <trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> 的指令。 若沒有特殊情況的話，這些指令應該是在 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 環境的 <quote>命令提示字元(Command Prompt)</quote> 視窗內執行。</para>
+  <para>範例以  <filename>C:\&gt;</filename> 為開頭代表 <trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> 的指令。 若沒有特殊情況的話，這些指令應該是在 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 環境的 <quote>指令提示字元 (Command Prompt)</quote> 視窗內執行。</para>
 
   <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>E:\&gt;</prompt> <userinput>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:</userinput></screen>
 
   <para>範例以 <prompt>#</prompt> 為開頭代表在 FreeBSD 中以超級使用者權限來執行的指令。 你可以先以 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 登入系統並下指令，或是以你自己的帳號登入再使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得超級使用者權限。</para>
 
   <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0</userinput></screen>
 
   <para>範例以 <prompt>%</prompt> 為開頭代表在 FreeBSD 中以一般使用者帳號執行的指令。 除非有提到其他用法，否則都是預設為 C-shell 語法，用來設定環境變數以及下其他指令的意思。</para>
 
   <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>top</userinput></screen>
 
   <bridgehead xml:id="preface-acknowledgements" renderas="sect1">銘謝</bridgehead>
 
   <para>您所看到的這本書是經過數百個分散在世界各地的人所努力而來的結果。 無論他們只是糾正一些錯誤或提交完整的章節，所有的點滴貢獻都是非常寶貴有用的。</para>
 
   <para>也有一些公司透過提供資金讓作者專注於撰稿、提供出版資金等模式來支持文件的寫作。 其中，BSDi (之後併入 <link xlink:href="http://www.windriver.com">Wind River Systems</link>) 資助 FreeBSD 文件計劃成員來專職改善這本書直到 2000 年 3 月第一版的出版。(ISBN 1-57176-241-8) Wind River Systems 同時資助其他作者來對輸出架構做很多改進，以及給文章增加一些附加章節。這項工作結束於 2001 年 11 月第二版。(ISBN 1-57176-303-1) 在 2003-2004 兩年中，<link xlink:href="http://www.freebsdmall.com">FreeBSD Mall, Inc</link> 把報酬支付給改進這本手冊以使第三版印刷版本能夠出版的志工。</para>
 
 </preface>
 
 
   <part xml:id="getting-started">
     <title>入門</title>
 
     <partintro>
       <para>這部份是提供給初次使用 FreeBSD 的使用者和系統管理者。 這些章節包括：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>介紹 FreeBSD 給您。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>在安裝過程給您指引。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>教您 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 的基礎及原理。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>展示給您看如何安裝豐富的 FreeBSD 的應用軟體。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>向您介紹 X，<trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 的視窗系統以及詳細的桌面環境設定，讓您更有生產力。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>我們試著儘可能的讓這段文字的參考連結數目降到最低，讓您在讀使用手冊的這部份時可以不太需要常常前後翻頁。</para>
     </partintro>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="introduction">
 
   <info>
     <title>簡介</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	  <surname>Mock</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten
 	  by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="introduction-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>非常感謝您對 FreeBSD 感興趣！以下章節涵蓋 FreeBSD 計劃的各方面：比如它的歷史、目標、開發模式等等。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 與其他作業系統之間的關係。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 計劃的歷史。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 計劃的目標。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 開源開發模式的基礎概念。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>當然囉，還有 <quote>FreeBSD</quote> 這名字的由來。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="nutshell">
     <title>歡迎使用 FreeBSD!</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>4.4BSD-Lite</primary></indexterm>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 是一個從 4.4BSD-Lite 衍生出而能在以 Intel (x86 與 <trademark class="registered">Itanium</trademark>), AMD64, Sun <trademark class="registered">UltraSPARC</trademark> 為基礎的電腦上執行的作業系統。同時，移植到其他平台的工作也在進行中。 對於本計劃歷史的介紹，請看 <link linkend="history">FreeBSD 歷史</link>， 對於 FreeBSD 的最新版本介紹，請看 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases">最新的發行版本</link>。 若打算對於 FreeBSD 計劃有所貢獻的話 (程式碼、硬體、經費)， 請看 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/zh_TW.UTF-8/articles/contributing/index.html">如何對 FreeBSD 有貢獻</link>。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 是一個從 4.4BSD-Lite 衍生出而能在以 Intel (x86 與 <trademark class="registered">Itanium</trademark>), AMD64, Sun <trademark class="registered">UltraSPARC</trademark> 為基礎的電腦上執行的作業系統。同時，移植到其他平台的工作也在進行中。 對於本計劃歷史的介紹，請看 <link linkend="history">FreeBSD 歷史</link>， 對於 FreeBSD 的最新版本介紹，請看 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases">最新的發行版</link>。 若打算對於 FreeBSD 計劃有所貢獻的話 (程式碼、硬體、經費)， 請看 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/zh_TW.UTF-8/articles/contributing/index.html">如何對 FreeBSD 貢獻</link>。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="os-overview">
       <title>FreeBSD 能做什麼？</title>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 提供給你許多先進功能。這些功能包括：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>動態優先權調整的 <emphasis>先佔式多工</emphasis> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>preemptive multitasking</primary>
 	    </indexterm> 能夠確保，即使在系統負擔很重的情況下，程式執行平順並且應用程式與使用者公平地共享資源。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>多人共用</emphasis><indexterm>
 	      <primary>multi-user facilities</primary>
 	    </indexterm> 代表著許多人可以同時使用一個 FreeBSD 系統來處理各自的事務。 系統的硬體周邊 (如印表機及磁帶機) 也可以讓所有的使用者適當地分享。 也可以針對各別使用者或一群使用者的系統資源，予以設限，以保護系統不致被過度使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>強大的 <emphasis>TCP/IP 網路</emphasis><indexterm>
 	      <primary>TCP/IP networking</primary>
-	    </indexterm> 功能可支援許多業界標準，如：SCTP、DHCP、NFS、NIS、PPP、SLIP、IPSec、IPv6 的支援，也就是說 FreeBSD 可以容易地跟其他作業系統透過網路共同運作，或是當作企業的伺服器用途 ，例如提供遠端檔案共享(NFS)及電子郵件等服務， 或是讓您的企業連上網際網路並提供 WWW、FTP、路由及防火牆 (安全性) 等必備服務。</para>
+	    </indexterm> 功能可支援許多業界標準，如：SCTP、DHCP、NFS、NIS、PPP、SLIP、IPSec、IPv6 的支援，也就是說 FreeBSD 可以容易地跟其他作業系統透過網路共同運作，或是當作企業的伺服器用途 ，例如提供遠端檔案共享 (NFS) 及電子郵件等服務， 或是讓您的企業連上網際網路並提供 WWW、FTP、路由及防火牆 (安全性) 等必備服務。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>記憶體保護</emphasis> 能確保程式 (或使用者) 不會互相干擾，即使任何程式有不正常的運作，都不會影響其他程式的執行。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>業界標準的 <emphasis>X Window 系統</emphasis><indexterm>
 		<primary>X Window System</primary>
 	      </indexterm> (X11R7) 可以在常見的便宜 VGA 顯示卡/螢幕， 提供了圖形化的使用者介面 (GUI)，並且包括了完整的原始程式碼。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><indexterm>
 	      <primary>binary compatibility</primary>
 	      <secondary>Linux</secondary>
 	    </indexterm> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>binary compatibility</primary>
 	      <secondary>SCO</secondary>
 	    </indexterm> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>binary compatibility</primary>
 	      <secondary>SVR4</secondary>
 	    </indexterm> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>binary compatibility</primary>
 	      <secondary>BSD/OS</secondary>
 	    </indexterm> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>binary compatibility</primary>
 	      <secondary>NetBSD</secondary>
 	    </indexterm> <emphasis>Binary 相容性</emphasis> 可執行許多其他作業系統 (如： Linux、SCO、SVR4、BSDI 和 NetBSD) 的可執行檔。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>數以萬計的 <emphasis>立即可以執行</emphasis> 的應用程式，這些都可透過 FreeBSD 的 <emphasis>ports</emphasis> 及 <emphasis>套件</emphasis> 管理機制來取得。 不再需要費心到網路上到處搜尋所需要的軟體。</para>
+	  <para>數以萬計的 <emphasis>立即可以執行</emphasis> 的應用程式，這些都可透過 FreeBSD 的 <emphasis>Port</emphasis> 及 <emphasis>套件</emphasis> 管理機制來取得。 不再需要費心到網路上到處搜尋所需要的軟體。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>在網路上有數以千計 <emphasis>易於移植</emphasis> 的應用程式。FreeBSD 的原始程式碼與許多常見的商業版 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 系統都相容， 所以大部分的程式都只需要很少的修改(或根本不用修改) ，就可以編譯執行。</para>
+	  <para>在網路上有數以千計 <emphasis>易於移植</emphasis> 的應用程式。FreeBSD 的原始程式碼與許多常見的商業版 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 系統都相容， 所以大部分的程式都只需要很少的修改 (或根本不用修改) ，就可以編譯執行。</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>需要時才置換的 <emphasis>虛擬記憶體</emphasis><indexterm>
+	  <para>依需要換頁的 <emphasis>虛擬記憶體</emphasis><indexterm>
 	      <primary>virtual memory</primary>
-	    </indexterm> 及 <quote>merged VM/buffer cache</quote> 的設計， 這點在系統中有用去大量記憶體的程式執行時，仍然有不錯的效率表現。 </para>
+	    </indexterm> 及 <quote>合併式 VM/buffer 快取</quote> 設計，有效的滿足了需使用大量記憶體的程式，同時也能維持與其他使用者的互動。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>支援 CPU 的<emphasis>對稱多工處理(SMP)</emphasis><indexterm>
+	  <para>支援 CPU 的<emphasis>對稱多工處理 (SMP)</emphasis><indexterm>
 	      <primary>Symmetric Multi-Processing
 		(SMP)</primary>
 	    </indexterm>：可以支援多 CPU 的電腦系統。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><indexterm>
 	      <primary>compilers</primary>
 	      <secondary>C</secondary>
 	    </indexterm><indexterm>
 	      <primary>compilers</primary>
 	      <secondary>C++</secondary>
-	    </indexterm>完全相容的 <emphasis>C</emphasis>、<emphasis>C++</emphasis> 以及 Fortran 的環境和其他開發工具。 以及其他許多可供進階研發的程式語言也收集在 ports 和套件。</para>
+	    </indexterm>完全相容的 <emphasis>C</emphasis>、<emphasis>C++</emphasis> 以及 Fortran 的環境和其他開發工具。 以及其他許多可供進階研發的程式語言也收集在 Port 和套件集。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>整個系統都有 <emphasis>原始程式碼</emphasis><indexterm>
 	      <primary>source code</primary>
 	    </indexterm>， 這讓你對作業環境擁有最完全的掌握度。 既然能擁有完全開放的系統，何苦被特定封閉軟體所約束，任廠商擺佈呢？</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>廣泛且豐富的 <emphasis>線上文件</emphasis>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>當然囉，還不止如此！</emphasis></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 系統乃是基於美國加州大學柏克萊分校的電腦系統研究組 (Computer Systems Research Group 也就是 CSRG) 所發行的 4.4BSD-Lite<indexterm>
 	  <primary>4.4BSD-Lite</primary>
 	</indexterm>，以及基於 BSD 系統開發的優良傳統。 除了由 CSRG 所提供的高品質的成果， 為了提供可處理真正具負荷的工作， FreeBSD 計劃也投入了數千小時以上的細部調整， 以能獲得最好的執行效率以及系統的穩定度。 正當許多商業上的巨人正努力地希望能提供效能及穩定時，FreeBSD 已經具備這樣的特質，並具有其他地方沒有的尖端功能。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 的運用範圍無限，其實完全限制在你的想像力上。 從軟體的開發到工廠自動化，或是人造衛星上面的天線的方位角度的遠端控制； 這些功能若可以用商用的 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 產品來達成， 那麼極有可能使用 FreeBSD 也能辦到！ FreeBSD 也受益於來自於全球各研究中心及大學所開發的數千個高品質的軟體 ，這些通常只需要花費很少的費用或根本就是免費的。 當然也有商業軟體，而且出現的數目是與日俱增。</para>
 
       <para>由於每個人都可以取得 FreeBSD 的原始程式碼， 這個系統可以被量身訂做成能執行任何原本完全無法想像的功能或計劃， 而對於從各廠商取得的作業系統通常沒有辦法這樣地被修改。 以下提供一些人們使用 FreeBSD 的例子：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para><emphasis>網際網路服務：</emphasis> FreeBSD 內建強勁的網路功能使它成為網路服務(如下例)的理想平台：</para>
+	  <para><emphasis>網際網路服務：</emphasis> FreeBSD 內建強勁的網路功能使它成為網路服務 (如下例) 的理想平台：</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>全球資訊網伺服器<indexterm>
 		  <primary>web servers</primary>
 		</indexterm> (標準的或更安全的 [SSL])</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>IPv4 及 IPv6 路由</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>防火牆<indexterm>
 		  <primary>firewall</primary>
 		</indexterm>以及 NAT<indexterm>
 		  <primary>NAT</primary>
-		</indexterm> (<quote>IP masquerading</quote>) 通訊閘。</para>
+		</indexterm> (<quote>IP 偽裝</quote>) 通訊閘。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>檔案傳輸協定伺服器<indexterm>
 		  <primary>FTP servers</primary>
 		</indexterm></para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para><indexterm>
 		  <primary>electronic mail</primary>
 		  <see>email</see>
 		</indexterm><indexterm>
 		  <primary>email</primary>
 		</indexterm> 電子郵件伺服器</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>還有更多...</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>教育：</emphasis>若您是資工相關領域的學生，再也沒有比使用 FreeBSD 能學到更多作業系統、計算機結構、及網路的方法了。 另外如果你想利用電腦來處理一些<emphasis>其他</emphasis>的工作，還有一些如 CAD、 數學運算以及圖形處理軟體等可以免費地取得使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>研究：</emphasis>有了完整的原始程式碼，FreeBSD 是研究作業系統及電腦科學的極佳環境。 具有免費且自由取得特性的 FreeBSD 也使得一個分置兩地的合作計劃，不必擔心版權及系統開放性的問題， 而能自在的交流。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>網路：</emphasis> 你如果需要 路由器<indexterm>
 	      <primary>router</primary>
 	    </indexterm>、名稱伺服器 (DNS)<indexterm>
 	      <primary>DNS Server</primary>
 	    </indexterm> 或安全的防火牆， FreeBSD 可以輕易的將你沒有用到的 386 或 486 PC 變身成為絕佳的伺服器，甚至具有過濾封包的功能。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>嵌入式：</emphasis> FreeBSD 是一套可用來建立嵌入式系統的傑出平台。 <indexterm>
 	      <primary>embedded</primary>
 	    </indexterm> 支援 <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">MIPS</trademark> 以及 <trademark class="registered">PowerPC</trademark> 平台，再加上健全的網路環境、尖端的功能以及自由的 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/introduction.html#bsd-license-restrictions">BSD 授權條款</link>，FreeBSD 成為用來建置嵌入式路由器、防火牆及其他裝置的絕佳基礎。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><indexterm>
 	      <primary>X Window System</primary>
 	    </indexterm> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>GNOME</primary>
 	    </indexterm> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>KDE</primary>
 	    </indexterm> <emphasis>桌面:</emphasis> FreeBSD 同時也是低成本桌面解決方案中不錯的選擇，使用了免費的 X11 伺服器。FreeBSD 提供許多開源桌面環境可選擇，包含了標準 <application>GNOME</application> 及 <application>KDE</application> 圖型化使用者介面。FreeBSD 甚至可以透過中央伺服器做 <quote>無磁碟</quote> 開機，讓個人工作站變的更便宜、更易於管理。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><emphasis>軟體開發：</emphasis> 基本安裝的 FreeBSD 就包含了完整的程式開發工具，如 C/C++<indexterm>
 	      <primary>Compiler</primary>
-	    </indexterm> 編譯器及除錯器。 透過 port 與套件管理系統也可支援需多其他語言。</para>
+	    </indexterm> 編譯器及除錯器。 透過 Port 與套件管理系統也可支援需多其他語言。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>你可以經由燒錄 CD-ROM、DVD 或是從 FTP 站上抓回 FreeBSD。 詳情請參閱 <xref linkend="mirrors"/> 取得 FreeBSD。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="introduction-nutshell-users">
       <title>誰在用 FreeBSD？</title>
 
       <indexterm><primary>使用者</primary> <secondary>執行 FreeBSD 的大型站台</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 先進的功能、成熟的安全性、可預測的發佈週期以及自由的授權條款，讓 FreeBSD 已經被用來做為建立許多商業、開源應用、裝置以及產品的平台，有許多世界上最大的資訊公司使用 FreeBSD：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.apache.org/">Apache</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.apache.org/">Apache</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Apache</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The Apache Software Foundation runs most of
-	    its public facing infrastructure, including possibly one
-	    of the largest SVN repositories in the world with over 1.4
-	    million commits, on FreeBSD.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - Apache 軟體基金會中大部分面對大眾的基礎設施，包括可能是世界上最大的 SVN 檔案庫 (擁有超過 140 萬次提交) 都是在 FreeBSD 上運作。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.apple.com/">Apple</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.apple.com/">Apple</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Apple</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - OS X borrows heavily from FreeBSD for the
-	    network stack, virtual file system, and many userland
-	    components.  Apple iOS also contains elements borrowed
-	    from FreeBSD.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - OS X 大量借鑒 FreeBSD 的網路 Stack、虛擬檔案系統以及許多使用者空間的元件。Apple iOS 中含有從 FreeBSD 借鑒來的元素。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.cisco.com/">Cisco</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.cisco.com/">Cisco</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Cisco</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - IronPort network security and anti-spam
-	    appliances run a modified FreeBSD kernel.</para>
+	    </indexterm> -  IronPort 網路安全及反垃圾郵件設備是採用改良後 FreeBSD 核心來運作。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.citrix.com/">Citrix</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.citrix.com/">Citrix</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Citrix</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The NetScaler line of security appliances
-	    provide layer 4-7 load balancing, content caching,
-	    application firewall, secure VPN, and mobile cloud network
-	    access, along with the power of a FreeBSD shell.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 安全設備的 NetScaler 產品線提供的第 4-7 層的負載均衡、內容快取、應用層防火牆、安全的 VPN 以及行動雲端網路存取，皆運用了 FreeBSD Shell 強大的功能。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.dell.com/KACE">Dell
-	      KACE</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.dell.com/KACE">Dell KACE</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Dell KACE</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The KACE system management appliances run
-	    FreeBSD because of its reliability, scalability, and the
-	    community that supports its continued development.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - KACE 系統管理設備中運作了 FreeBSD，因為 FreeBSD 的可靠性、可擴展性以及支持其持續發展的社群。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.experts-exchange.com/">Experts
-	      Exchange</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.experts-exchange.com/">Experts Exchange</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Experts Exchange</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - All public facing web servers are powered
-	    by FreeBSD and they make extensive use of jails to isolate
-	    development and testing environments without the overhead
-	    of virtualization.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 所有面對大眾的 Web 伺服器皆由 FreeBSD 驅動，且他們大量使用 Jail 來隔離開發與測試環境，減少了虛擬化的額外開銷。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.isilon.com/">Isilon</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.isilon.com/">Isilon</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Isilon</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - Isilon's enterprise storage appliances
-	    are based on FreeBSD.  The extremely liberal FreeBSD license
-	    allowed Isilon to integrate their intellectual property
-	    throughout the kernel and focus on building their product
-	    instead of an operating system.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - Isilon 的企業存儲設備以 FreeBSD 為基礎。非常自由的 FreeBSD 授權條款讓 Isilon 整合了它們的智慧財產到整個核心，並專注打造自己的產品，而不是一個作業系統。</para>
 
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ixsystems.com/">iXsystems</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.ixsystems.com/">iXsystems</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>iXsystems</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The TrueNAS line of unified storage
-	    appliances is based on FreeBSD.  In addition to their
-	    commercial products, iXsystems also manages development of
-	    the open source projects PC-BSD and FreeNAS.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 統合存儲 (Unified Storage) 設備的 TrueNAS 產品線是以 FreeBSD 為基礎。除了該公司自己的商業產品外，iXsystems 也管理著 PC-BSD 和 FreeNAS 兩個開源計劃的開發。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.juniper.net/">Juniper</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.juniper.net/">Juniper</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Juniper</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The JunOS operating system that powers all
-	    Juniper networking gear (including routers, switches,
-	    security, and networking appliances) is based on FreeBSD.
-	    Juniper is one of many vendors that showcases the
-	    symbiotic relationship between the project and vendors of
-	    commercial products.  Improvements generated at Juniper
-	    are upstreamed into FreeBSD to reduce the complexity of
-	    integrating new features from FreeBSD back into JunOS in the
-	    future.</para>
+	    </indexterm> -  JunOS 作業系統驅動了所有的 Juniper 網絡設備 (包括路由器，交換器，安全與網絡設備) 便是以 FreeBSD 為基礎。Juniper 在眾多廠商之中，展現了計劃與商業產品供應商之間的共生關係。由 Juniper 所開發的改進內容會回饋給 FreeBSD 來降低未來新功能從  FreeBSD 整合回 JunOS 的複雜性。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.mcafee.com/">McAfee</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.mcafee.com/">McAfee</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>McAfee</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - SecurOS, the basis of McAfee enterprise
-	    firewall products including Sidewinder is based on
-	    FreeBSD.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - SecurOS 是 McAfee 企業防火牆產品的基礎，其中包含了 Sidewinder ，也是以 FreeBSD 為基礎。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.netapp.com/">NetApp</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.netapp.com/">NetApp</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>NetApp</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The Data ONTAP GX line of storage
-	    appliances are based on FreeBSD.  In addition, NetApp has
-	    contributed back many features, including the new BSD
-	    licensed hypervisor, bhyve.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 存儲設備中的 Data ONTAP GX 產品線是以 FreeBSD 為基礎。除此之外，NetApp 還貢獻了回 FreeBSD 許多功能，包括新 BSD 條款授權的 hypervisor, bhyve。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.netflix.com/">Netflix</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.netflix.com/">Netflix</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Netflix</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The OpenConnect appliance that Netflix
-	    uses to stream movies to its customers is based on FreeBSD.
-	    Netflix has made extensive contributions to the codebase
-	    and works to maintain a zero delta from mainline FreeBSD.
-	    Netflix OpenConnect appliances are responsible for
-	    delivering more than 32% of all Internet traffic in North
-	    America.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - Netflix 用來以串流傳送電影到客戶的 OpenConnect 設備是以 FreeBSD 為基礎。 Netflix 也做了大量貢獻到程式碼庫，並致力於維持與主線 FreeBSD 的零修正關係。Netflix 的 OpenConnect 設備負責了北美所有的網路流量 32％ 以上。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.sandvine.com/">Sandvine</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.sandvine.com/">Sandvine</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Sandvine</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - Sandvine uses FreeBSD as the basis of their
-	    high performance realtime network processing platforms
-	    that make up their intelligent network policy control
-	    products.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - Sandvine 使用 FreeBSD 作為它們的高性能即時網路處理平台，來建立它門的智慧網路策​​略控制產品。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.sony.com/">Sony</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.sony.com/">Sony</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Sony</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The PlayStation 4 gaming console runs a
-	    modified version of FreeBSD.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - PlayStation 4 遊戲主機使用了修改過的 FreeBSD 版本來運作。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.sophos.com/">Sophos</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.sophos.com/">Sophos</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Sophos</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The Sophos Email Appliance product is based
-	    on a hardened FreeBSD and scans inbound mail for spam and
-	    viruses, while also monitoring outbound mail for malware
-	    as well as the accidental loss of sensitive
-	    information.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - Sophos 電子郵件設備產品是以加強防護 (Hardened) 的 FreeBSD 為基礎，可掃描入站郵件中的垃圾郵件和病毒，同時也可監控出站郵件中的惡意軟體及敏感資訊。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.spectralogic.com/">Spectra
-	      Logic</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.spectralogic.com/">Spectra Logic</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Spectra Logic</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - The nTier line of archive grade storage
-	    appliances run FreeBSD and OpenZFS.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 儲藏級儲存設備的 nTier 產品線以 FreeBSD 和 OpenZFS 來運作。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.weather.com/">The Weather
-	      Channel</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.weather.com/">The Weather Channel</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>The Weather Channel</primary>
 
-	    </indexterm> - The IntelliStar appliance that is installed
-	    at each local cable providers headend and is responsible
-	    for injecting local weather forecasts into the cable TV
-	    network's programming runs FreeBSD.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 被安裝在各地有線電視營運商前端，負責加入當地天氣預報到有線電視網路節目的 IntelliStar 設備便是使用 FreeBSD。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.verisign.com/">Verisign</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.verisign.com/">Verisign</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Verisign</primary>
 
-	    </indexterm> - Verisign is responsible for operating the
-	    .com and .net root domain registries as well as the
-	    accompanying DNS infrastructure.  They rely on a number of
-	    different network operating systems including FreeBSD to
-	    ensure there is no common point of failure in their
-	    infrastructure.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - VeriSign 主要經營 .com 與 .net 根網域名稱註冊業務以及隨附的 DNS 基礎設施運作。這些基礎設施的運作仰賴各種不同的網路作業系統包括 FreeBSD 來確保不會有單點故障的問題。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.voxer.com/">Voxer</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.voxer.com/">Voxer</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Voxer</primary>
 
-	    </indexterm> - Voxer powers their mobile voice messaging
-	    platform with ZFS on FreeBSD.  Voxer switched from a Solaris
-	    derivative to FreeBSD because of its superior documentation,
-	    larger and more active community, and more developer
-	    friendly environment.  In addition to critical features
-	    like <acronym>ZFS</acronym> and DTrace, FreeBSD also offers
-	    TRIM support for <acronym>ZFS</acronym>.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - Voxer 使用了 FreeBSD 的 ZFS 來驅動行動語音通訊平台，讓 Voxer 從 Solaris 改使用 FreeBSD 的原因是 FreeBSD 擁有詳盡的文件、更大型且活躍的社群、較便利的開發人員環境。除了提供關鍵的 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 和 DTrace 功能之外 FreeBSD 的 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 也支援了 TRIM。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.whatsapp.com/">WhatsApp</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.whatsapp.com/">WhatsApp</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>WhatsApp</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - When WhatsApp needed a platform that would
-	    be able to handle more than 1 million concurrent TCP
-	    connections per server, they chose FreeBSD.  They then
-	    proceeded to scale past 2.5 million connections per
-	    server.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 當 WhatsApp 面臨需要一個每台伺服器能夠同時處理超過 100 萬個 TCP 連線的平台時，它們選擇了 FreeBSD。它們接著擴大規模到每台伺服器處理超過 250 萬的連線。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://wheelsystems.com/">Wheel
-	      Systems</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://wheelsystems.com/">Wheel Systems</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>Wheel Systems</primary>
 
-	    </indexterm> - The FUDO security appliance allows
-	    enterprises to monitor, control, record, and audit
-	    contractors and administrators who work on their systems.
-	    Based on all of the best security features of FreeBSD
-	    including ZFS, GELI, Capsicum, HAST, and
-	    auditdistd.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - FUDO 安全性設備讓企業可以監控、控制、記錄以及稽查在其系統中作業的承包商與管理員。這些功能皆是以 FreeBSD 最佳的安全性功能為基礎，包括 ZFS, GELI, Capsicum, HAST 及 auditdistd。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 也催生了數個相關的開源計劃：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://bsdrp.net/">BSD
-	      Router</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://bsdrp.net/">BSD Router</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>BSD Router</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A FreeBSD based replacement for large
-	    enterprise routers designed to run on standard PC
-	    hardware.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 以 FreeBSD 為基礎的大型企業路由器替代方案，專門設計為可在標準 PC 硬體上運作。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.freenas.org/">FreeNAS</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.freenas.org/">FreeNAS</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>FreeNAS</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A customized FreeBSD designed to be used as a
-	    network file server appliance.  Provides a python based
-	    web interface to simplify the management of both the UFS
-	    and ZFS file systems.  Includes support for NFS, SMB/CIFS,
-	    AFP, FTP, and iSCSI.  Includes an extensible plugin system
-	    based on FreeBSD jails.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 專為網路檔案伺服器設備使用所設計的 FreeBSD。提供了以 Python 為基礎的網頁介面來簡化 UFS 與 ZFS 檔案系統的管理，支援了 NFS、SMB/ CIFS、AFP、FTP 與 iSCSI，還有以 FreeBSD Jail 為基礎的套件系統。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ghostbsd.org/">GhostBSD</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.ghostbsd.org/">GhostBSD</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>GhostBSD</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A desktop oriented distribution of FreeBSD
-	    bundled with the Gnome desktop environment.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 採用 Gnome 桌面環境的 FreeBSD 發行版。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://mfsbsd.vx.sk/">mfsBSD</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://mfsbsd.vx.sk/">mfsBSD</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>mfsBSD</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A toolkit for building a FreeBSD system image
-	    that runs entirely from memory.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 用來建置可完全從記憶體執行 FreeBSD 系統映像檔工具。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.nas4free.org/">NAS4Free</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.nas4free.org/">NAS4Free</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>NAS4Free</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A file server distribution based on FreeBSD
-	    with a PHP powered web interface.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 以 FreeBSD 及 PHP 驅動網頁介面為基礎的檔案伺服器。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.opnsense.org/">OPNSense</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.opnsense.org/">OPNSense</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>OPNsense</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - OPNsense is an open source, easy-to-use and
-	    easy-to-build FreeBSD based firewall and routing platform.
-	    OPNsense includes most of the features available in
-	    expensive commercial firewalls, and more in many cases.
-	    It brings the rich feature set of commercial offerings
-	    with the benefits of open and verifiable sources.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - OPNsense 是一個以 FreeBSD 為基礎的開源、易於使用及易於建置的防火牆和路由平台。OPNsense 有大多數在昂貴的商業防火牆上才有的功能。它帶來了商業產品的豐富功能集，同時擁有開放和安全的來源。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.pcbsd.org/">PC-BSD</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.pcbsd.org/">PC-BSD</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>PC-BSD</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A customized version of FreeBSD geared towards
-	    desktop users with graphical utilities to exposing the
-	    power of FreeBSD to all users.  Designed to ease the
-	    transition of Windows and OS X users.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 訂製版本的 FreeBSD，裝備了給桌面使用者使用的圖型化工具來展示 FreeBSD 強大的功能給所有使用者，專門設計來緩解使用者在 Windows 與 OS X 間的過渡。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.pfsense.org/">pfSense</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://www.pfsense.org/">pfSense</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>pfSense</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - A firewall distribution based on FreeBSD with
-	    a huge array of features and extensive IPv6
-	    support.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 以 FreeBSD 為基礎的防火牆發行版，支援巨型陣列及大規模 IPv6。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://zrouter.org/">ZRouter</link>
-	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	  <para><link xlink:href="http://zrouter.org/">ZRouter</link> <indexterm>
 	      <primary>ZRouter</primary>
-	    </indexterm> - An open source alternative firmware for
-	    embedded devices based on FreeBSD.  Designed to replace the
-	    proprietary firmware on off-the-shelf routers.</para>
+	    </indexterm> - 嵌入式裝置韌體的開源替代方案，以 FreeBSD 為基礎，專門設計來取代現成路由器上的專用韌體。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 也同時被用來驅動一些網際網路上的大型網站，包括：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.yahoo.com/">Yahoo!</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Yahoo!</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.yandex.ru/">Yandex</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Yandex</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.rambler.ru/">Rambler</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Rambler</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.sina.com/">Sina</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Sina</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.pair.com/">Pair
 	      Networks</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Pair Networks</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.sony.co.jp/">Sony
 	      Japan</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Sony Japan</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.netcraft.com/">Netcraft</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Netcraft</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://signup.netflix.com/openconnect">Netflix</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Netflix</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.163.com/">NetEase</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>NetEase</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.weathernews.com/">Weathernews</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>Weathernews</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.telehouse.com/">TELEHOUSE
 	      America</link>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	      <primary>TELEHOUSE America</primary>
 	    </indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>還有許多的應用。維基百科也維護了一份 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_products_based_on_FreeBSD">以 FreeBSD 為基礎的產品</link>。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="history">
     <title>關於 FreeBSD 計劃</title>
 
     <para>接下來講的是 FreeBSD 計劃的背景，包含歷史、計劃目標以及開發模式。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="intro-history">
       <title>FreeBSD 歷史簡介</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>386BSD Patchkit</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Hubbard, Jordan</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Williams, Nate</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Grimes, Rod</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>FreeBSD Project</primary>
 	<secondary>history</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>FreeBSD 計畫的想法是在 1993 年初所形成的， 那是源自於維護一組『非官方 386BSD 的修正工具』計劃的三個協調維護人 Nate Williams，Rod Grimes 和 Jordan Hubbard。</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 計畫起源於 1993 年初， 那是源自於維護一組『非官方 386BSD 修正工具』計劃的最後三個協調人 Nate Williams，Rod Grimes 和 Jordan Hubbard。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>386BSD</primary></indexterm>
-      <para>最初的目標是做出一份 386BSD 綜合修正的 snapshot 版，以便修正當時一堆 patchkit 都不容易解決的問題。有些人可能還記得早期的計劃名稱叫做 386BSD 0.5 或 386BSD Interim 就是這個原因。</para>
+      <para>最初的目標是做出一份 386BSD 的中間版本的快照 (Snapshot) 來修正使用修正工具 (Patchkit) 機制無法解決的數個問題，也因此早期的計劃名稱叫做 386BSD 0.5 或 386BSD Interim 便是這個原因。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Jolitz, Bill</primary></indexterm>
-      <para>386BSD 是 Bill Jolitz 的作業系統，在當時就已有約一年的分裂討論。 當該修正工具 (patchkit) 日漸龐雜得令人不舒服，我們無異議地同意要作一些事了， 並決定提供一份臨時性的 <quote>淨化版(cleanup)</quote> 來幫助 Bill。 然而，由於 Bill Jolitz 忽然決定取消其對該計劃的認可，且沒有明確指出未來的打算， 所以該計劃便突然面臨斷炊危機。</para>
+      <para>386BSD 是 Bill Jolitz 的作業系統，在當時就已經忍受了將近一年的忽視，隨著修正工具日漸龐大的令人不舒服，他們決定提供一份過渡性的 <quote>簡潔</quote> 快照來幫助 Bill。 然而，由於 Bill Jolitz 忽然決定取消其對該計劃的認可，且沒有明確指出未來的打算，所以該計劃便突然面臨中止。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Greenman, David</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Walnut Creek CDROM</primary></indexterm>
 
-      <para>不久我們便決定在即使沒有 Bill 的支持下，讓該計劃仍然繼續下去， 最後我們採用 David Greenman 丟銅板決定的名字，也就是『FreeBSD』。 在詢問了當時的一些使用者意見之後，就開始決定了最初的目標， 當該計劃開始實施一切就要成真時，一切就變得更清楚了。 我跟 Walnut Creek CD-ROM 討論發行 CD-ROM 這樣子不便上網的人就可以用比較簡單的方式取得 FreeBSD。 Walnut Creek CD-ROM 不只贊成以 CD-ROM 來發行 FreeBSD 的想法，同時提供了一台機器以及快速的網際網路的頻寬。 如果不是 Walnut Creek CD-ROM 幾乎是空前的信任這個剛開始還是完全默默無聞的計劃， 那麼很可能 FreeBSD 不會如此快速的成長到今日這樣的規模。</para>
+      <para>這三人認為這個目標即始沒有 Bill 的支持仍有保留的價值，最後他們採用 David Greenman 丟銅板決定的名字，也就是 "FreeBSD"。在詢問了當時的一些使用者意見之後決定了最初的目標，隨著目標越來越明確便開始著手進行。Jordan 找了 Walnut Creek CD-ROM 商討，著眼於如何改進 FreeBSD 的發行通路，讓那些不便上網的人可簡單的取得。 Walnut Creek CD-ROM 不只贊成以 CD 來發行 FreeBSD 的想法，同時提供了一台機器以及快速的網路。 若不是 Walnut Creek CD-ROM 在那個時間上史無前例的信任，這個默默無名的計劃很可能不會成為現在的 FreeBSD 快速的成長到今日這樣的規模。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>4.3BSD-Lite</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Net/2</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>U.C. Berkeley</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>386BSD</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Free Software
 	  Foundation</primary></indexterm>
-      <para>第一張以 CD-ROM (及網路)發行的 FreeBSD 1.0 是在 1993 年十二月。 該版本是基於由 U.C. Berkeley 以磁帶方式發行的 4.3BSD-Lite (<quote>Net/2</quote>)以及許多來自於 386BSD 和自由軟體基金會的軟體。對於第一次發行而言還算成功， 我們又接著於 1994 年 5 月發行了相當成功的 FreeBSD 1.1。</para>
+      <para>第一張以 CD-ROM (及網路) 發行的版本為 FreeBSD 1.0，是在 1993 年十二月發佈。 該版本採用了 U.C. Berkeley 以磁帶方式發行的 4.3BSD-Lite (<quote>Net/2</quote>) 及許多來自於 386BSD 和自由軟體基金會的元件為基礎。對於第一次發行而言還算成功，我們又接著於 1994 年 5 月發行了相當成功的 FreeBSD 1.1。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Novell</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>U.C. Berkeley</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Net/2</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>AT&amp;T</primary></indexterm>
-      <para>然而此後不久，另一個意外的風暴在 Novell 和 U.C. Berkeley 關於 Berkeley Net/2 磁帶之法律地位的訴訟確定之後形成。 U.C. Berkeley 接受大部份的 Net/2 的程式碼都是<quote>侵佔來的</quote>且是屬於 Novell 的財產 -- 事實上是當時不久前從 AT&amp;T 取得的。 Berkeley 得到的是 Novell 對於 4.4BSD-Lite 的<quote>祝福</quote>，最後當 4.4BSD-Lite 終於發行之後，便不再是侵佔行為。 而所有現有 Net/2 使用者都被強烈建議更換新版本，這包括了 FreeBSD。 於是，我們被要求於 1994 年 6 月底前停止散佈基於 Net/2 的產品。在此前提之下，本計劃被允許在期限以前作最後一次發行，也就是 FreeBSD 1.1.5.1。</para>
+      <para>然而此後不久，另一個意外的風暴在 Novell 與 U.C. Berkeley 關於 Berkeley Net/2 磁帶之法律地位的訴訟確定之後形成。 U.C. Berkeley 承認大部份的 Net/2 的程式碼都是<quote>侵佔來的</quote>且是屬於 Novell 的財產 -- 事實上是當時不久前從 AT&amp;T 取得的。 Berkeley 得到的是 Novell 對於 4.4BSD-Lite 的<quote>祝福</quote>，最後當 4.4BSD-Lite 終於發行之後，便不再是侵佔行為。 而所有現有 Net/2 使用者都被強烈建議更換新版本，這包括了 FreeBSD。 於是，我們被要求於 1994 年 6 月底前停止散佈以 Net/2 為基礎的產品。在此前提之下，本計劃被允許在期限以前作最後一次發行，也就是 FreeBSD 1.1.5.1。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 便開始了這宛如『重新發明輪子』的艱鉅工作 -- 從全新的且不完整的 4.4BSD-Lite 重新整合。 這個 <quote>Lite</quote> 版本是不完整的，因為 Berkeley 的 CSRG 已經刪除了大量在建立一個可以開機執行的系統所需要的程式碼 (基於若干法律上的要求)，且該版本在 Intel 平台的移植是非常不完整的。 直到 1994 年 11 月本計劃才完成了這個轉移， 同時在該年 12 月底以 CD-ROM 以及網路的形式發行了 FreeBSD 2.0。 雖然該份版本在當時有點匆促粗糙，但仍是富有意義的成功。 隨之於 1995 年 6 月又發行了更容易安裝，更好的 FreeBSD 2.0.5。</para>
 
       <para>自那時以來，FreeBSD 在每一次對先前版本改進穩定性、速度及功能時便會發佈一個新的發佈版本。</para>
 
-      <para>目前，長期的開發計畫繼續在 10.X-CURRENT (trunk) 分支中進行，而 10.X 的 snapshot 版本可以在 <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/snapshots/">Snapshot 伺服器</link> 取得。</para>
+      <para>目前，長期的開發計畫繼續在 10.X-CURRENT (trunk) 分支中進行，而 10.X 的快照 (Snapshot) 版本可以在 <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/snapshots/">快照伺服器</link> 取得。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="goals">
       <info>
 	<title>FreeBSD 計劃目標</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Jordan</firstname>
 	      <surname>Hubbard</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm><primary>FreeBSD 計劃</primary> <secondary>目標</secondary></indexterm>
       <para>FreeBSD 計劃的目標在於提供可作任意用途的軟體而不附帶任何限制條文。 我們之中許多人對程式碼 (以及計畫本身) 都有非常大的投入， 因此，當然不介意偶爾有一些資金上的補償，但我們並沒打算堅決地要求得到這類資助。 我們認為我們的首要<quote>使命</quote>是為任何人提供程式碼， 不管他們打算用這些程式碼做什麼， 因為這樣程式碼將能夠被更廣泛地使用，從而發揮其價值。 我認為這是自由軟體最基本的，同時也是我們所倡導的一個目標。</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>GNU 通用公共授權條款 (GPL)</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm><primary>GNU 較寬鬆通用公共授權條款 (LGPL)</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm><primary>BSD 版權</primary></indexterm>
-      <para>我們程式碼樹中，有若干是以 GNU 通用公共授權條款 (GPL) 或者 GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) 發佈的那些程式碼帶有少許的附加限制，還好只是強制性的要求開放程式碼而不是別的。 由於使用 GPL 的軟體在商業用途上會增加若干複雜性，因此，如果可以選擇的話， 我們會比較喜歡使用限制相對更寬鬆的 BSD 版權來發佈軟體。</para>
+      <para>我們程式碼樹中，有若干是以 GNU 通用公共授權條款 (GPL) 或者 GNU 較寬鬆通用公共授權條款 (LGPL) 發佈的那些程式碼帶有少許的附加限制，還好只是強制性的要求開放程式碼而不是別的。 由於使用 GPL 的軟體在商業用途上會增加若干複雜性，因此，如果可以選擇的話， 我們會比較喜歡使用限制相對更寬鬆的 BSD 版權來發佈軟體。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="development">
       <info>
 	<title>FreeBSD 開發模式</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Satoshi</firstname>
 	      <surname>Asami</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm><primary>FreeBSD 專案</primary> <secondary>開發模式</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 的開發是一個非常開放且具彈性的過程，就像從 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/zh_TW.UTF-8/articles/contributors/article.html">貢獻者名單</link> 所看到的，是由全世界成千上萬的貢獻者發展起來的。 FreeBSD 的開發基礎架構允許數以百計的開發者透過網際網路協同工作。 我們也經常關注著那些對我們的計畫感興趣的新開發者和新的創意， 那些有興趣更進一步參與計劃的人只需要在 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hackers">FreeBSD 技術討論郵遞論壇</link> 連繫我們。 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-announce">FreeBSD 公告郵遞論壇</link> 對那些希望了解我們進度的人也是相當有用的。</para>
 
       <para>無論是單獨開發者或者封閉式的團隊合作，多瞭解 FreeBSD 計劃和它的開發過程會是不錯的︰</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term>SVN 檔案庫<anchor xml:id="development-cvs-repository"/></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para><indexterm>
 		<primary>CVS</primary>
 	      </indexterm> <indexterm>
 		<primary>CVS Repository</primary>
 	      </indexterm> <indexterm>
 		<primary>Concurrent Versions System</primary>
 		<see>CVS</see>
 	      </indexterm> <indexterm>
 		<primary>Subversion</primary>
 	      </indexterm> <indexterm>
 		<primary>Subversion Repository</primary>
 	      </indexterm> <indexterm>
 		<primary>SVN</primary>
 		<see>Subversion</see>
-	      </indexterm>過去數年來 FreeBSD 的中央原始碼樹 (Source tree) 一直是以 <link xlink:href="http://www.nongnu.org/cvs/">CVS</link> (Concurrent Versions System) 來維護的， 它是一套免費的原始碼控管工具。 從 2008 年 6 月起， FreeBSD 計劃開始改用 <link xlink:href="http://subversion.tigris.org">SVN</link> (Subversion)。 這是一個必要的更換動作，因為隨著原始碼樹及歷史版本儲存的數量不斷快速擴張，<application>CVS</application> 先天的技術限制越來越明顯。 文件計劃與 Ports 套件集檔案庫也同樣於 2012 年 5 月及 2012 年 7 月由 <application>CVS</application> 改為 <application>SVN</application>。請參考 <link linkend="synching">同步您的原始碼樹</link> 一節來取得有關如何取得 FreeBSD <literal>src/</literal> 檔案庫的更多資訊，以及 <link linkend="ports-using">使用 Ports 套件集</link> 了解如何取得 FreeBSD Ports 套件集。</para>
+	      </indexterm>過去數年來 FreeBSD 的中央原始碼樹 (Source tree) 一直是以 <link xlink:href="http://www.nongnu.org/cvs/">CVS</link> (Concurrent Versions System) 來維護的， 它是一套免費的原始碼控管工具。 從 2008 年 6 月起， FreeBSD 計劃開始改用 <link xlink:href="http://subversion.tigris.org">SVN</link> (Subversion)。 這是一個必要的更換動作，因為隨著原始碼樹及歷史版本儲存的數量不斷快速擴張，<application>CVS</application> 先天的技術限制越來越明顯。 文件計劃與 Port 套件集檔案庫也同樣於 2012 年 5 月及 2012 年 7 月由 <application>CVS</application> 改為 <application>SVN</application>。請參考 <link linkend="synching">同步您的原始碼樹</link> 一節來取得有關如何取得 FreeBSD <literal>src/</literal> 檔案庫的更多資訊，以及 <link linkend="ports-using">使用 Port 套件集</link> 了解如何取得 FreeBSD Port 套件集。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term>提交者名單<anchor xml:id="development-committers"/></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>所謂的 <firstterm>提交者 (Committers)</firstterm> 指的是對 Subversion 原始碼樹有 <emphasis>寫入</emphasis> 權限的人， 並且被授予修改 FreeBSD 原始碼的權限。 (<quote>committer</quote> 一詞源自版本管理系統中的 <command>commit</command> 指令，該指令是用來把新的修改提交給檔案庫)。 任何人都可以回報問題到 <link xlink:href="https://bugs.FreeBSD.org/submit/">Bug Database</link>，在回報問題之前，可以使用 FreeBSD 郵遞清單、IRC 頻道或論壇來確認問題真的是一個錯誤 (Bug)。</para>
+	    <para>所謂的 <firstterm>提交者 (Committer)</firstterm> 指的是對 Subversion 原始碼樹有 <emphasis>寫入</emphasis> 權限的人， 並且被授予修改 FreeBSD 原始碼的權限。 (<quote>committer</quote> 一詞源自版本管理系統中的 <command>commit</command> 指令，該指令是用來把新的修改提交給檔案庫)。 任何人都可以回報問題到 <link xlink:href="https://bugs.FreeBSD.org/submit/">Bug Database</link>，在回報問題之前，可以使用 FreeBSD 郵遞清單、IRC 頻道或論壇來確認問題真的是一個錯誤 (Bug)。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term>FreeBSD 核心團隊<anchor xml:id="development-core"/></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>如果把 FreeBSD 看成是一家公司的話， <firstterm>FreeBSD 核心團隊</firstterm><indexterm>
+	    <para>如果把 FreeBSD 看成是一家公司的話， <firstterm>FreeBSD 核心團隊 (FreeBSD core team)</firstterm><indexterm>
 		<primary>core team</primary>
 	      </indexterm> 就相當於董事會。 核心團隊的主要職責在於確保此計劃有良好的架構，以朝著正確的方向發展。 此外，邀請熱血且負責的軟體開發者加入提交者的行列， 以在若干成員離去時得以補充新血。 目前的核心團隊是在 2014 年 7 月從提交者候選人之中選出來的，這個選舉每兩年會舉辦一次。</para>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para>如同多數的開發者，核心團隊大部分成員加入 FreeBSD 開發都是志工性質而已， 並未從本計劃中獲得任何薪酬，所以這只是一個 <quote>承諾</quote> 不應該被誤解為 <quote>保證支援</quote> 才對。 前面用 <quote>董事會</quote> 來舉例可能不是很恰當，或許我們應該說： 他們是一群自願放棄原本的優渥生活、個人其他領域成就， 而選擇投入 FreeBSD 開發的熱血有為者才對！</para>
 	    </note>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term>非官方貢獻者</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>最後一點，但這點絕非最不重要的， 最大的開發者團隊就是持續為我們提供回饋以及錯誤修正的使用者自己。 與 FreeBSD 非核心開發者互動的主要方式，便是透過訂閱 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hackers">FreeBSD 技術討論郵遞論壇</link> 來進行溝通，這方面可參考，請參閱 <xref linkend="eresources"/> 以瞭解各式不同的 FreeBSD 郵遞論壇。</para>
 
 	    <para><citetitle><link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/zh_TW.UTF-8/articles/contributors/article.html">FreeBSD 貢獻者名單</link></citetitle> <indexterm>
 		<primary>contributors</primary>
 	      </indexterm> 相當長且不斷成長中， 只要有貢獻就會被列入其中， 要不要立即考慮貢獻 FreeBSD 一些回饋呢？</para>
 
 	    <para>提供原始碼並非為這個計劃做貢獻的唯一方式； 需要大家投入的完整工作清單請參閱 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/index.html">FreeBSD 計畫網站</link>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para>總而言之，我們的開發模式像是由鬆散的同心圓所組織。這個集中模式的設計為的是讓 FreeBSD 的<emphasis>使用者</emphasis>更便利，可以很容易的追蹤同一個中央的程式庫，避免把潛在的貢獻者排除在外！而我們的目標是提供一個穩定的作業系統，並有大量相關的 <link linkend="ports">應用程式</link>，讓使用者能夠輕鬆的安裝與使用 — 而這個開發模式對我們要完成這個目標來說運作的非常好。</para>
 
       <para>我們對於那些想要加入 FreeBSD 開發者的期待是： 請保持如同前人一樣的投入，以確保繼續成功！</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="third-party-programs">
       <title>第三方程式</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a
-	ported software collection with thousands of commonly
-	sought-after programs.  At the time of this writing, there
-	were over 24,000 ports!  The list of ports ranges from
-	http servers, to games, languages, editors, and almost
-	everything in between.  The entire Ports Collection requires
-	approximately 500 MB.  To compile a port, you simply
-	change to the directory of the program you wish to install,
-	type <command>make install</command>, and let the system do
-	the rest.  The full original distribution for each port you
-	build is retrieved dynamically so you need only enough disk
-	space to build the ports you want.  Almost every port is also
-	provided as a pre-compiled <quote>package</quote>, which can
-	be installed with a simple command
-	(<command>pkg install</command>) by those who do not wish to
-	compile their own ports from source.  More information on
-	packages and ports can be found in
-	<xref linkend="ports"/>.</para>
+      <para>除了基礎發行版之外，FreeBSD 提供了擁有上千個常用的程式的移植軟體的套件集，在撰寫本文的同時，已有超過 24,000 個 Port! Port 的範圍從 HTTP 伺服器到遊戲、語系、編輯器，幾乎所有東西都在裡面。完整的 Port 套件集需要將近 500 MB。要編譯一個 Port 您只需要切換目錄到您想安裝的程式目錄，然後輸入 <command>make install</command>，接著系統便會處理剩下的動作。您編譯的每個 Port 完整原始發行版內容是動態下載的，所以您只需要有足夠的磁碟空間來編譯您想要的 Port。幾乎所有 Port 都提供以預先編譯好的<quote>套件</quote>，您可以透過簡單的指令來安裝 (<command>pkg install</command>)，提供那些不想要自行從原始碼編譯的人使用。更多有關套件與 Port 的資訊可於 <xref linkend="ports"/> 取得。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>其他文件</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">All recent FreeBSD versions provide an option in the
-	installer (either <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysinstall</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsdinstall</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>) to
-	install additional documentation under
-	<filename>/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd</filename> during the
-	initial system setup.  Documentation may also be installed at
-	any later time using packages as described in
-	<xref linkend="doc-ports-install-package"/>.  You may view the
-	locally installed manuals with any HTML capable browser using
-	the following URLs:</para>
+      <para>所有最近的 FreeBSD 版本在安裝程式 (不是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysinstall</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 就是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsdinstall</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>) 都有提供一個選項在初始系統安裝時可安裝額外的說明文件到 <filename>/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd</filename>。說明文件也可在往後使用套件安裝，詳細說明於 <xref linkend="doc-ports-install-package"/>。您可以使用任何支援 HTML 的瀏覽器進入下列 URL 檢視已安裝在本機的操作手冊：</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term>FreeBSD 使用手冊</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="file://localhost/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd/handbook/index.html"><filename>/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd/handbook/index.html</filename></link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term>FreeBSD 常見問答集</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="file://localhost/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd/faq/index.html"><filename>/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd/faq/index.html</filename></link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para>此外，可在下列網址找到最新版 (也是更新最頻繁的版本)：<uri xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.FreeBSD.org/</uri>。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="bsdinstall">
 
   <info>
     <title>安裝 FreeBSD</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	  <surname>Mock</surname>
 	</personname>
 
 	<contrib>Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten
 	  by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
-<!---
-    <authorgroup>
-      <author>
-	<personname>
-	  <firstname>Randy</firstname>
-	  <surname>Pratt</surname>
-	</personname>
-	<contrib>The sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general
-	copy by </contrib>
-      </author>
-    </authorgroup>-->
 
+    <!---
+      <authorgroup>
+	<author>
+	  <personname>
+	    <firstname>Randy</firstname>
+	    <surname>Pratt</surname>
+	  </personname>
+	  <contrib>The sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and
+	    general copy by </contrib>
+	</author>
+      </authorgroup>
+    -->
+
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Gavin</firstname>
 	  <surname>Atkinson</surname>
 	</personname>
 
 	<contrib>Updated for bsdinstall by </contrib>
       </author>
 
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Warren</firstname>
 	  <surname>Block</surname>
 	</personname>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Allan</firstname>
 	  <surname>Jude</surname>
 	</personname>
 
 	<contrib>Updated for root-on-ZFS by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm><primary>安裝</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para>自從 FreeBSD 9.0-RELEASE 開始, FreeBSD 提供一個易用，文字介面的安裝程式 <application>bsdinstall</application>。 本章描述如何用 <application>bsdinstall</application> 來安裝 FreeBSD。</para>
 
     <para>一般來說，本章所寫的安裝說明是針對 <trademark>i386</trademark> 和 <acronym>AMD64</acronym> 架構。如果可以用於其他平台，將會列表說明。 安裝程式和本章所敘述的內容可能會有些微差異，所以請將本章視為通用的指引，而不是完全照著來做。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>喜歡用圖形化安裝程式安裝 FreeBSD 的使用者， 可能會對 <application>pc-sysinstall</application> 有興趣，這是 PC-BSD 計畫所使用的。 他可以用來安裝圖形化桌面 (PC-BSD) 或是指令列版本的 FreeBSD。 細節請參考 PC-BSD 使用者 Handbook (<link xlink:href="http://wiki.pcbsd.org/index.php/Colophon">http://wiki.pcbsd.org/index.php/Colophon</link>)。</para>
     </note>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>最低的硬體需求和 FreeBSD 支援的架構。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何建立 FreeBSD 的安裝媒體。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何開始執行 <application>bsdinstall</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><application>bsdinstall</application> 會詢問的問題，問題代表的意思，以及如何回答。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>安裝失敗時如何做故障排除。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在正式安裝前使用 live 版本的 FreeBSD。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>閱讀即將安裝的 FreeBSD 版本所附帶的硬體支援清單，並核對系統的硬體是否有支援。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-hardware">
     <title>最低硬體需求</title>
 
-    <para>安裝 FreeBSD 的硬體需求隨 FreeBSD 的版本和硬體架構而不同。 FreeBSD 發行版支援的硬體架構和裝置可在 FreeBSD 網站 (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases/index.html">http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/index.html</link>)的發行資訊頁面找到。</para>
+    <para>安裝 FreeBSD 的硬體需求隨 FreeBSD 的版本和硬體架構而不同。 FreeBSD 發行版支援的硬體架構和裝置會列在 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases/index.html">FreeBSD 發佈資訊</link> 頁面。<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/where.html">FreeBSD 下載頁面</link>
+也有建議如何正確的選擇在不同架構使用的映像檔。</para>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 最小安裝需要至少 64 MB 的 <acronym>RAM</acronym> 和 1.5 GB 的可用硬碟空間 但是這真的是 <emphasis>最小</emphasis>，幾乎沒有剩下多餘的空間。 RAM 的需求視實際使用而訂，經特殊處理過後的 FreeBSD 系統可只使用 128MB RAM，圖形化環境最少需要 4 GB 的 <acronym>RAM</acronym>。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 安裝程序需要至少 64 MB 的 <acronym>RAM</acronym> 以及 1.5 GB 的硬碟空間。然而，這樣少的記憶體及磁碟空間只適合在客製的應用上，如嵌入式設備，一般用途的桌面系統會需要更多的資源，2-4 GB RAM 與至少 8 GB 的硬碟空間是不錯的起點。</para>
 
     <para>每一種架構的處理器需求概述如下：</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">amd64</term>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>這桌上型電腦與筆記型電腦是最常見的處理器類型，有些廠商可能會稱之為 <acronym>x86-64</acronym>。</para>
+	  <para>桌面電腦與筆記型電腦最常見的處理器類型，運用在近代的系統。<trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 稱該類型為 <acronym>Intel64</acronym>，其他製造商則稱該類型為 <acronym>x86-64</acronym>。</para>
 
-	  <para>主要有兩個廠商提供 amd64 處理器：<trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> (生產 <acronym>Intel64</acronym> 級處理器) 以及 AMD (生產 <acronym>AMD64</acronym>)。</para>
-
 	  <para>與 amd64 相容的處理器包含：<trademark>AMD Athlon</trademark>64, <trademark>AMD Opteron</trademark>, 多核心 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> <trademark>Xeon</trademark> 以及 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> <trademark>Core</trademark> 2 與之後的處理器。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">i386</term>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>這個架構即為 32-bit x86 架構。</para>
+	  <para>舊型的桌面電腦與筆記型電腦常使用此 32-bit, x86 架構。</para>
 
 	  <para>幾乎所有含浮點運算單元的 i386 相容處理器都有支援。所有 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 486 或是更高階的處理器也有支援。</para>
 
-	  <para>若 <acronym>CPU</acronym> 有支援實體位址延伸(<acronym>PAE</acronym>) 功能，FreeBSD 可以運用這項功能的所帶來優點。有開啟 <acronym>PAE</acronym> 支援的核心會偵測超過 4 GB 的記憶體，並讓這些記憶體能夠被系統使用。 這項功能會限制驅動程式以及 FreeBSD 可能使用的其他功能，詳情請見 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pae</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
+	  <para>FreeBSD 可在有支援實體位址延伸 (Physical Address Extensions, <acronym>PAE</acronym>) 功能的 <acronym>CPU</acronym> 上運用該功能所帶來的優點。有開啟 <acronym>PAE</acronym> 支援的核心會偵測超過 4 GB 的記憶體，並讓這些超過的記憶體能夠被系統使用。 但使用 <acronym>PAE</acronym> 會限制裝置驅動程式及 FreeBSD 的其他功能，詳情請見 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pae</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">ia64</term>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>目前支援的處理器是 <trademark class="registered">Itanium</trademark> 和 <trademark class="registered">Itanium</trademark> 2。支援的晶片組包括 HP zx1， <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 460GX 和 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> E8870。 單處理器 (Uniprocessor, <acronym>UP</acronym>) 和對稱多處理器 (Symmetric Multi-processor, <acronym>SMP</acronym>)的設定都有支援。</para>
+	  <para>目前支援的處理器是 <trademark class="registered">Itanium</trademark> 和 <trademark class="registered">Itanium</trademark> 2。支援的晶片組包括 HP zx1， <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 460GX 和 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> E8870。 單處理器 (Uniprocessor, <acronym>UP</acronym>) 和對稱多處理器 (Symmetric Multi-processor, <acronym>SMP</acronym>) 的設定都有支援。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">pc98</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>NEC PC-9801/9821 系列幾乎所有 i386 相容處理器包括 80486、<trademark class="registered">Pentium</trademark>、 <trademark class="registered">Pentium</trademark> Pro 和 <trademark class="registered">Pentium</trademark> II 都有支援。 所有 AMD, Cyrix, IBM, 及 IDT 的i386 相容處理器都有支援。 相容 NEC PC-9801 的 EPSON PC-386/486/586 系列都有支援。 NEC FC-9801/9821 及 NEC SV-98 系列也有支援。</para>
 
 	  <para>不支援高解析度模式。NEC PC-98XA/XL/RL/XL^2 和 NEC PC-H98 系列只支援正常 (PC-9801 相容) 模式。 FreeBSD 對稱多處理器 <acronym>SMP</acronym> 相關功能並不支援。 PC-H98， SV-H98 和FC-H98 新延伸標準架構 (<acronym>NESA</acronym>) 匯流排不支援。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">powerpc</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>所有內建 <acronym>USB</acronym> 的 New World <acronym>ROM</acronym> <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 系統都有支援。 <acronym>SMP</acronym> 在多 <acronym>CPU</acronym> 的機器都有支援。</para>
 
 	  <para>32 位元的核心只能使用前 2 GB 的 <acronym>RAM</acronym>。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">sparc64</term>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>FreeBSD/sparc64 支援的系統列在 FreeBSD/sparc64 計劃 (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/platforms/sparc.html">http://www.freebsd.org/platforms/sparc.html</link>)。</para>
+	  <para>FreeBSD/sparc64 支援的系統列在 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/platforms/sparc.html">FreeBSD/sparc64 計劃</link>。</para>
 
 	  <para>所有超過一個處理器的系統都有支援 <acronym>SMP</acronym>。需要專用的磁碟系統，因為此時無法和其他作業系統共用磁碟。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-pre">
     <title>安裝前準備工作</title>
 
     <para>一旦確定系統符合安裝 FreeBSD 的最低硬體需求，就可以下載安裝檔案並準備安裝的媒體。 做這些之前，先檢查以下核對清單的項目是否準備好了：</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <step>
 	<title>備份重要資料</title>
 
-	<para>安裝任何作業系統前， <emphasis>總是</emphasis> 要先備份所有重要資料。 不要儲存備份在即將安裝的系統上。改為將資料儲存在可移除磁碟，像是 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟，網路上的另一個系統或是線上備份服務上。 開始安裝前，要測試備份，確定它含有所有需要的檔案。 一旦安裝程式格式化系統的磁碟，所有儲存在上面的資料都會遺失。</para>
+	<para>安裝任何作業系統前， <emphasis>總是</emphasis> 要先備份所有重要資料。 不要儲存備份在即將安裝的系統上，而是將資料儲存在可移除磁碟，像是 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟、網路上的另一個系統或是線上備份服務上。 開始安裝程序前要檢查備份，確定備份含有所有需要的檔案，一旦安裝程式格式化系統的磁碟，所有儲存在上面的資料都會遺失。</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<title>決定 FreeBSD 安裝在哪裡</title>
 
-	<para>如果 FreeBSD 是唯一要安裝的作業系統，這個步驟可以略過。 但是假如 FreeBSD 將和其他作業系統分享磁碟空間的話，要決定 FreeBSD 要安裝在哪個磁碟或是哪個分割區。</para>
+	<para>如果 FreeBSD 是唯一一套要安裝到電腦的作業系統，這個步驟可以略過。 但是假如 FreeBSD 要和其他作業系統共用磁碟空間的話，就要決定 FreeBSD 要安裝在哪個磁碟或是哪個分割區 (Partition)。</para>
 
-	<para>在 i386 和 amd64 平台，磁碟可以使用兩種分割區配置之一來分割成多個分割區。 傳統的<firstterm>主開機紀錄</firstterm> (Master Boot Record, <acronym>MBR</acronym>) 有一個分割區表定義最多到 <firstterm>主分割區</firstterm>。 因為歷史性的理由， FreeBSD 稱這些主分割區為 <firstterm>slices</firstterm>。 其中一個主分割區可以分成一個 延伸分割區 ，他包含多個 邏輯分割區。 <firstterm>GUID 分割區表</firstterm> (GUID Partition Table, <acronym>GPT</acronym>) 是較新和較簡單的分割磁碟的方法，一般 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 實作允許每個磁碟最多達 128 個分割區，減少使用邏輯分割區的需要。</para>
+	<para>在 i386 和 amd64 架構，可將磁碟分割成多個分割區，可以選擇下列兩種分割表格式 (Partitioning scheme) 的其中一種達成。 傳統的<firstterm>主開機紀錄 (Master Boot Record, <acronym>MBR</acronym>)</firstterm> 的一個分割區表定義最多可有四個<firstterm>主分割區</firstterm> (Primary partition)，因一些歷史淵源，FreeBSD 稱這些主分割區為 <firstterm>slice</firstterm>，其中一個主分割區可作為<firstterm>延伸分割區</firstterm> (Extended partition)，延伸分割區又可分割成多個<firstterm>邏輯分割區</firstterm> (Logical partition)。 <firstterm>GUID 分割區表</firstterm> (GUID Partition Table, <acronym>GPT</acronym>) 是較新和較簡單的分割磁碟的方法，一般 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 實作允許每個磁碟多達 128 個分割區，不再需要使用邏輯分割區。</para>
 
 	<warning>
-	  <para>一些比較舊的作業系統，像是 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP 不相容 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割區配置。 如果 FreeBSD 將和這樣的作業系統共享一個磁碟，那就需要用 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 分割。</para>
+	  <para>一些比較舊的作業系統，像是 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP 並不相容 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割表格式。 如果 FreeBSD 將和這類作業系統共用一個磁碟，則需要用 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 分割表格式。</para>
 	</warning>
 
-	<para>FreeBSD 開機啟動程式需要主分割區或是 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割區。如果所有的主分割區或 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割區都已使用，必須釋放其中一個分割區讓 FreeBSD 使用。如果要建立一個分割區而不刪除原有的資料，可以使用磁碟分割工具來縮小現有的分割區，並使用多出的空間來建立新分割區。</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 開機啟動程式需要主分割區或是 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割區。如果所有的主分割區或 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割區都已使用，必須釋放其中一個分割區讓 FreeBSD 使用。如果要建立一個分割區而不刪除原有的資料，可以使用磁碟重設大小的工具來縮小現有的分割區，並使用釋放出來的空間建立新分割區。</para>
 
-	<para>各種自由的和商業化的磁碟分割工具列於 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_disk_partitioning_software">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_disk_partitioning_software</link>。<application>GParted Live</application> (<link xlink:href="http://gparted.sourceforge.net/livecd.php">http://gparted.sourceforge.net/livecd.php</link>) 是包含分割編輯工具 <application>GParted</application> 的自由的 live <acronym>CD</acronym>。 GParted 也包含在許多 Linux live <acronym>CD</acronym> 套件裡。</para>
+	<para>各種免費和付費的磁碟重設大小工具列於 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_disk_partitioning_software">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_disk_partitioning_software</link>。<application>GParted Live</application> (<link xlink:href="http://gparted.sourceforge.net/livecd.php">http://gparted.sourceforge.net/livecd.php</link>) 是內含分割區編輯程式 <application>GParted</application> 的免費 Live <acronym>CD</acronym>。 GParted 同時也被許多 Linux Live <acronym>CD</acronym> 發行版所收錄。</para>
 
 	<warning>
-	  <para>當正確地使用，磁碟分割工具可以安全地建立空間讓新的分割區使用。 因為有可能會誤選已經存在的分割區，所以在修改磁碟分割區前， 一定要備份重要資料，並確認備份的完整性。</para>
+	  <para>在正確使用的情況下，磁碟重設大小的工具可以安全的建立讓新的分割區使用的空間。 但因仍有可能會誤選已經存在的分割區，所以在修改磁碟分割區前， 一定要備份重要資料，並確認備份的完整性。</para>
 	</warning>
 
-	<para>包含不同作業系統的磁碟分割區可以讓一台電腦安裝多重作業系統。 另一種作法是使用虛擬化 (<xref linkend="virtualization"/>) ，可以讓多重作業系統同時間執行而不需要改變任何磁碟分割區。</para>
+	<para>在磁碟分割區中儲存不同的作業系統讓一台電腦可以安裝多個作業系統，另一種作法是使用虛擬化技術 (<xref linkend="virtualization"/>) ，可讓多個作業系統同時間執行而不需要改變任何磁碟分割區。</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<title>收集網路資訊</title>
 
-	<para>有些 FreeBSD 安裝方法為了下載安裝檔案需要網路連線。 在系統安裝之後，安裝程式將會讓您設定系統的網路介面。</para>
+	<para>部份 FreeBSD 安裝方式需要網路連線來下載安裝檔，因此之後的安裝程序，安裝程式進入設定系統網路的介面。</para>
 
-	<para>如果網路有 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器，可以自動設定網路。 如果沒有 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> ， 需要從區域網路管理者或是網際網路服務商取得以下系統的網路資訊：</para>
+	<para>如果網路中有 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器，則可透過該伺服器自動設定網路，若無法使用 <acronym>DHCP</acronym>，則需要從區域網路管理者或是網際網路服務供應商 (Internet Service Provider, ISP) 取得以的網路資訊供系統使用：</para>
 
 	<orderedlist xml:id="bsdinstall-collect-network-information">
 	  <title>需要的網路資訊</title>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para><acronym>IP</acronym> 位址</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>子網路遮罩</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>預設閘道器 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>網路的網域名稱</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>網路 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 伺服器 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</orderedlist>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<title>檢查 FreeBSD 勘誤表</title>
 
 	<para>儘管 FreeBSD Project 努力確保每個 FreeBSD 發行版能夠儘可能地穩定，錯誤偶爾還是會悄悄出現。 有極小的機會錯誤會影響安裝過程。 當這些問題被發現並修正後，會被紀錄在 FreeBSD 網站的 FreeBSD 勘誤表 (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases/10.3R/errata.html">http://www.freebsd.org/releases/10.3R/errata.html</link>)。 安裝前要檢查勘誤表，確保沒有會影響到安裝的問題。</para>
 
 	<para>所有發行版的資訊和勘誤表可以在 FreeBSD 網站的發行資訊找到 (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases/index.html">http://www.freebsd.org/releases/index.html</link>)。</para>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-installation-media">
       <title>準備安裝的媒體</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD installer is not an application that can be run
-	from within another operating system.  Instead, download a
-	FreeBSD installation file, burn it to the media associated with
-	its file type and size (<acronym>CD</acronym>,
-	<acronym>DVD</acronym>, or <acronym>USB</acronym>), and boot
-	the system to install from the inserted media.</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 安裝程式並不是一個可以在其他作業系統上執行的應用程式，反而您需要下載 FreeBSD 安裝檔，燒錄安裝檔到符合其檔案類型與大小的媒體 (<acronym>CD</acronym>, <acronym>DVD</acronym> 或 <acronym>USB</acronym>)，然後開機從插入的媒體來安裝。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD installation files are available at <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/where.html#download">www.freebsd.org/where.html#download</link>.
-	Each installation file's name includes the release version of
-	FreeBSD, the architecture, and the type of file.  For example, to
-	install FreeBSD 10.2 on an amd64 system from a
-	<acronym>DVD</acronym>, download
-	<filename>FreeBSD-10.2-RELEASE-amd64-dvd1.iso</filename>, burn
-	this file to a <acronym>DVD</acronym>, and boot the system
-	with the <acronym>DVD</acronym> inserted.</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 的安裝檔可於 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/where.html#download">www.freebsd.org/where.html#download</link> 取得。安裝檔的名稱由 FreeBSD 發佈版本、架構、以及檔案類型所組成，舉例，要從 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 安裝 FreeBSD 10.2 到 amd64 的系統，需下載 <filename>FreeBSD-10.2-RELEASE-amd64-dvd1.iso</filename>，並燒錄這個檔案到 <acronym>DVD</acronym>，然後使用插入 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 來開機。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Installation files are available in several formats.
-	The formats vary depending on computer architecture and media
-	type.</para>
+      <para>安裝檔有許多種可用的格式，格式會依據電腦架構及媒體類型的不同而異。</para>
 
-      <para xml:id="bsdinstall-installation-media-uefi" xml:lang="en">Additional
-	installation files are included for computers that boot with
-	<acronym>UEFI</acronym> (Unified Extensible Firmware
-	Interface).  The names of these files include the string
-	<filename>uefi</filename>.</para>
+      <para xml:id="bsdinstall-installation-media-uefi">還有另一種安裝檔是給使用 <acronym>UEFI</acronym> (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) 開機的電腦使用，這些安裝檔的名稱會含有 <filename>uefi</filename>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">File types:</para>
+      <para>檔案類型:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>-bootonly.iso</literal>: This is the smallest
-	    installation file as it only contains the installer.  A
-	    working Internet connection is required during
-	    installation as the installer will download the files it
-	    needs to complete the FreeBSD installation.  This file should
-	    be burned to a <acronym>CD</acronym> using a
-	    <acronym>CD</acronym> burning application.</para>
+	  <para><literal>-bootonly.iso</literal>: 這是最精簡的安裝檔，檔案中只含安裝程式。 安裝時需要網際網路連線來下載所需的檔案以完成 FreeBSD 安裝。這個檔案應使用 <acronym>CD</acronym> 燒錄應用程式燒錄到 <acronym>CD</acronym> 使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>-disc1.iso</literal>: This file contains all
-	    of the files needed to install FreeBSD, its source, and the
-	    Ports Collection.  It should be burned to a
-	    <acronym>CD</acronym> using a <acronym>CD</acronym>
-	    burning application.</para>
+	  <para><literal>-disc1.iso</literal>: 這個檔案含有所有安裝 FreeBSD 所需的檔案，包含原始碼及 Port 套件集。這個檔案應使用 <acronym>CD</acronym> 燒錄應用程式燒錄到 <acronym>CD</acronym> 使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>-dvd1.iso</literal>: This file contains all
-	    of the files needed to install FreeBSD, its source, and the
-	    Ports Collection.  It also contains a set of popular
-	    binary packages for installing a window manager and some
-	    applications so that a complete system can be installed
-	    from media without requiring a connection to the Internet.
-	    This file should be burned to a <acronym>DVD</acronym>
-	    using a <acronym>DVD</acronym> burning application.</para>
+	  <para><literal>-dvd1.iso</literal>: 這個檔案含有所有安裝 FreeBSD 所需的檔案，包含原始碼及 Port 套件集，也內含熱門的 Binary 套件可安裝視窗管理程式以及一些應用程式，如此便可從媒體安裝完整的系統，無須連線到網際網路。這個檔案應使用 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 燒錄應用程式燒錄到 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>-memstick.img</literal>: This file contains
-	    all of the files needed to install FreeBSD, its source, and
-	    the Ports Collection.  It should be burned to a
-	    <acronym>USB</acronym> stick using the instructions
-	    below.</para>
+	  <para><literal>-memstick.img</literal>: 這個檔案含有所有安裝 FreeBSD 所需的檔案，包含原始碼及 Port 套件集。這個檔案應依據以下操作指示寫入到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After downloading the image file, download
-	<filename>CHECKSUM.SHA256</filename> from
-	the same directory.  Calculate a
-	<firstterm>checksum</firstterm> for the image file.
-	FreeBSD provides <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sha256</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for this, used as <command>sha256
-	  <replaceable>imagefilename</replaceable></command>.
-	Other operating systems have similar programs.</para>
+      <para>映像檔下載完成之後，下載同一個目錄之中的 <filename>CHECKSUM.SHA256</filename>。FreeBSD 提供 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sha256</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 可用來計算映像檔的 <firstterm>校驗和 (Checksum)</firstterm>，使用方式為 <command>sha256 <replaceable>imagefilename</replaceable></command>，其他作業系統也會有類似的程式。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Compare the calculated checksum with the one shown in
-	<filename>CHECKSUM.SHA256</filename>.  The checksums must
-	match exactly.  If the checksums do not match, the image file
-	is corrupt and must be downloaded again.</para>
+      <para>比對計算後的 checksum 與 <filename>CHECKSUM.SHA256</filename> 檔案中的值，checksum 應該要完全相符，若 checksum 不相符，則代表該映像檔是損壞的，必須再下載一次。</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="bsdinstall-usb">
 	<title>寫入映象檔到 <acronym>USB</acronym></title>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The <filename>*.img</filename> file is an
-	  <emphasis>image</emphasis> of the complete contents of a
-	  memory stick.  It <emphasis>cannot</emphasis> be copied to
-	  the target device as a file.  Several applications are
-	  available for writing the <filename>*.img</filename> to a
-	  <acronym>USB</acronym> stick.  This section describes two of
-	  these utilities.</para>
+	<para><filename>*.img</filename> 檔案是隨身碟的完整內容的<emphasis>映像檔 (image)</emphasis>，該檔案<emphasis>不能</emphasis>直接用檔案的方式複製到目標裝置。有許多應用程式可用來寫入 <filename>*.img</filename> 到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟，本節會介紹其中兩種。</para>
 
 	<important>
 	  <para>在繼續之前，請先備份 <acronym>USB</acronym> 上的重要資料，這個程序會清除在隨身碟上既有的資料。</para>
 	</important>
 
 	<procedure xml:id="bsdinstall-usb-dd">
 	  <title>使用 <command>dd</command> 來寫入映像檔</title>
 
 	  <warning>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">This example uses <filename>/dev/da0</filename> as
-	      the target device where the image will be written.  Be
-	      <emphasis>very careful</emphasis> that the correct
-	      device is used as this command will destroy the existing
-	      data on the specified target device.</para>
+	    <para>本範例使用 <filename>/dev/da0</filename> 做為目標裝置，是映像檔將會寫入的位置。 務必<emphasis>十分小心</emphasis>確認要使用的裝置正確，因為這個指示會摧毀所有在指定目標裝置上已存在的資料。</para>
 	  </warning>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command-line utility is
-	      available on BSD, <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>, and <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> systems.  To burn
-	      the image using <command>dd</command>, insert the
-	      <acronym>USB</acronym> stick and determine its device
-	      name.  Then, specify the name of the downloaded
-	      installation file and the device name for the
-	      <acronym>USB</acronym> stick.  This example burns the
-	      amd64 installation image to the first
-	      <acronym>USB</acronym> device on an existing FreeBSD
-	      system.</para>
+	    <para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>dd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令列工具在 BSD, <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 以及<trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> 系統皆可使用。要使用 <command>dd</command> 燒錄映像檔需先插入 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟，然後確認隨身碟的裝置名稱。然後指定已下載的安裝檔名稱以及 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟的裝置名稱。本例示範在已有的 FreeBSD 系統燒錄 amd64 安裝映像檔到第一個 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置。</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=<replaceable>FreeBSD-10.2-RELEASE-amd64-memstick.img</replaceable> of=/dev/<replaceable>da0</replaceable> bs=1M conv=sync</userinput></screen>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">If this command fails, verify that the
-	      <acronym>USB</acronym> stick is not mounted and that the
-	      device name is for the disk, not a partition.  Some
-	      operating systems might require this command to be run
-	      with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sudo</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Systems like <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> might buffer
-	      writes.  To force all writes to complete, use
-	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sync</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+	    <para>若這個指示執行失敗，請確認 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟是否未掛載，以及該裝置名稱是否為這個隨身碟，而非一個分割區。部份作業系統可能需要使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sudo</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來執行這個指令。像 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 這類的系統可能會暫存寫入動作，要強制完成所有寫入動作，可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sync</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
 
 	<procedure>
 	  <title>使用 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 來寫入映象檔</title>
 
 	  <warning>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Be sure to give the correct drive letter as the
-	      existing data on the specified drive will be overwritten
-	      and destroyed.</para>
+	    <para>務必確認指定的磁碟機代號正確，因在指定磁碟機上的既有資料將會被覆蓋與摧毀。</para>
 	  </warning>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <title>取得 <application>Image Writer <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 版</application></title>
 
 	    <para><application>Image Writer <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 版</application> 是一個免費的應用程式，可以正確地將映像檔寫入隨身碟。 從 <uri xlink:href="https://launchpad.net/win32-image-writer/">https://launchpad.net/win32-image-writer/</uri> 下載，並解壓縮到一個資料夾。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <title>用 Image Writer 寫入映象檔</title>
 
 	    <para>雙擊 <application>Win32DiskImager</application> 圖示啟動程式。 確認 <computeroutput>Device</computeroutput> 顯示的磁碟機代號是隨身碟的磁碟機代號。 按下資料夾圖示選擇要寫入隨身碟的映像檔。 按下 <guibutton>[ Save ]</guibutton> 按鈕確定映像檔名。 確認所有東西都正確，隨身碟的資料夾並沒有在其他視窗開啟。 所有東西準備好後，按下 <guibutton>[ Write ]</guibutton> 將映像檔寫入隨身碟。</para>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
 
 	<para>您現在可以開始安裝 FreeBSD 。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-start">
     <title>開始安裝</title>
 
     <important>
-      <para>預設安裝程式在下列訊息顯示之前不會對磁碟做任何更動：</para>
+      <para>預設安裝程序在下列訊息顯示之前不會對磁碟做任何更動：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Your changes will now be written to disk.  If you
 have chosen to overwrite existing data, it will
 be PERMANENTLY ERASED. Are you sure you want to
 commit your changes?</programlisting>
 
       <para>在這個警告訊息之前可以隨時中止安裝，若有任何設定錯誤的疑慮，只需在此時關閉電腦，將不會對系統磁碟做任何更改。</para>
     </important>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to boot the system from the
-      installation media which was prepared using the instructions in
-      <xref linkend="bsdinstall-installation-media"/>.  When using a
-      bootable USB stick, plug in the <acronym>USB</acronym> stick
-      before turning on the computer.  When booting from
-      <acronym>CD</acronym> or <acronym>DVD</acronym>, turn on the
-      computer and insert the media at the first opportunity.  How to
-      configure the system to boot from the inserted media depends
-      upon the architecture.</para>
+    <para>本節將介紹如何使用根據 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-installation-media"/> 指示所準備的安裝媒體來開機。要使用可開機的 USB，請在開啟電腦前插入 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟。要使用 <acronym>CD</acronym> 或<acronym>DVD</acronym>，則可開啟電腦後在第一時間插入媒體。如何設定系統使用插入的媒體開機依不同的系統架構會有所不同。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-starting-i386">
       <title>在 <trademark>i386</trademark> 及 amd64 開機</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">These architectures provide a <acronym>BIOS</acronym>
-	menu for selecting the boot device.  Depending upon the
-	installation media being used, select the
-	<acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> or
-	<acronym>USB</acronym> device as the first boot device.  Most
-	systems also provide a key for selecting the boot device
-	during startup without having to enter the
-	<acronym>BIOS</acronym>.  Typically, the key is either
-	<keycap>F10</keycap>, <keycap>F11</keycap>,
-	<keycap>F12</keycap>, or <keycap>Escape</keycap>.</para>
+      <para>這兩種架構提供了 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 選單可選擇開機的裝置，依據要使用的安裝媒體類型，選擇 <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> 或 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置做為第一個開機裝置。大多數的系統也會提供快速鍵可在啟動時選擇開機裝置，而不需要進入<acronym>BIOS</acronym>，通常這個按鍵可能是 <keycap>F10</keycap>, <keycap>F11</keycap>, <keycap>F12</keycap> 或 <keycap>Escape</keycap> 其中之一。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If the computer loads the existing operating system
-	instead of the FreeBSD installer, then either:</para>
+      <para>若電腦仍載入了現有的作業系統，而不是 FreeBSD 安裝程式，原因可能為:</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The installation media was not inserted early enough
-	    in the boot process.  Leave the media inserted and try
-	    restarting the computer.</para>
+	  <para>執行開機程序時安裝媒體插入主機的時間不夠早，請讓安裝媒體留在電腦中並重新啟動電腦。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> changes were incorrect or
-	    not saved.  Double-check that the right boot device is
-	    selected as the first boot device.</para>
+	  <para>未正確修改 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 或未儲檔，請再三檢查第一個開機裝置選擇了正確的裝置。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">This system is too old to support booting from the
-	    chosen media.  In this case, the <application>Plop Boot
-	      Manager</application> (<link xlink:href="http://www.plop.at/en/bootmanagers.html"/>)
-	    can be used to boot the system from the selected
-	    media.</para>
+	  <para>系統太舊，無法支援使用選擇的開機媒體開機，發生這個情況可以使用 <application>Plop Boot Manager</application> (<link xlink:href="http://www.plop.at/en/bootmanagers.html"/>) 來從選擇的開機媒體開機。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>在 <trademark class="registered">PowerPC</trademark> 開機</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">On most machines, holding <keycap>C</keycap> on the
-	keyboard during boot will boot from the <acronym>CD</acronym>.
-	Otherwise, hold <keycombo action="simul">
-	  <keycap>Command</keycap>
-	  <keycap>Option</keycap>
-	  <keycap>O</keycap>
-	  <keycap>F</keycap>
-	</keycombo>, or
-	<keycombo action="simul">
-	  <keycap>Windows</keycap>
-	  <keycap>Alt</keycap>
-	  <keycap>O</keycap>
-	  <keycap>F</keycap>
-	</keycombo> on non-<trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> keyboards.  At the
-	<prompt>0 &gt;</prompt> prompt, enter</para>
+      <para>在大部份機型，可於開機時按住鍵盤上的 <keycap>C</keycap>，便可從 <acronym>CD</acronym> 開機。若在非 <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> 的鍵盤則可按住 <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Command</keycap> <keycap>Option</keycap> <keycap>O</keycap> <keycap>F</keycap> </keycombo> 或 <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Windows</keycap> <keycap>Alt</keycap> <keycap>O</keycap> <keycap>F</keycap> </keycombo>，出現 <prompt>0 &gt;</prompt> 提示時，輸入</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>boot cd:,\ppc\loader cd:0</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>在 <trademark class="registered">SPARC64</trademark> 開機</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Most <trademark class="registered">SPARC64</trademark> systems are set up to boot automatically
-	from disk.  To install FreeBSD from a <acronym>CD</acronym>
-	requires a break into the <acronym>PROM</acronym>.</para>
+      <para>大多數 <trademark class="registered">SPARC64</trademark> 系統會自動從磁碟開機，要從 <acronym>CD</acronym> 安裝 FreeBSD 需要進入 <acronym>PROM</acronym>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To do this, reboot the system and wait until the boot
-	message appears.  The message depends on the model, but should
-	look something like this:</para>
+      <para>要進入 <acronym>PROM</acronym>，需重新開機系統然後等候開機訊息出現。訊息會依機型而有所不同，但大致結果會如:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Sun Blade 100 (UltraSPARC-IIe), Keyboard Present
 Copyright 1998-2001 Sun Microsystems, Inc.  All rights reserved.
 OpenBoot 4.2, 128 MB memory installed, Serial #51090132.
 Ethernet address 0:3:ba:b:92:d4, Host ID: 830b92d4.</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If the system proceeds to boot from disk at this point,
-	press <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>L1</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo>
-	or <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Stop</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo>
-	on the keyboard, or send a <command>BREAK</command> over the
-	serial console.  When using <application>tip</application> or
-	<application>cu</application>, <command>~#</command> will
-	issue a BREAK. The <acronym>PROM</acronym> prompt will be
-	<prompt>ok</prompt> on systems with one
-	<acronym>CPU</acronym> and <prompt>ok {0} </prompt> on
-	<acronym>SMP</acronym> systems, where the digit indicates the
-	number of the active <acronym>CPU</acronym>.</para>
+      <para>若系統繼續從磁碟開機，此時按下鍵盤上的 <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>L1</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo> 或 <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Stop</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo> 或透過序列 Console 送出 <command>BREAK</command>。當使用 <application>tip</application> 或 <application>cu</application>, <command>~#</command> 發出一個 BREAK 後，<acronym>PROM</acronym> 的提示會在單 <acronym>CPU</acronym> 的系統出現 <prompt>ok</prompt>，<acronym>SMP</acronym> 的系統出現 <prompt>ok {0} </prompt>，其中的數字代表啟動的 <acronym>CPU</acronym> 數。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">At this point, place the <acronym>CD</acronym> into the
-	drive and type <command>boot cdrom</command> from the
-	<acronym>PROM</acronym> prompt.</para>
+      <para>此時，放入 <acronym>CD</acronym> 到磁碟機然後在 <acronym>PROM</acronym> 提示畫面輸入 <command>boot cdrom</command>。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-view-probe">
       <title>FreeBSD 開機選單</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Once the system boots from the installation media, a menu
-	similar to the following will be displayed:</para>
+      <para>從安裝媒體開機之後，會顯示如下的選單：</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-newboot-loader-menu">
 	<title>FreeBSD 開機載入程式選單</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-newboot-loader-menu"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">By default, the menu will wait ten seconds for user input
-	before booting into the FreeBSD installer or, if FreeBSD is already
-	installed, before booting into FreeBSD.  To pause the boot timer
-	in order to review the selections, press
-	<keycap>Space</keycap>.  To select an option, press its
-	highlighted number, character, or key.  The following options
-	are available.</para>
+      <para>預設在開機進入 FreeBSD 安裝程式前選單會等候使用者輸入 10 秒鐘，若已經安裝 FreeBSD，則會在開機進入 FreeBSD 前等候。要暫停開機計時器來仔細查看選項，請按 <keycap>Space</keycap> 鍵。要選擇選項，按下明顯標示的數字、字元或按鍵。選單有以下選項可選。</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Boot Multi User</literal>: This will
-	    continue the FreeBSD boot process.  If the boot timer has
-	    been paused, press <keycap>1</keycap>, upper- or
-	    lower-case <keycap>B</keycap>, or
-	    <keycap>Enter</keycap>.</para>
+	  <para>啟動多使用者模式 (<literal>Boot Multi User</literal>): 這個選項會繼續 FreeBSD 開機程序，若開機計時器已經暫停，可按 <keycap>1</keycap>、大寫或小寫 <keycap>B</keycap> 或 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 鍵。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Boot Single User</literal>: This mode can be
-	    used to fix an existing FreeBSD installation as described in
-	    <xref linkend="boot-singleuser"/>.  Press
-	    <keycap>2</keycap> or the upper- or lower-case
-	    <keycap>S</keycap> to enter this mode.</para>
+	  <para>啟動單使用者模式 (<literal>Boot Single User</literal>): 這個模式用來修正已安裝的 FreeBSD，如 <xref linkend="boot-singleuser"/> 所述。可按 <keycap>2</keycap>、大寫或小寫 <keycap>S</keycap> 進入這個模式。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Escape to loader prompt</literal>: This will
-	    boot the system into a repair prompt that contains a
-	    limited number of low-level commands.  This prompt is
-	    described in <xref linkend="boot-loader"/>.  Press
-	    <keycap>3</keycap> or <keycap>Esc</keycap> to boot into
-	    this prompt.</para>
+	  <para>離開到載入程式提示 (<literal>Escape to loader prompt</literal>): 這個選項會開機進入修復提示，這個模式含有有限數量的低階指令，這個模式詳細說明於 <xref linkend="boot-loader"/>。可按 <keycap>3</keycap> 或 <keycap>Esc</keycap> 進入這個提示。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Reboot</literal>: Reboots the system.</para>
+	  <para>重新開機 (<literal>Reboot</literal>): 重新開啟系統。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Configure Boot Options</literal>: Opens the
-	    menu shown in, and described under, <xref linkend="bsdinstall-boot-options-menu"/>.</para>
+	  <para>設定開機選項 (<literal>Configure Boot Options</literal>): 開啟內部選單，詳細說明於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-boot-options-menu"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-boot-options-menu">
 	<title>FreeBSD 開機選項選單</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-boot-options-menu"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The boot options menu is divided into two sections.  The
-	first section can be used to either return to the main boot
-	menu or to reset any toggled options back to their
-	defaults.</para>
+      <para>開機選項選單分成兩個部份。第一個部份用來返回主開機選單或重設任何已切換的選項回預設值。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next section is used to toggle the available options
-	to <literal>On</literal> or <literal>Off</literal> by pressing
-	the option's highlighted number or character.  The system will
-	always boot using the settings for these options until they
-	are modified.  Several options can be toggled using this
-	menu:</para>
+      <para>第二個部份用來切換可用的選項為開 (<literal>On</literal>) 或關 (<literal>Off</literal>)，透過按下選項明顯標示的編號或字元。系統將會一直使用這些選項開機，直到選項被修改。有數個選項可以在這個選單做切換：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>ACPI Support</literal>: If the system hangs
-	    during boot, try toggling this option to
-	    <literal>Off</literal>.</para>
+	  <para>ACPI 支援 (<literal>ACPI Support</literal>): 若系統在開機時卡住，可嘗試切換這個選項為關 (<literal>Off</literal>)。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Safe Mode</literal>: If the system still
-	    hangs during boot even with <literal>ACPI
-	      Support</literal> set to <literal>Off</literal>, try
-	    setting this option to <literal>On</literal>.</para>
+	  <para>安全模式 (<literal>Safe Mode</literal>): 若系統在 ACPI 支援 (<literal>ACPI Support</literal>) 設為關 (<literal>Off</literal>) 時開機時仍然會卡住，可嘗試將此選項設為開 (<literal>On</literal>)。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Single User</literal>: Toggle this option to
-	    <literal>On</literal> to fix an existing FreeBSD installation
-	    as described in <xref linkend="boot-singleuser"/>.  Once
-	    the problem is fixed, set it back to
-	    <literal>Off</literal>.</para>
+	  <para>單使用者 (<literal>Single User</literal>): 切換這個選項為開 (<literal>On</literal>) 來修正已存在的 FreeBSD 如 <xref linkend="boot-singleuser"/> 所述，問題修正後，將其設回關 (<literal>Off</literal>)。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Verbose</literal>: Toggle this option to
-	    <literal>On</literal> to see more detailed messages during
-	    the boot process.  This can be useful when troubleshooting
-	    a piece of hardware.</para>
+	  <para>詳細資訊 (<literal>Verbose</literal>): 切換這個選項為開 (<literal>On</literal>) 來查看開機程序中更詳細的訊息，這在診斷硬體問題時非常有用。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After making the needed selections, press
-	<keycap>1</keycap> or <keycap>Backspace</keycap> to return to
-	the main boot menu, then press <keycap>Enter</keycap> to
-	continue booting into FreeBSD.  A series of boot messages will
-	appear as FreeBSD carries out its hardware device probes and
-	loads the installation program.  Once the boot is complete,
-	the welcome menu shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-choose-mode"/> will be displayed.</para>
+      <para>在做完所需的選擇後，按下 <keycap>1</keycap> 或 <keycap>Backspace</keycap> 返回主開機選單，然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 繼續開機進入 FreeBSD。FreeBSD 執行裝置偵測及載入安裝程式時會顯示一系列的開機訊息，開機完成之後，會顯示歡迎選單如 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-choose-mode"/>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-choose-mode">
 	<title>歡迎選單</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-choose-mode"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Press <keycap>Enter</keycap> to select the default of
-	<guibutton>[ Install ]</guibutton> to enter the
-	installer.  The rest of this chapter describes how to use this
-	installer.  Otherwise, use the right or left arrows or the
-	colorized letter to select the desired menu item.  The
-	<guibutton>[ Shell ]</guibutton> can be used to
-	access a FreeBSD shell in order to use command line utilities to
-	prepare the disks before installation.  The
-	<guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> option can be
-	used to try out FreeBSD before installing it.  The live version
-	is described in <xref linkend="using-live-cd"/>.</para>
+      <para>按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 選擇預設的 <guibutton>[ Install ]</guibutton> 進入安裝程式，接下來本章將介紹如何使用這個安裝程式。 若要選擇其他項目，可使用右或左方向鍵或顏色標示的字母選擇想要的選單項目。<guibutton>[ Shell ]</guibutton> 可用來進入 FreeBSD 的 Shell 使用指令列工具在安裝之前準備磁碟。<guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> 選項可用來在安裝之前試用 FreeBSD，Live 版本的詳細說明於 <xref linkend="using-live-cd"/>。</para>
 
       <tip>
-	<para xml:lang="en">To review the boot messages, including the hardware
-	  device probe, press the upper- or lower-case
-	  <keycap>S</keycap> and then <keycap>Enter</keycap> to access
-	  a shell.  At the shell prompt, type <command>more
-	    /var/run/dmesg.boot</command> and use the space bar to
-	  scroll through the messages.  When finished, type
-	  <command>exit</command> to return to the welcome
-	  menu.</para>
+	<para>要重新檢視開機訊息，包含硬體裝置偵測，請按大寫或小寫 <keycap>S</keycap> 然後再按 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 進入 Shell。在 Shell 提示之後輸入 <command>more /var/run/dmesg.boot</command> 然後使用空白鍵來捲動訊息。當查看完畢後輸入 <command>exit</command> 返回歡迎選單。</para>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="using-bsdinstall">
     <title>使用 <application>bsdinstall</application></title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section shows the order of the
-      <application>bsdinstall</application> menus and the type of
-      information that will be asked before the system is installed.
-      Use the arrow keys to highlight a menu option, then
-      <keycap>Space</keycap> to select or deselect that menu item.
-      When finished, press <keycap>Enter</keycap> to save the
-      selection and move onto the next screen.</para>
+    <para>本節將告訴您在系統安裝之前 <application>bsdinstall</application> 選單的順序以及會詢問的資訊類型，可使用方向鍵來選擇選單的選項，然後按下 <keycap>Space</keycap> 選擇或取消選擇選單項目。當完成之後，按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 儲存選項然後進入下一個畫面。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-keymap">
       <title>選擇鍵盤對應表選單</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Depending on the system console being used,
-	<application>bsdinstall</application> may initially display
-	the menu shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-keymap-select-default"/>.</para>
+      <para>依據使用的系統 Console，<application>bsdinstall</application> 可能一開始顯示的選單會如 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-keymap-select-default"/>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-keymap-select-default">
 	<title>鍵盤對應表選擇</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-keymap-select-default"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To configure the keyboard layout, press
-	<keycap>Enter</keycap> with
-	<guibutton>[ YES ]</guibutton> selected, which will
-	display the menu shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-keymap"/>.  To instead use the
-	default layout, use the arrow key to select
-	<guibutton>[ NO ]</guibutton> and press
-	<keycap>Enter</keycap> to skip this menu screen.</para>
+      <para>要設定鍵盤配置，請選擇 <guibutton>[ YES ]</guibutton> 按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>，接著會顯示選單如 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-keymap"/>。若要使用預設的配置，則可使用方向鍵選擇 <guibutton>[ NO ]</guibutton> 然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 跳過這個選單畫面。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-config-keymap">
 	<title>選擇鍵盤選單</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-config-keymap"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When configuring the keyboard layout, use the up and down
-	arrows to select the keymap that most closely represents the
-	mapping of the keyboard attached to the system.  Press
-	<keycap>Enter</keycap> to save the selection.</para>
+      <para>設定鍵盤配置時，可使用上與下方向鍵來選擇最接近已連接到系統的鍵盤的鍵盤對應表 (Keymap)，然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 儲存選項。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Pressing <keycap>Esc</keycap> will exit this menu and
-	  use the default keymap.  If the choice of keymap is not
-	  clear, <guimenuitem>United States of America
-	    ISO-8859-1</guimenuitem> is also a safe option.</para>
+	<para>按 <keycap>Esc</keycap> 會離開這個選單然後使用預設的鍵盤對應表，若不清選要使用那種鍵盤對應表，<guimenuitem>United States of America ISO-8859-1</guimenuitem> 是也是保險的選項。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE and later, this menu has been
-	enhanced.  The full selection of keymaps is shown, with the
-	default preselected.  In addition, when selecting a different
-	keymap, a dialog is displayed that allows the user to try the
-	keymap and ensure it is correct before proceeding.</para>
+      <para>在 FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE 以及之後的版本，已經加強了這個選單，會顯示完整的鍵盤對應表選項，並預先選擇預設值。另外，當選擇其他鍵盤對應用時，在繼續之前會顯示對話框讓使用者測試鍵盤對應表來確認。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-keymap-10">
 	<title>改進後的鍵盤對應表選單</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-keymap-10"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-hostname">
       <title>設定主機名稱</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next <application>bsdinstall</application> menu is
-	used to set the hostname for the newly installed
-	system.</para>
+      <para>下一個 <application>bsdinstall</application> 選單用來為新安裝的系統設定主機名稱。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-config-hostname">
 	<title>設定主機名稱</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-config-hostname"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Type in a hostname that is unique for the network.  It
-	should be a fully-qualified hostname, such as <systemitem class="fqdomainname">machine3.example.com</systemitem>.</para>
+      <para>輸入在網路上獨一無二的主機名稱，主機名稱要是完整的主機名稱，如 <systemitem class="fqdomainname">machine3.example.com</systemitem>。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-components">
       <title>選擇要安裝的元件</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Next, <application>bsdinstall</application> will prompt to
-	select optional components to install.</para>
+      <para>接下來 <application>bsdinstall</application> 會提示選擇要安裝的選用元件。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-config-components">
 	<title>選擇要安裝的元件</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-config-components"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Deciding which components to install will depend largely
-	on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space
-	available.  The FreeBSD kernel and userland, collectively known
-	as the <firstterm>base system</firstterm>, are always
-	installed.  Depending on the architecture, some of these
-	components may not appear:</para>
+      <para>決定要安裝的元件主要會根據系統的用途以及可用的磁碟空間容量。FreeBSD 核心 (Kernel) 及 Userland 統稱為 <firstterm>基礎系統 (Base system)</firstterm>，是必須安裝的部份。依據系統的架構，部份元件可能不會顯示:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>doc</literal> - Additional documentation,
-	    mostly of historical interest, to install into
-	    <filename>/usr/share/doc</filename>.  The documentation
-	    provided by the FreeBSD Documentation Project may be
-	    installed later using the instructions in <xref linkend="updating-upgrading-documentation"/>.</para>
+	  <para><literal>doc</literal> - 額外的說明文件，大部份是經年累月的產物，會安裝到 <filename>/usr/share/doc</filename>。由 FreeBSD 文件計劃所提供的說明文件可在之後安裝，依照 <xref linkend="updating-upgrading-documentation"/> 中的指示操作。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>games</literal> - Several traditional
-	    <acronym>BSD</acronym> games, including
-	    <application>fortune</application>,
-	    <application>rot13</application>, and others.</para>
+	  <para><literal>games</literal> - 數個傳統 <acronym>BSD</acronym> 遊戲，包含 <application>fortune</application>, <application>rot13</application> 以及其他。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>lib32</literal> - Compatibility libraries for
-	    running 32-bit applications on a 64-bit version of
-	    FreeBSD.</para>
+	  <para><literal>lib32</literal> - 在 64-bit 版本的 FreeBSD 供執行 32-bit 應用程式使用的相容性程式庫。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>ports</literal> - The FreeBSD Ports Collection
-	    is a collection of files which automates the downloading,
-	    compiling and installation of third-party software
-	    packages.  <xref linkend="ports"/> discusses how to use
-	    the Ports Collection.</para>
+	  <para><literal>ports</literal> - FreeBSD Port 套件集是一套可自動下載、編譯安裝第三方軟體套件的集合，<xref linkend="ports"/> 中會討論到如何使用 Port 套件集。</para>
 
 	  <warning>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">The installation program does not check for
-	      adequate disk space.  Select this option only if
-	      sufficient hard disk space is available.  The FreeBSD Ports
-	      Collection takes up about 500 MB of disk
-	      space.</para>
+	    <para>安裝程式並不會檢查是否有充足的磁碟空間，FreeBSD Port 套件集會使用約 500 MB 的磁碟空間，只有在有足夠的磁碟空間時才選擇這個選項。</para>
 	  </warning>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>src</literal> - The complete FreeBSD source code
-	    for both the kernel and the userland.  Although not
-	    required for the majority of applications, it may be
-	    required to build device drivers, kernel modules, or some
-	    applications from the Ports Collection.  It is also used
-	    for developing FreeBSD itself.  The full source tree requires
-	    1 GB of disk space and recompiling the entire FreeBSD
-	    system requires an additional 5 GB of space.</para>
+	  <para><literal>src</literal> - 完整的 FreeBSD 原始碼，包含核心 (Kernel) 與 Userland。雖然大多數的應用程式並不需要，但它可以編譯裝置驅動程式、核心模組或部份來自 Port 套件集的應用程式，它同時也用來做為開發 FreeBSD 本身所使用。完整的原始碼樹需要 1 GB 的磁碟空間，重新編譯整個 FreeBSD 系統需要額外再 5 GB 的空間。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-netinstall">
       <title>從網路安裝</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The menu shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-netinstall-notify"/> only appears when
-	installing from a <filename>-bootonly.iso</filename>
-	<acronym>CD</acronym> as this installation media does not hold
-	copies of the installation files.  Since the installation
-	files must be retrieved over a network connection, this menu
-	indicates that the network interface must be first
-	configured.</para>
+      <para>於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-netinstall-notify"/> 所示的選單只會在使用 <filename>-bootonly.iso</filename> <acronym>CD</acronym> 安裝時顯示，因這個安裝媒體中並未含安裝檔的複本。由於安裝檔必須透過網路下載，此選單會告知要先設定網路介面。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-netinstall-notify">
 	<title>從網路安裝</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-netinstall-files"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To configure the network connection, press
-	<keycap>Enter</keycap> and follow the instructions in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-network-dev"/>.  Once the
-	interface is configured, select a mirror site that is
-	located in the same region of the world as the computer on
-	which FreeBSD is being installed.  Files can be retrieved more
-	quickly when the mirror is close to the target computer,
-	reducing installation time.</para>
+      <para>要設定網路連線，按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 然後依照 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-network-dev"/> 中的指示操作，完成網路介面的設定之後，選擇與要安裝 FreeBSD 的電腦相同所在地區的鏡像站，當鏡像站越接近目標電腦，檔案下載的速度會比較快，這會減少安裝的時間。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-netinstall-mirror">
 	<title>選擇鏡像站</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-netinstall-mirrorselect"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Installation will then continue as if the installation
-	files were located on the local installation media.</para>
+      <para>若在本機的安裝媒體中找到安裝檔案，安裝程序便會繼續。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-partitioning">
     <title>配置磁碟空間</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">The next menu is used to determine the method for
-      allocating disk space.  The options available in the menu
-      depend upon the version of FreeBSD being installed.</para>
+    <para>接下來的選單用來決定配置磁碟空間的方式，選單中可用的選項會依安裝的 FreeBSD 版本而有所不同。</para>
 
     <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-guided-manual">
-      <title>FreeBSD 9.x 的分割區選擇</title>
+      <title>FreeBSD 9.x 的磁碟分割選項</title>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-guided-manual"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </figure>
 
     <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-partmenu">
       <title>FreeBSD 10.x 或更新版本的磁碟分割選項</title>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-partmenu"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </figure>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Guided</literal> partitioning automatically sets up
-      the disk partitions, <literal>Manual</literal> partitioning
-      allows advanced users to create customized partitions from menu
-      options, and <literal>Shell</literal> opens a shell prompt where
-      advanced users can create customized partitions using
-      command-line utilities like <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fdisk</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
-      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsdlabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  <literal>ZFS</literal> partitioning, only
-      available in FreeBSD 10 and later, creates an optionally encrypted
-      root-on-ZFS system with support for <firstterm>boot
-	environments</firstterm>.</para>
+    <para>引導式 (<literal>Guided</literal>) 磁碟分割會自動設定磁碟的分割區 (Partition)，手動 (<literal>Manual</literal>) 磁碟分割可讓進階的使用者使用選單項目建立自訂的分割區，而 <literal>Shell</literal> 會開啟 Shell 提示讓進階的使用者可以使用指示列工具如 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fdisk</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsdlabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來建立自訂的分割區。<literal>ZFS</literal> 磁碟分割只在 FreeBSD 10 及之後的版本可以使用，可建立選擇性加密的 root-on-ZFS 系統並支援 <firstterm>開機環境 (Boot environment)</firstterm>。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section describes what to consider when laying out the
-      disk partitions.  It then demonstrates how to use the different
-      partitioning methods.</para>
+    <para>本節會介紹在配置磁碟分割時需要考量那些事情，並且會示範各種磁碟分割的方式。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="configtuning-initial">
       <title>規劃分割區配置</title>
 
       <indexterm><primary>分割區配置</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/etc</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/var</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/usr</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When laying out file systems, remember that hard drives
-	transfer data faster from the outer tracks to the inner.
-	Thus, smaller and heavier-accessed file systems should be
-	closer to the outside of the drive, while larger partitions
-	like <filename>/usr</filename> should be placed toward the
-	inner parts of the disk.  It is a good idea to create
-	partitions in an order similar to: <filename>/</filename>,
-	swap, <filename>/var</filename>, and
-	<filename>/usr</filename>.</para>
+      <para>配置檔案系統時要記得硬碟的傳輸資料外軌較內軌的速度快，因此較小且大量存取的檔案系統應要較接近磁碟的外軌，而較大的分割區如 <filename>/usr</filename> 應放置在磁碟較內部，建議建立分割區的順序如下: <filename>/</filename>, swap, <filename>/var</filename> 然後 <filename>/usr</filename>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The size of the <filename>/var</filename> partition
-	reflects the intended machine's usage.  This partition is
-	used to hold mailboxes, log files, and printer spools.
-	Mailboxes and log files can grow to unexpected sizes
-	depending on the number of users and how long log files are
-	kept.  On average, most users rarely need more than about a
-	gigabyte of free disk space in
-	<filename>/var</filename>.</para>
+      <para>機器預期的用途會反映在 <filename>/var</filename> 分割區的大小，這個分割區用來保存郵件 (Mailbox)、記錄檔 (Log file) 及印表機緩衝 (Spool)。依使用者數及保存的期間，郵件及記錄檔可能成長到無法預期的大小，一般來說大部份的使用很少會在 <filename>/var</filename> 需要超過 1 GB 的可用磁碟空間。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Sometimes, a lot of disk space is required in
-	  <filename>/var/tmp</filename>.  When new software is
-	  installed, the packaging tools extract a temporary copy of
-	  the packages under <filename>/var/tmp</filename>.  Large
-	  software packages, like <application>Firefox</application>,
-	  <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> or
-	  <application>LibreOffice</application> may be tricky to
-	  install if there is not enough disk space under
-	  <filename>/var/tmp</filename>.</para>
+	<para>有時在 <filename>/var/tmp</filename> 會需要較多的空間，當新軟體安裝，套件工具會從套件中取出暫存的複本置於 <filename>/var/tmp</filename>。若在 <filename>/var/tmp</filename> 沒有足夠的空間，要安裝大型軟體套件，例如 <application>Firefox</application>, <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 或 <application>LibreOffice</application> 會很困難。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>/usr</filename> partition holds many of the
-	files which support the system, including the FreeBSD Ports
-	Collection and system source code.  At least 2 gigabytes is
-	recommended for this partition.</para>
+      <para><filename>/usr</filename> 分割區會保存許多支持系統運作的檔案，包含 FreeBSD Port 套件集以及系統原始碼。這個分割區建議至少要有 2 GB 的空間。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When selecting partition sizes, keep the space
-	requirements in mind.  Running out of space in one partition
-	while barely using another can be a hassle.</para>
+      <para>在規劃分割區大小時，請牢記空間需求，當因某個分割區空間不足時要改使用其他分割區時會很麻煩。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>swap sizing</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>swap partition</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">As a rule of thumb, the swap partition should be about
-	double the size of physical memory (<acronym>RAM</acronym>).
-	Systems with minimal <acronym>RAM</acronym> may perform
-	better with more swap.  Configuring too little swap can lead
-	to inefficiencies in the <acronym>VM</acronym> page scanning
-	code and might create issues later if more memory is
-	added.</para>
+      <para>根據經驗，交換分割區應為是實體記憶體 (<acronym>RAM</acronym>) 的兩倍。使用最低需求的 <acronym>RAM</acronym> 來運作的系統會需要更多的交換空間來取得更好的表現。配置太小的交換交間可能導致 <acronym>VM</acronym> 分頁掃描碼效率不佳，且往後增加更多記憶體時可能會產生問題。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">On larger systems with multiple <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
-	disks or multiple <acronym>IDE</acronym> disks operating on
-	different controllers, it is recommended that swap be
-	configured on each drive, up to four drives.  The swap
-	partitions should be approximately the same size.  The
-	kernel can handle arbitrary sizes but internal data structures
-	scale to 4 times the largest swap partition.  Keeping the swap
-	partitions near the same size will allow the kernel to
-	optimally stripe swap space across disks.  Large swap sizes
-	are fine, even if swap is not used much.  It might be easier
-	to recover from a runaway program before being forced to
-	reboot.</para>
+      <para>在有數個 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 磁碟或數個 <acronym>IDE</acronym> 磁碟在不同控制器的大型系統建議在每個磁碟機上都設定交換空間，最多可至四個磁碟機。每個交換分割區的大小應接近相同。核心雖可以處以任意大小的交換空間，但內部資料結構擴充到 4 倍的最大交換分割區大小時，讓交換分割區擁有相同的大小可以讓核心可以最佳的方式串連各個磁碟的交換空間。規劃較大交換空間是可以的，即使沒有使用到多少交換空間，這也會讓要從失控的程式恢復運作更容易，而不需強制重新啟動系統。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">By properly partitioning a system, fragmentation
-	introduced in the smaller write heavy partitions will not
-	bleed over into the mostly read partitions.  Keeping the
-	write loaded partitions closer to the disk's edge will
-	increase <acronym>I/O</acronym> performance in the
-	partitions where it occurs the most.  While
-	<acronym>I/O</acronym> performance in the larger partitions
-	may be needed, shifting them more toward the edge of the disk
-	will not lead to a significant performance improvement over
-	moving <filename>/var</filename> to the edge.</para>
+      <para>正確的做磁碟分割，可以區隔頻繁寫入所產生的資料碎片與經常讀取的分割區，將寫入頻繁的分割區放在磁碟的邊緣可以增加 <acronym>I/O</acronym> 效率。雖然較大的分割區可能也需要增加 <acronym>I/O</acronym> 效率，但將這些分割區往磁碟邊緣移動所增加的效率並不會比將 <filename>/var</filename> 移到磁碟邊緣所增加的效率來的顯著。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-part-guided">
       <title>引導式磁碟分割</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When this method is selected, a menu will display the
-	available disk(s).  If multiple disks are connected, choose
-	the one where FreeBSD is to be installed.</para>
+      <para>當選擇這個方法，選單上會顯示可用的磁碟，若電腦有安裝多個磁碟，則需選擇其中一個來安裝 FreeBSD。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-guided-disk">
 	<title>自多個磁碟選擇</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-guided-disk"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Once the disk is selected, the next menu prompts to
-	install to either the entire disk or to create a partition
-	using free space.  If
-	<guibutton>[ Entire Disk ]</guibutton> is
-	chosen, a general partition layout filling the whole disk is
-	automatically created.  Selecting
-	<guibutton>[ Partition ]</guibutton> creates a
-	partition layout from the unused space on the disk.</para>
+      <para>選擇磁碟之後，接下來選單會提示是否要安裝到整個磁碟或是使用剩餘的空間建立新的分割區。若選擇 <guibutton>[ Entire Disk ]</guibutton>，會自動建立通用的分割區配置來填滿整個磁碟。選擇 <guibutton>[ Partition ]</guibutton> 則會使用磁碟上未使用的空間來建立分割區配置。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-entire-part">
 	<title>選擇完整磁碟或分割區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-entire-part"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After the partition layout has been created, review it to
-	ensure it meets the needs of the installation.  Selecting
-	<guibutton>[ Revert ]</guibutton> will reset the
-	partitions to their original values and pressing
-	<guibutton>[ Auto ]</guibutton> will recreate the
-	automatic FreeBSD partitions.  Partitions can also be manually
-	created, modified, or deleted.  When the partitioning is
-	correct, select <guibutton>[ Finish ]</guibutton> to
-	continue with the installation.</para>
+      <para>分割區配置建立完成之後，再檢查一次確定是否符合安裝的需求。選擇 <guibutton>[ Revert ]</guibutton> 會重設分割區回復為原來的設定值，選擇 <guibutton>[ Auto ]</guibutton> 會重新建立自動配置的 FreeBSD 分割區。分割區也可以手動建立、修改或刪除。當確認磁碟分割正確之後，選擇 <guibutton>[ Finish ]</guibutton> 繼續安裝。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-review">
 	<title>確認已建立的分割區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-review"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-part-manual">
       <title>手動磁碟分割</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Selecting this method opens the partition editor:</para>
+      <para>選擇這個方法會開啟分割區編輯程式：</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-manual-create">
 	<title>手動建立分割區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-manual-create"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Highlight the installation drive
-	(<filename>ada0</filename> in this example) and select
-	<guibutton>[ Create ]</guibutton> to display a menu
-	of available partition schemes:</para>
+      <para>選擇要安裝的磁碟機 (在這個例子為 <filename>ada0</filename>) 然後選擇 <guibutton>[ Create ]</guibutton> 會以選單顯示可用的分割表格式 (Partition scheme):</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-manual-partscheme">
 	<title>手動建立分割區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-manual-partscheme"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>GPT</acronym> is usually the most appropriate
-	choice for amd64 computers.  Older computers that are
-	not compatible with <acronym>GPT</acronym> should use
-	<acronym>MBR</acronym>.  The other partition schemes are
-	generally used for uncommon or older computers.</para>
+      <para>amd64 電腦最適合的選擇通常是 <acronym>GPT</acronym>，無法相容 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 的舊電腦則應使用 <acronym>MBR</acronym>。而其他分割表格式一般會用在那些較罕見或較舊的電腦上。</para>
 
       <table frame="none" rowsep="1" pgwide="1">
-	<title>磁碟分割格式</title>
+	<title>磁碟分割表格式</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2" align="left">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry align="left">縮寫</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">APM</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Apple Partition Map, used by <trademark class="registered">PowerPC</trademark>.</entry>
+	      <entry>Apple Partition Map，用於 <trademark class="registered">PowerPC</trademark>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">BSD</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>BSD</acronym> label without an
-		<acronym>MBR</acronym>, sometimes called
-		<firstterm>dangerously dedicated mode</firstterm> as
-		non-<acronym>BSD</acronym> disk utilities may not
-		recognize it.</entry>
+	      <entry>無 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 的 <acronym>BSD</acronym> 標籤，因非 <acronym>BSD</acronym> 的磁碟工具可能無法辨識該標籤，有時被稱做 <firstterm>危險專用模式 (Dangerously dedicated mode)</firstterm>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">GPT</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">GUID Partition Table (<link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table</link>).</entry>
+	      <entry>GUID 分割區表 (<link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table</link>)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">MBR</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Master Boot Record (<link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_boot_record">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_boot_record</link>).</entry>
+	      <entry>主開機記錄 (<link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_boot_record">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_boot_record</link>)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">PC98</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>MBR</acronym> variant used by NEC PC-98
-		computers (<link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pc9801">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pc9801</link>).</entry>
+	      <entry>使用 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 改編，用於 NEC PC-98 電腦 (<link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pc9801">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pc9801</link>)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">VTOC8</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Volume Table Of Contents used by Sun SPARC64 and
-		UltraSPARC computers.</entry>
+	      <entry>Volume Table Of Contents，用於 Sun SPARC64 及 UltraSPARC  電腦。</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After the partitioning scheme has been selected and
-	created, select <guibutton>[ Create ]</guibutton>
-	again to create the partitions.</para>
+      <para>選擇完分割區表格式並建立之後，再選擇 <guibutton>[ Create ]</guibutton> 一次來建立分割區。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-part-manual-addpart">
 	<title>手動建立分割區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-part-manual-addpart"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A standard FreeBSD <acronym>GPT</acronym> installation uses
-	at least three partitions:</para>
+      <para>標準的 FreeBSD <acronym>GPT</acronym> 安裝會使用至少三種分割區:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-boot</literal> - Holds the FreeBSD boot
-	    code.</para>
+	  <para><literal>freebsd-boot</literal> - 儲存 FreeBSD 開機程式 (Boot code)。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-ufs</literal> - A FreeBSD
-	    <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system.</para>
+	  <para><literal>freebsd-ufs</literal> - FreeBSD 的 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 檔案系統。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-swap</literal> - FreeBSD swap
-	    space.</para>
+	  <para><literal>freebsd-swap</literal> - FreeBSD 交換空間。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Another partition type worth noting is
-	<literal>freebsd-zfs</literal>, used for partitions that will
-	contain a FreeBSD <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file system (<xref linkend="zfs"/>).  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
-	descriptions of the available <acronym>GPT</acronym> partition
-	types.</para>
+      <para>另一個值得注意的分割區類型是 <literal>freebsd-zfs</literal>，這個分割區用來放置 FreeBSD <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 檔案系統 (<xref linkend="zfs"/>)。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得可用的 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割區類型說明。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Multiple file system partitions can be created and some
-	people prefer a traditional layout with separate partitions
-	for <filename>/</filename>, <filename>/var</filename>,
-	<filename>/tmp</filename>, and <filename>/usr</filename>.  See
-	<xref linkend="bsdinstall-part-manual-splitfs"/> for an
-	example.</para>
+      <para>檔案系統分割區可建立多個，且有部份人會偏好使用傳統的配置方式將 <filename>/</filename>, <filename>/var</filename>, <filename>/tmp</filename> 以及 <filename>/usr</filename> 分開存放在不同的分割區。請參考 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-part-manual-splitfs"/> 的範例。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Size</literal> may be entered with common
-	abbreviations: <emphasis>K</emphasis> for kilobytes,
-	<emphasis>M</emphasis> for megabytes, or
-	<emphasis>G</emphasis> for gigabytes.</para>
+      <para>大小 (<literal>Size</literal>) 欄位可以使用常用的縮寫來輸入: <emphasis>K</emphasis> 代表 KB, <emphasis>M</emphasis> 代表 MB, <emphasis>G</emphasis> 代表 GB。</para>
 
       <tip>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Proper sector alignment provides the best performance,
-	  and making partition sizes even multiples of 4K bytes helps
-	  to ensure alignment on drives with either 512-byte or
-	  4K-byte sectors.  Generally, using partition sizes that are
-	  even multiples of 1M or 1G is the easiest way to make sure
-	  every partition starts at an even multiple of 4K.  There is
-	  one exception: the <emphasis>freebsd-boot</emphasis>
-	  partition should be no larger than 512K due to current boot
-	  code limitations.</para>
+	<para>適當的對齊磁碟扇區 (Sector) 會提供最佳的效能，而且讓分割區大小為 4 KB 的偶數倍數可協助確保對齊在磁碟機上的 512-byte 或 4K-byte 扇區。一般來說，使用分割區大小為 1M 或 1G 的偶數倍數是最簡單的方式確保每個分割區以 4K 的偶數倍數做為開始。唯一一個例外是: <emphasis>freebsd-boot</emphasis> 分割區因目前開機程式 (Boot code) 的限制，不可大於 512K。</para>
       </tip>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A <literal>Mountpoint</literal> is needed if the partition
-	will contain a file system.  If only a single
-	<acronym>UFS</acronym> partition will be created, the
-	mountpoint should be <filename>/</filename>.</para>
+      <para>若分割區內含檔案系統便會需要一個掛載點 (<literal>Mountpoint</literal>)，若只要建立一個 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 分割區，那麼掛載點應設為 <filename>/</filename>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Label</literal> is a name by which the
-	partition will be known.  Drive names or numbers can change if
-	the drive is connected to a different controller or port, but
-	the partition label does not change.  Referring to labels
-	instead of drive names and partition numbers in files like
-	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> makes the system more tolerant
-	to hardware changes.  <acronym>GPT</acronym> labels appear in
-	<filename>/dev/gpt/</filename> when a disk is attached.  Other
-	partitioning schemes have different label capabilities and
-	their labels appear in different directories in
-	<filename>/dev/</filename>.</para>
+      <para>標籤 (<literal>Label</literal>) 是分割區的名稱，磁碟機名稱或編號可能因為磁碟機連接到不同的控制器或連結埠而有所不同，但分割區標籤並不會改變。因此在檔案如 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 中參照時，使用標籤來替代磁碟機名稱與分割區編號會讓系統對硬體變更有更多的容錯空間。<acronym>GPT</acronym> 標籤會於磁碟連結之後出現在 <filename>/dev/gpt/</filename>。其他分割表格式的標籤格有不同功能，且標籤會在 <filename>/dev/</filename> 中有各自的目錄。</para>
 
       <tip>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Use a unique label on every partition to avoid
-	  conflicts from identical labels.  A few letters from the
-	  computer's name, use, or location can be added to the label.
-	  For instance, use <literal>labroot</literal> or
-	  <literal>rootfslab</literal> for the <acronym>UFS</acronym>
-	  root partition on the computer named
-	  <literal>lab</literal>.</para>
+	<para>每個分割區請使用獨一無二的標籤來避免相同名稱的衝突，標籤可以加入與電腦名稱、用途、地點有關的文字。例如，使用 <literal>labroot</literal> 或 <literal>rootfslab</literal> 來做為電腦名稱為 <literal>lab</literal> 的 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 根目錄分割區。</para>
       </tip>
 
       <example xml:id="bsdinstall-part-manual-splitfs">
 	<title>建立傳統分割的檔案系統分割區</title>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">For a traditional partition layout where the
-	  <filename>/</filename>, <filename>/var</filename>,
-	  <filename>/tmp</filename>, and <filename>/usr</filename>
-	  directories are separate file systems on their own
-	  partitions, create a <acronym>GPT</acronym> partitioning
-	  scheme, then create the partitions as shown.  Partition
-	  sizes shown are typical for a 20G target disk.  If more
-	  space is available on the target disk, larger swap or
-	  <filename>/var</filename> partitions may be useful.  Labels
-	  shown here are prefixed with <literal>ex</literal> for
-	  <quote>example</quote>, but readers should use other unique
-	  label values as described above.</para>
+	<para>傳統的分割區配置會將 <filename>/</filename>, <filename>/var</filename>, <filename>/tmp</filename> 以及 <filename>/usr</filename> 分別使用不同的檔案系統與分割區。先建立 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 分割表格式，然後依照下表所示建立分割區。下表是針對 20G 目標磁碟的分割區大小，若在目標磁碟有更多可用的空間，則可增加交換空間 (Swap) 或 <filename>/var</filename> 會比較有用。以下所示的標籤皆以 <literal>ex</literal> 為字首，代表 <quote>example</quote>，讀者應照前面的說明使用其他獨一無二的標籤。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">By default, FreeBSD's <filename>gptboot</filename> expects
-	  the first <acronym>UFS</acronym> partition to be the
-	  <filename>/</filename> partition.</para>
+	<para>預設 FreeBSD 的 <filename>gptboot</filename> 會預期第一個 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 分割區為 <filename>/</filename> 分割區。</para>
 
 	<informaltable frame="none">
 	  <tgroup cols="4">
 	    <thead>
 	      <row>
-		<entry xml:lang="en">Partition Type</entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en">Size</entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en">Mountpoint</entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en">Label</entry>
+		<entry>分割區類型</entry>
+		<entry>大小</entry>
+		<entry>掛載點</entry>
+		<entry>標籤</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </thead>
 
 	    <tbody>
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-boot</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>512K</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-ufs</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>2G</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/</filename></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>exrootfs</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-swap</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>4G</literal></entry>
 		<entry/>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>exswap</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-ufs</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>2G</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var</filename></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>exvarfs</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-ufs</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>1G</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/tmp</filename></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>extmpfs</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>freebsd-ufs</literal></entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en">accept the default (remainder of the
-		  disk)</entry>
+		<entry>接受預設值 (依磁碟提示)</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr</filename></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>exusrfs</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
       </example>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After the custom partitions have been created, select
-	<guibutton>[ Finish ]</guibutton> to continue with
-	the installation.</para>
+      <para>自訂的分割區建立完後，選擇 <guibutton>[ Finish ]</guibutton> 繼續安裝。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-part-zfs">
       <title>Root-on-ZFS 自動磁碟分割</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Support for automatic creation of root-on-ZFS
-	installations was added in FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE.  This
-	partitioning mode only works with whole disks and will erase
-	the contents of the entire disk.  The installer will
-	automatically create partitions aligned to 4k boundaries and
-	force <acronym>ZFS</acronym> to use 4k sectors.  This is safe
-	even with 512 byte sector disks, and has the added benefit of
-	ensuring that pools created on 512 byte disks will be able to
-	have 4k sector disks added in the future, either as additional
-	storage space or as replacements for failed disks.  The
-	installer can also optionally employ <acronym>GELI</acronym>
-	disk encryption as described in <xref linkend="disks-encrypting-geli"/>.
-	If encryption is enabled, a 2 GB unencrypted boot pool
-	containing the <filename>/boot</filename> directory is
-	created.  It holds the kernel and other files necessary to
-	boot the system.  A swap partition of a user selectable size
-	is also created, and all remaining space is used for the
-	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> pool.</para>
+      <para>在 FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE 之後支援了自動建立 root-on-ZFS 的安裝程序。這種磁碟分割模式只能使用整個磁碟，並會清除整個磁碟內的內容。安裝程式會自動建立對齊 4k 邊界的分割區然後強制 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 使用 4k 扇區 (Sector)。即使在 512 位元扇區的磁碟使用也很安全，並增加了確保在 512 位元的磁碟上建立儲存池 (Pool) 也可在未來加入 4k 扇區磁碟的好處，無論是作為額外的存儲空間或作為故障磁碟的替代品。安裝程式也可選擇性採用 <acronym>GELI</acronym> 磁碟加密，如 <xref linkend="disks-encrypting-geli"/> 所介紹，若開啟磁碟加密，會建立一個內含 <filename>/boot</filename> 目錄的 2 GB 未加密的開機儲存池，這個儲存池中會儲存核心及其他開機必要的檔案。然後剩餘的空用會給 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 儲存池使用。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The main <acronym>ZFS</acronym> configuration menu offers
-	a number of options to control the creation of the
-	pool.</para>
+      <para>主要 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 設定選單提供了數個設定選項來控制儲存池的建立。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-menu">
-	<title><acronym>ZFS</acronym> 分割區選單</title>
+	<title><acronym>ZFS</acronym> 磁碟分割選單</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-menu"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Select <keycap>T</keycap> to configure the <literal>Pool
-	  Type</literal> and the disk(s) that will constitute the
-	pool.  The automatic <acronym>ZFS</acronym> installer
-	currently only supports the creation of a single top level
-	vdev, except in stripe mode.  To create more complex pools,
-	use the instructions in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-part-shell"/> to create the pool.  The
-	installer supports the creation of various pool types,
-	including stripe (not recommended, no redundancy), mirror
-	(best performance, least usable space), and RAID-Z 1, 2, and 3
-	(with the capability to withstand the concurrent failure of 1,
-	2, and 3 disks, respectively).  while selecting the pool type,
-	a tooltip is displayed across the bottom of the screen with
-	advice about the number of required disks, and in the case of
-	RAID-Z, the optimal number of disks for each
-	configuration.</para>
+      <para>選擇 <keycap>T</keycap> 來設定儲存池類型 (<literal>Pool Type</literal>) 以及要組成儲存池的磁碟。自動 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 安裝程式目前僅支援建立單一頂層 vdev，除了在串連 (Stripe) 模式。要建立更複雜的儲存池，需使用 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-part-shell"/> 的操作來建立儲存池。安裝程式支援建立各種儲存池類型，包含串連 Stripe (不建議，沒有備援功能)、鏡像 Mirror (效能較佳，但可用空間較少) 以及 RAID-Z 1, 2, 與 3 (分別有能力承受同時 1, 2 與 3 個磁碟的損壞)。在選擇儲存池類型時會有提示顯示在螢幕的下方，提示所需要的磁碟數以及在使用 RAID-Z 時，每個配置最佳的磁碟數。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-vdev_type">
 	<title><acronym>ZFS</acronym> 儲存池類型</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-vdev_type"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Once a <literal>Pool Type</literal> has been selected, a
-	list of available disks is displayed, and the user is prompted
-	to select one or more disks to make up the pool.  The
-	configuration is then validated, to ensure enough disks are
-	selected.  If not, select <guibutton>&lt;Change
-	  Selection&gt;</guibutton> to return to the list of disks, or
-	<guibutton>&lt;Cancel&gt;</guibutton> to change the pool
-	type.</para>
+      <para>選擇儲存池 (<literal>Pool Type</literal>) 之後，會顯示可用的磁碟清單，然後會提示使用者選擇一個或多個磁碟來建立儲存池。接著會檢驗設定來確定選擇的磁碟足夠，若不足，選擇更改選項 (<guibutton>&lt;Change Selection&gt;</guibutton>) 來返回磁碟清單或取消 (<guibutton>&lt;Cancel&gt;</guibutton>) 來更改儲存池類型。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-disk_select">
 	<title>磁碟選擇</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-disk_select"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-vdev_invalid">
 	<title>無效的選擇</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-vdev_invalid"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If one or more disks are missing from the list, or if
-	disks were attached after the installer was started, select
-	<guibutton>- Rescan Devices</guibutton> to repopulate the list
-	of available disks.  To ensure that the correct disks are
-	selected, so as not to accidently destroy the wrong disks, the
-	<guibutton>- Disk Info</guibutton> menu can be used to inspect
-	each disk, including its partition table and various other
-	information such as the device model number and serial number,
-	if available.</para>
+      <para>若有一個或多磁碟未出現在清單上，或在安裝程式啟動後才連接的磁碟，可選擇重新掃描裝置 (<guibutton>- Rescan Devices</guibutton>) 來更新可用磁碟的清單。要避免清除掉錯的磁碟，可用磁碟資訊 (<guibutton>- Disk Info</guibutton>) 來檢查每個磁碟，包含磁碟中的分割表以及各種其他資訊如裝置型號與序號 (若有的話)。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-disk_info">
 	<title>分析磁碟</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-disk_info"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The main <acronym>ZFS</acronym> configuration menu also
-	allows the user to enter a pool name, disable forcing 4k
-	sectors, enable or disable encryption, switch between
-	<acronym>GPT</acronym> (recommended) and
-	<acronym>MBR</acronym> partition table types, and select the
-	amount of swap space.  Once all options have been set to the
-	desired values, select the
-	<guibutton>&gt;&gt;&gt; Install</guibutton> option at the
-	top of the menu.</para>
+      <para>主 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 設定選單也允許使用者輸入儲存池名稱、關閉強制 4k 扇區對齊、開啟或關閉加密、切換 <acronym>GPT</acronym> (建議) 與 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 分割表類型以及選擇交換空間容量。設定所有選項為想要的值之後，請選擇選單上方的安裝 (<guibutton>&gt;&gt;&gt; Install</guibutton>) 選項。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If <acronym>GELI</acronym> disk encryption was enabled,
-	the installer will prompt twice for the passphrase to be used
-	to encrypt the disks.</para>
+      <para>若開啟了 <acronym>GELI</acronym> 磁碟加密，安裝程式會提示輸入兩次用來加密磁碟的密碼。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-geli_password">
 	<title>磁碟加密密碼</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-geli_password"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The installer then offers a last chance to cancel before
-	the contents of the selected drives are destroyed to create
-	the <acronym>ZFS</acronym> pool.</para>
+      <para>安裝程式接著會提供最後一次修改的機會可取消先前所選擇摧毀用來建立 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 儲存池的磁碟機。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-zfs-warning">
 	<title>最後修改</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-zfs-warning"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The installation then proceeds normally.</para>
+      <para>然後安裝程序會正常繼續。</para>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-part-shell">
       <title>Shell 模式磁碟分割</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When creating advanced installations, the
-	<application>bsdinstall</application> paritioning menus may
-	not provide the level of flexibility required.  Advanced users
-	can select the <guibutton>Shell</guibutton> option from the
-	partitioning menu in order to manually partition the drives,
-	create the file system(s), populate
-	<filename>/tmp/bsdinstall_etc/fstab</filename>, and mount the
-	file systems under <filename>/mnt</filename>.  Once this is
-	done, type <command>exit</command> to return to
-	<application>bsdinstall</application> and continue the
-	installation.</para>
+      <para>當要做進階的安裝時，<application>bsdinstall</application> 的磁碟分割選單可能無法提供需要的彈性。進階的使用者可以在磁碟分割選單選擇 <guibutton>Shell</guibutton> 選項來手動分割磁碟機、建立檔案系統、填寫 <filename>/tmp/bsdinstall_etc/fstab</filename> 以及掛載檔案系統到 <filename>/mnt</filename> 下。這些動作完成之後，輸入 <command>exit</command> 可返回 <application>bsdinstall</application> 繼續安裝程序。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-final-warning">
     <title>確認安裝</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Once the disks are configured, the next menu provides the
-      last chance to make changes before the selected hard drive(s)
-      are formatted.  If changes need to be made, select
-      <guibutton>[ Back ]</guibutton> to return to the main
-      partitioning menu.
-      <guibutton>[ Revert &amp; Exit ]</guibutton>
-      will exit the installer without making any changes to the hard
-      drive.</para>
+    <para>磁碟設定完之後，接下來的選單會讓您在格式化所選的硬碟之前有最後一次機會做變更，若需要做變更，可選 <guibutton>[ Back ]</guibutton> 返回到主磁碟分割選單。<guibutton>[ Revert &amp; Exit ]</guibutton> 則會離開安裝程式，不會對硬碟做任何變更。</para>
 
     <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-final-confirmation">
       <title>最後確認</title>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-final-confirmation"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </figure>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">To instead start the actual installation, select
-      <guibutton>[ Commit ]</guibutton> and press
-      <keycap>Enter</keycap>.</para>
+    <para>要開始實際的安裝，請選擇 <guibutton>[ Commit ]</guibutton> 然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Installation time will vary depending on the distributions
-      chosen, installation media, and speed of the computer.  A series
-      of messages will indicate the progress.</para>
+    <para>安裝時間會依據選擇的發行版、安裝媒體、電腦的速度而有所不同，接下來會有一系列訊息會告知目前的進度。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">First, the installer formats the selected disk(s) and
-      initializes the partitions.  Next, in the case of a bootonly
-      media, it downloads the selected components:</para>
+    <para>首先，安裝程式會格式化選擇的磁碟，然後初始化分割區。然後，若使用僅可開機 (Boot only) 的媒體則會開始下載選擇的元件:</para>
 
     <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-distfile-fetching">
-      <title>取得發佈版本檔案</title>
+      <title>取得發行版檔案</title>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-distfile-fetching"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </figure>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Next, the integrity of the distribution files is verified
-      to ensure they have not been corrupted during download or
-      misread from the installation media:</para>
+    <para>接著，會檢驗發行版的檔案完整性來確保沒有因下載過程中或安裝媒體的讀取過程中讀取錯誤造成的損壞:</para>
 
     <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-distfile-verify">
-      <title>檢驗發佈版本檔案</title>
+      <title>檢驗發行版檔案</title>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-distfile-verifying"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </figure>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Finally, the verified distribution files are extracted to
-      the disk:</para>
+    <para>最後，檢驗過的發行版檔案會被取出儲存至磁碟:</para>
 
     <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-distfile-extract">
-      <title>解開發佈版本檔案</title>
+      <title>解開發行版檔案</title>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-distfile-extracting"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </figure>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Once all requested distribution files have been extracted,
-      <application>bsdinstall</application> displays the first
-      post-installation configuration screen.  The available
-      post-configuration options are described in the next
-      section.</para>
+    <para>所有選擇的發行版檔案取出後，<application>bsdinstall</application> 會顯示第一次安裝後設定畫面，可用的安裝後設定選項會在下一節說明。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-post">
     <title>安裝後注意事項</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Once FreeBSD is installed,
-      <application>bsdinstall</application> will prompt to configure
-      several options before booting into the newly installed system.
-      This section describes these configuration options.</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 安裝完之後，<application>bsdinstall</application> 會在開機進入新安裝的系統之前提示設定數個選項，本節將介紹這些設定選項。</para>
 
     <tip>
-      <para xml:lang="en">Once the system has booted,
-	<command>bsdconfig</command> provides a menu-driven method for
-	configuring the system using these and additional
-	options.</para>
+      <para>系統開機之後，<command>bsdconfig</command> 提供了一個選單導向的方式可用來設定系統使用這些以及其他的選項。</para>
     </tip>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-post-root">
       <title>設定 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 密碼</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">First, the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
-	password must be set.  While entering the password, the
-	characters being typed are not displayed on the screen.  After
-	the password has been entered, it must be entered again.  This
-	helps prevent typing errors.</para>
+      <para>首先，必需設定 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 的密碼，輸入密碼時，並不會直接在畫面上顯示輸入的字元。輸入完密碼之後，必須再輸入一次來確認沒有輸入錯誤。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-post-set-root-passwd">
 	<title>設定 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 密碼</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-post-root-passwd"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-config-network-dev">
-      <title>設定網路介面</title>
+      <title>設定網路介面卡</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Next, a list of the network interfaces found on the
-	computer is shown.  Select the interface to configure.</para>
+      <para>接著，會顯示在電腦上找到的網路介面卡清單。請選擇要設定的介面卡。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">The network configuration menus will be skipped if the
-	  network was previously configured as part of a
-	  <emphasis>bootonly</emphasis> installation.</para>
+	<para>若使用 <emphasis>bootonly</emphasis> 的方式安裝在先前已有設定過網路，將會跳過網路設定選單。</para>
       </note>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-configure-net-interface">
-	<title>選擇網路介面</title>
+	<title>選擇網路介面卡</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If an Ethernet interface is selected, the installer will
-	skip ahead to the menu shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-configure-net-ipv4"/>.  If a wireless
-	network interface is chosen, the system will instead scan for
-	wireless access points:</para>
+      <para>若選擇的是乙太網路介面卡，安裝程式會跳過這部份直接到 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-configure-net-ipv4"/>，若選擇的是無線網路介面卡，系統則會開始掃描無線存取點 (Wireless Access Point):</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-wireless-scan">
 	<title>掃描無線網路存取點</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-wireless-scan"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Wireless networks are identified by a Service Set
-	Identifier (<acronym>SSID</acronym>), a short, unique name
-	given to each network.  <acronym>SSIDs</acronym> found during
-	the scan are listed, followed by a description of the
-	encryption types available for that network.  If the desired
-	<acronym>SSID</acronym> does not appear in the list, select
-	<guibutton>[ Rescan ]</guibutton> to scan again.  If
-	the desired network still does not appear, check for problems
-	with antenna connections or try moving the computer closer to
-	the access point.  Rescan after each change is made.</para>
+      <para>網線網路會使用 Service Set Identifier (<acronym>SSID</acronym>) 來辦識，SSID 是一段簡短、獨一無二的名稱，用來命名每個網路。 掃描時找到的 <acronym>SSID</acronym> 會列到清單，並會說明該網路可用的加密類型。 若想要連線的 <acronym>SSID</acronym> 並未出現在清單上，可選擇 <guibutton>[ Rescan ]</guibutton> 再掃描一次，若想要連線的網路仍然沒有出現，請檢查天線的連線是否有問題，或者嘗試將電腦移至更靠近存取點的位置，然後再掃描一次。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-wireless-accesspoints">
 	<title>選擇無線網路</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-wireless-accesspoints"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Next, enter the encryption information for connecting to
-	the selected wireless network.  <acronym>WPA2</acronym>
-	encryption is strongly recommended as older encryption types,
-	like <acronym>WEP</acronym>, offer little security.  If the
-	network uses <acronym>WPA2</acronym>, input the password, also
-	known as the Pre-Shared Key (<acronym>PSK</acronym>).  For
-	security reasons, the characters typed into the input box are
-	displayed as asterisks.</para>
+      <para>然後，輸入加密資訊來連線到選擇的無線網路。強列建議使用 <acronym>WPA2</acronym> 加密，因較舊的加密類型，如 <acronym>WEP</acronym> 僅提供微弱的安全性。若網路使用 <acronym>WPA2</acronym> 則需輸入密碼，也稱作 Pre-Shared Key (<acronym>PSK</acronym>)。考量安全性，輸入到輸入框的字元會以星號顯示。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-wireless-wpa2">
 	<title>WPA2 設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-wireless-wpa2setup"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Next, choose whether or not an <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
-	address should be configured on the Ethernet or wireless
-	interface:</para>
+      <para>接下來，選擇是否要設定乙太網路或無線網路介面卡的 <acronym>IPv4</acronym> 位址: </para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-configure-net-ipv4">
 	<title>選擇 <acronym>IPv4</acronym> 網路</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface-ipv4"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">There are two methods of <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
-	configuration.  <acronym>DHCP</acronym> will automatically
-	configure the network interface correctly and should be used
-	if the network provides a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server.
-	Otherwise, the addressing information needs to be input
-	manually as a static configuration.</para>
+      <para>有兩種方式可以設定 <acronym>IPv4</acronym>。 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 會自動設定網路介面卡且該網路上需有 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器才可使用。否則，必須手動輸入位址的資訊來做靜態設定。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Do not enter random network information as it will not
-	  work.  If a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server is not available,
-	  obtain the information listed in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-collect-network-information"/> from
-	  the network administrator or Internet service
-	  provider.</para>
+	<para>請不要隨便輸入網路資訊，因為這不管用。如果沒有可用的 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器，可向網路管理者或網路服務供應商 (Internet Service Provider, ISP) 索取列於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-collect-network-information"/> 的資訊。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server is available, select
-	<guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> in the next menu to
-	automatically configure the network interface.  The installer
-	will appear to pause for a minute or so as it finds the
-	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> server and obtains the addressing
-	information for the system.</para>
+      <para>若有可用的 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器，請在接下來的選單中選擇 <guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> 則會自動設定網路介面卡。當找到 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器並且取得系統的位址資訊時，安裝程式會出現一分鐘左右的停頓。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-net-ipv4-dhcp">
 	<title>選擇 <acronym>IPv4</acronym> <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface-ipv4-dhcp"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server is not available,
-	select <guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> and input the
-	following addressing information in this menu:</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器，則選擇 <guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> 然後在這個選單中輸入以下位址資訊:</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-net-ipv4-static">
 	<title><acronym>IPv4</acronym> 靜態位置設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface-ipv4-static"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>IP Address</literal> - The
-	    <acronym>IPv4</acronym> address assigned to this computer.
-	    The address must be unique and not already in use by
-	    another piece of equipment on the local network.</para>
+	  <para>IP 位址 (<literal>IP Address</literal>) - 要分配給這台電腦的 <acronym>IPv4</acronym> 位址。位址必須獨一無二且不可已被其他在區域網路上的設備使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Subnet Mask</literal> - The subnet mask for
-	    the network.</para>
+	  <para>子網路遮罩 (<literal>Subnet Mask</literal>) - 網路的子網路遮罩。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Default Router</literal> - The
-	    <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the network's default
-	    gateway.</para>
+	  <para>預設路由器 (<literal>Default Router</literal>) - <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址所在網段的預設閘道器。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next screen will ask if the interface should be
-	configured for <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.  If
-	<acronym>IPv6</acronym> is available and desired, choose
-	<guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> to select it.</para>
+      <para>接下來的畫面會詢問是否要設定介面卡的 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址，若可以且想要使用 <acronym>IPv6</acronym>，請選擇 <guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-net-ipv6">
 	<title>選擇 IPv6 網路</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface-ipv6"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPv6</acronym> also has two methods of
-	configuration.    StateLess Address AutoConfiguration
-	(<acronym>SLAAC</acronym>) will automatically request the
-	correct configuration information from a local router.  Refer
-	to <link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4862">http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4862</link>
-	for more information.  Static configuration requires manual
-	entry of network information.</para>
+      <para>同樣有兩種方式可以設定 <acronym>IPv6</acronym>。StateLess Address AutoConfiguration (<acronym>SLAAC</acronym>) 會自動向區域路由器請求取得正確的設定資訊，請參考 <link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4862">http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4862</link> 取得進一步資訊。靜態設定則需要手動輸入網路資訊。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If an <acronym>IPv6</acronym> router is available, select
-	<guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> in the next menu to
-	automatically configure the network interface.  The installer
-	will appear to pause for a minute or so as it finds the router
-	and obtains the addressing information for the system.</para>
+      <para>若有可用的 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 路由器，請在接下來的選單選擇 <guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> 來自動設定網路介面卡。當找到路由器並且取得系統的位址資訊時，安裝程式會出現一分鐘左右的停頓。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-net-ipv6-slaac">
 	<title>選擇 IPv6 SLAAC 設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface-slaac"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If an <acronym>IPv6</acronym> router is not available,
-	select <guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> and input the
-	following addressing information in this menu:</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 路由器，請選擇 <guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> 然後在這個選單中輸入以下位址資訊:</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-net-ipv6-static">
 	<title>IPv6 靜態位置設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-interface-ipv6-static"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>IPv6 Address</literal> - The
-	    <acronym>IPv6</acronym> address assigned to this computer.
-	    The address must be unique and not already in use by
-	    another piece of equipment on the local network.</para>
+	  <para>IPv6 位址 (<literal>IPv6 Address</literal>) - 要分配給這台電腦的 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址。位址必須獨一無二且不可已被其他在區域網路上的設備使用。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Default Router</literal> - The
-	    <acronym>IPv6</acronym> address of the network's default
-	    gateway.</para>
+	  <para>預設路由器 (<literal>Default Router</literal>) - <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址所在網段的預設閘道器。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The last network configuration menu is used to configure
-	the Domain Name System (<acronym>DNS</acronym>) resolver,
-	which converts hostnames to and from network addresses.  If
-	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> or <acronym>SLAAC</acronym> was used
-	to autoconfigure the network interface, the <literal>Resolver
-	  Configuration</literal> values may already be filled in.
-	Otherwise, enter the local network's domain name in the
-	<literal>Search</literal> field.  <literal>DNS #1</literal>
-	and <literal>DNS #2</literal> are the <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
-	and/or <acronym>IPv6</acronym> addresses of the
-	<acronym>DNS</acronym> servers.  At least one
-	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server is required.</para>
+      <para>最後的網路設定選單是用來設定網域名稱系統 (Domain Name System, <acronym>DNS</acronym>) 的解析器，解析器會轉換主機名稱為網路位址。若已使用 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 或 <acronym>SLAAC</acronym> 來自動設定網路介面卡，解析器設定 (<literal>Resolver Configuration</literal>) 的值可能會事先已填入，否則需輸入區域網路的網域名稱到搜尋 (<literal>Search</literal>) 欄位。 <literal>DNS #1</literal> 與 <literal>DNS #2</literal> 要填寫 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 伺服器的 <acronym>IPv4</acronym> 及/或 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址，至少需填寫一個 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 伺服器。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-net-dns-config">
 	<title>DNS 設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-configure-network-ipv4-dns"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-timezone">
       <title>設定時區</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next menu asks if the system clock uses
-	<acronym>UTC</acronym> or local time.  When in doubt, select
-	<guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> to choose the more
-	commonly-used local time.</para>
+      <para>接下來的選單會詢問系統時鐘要使用 <acronym>UTC</acronym> 或者當地時間。 若有疑問時可選擇 <guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton>使用更常用的當地時間。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-local-utc">
 	<title>選擇本地或 UTC 時鐘</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-set-clock-local-utc"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next series of menus are used to determine the correct
-	local time by selecting the geographic region, country, and
-	time zone.  Setting the time zone allows the system to
-	automatically correct for regional time changes, such as
-	daylight savings time, and perform other time zone related
-	functions properly.</para>
+      <para>接下來一系列的選單會透過選擇地理區域、城市及時區來判斷正確的當地時間。設定時區可讓系統自動更正區域時間的更改，如日光節約時間以及正確執行其他時區相關的功能。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The example shown here is for a machine located in the
-	Eastern time zone of the United States.  The selections will
-	vary according to the geographical location.</para>
+      <para>此處以位於美國東部時區的機器為例，選擇會依據地理位置不同改變。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-timezone-region">
 	<title>選擇區域</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-timezone-region"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys
-	and then pressing <keycap>Enter</keycap>.</para>
+      <para>使用方向鍵選擇適當的區域然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-timezone-country">
 	<title>選擇城市</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-timezone-country"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Select the appropriate country using the arrow keys and
-	press <keycap>Enter</keycap>.</para>
+      <para>使用方向鍵選擇適當的城市然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-timezone-zone">
 	<title>選擇時區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-timezone-zone"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow keys
-	and pressing <keycap>Enter</keycap>.</para>
+      <para>使用方向鍵選擇適當的時區然後按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-timezone-confirmation">
 	<title>確認時區</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-timezone-confirm"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Confirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct.  If
-	it is, press <keycap>Enter</keycap> to continue with the
-	post-installation configuration.</para>
+      <para>確認時區的縮寫是否正確，若正確，按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 繼續安裝後設定。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-sysconf">
       <title>開啟服務</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next menu is used to configure which system services
-	will be started whenever the system boots.  All of these
-	services are optional.  Only start the services that are
-	needed for the system to function.</para>
+      <para>接下來的選單用來設定有那些系統服務要在系統啟動時執行。所有的服務為選用，只需開啟系統運作真正需要的服務。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-config-serv">
 	<title>選擇要開啟的其他服務</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-config-services"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Here is a summary of the services which can be enabled in
-	this menu:</para>
+      <para>這是可以在這個選單開啟的服務摘要:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>sshd</literal> - The Secure Shell
-	    (<acronym>SSH</acronym>) daemon is used to remotely access
-	    a system over an encrypted connection.  Only enable this
-	    service if the system should be available for remote
-	    logins.</para>
+	  <para><literal>sshd</literal> - Secure Shell (<acronym>SSH</acronym>) Daemon 可從遠端透過加密的連線存取系統，只有在系統允許遠端登入時開啟這個服務。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>moused</literal> - Enable this service if the
-	    mouse will be used from the command-line system
-	    console.</para>
+	  <para><literal>moused</literal> - 若在指令列系統 Console 會使用到滑鼠時，可開啟此服務。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>ntpd</literal> - The Network Time Protocol
-	    (<acronym>NTP</acronym>) daemon for automatic clock
-	    synchronization.  Enable this service if there is a
-	    <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>, Kerberos, or <acronym>LDAP</acronym> server on
-	    the network.</para>
+	  <para><literal>ntpd</literal> - 網路時間通訊協定 (Network Time Protoco, <acronym>NTP</acronym>) Daemon 用來自動同步時間。若在網路上有使用 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>, Kerberos 或 <acronym>LDAP</acronym> 伺服器時，可開啟此服務。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>powerd</literal> - System power control
-	    utility for power control and energy saving.</para>
+	  <para><literal>powerd</literal> - 系統電源控制工具用來做電源控制與節能。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-crashdump">
-      <title>開啟 Crash Dumps</title>
+      <title>開啟當機資訊 (Crash Dump)</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next menu is used to configure whether or not crash
-	dumps should be enabled.  Enabling crash dumps can be useful
-	in debugging issues with the system, so users are encouraged
-	to enable crash dumps.</para>
+      <para>接下來的選單用來設定是否開啟當機資訊 (Crash dump)，開啟當機資訊對系統除錯非常有用，因此建議使用者開啟當機資訊。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-config-crashdump">
-	<title>開啟 Crash Dumps</title>
+	<title>開啟當機資訊 (Crash Dump)</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-config-crashdump"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-addusers">
       <title>新增使用者</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The next menu prompts to create at least one user account.
-	It is recommended to login to the system using a user account
-	rather than as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.
-	When logged in as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, there are essentially no
-	limits or protection on what can be done.  Logging in as a
-	normal user is safer and more secure.</para>
+      <para>下個選單會提示建立至少一個使用者帳號。建議使用 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 以外的使用者帳號登入系統，當使用 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 登入時，基本上沒有任何的限制或保護。
+使用一般使用者登入較保險且安全。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Select <guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> to add new
-	users.</para>
+      <para>選擇 <guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> 來新增新使用者。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-add-user1">
 	<title>新增使用者帳號</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-adduser1"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Follow the prompts and input the requested information for
-	the user account.  The example shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-add-user2"/> creates the <systemitem class="username">asample</systemitem> user account.</para>
+      <para>請依照提示輸入請求的使用者帳號資訊，<xref linkend="bsdinstall-add-user2"/> 的範例示範建立 <systemitem class="username">asample</systemitem> 使用者帳號。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-add-user2">
 	<title>輸入使用者資訊</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-adduser2"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Here is a summary of the information to input:</para>
+      <para>這裡是要輸入的資訊摘要:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Username</literal> - The name the user will
-	    enter to log in.  A common convention is to use the first
-	    letter of the first name combined with the last name, as
-	    long as each username is unique for the system.  The
-	    username is case sensitive and should not contain any
-	    spaces.</para>
+	  <para>使用者名稱 (<literal>Username</literal>) - 登入時使用者要輸入的名稱，常見的慣例是用姓的前一個字母與名結合，只要每個使用者名稱在系統唯一的皆可。使用者名稱區分大小寫且不應含有任何空白字元。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Full name</literal> - The user's full name.
-	    This can contain spaces and is used as a description for
-	    the user account.</para>
+	  <para>全名 (<literal>Full name</literal>) - 使用者的全名，這個欄位可使用空白並且會用來描述該使用者帳號。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Uid</literal> - User <acronym>ID</acronym>.
-	    Typically, this is left blank so the system will assign a
-	    value.</para>
+	  <para><literal>Uid</literal> - 使用者 <acronym>ID</acronym>，通常這個欄位會留空，系統會自動分配一個值。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Login group</literal> - The user's group.
-	    Typically this is left blank to accept the default.</para>
+	  <para>登入群組 (<literal>Login group</literal>) - 使用者的群組，通常這個欄位會留空來使用預設值。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Invite <replaceable>user</replaceable> into
-	      other groups?</literal> - Additional groups to which the
-	    user will be added as a member.  If the user needs
-	    administrative access, type <literal>wheel</literal>
-	    here.</para>
+	  <para>邀請使用者進入其他群組? (<literal>Invite <replaceable>user</replaceable> into other groups?</literal>) - 使用者要加入成為其成員的其他群組，若該使用者需要管理權限，則在此輸入 <literal>wheel</literal>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Login class</literal> - Typically left blank
-	    for the default.</para>
+	  <para>登入類別 (<literal>Login class</literal>) - 通常會留空來使用預設值。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Shell</literal> - Type in one of the listed
-	    values to set the interactive shell for the user.  Refer
-	    to <xref linkend="shells"/> for more information about
-	    shells.</para>
+	  <para><literal>Shell</literal> - 輸入清單中的其中一項來設定使用者所互動的 Shell，請參考 <xref linkend="shells"/> 取得更多有關  Shell 的資訊。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Home directory</literal> - The user's home
-	    directory.  The default is usually correct.</para>
+	  <para>家目錄 (<literal>Home directory</literal>) - 使用者的家目錄，預設值通常是沒有問題的。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Home directory permissions</literal> -
-	    Permissions on the user's home directory.  The default is
-	    usually correct.</para>
+	  <para>家目錄權限 (<literal>Home directory permissions</literal>) - 使用者家目錄的權限，預設值通常是沒有問題的。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Use password-based authentication?</literal>
-	    - Typically <literal>yes</literal> so that the user is
-	    prompted to input their password at login.</para>
+	  <para>使用密碼為基礎的認証方式? (<literal>Use password-based authentication?</literal>) - 通常為是 (<literal>yes</literal>)，使用者才可於登入時輸入密碼。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Use an empty password?</literal> -
-	    Typically <literal>no</literal> as it is insecure to have
-	    a blank password.</para>
+	  <para>使用空白密碼? (<literal>Use an empty password?</literal>) - 通常為否 (<literal>no</literal>)，因為使用空白密碼並不安全。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Use a random password?</literal> - Typically
-	    <literal>no</literal> so that the user can set their own
-	    password in the next prompt.</para>
+	  <para>使用隨機密碼? (<literal>Use a random password?</literal>) - 通常為否 (<literal>no</literal>)，這樣使用者接下來才可設定自己的密碼。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Enter password</literal> - The password for
-	    this user.  Characters typed will not show on the
-	    screen.</para>
+	  <para>輸入密碼 (<literal>Enter password</literal>) - 這個使用者的密碼，輸入的字元不會顯示在畫面上。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Enter password again</literal> - The password
-	    must be typed again for verification.</para>
+	  <para>再輸入密碼一次 (<literal>Enter password again</literal>) - 再輸入一次密碼來確認無誤。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Lock out the account after
-	      creation?</literal> - Typically <literal>no</literal> so
-	    that the user can login.</para>
+	  <para>建立後鎖定使用者帳號? (<literal>Lock out the account after creation?</literal>) - 通常為否 (<literal>no</literal>)，這樣使用者才可以登入。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After entering everything, a summary is shown for review.
-	If a mistake was made, enter <literal>no</literal> and try
-	again.  If everything is correct, enter <literal>yes</literal>
-	to create the new user.</para>
+      <para>在輸入完全部的資料後，會顯示摘要供檢查，若發現錯誤，可輸入否 (<literal>no</literal>) 然後再輸入一次，若輸入的所有資訊皆正確，輸入是 (<literal>yes</literal>) 以後便會建立新使用者。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-add-user3">
 	<title>離開使用者與群組管理</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-adduser3"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If there are more users to add, answer the <literal>Add
-	  another user?</literal> question with
-	<literal>yes</literal>.  Enter <literal>no</literal> to finish
-	adding users and continue the installation.</para>
+      <para>若還有其他要新增的使用者，則在詢問新增其他使用者? (<literal>Add another user?</literal>) 時回答是 (<literal>yes</literal>)。輸入否 (<literal>no</literal>) 來完成加入使用者然後繼續安裝。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">For more information on adding users and user management,
-	see <xref linkend="users-synopsis"/>.</para>
+      <para>要取得新增使用者與使用者管理的更多資訊，請參考 <xref linkend="users-synopsis"/>。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="bsdinstall-final-conf">
       <title>最後設定</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After everything has been installed and configured, a
-	final chance is provided to modify settings.</para>
+      <para>在所有東西安裝並設定完之後，會提供最後一次修改設定的機會。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-final-config">
 	<title>最後設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-finalconfiguration"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Use this menu to make any changes or do any additional
-	configuration before completing the installation.</para>
+      <para>使用這個選單在完成安裝前做任何更改或做任何額外的設定。</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Add User</literal> - Described in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-addusers"/>.</para>
+	  <para>新增使用者 (<literal>Add User</literal>) - 詳述於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-addusers"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Root Password</literal> - Described in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-post-root"/>.</para>
+	  <para>Root 密碼 (<literal>Root Password</literal>) - 詳述於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-post-root"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Hostname</literal> - Described in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-hostname"/>.</para>
+	  <para>主機名稱 (<literal>Hostname</literal>) - 詳述於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-hostname"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Network</literal> - Described in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-network-dev"/>.</para>
+	  <para>網路 (<literal>Network</literal>) - 詳述於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-network-dev"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Services</literal> - Described in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-sysconf"/>.</para>
+	  <para>服務 (<literal>Services</literal>) - 詳述於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-sysconf"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Time Zone</literal> - Described in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-timezone"/>.</para>
+	  <para>時區 (<literal>Time Zone</literal>) - 詳述於 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-timezone"/>。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>Handbook</literal> - Download and install the
-	    FreeBSD Handbook.</para>
+	  <para>使用手冊 (<literal>Handbook</literal>) - 下載並安裝 FreeBSD 使用手冊。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After any final configuration is complete, select
-	<guibutton>Exit</guibutton>.</para>
+      <para>完成最後的設定之後，選擇 <guibutton>Exit</guibutton>。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-final-modification-shell">
 	<title>手動設定</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-final-modification-shell"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>bsdinstall</application> will prompt if there
-	are any additional configuration that needs to be done before
-	rebooting into the new system.  Select
-	<guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> to exit to a shell
-	within the new system or
-	<guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> to proceed to the last
-	step of the installation.</para>
+      <para><application>bsdinstall</application> 會提示是否有任何額外的設定需要在重新開機進入新系統之前完成。選擇 <guibutton>[ Yes ]</guibutton> 會離開進入到新系統的 Shell 或 <guibutton>[ No ]</guibutton> 繼續最後的安裝步驟。</para>
 
       <figure xml:id="bsdinstall-final-main">
 	<title>完成安裝</title>
 
 	<mediaobject>
 	  <imageobject>
 	    <imagedata fileref="bsdinstall/bsdinstall-mainexit"/>
 	  </imageobject>
 	</mediaobject>
       </figure>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If further configuration or special setup is needed,
-	select <guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> to
-	boot the install media into Live <acronym>CD</acronym>
-	mode.</para>
+      <para>若有需要做進一步或特殊的設定，選擇 <guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> 會開機進入安裝媒體的 Live <acronym>CD</acronym> 模式。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If the installation is complete, select
-	<guibutton>[ Reboot ]</guibutton> to reboot the
-	computer and start the new FreeBSD system.  Do not forget to
-	remove the FreeBSD install media or the computer may boot from it
-	again.</para>
+      <para>若安裝已完成，選擇 <guibutton>[ Reboot ]</guibutton> 重新開啟電腦然後啟動新的 FreeBSD 電腦。不要忘了移除 FreeBSD 安裝媒體，否則電腦會再次開機進入安裝程式。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">As FreeBSD boots, informational messages are displayed.
-	After the system finishes booting, a login prompt is
-	displayed.  At the <prompt>login:</prompt> prompt, enter the
-	username added during the installation.  Avoid logging in as
-	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  Refer to
-	<xref linkend="users-superuser"/> for instructions on how to
-	become the superuser when administrative access is
-	needed.</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 開機的過程會顯示許多可以參考的訊息，系統開機完成後，會顯示登入提示，在 <prompt>login:</prompt> 提示，輸入安裝時新增的使用者名稱。登入時避免直接使用 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>，請參考 <xref linkend="users-superuser"/> 來取得當需要管理權限時如何成為超級使用者的說明。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The messages that appeared during boot can be reviewed by
-	pressing <keycap>Scroll-Lock</keycap> to turn on the
-	scroll-back buffer.  The <keycap>PgUp</keycap>,
-	<keycap>PgDn</keycap>, and arrow keys can be used to scroll
-	back through the messages.  When finished, press
-	<keycap>Scroll-Lock</keycap> again to unlock the display and
-	return to the console.  To review these messages once the
-	system has been up for some time, type <command>less
-	  /var/run/dmesg.boot</command> from a command prompt.  Press
-	<keycap>q</keycap> to return to the command line after
-	viewing.</para>
+      <para>要查看開機過程顯示的訊息可按 <keycap>Scroll-Lock</keycap> 鍵來開啟卷軸暫存，然後可使用 <keycap>PgUp</keycap>, <keycap>PgDn</keycap> 以及方向鍵來捲動訊息。查看完成之後再按 <keycap>Scroll-Lock</keycap> 鍵一次來解除畫面鎖定並返回 Console。系統開機一段時間之後要查看這些訊息可在指令提示後輸入 <command>less /var/run/dmesg.boot</command>，查看後按下 <keycap>q</keycap> 鍵便可返回指令列。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If <application>sshd</application> was enabled in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-serv"/>, the first boot may be
-	a bit slower as the system will generate the
-	<acronym>RSA</acronym> and <acronym>DSA</acronym> keys.
-	Subsequent boots will be faster.  The fingerprints of the keys
-	will be displayed, as seen in this example:</para>
+      <para>若在 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-config-serv"/> 有開啟 <application>sshd</application>，因系統會產生 <acronym>RSA</acronym> 及 <acronym>DSA</acronym> 金鑰第一次開機可能會有點慢，之後的開機便會恢復正常速度。接著會顯示金鑰的指紋 (Fingerprint)，如這個範例:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Generating public/private rsa1 key pair.
 Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.
 Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub.
 The key fingerprint is:
 10:a0:f5:af:93:ae:a3:1a:b2:bb:3c:35:d9:5a:b3:f3 root@machine3.example.com
 The key's randomart image is:
 +--[RSA1 1024]----+
 |    o..          |
 |   o . .         |
 |  .   o          |
 |       o         |
 |    o   S        |
 |   + + o         |
 |o . + *          |
 |o+ ..+ .         |
 |==o..o+E         |
 +-----------------+
 Generating public/private dsa key pair.
 Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.
 Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub.
 The key fingerprint is:
 7e:1c:ce:dc:8a:3a:18:13:5b:34:b5:cf:d9:d1:47:b2 root@machine3.example.com
 The key's randomart image is:
 +--[ DSA 1024]----+
 |       ..     . .|
 |      o  .   . + |
 |     . ..   . E .|
 |    . .  o o . . |
 |     +  S = .    |
 |    +  . = o     |
 |     +  . * .    |
 |    . .  o .     |
 |      .o. .      |
 +-----------------+
 Starting sshd.</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <xref linkend="openssh"/> for more information
-	about fingerprints and <acronym>SSH</acronym>.</para>
+      <para>請參考 <xref linkend="openssh"/> 來取得更多有關指紋與 <acronym>SSH</acronym> 的資訊。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD does not install a graphical environment by default.
-	Refer to <xref linkend="x11"/> for more information about
-	installing and configuring a graphical window manager.</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 預設並不會安裝圖型化介面，請參考 <xref linkend="x11"/> 取得有關安裝與設定圖型化視窗管理程式的資訊。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Proper shutdown of a FreeBSD computer helps protect data and
-	hardware from damage.  <emphasis>Do not turn off the power
-	before the system has been properly shut down!</emphasis>  If
-	the user is a member of the <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> group, become the
-	superuser by typing <command>su</command> at the command line
-	and entering the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> password.  Then, type
-	<command>shutdown -p now</command> and the system will shut
-	down cleanly, and if the hardware supports it, turn itself
-	off.</para>
+      <para>正確的將 FreeBSD 電腦關機對保護資料及避免硬體損壞有幫助。<emphasis>在系統尚未正常關機之前請不要關閉電源! </emphasis> 若使用者為 <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> 群組的成員之一，可在指令列輸入 <command>su</command> 然後輸入 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 密碼來成為超級使用者。接著輸入 <command>shutdown -p now</command> 系統便會關機，若硬體支援的話，電腦會自行關閉電源。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bsdinstall-install-trouble">
     <title>疑難排解</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>installation</primary>
       <secondary>troubleshooting</secondary>
     </indexterm>
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section covers basic installation
-      troubleshooting, such as common problems people have
-      reported.</para>
+    <para>本節涵蓋基礎的安裝疑難排解，例如一些已有人回報的常見問題。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Check the Hardware Notes (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases/index.html">http://www.freebsd.org/releases/index.html</link>)
-      document for the version of FreeBSD to make sure the hardware is
-      supported.  If the hardware is supported and lock-ups or other
-      problems occur, build a custom kernel using the instructions in
-      <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/> to add support for devices which
-      are not present in the <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel.  The
-      default kernel assumes that most hardware devices are in their
-      factory default configuration in terms of
-      <acronym>IRQ</acronym>s, <acronym>I/O</acronym> addresses, and
-      <acronym>DMA</acronym> channels.  If the hardware has been
-      reconfigured, a custom kernel configuration file can tell FreeBSD
-      where to find things.</para>
+    <para>查看該 FreeBSD 版本的 Hardware Notes (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releases/index.html">http://www.freebsd.org/releases/index.html</link>) 文件來確認是否支援該硬體。若確定有支援該硬體但仍然卡住或發生其他問題，請依照 <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/> 的指示編譯自訂核心來加入未在 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心的裝置。預設的核心會假設大部份的硬體裝置會使用原廠預設的 <acronym>IRQ</acronym>s, <acronym>I/O</acronym> 位址，及 <acronym>DMA</acronym> 通道，若硬體已經被重新設定過，自訂的核心設定檔可以告訴 FreeBSD 到那找到這些裝置。</para>
 
     <note>
-      <para xml:lang="en">Some installation problems can be avoided or alleviated by
-	updating the firmware on various hardware components, most
-	notably the motherboard.  Motherboard firmware is usually
-	referred to as the <acronym>BIOS</acronym>.  Most motherboard
-	and computer manufacturers have a website for upgrades and
-	upgrade information.</para>
+      <para>部份安裝問題可以透過更各種硬體元件的韌體來避免或緩解，特別是主機板。主機板的韌體通常稱為 <acronym>BIOS</acronym>，大部份主機板與電腦製造商會有網站可以取得升級程式與升級資訊。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Manufacturers generally advise against upgrading the
-	motherboard <acronym>BIOS</acronym> unless there is a good
-	reason for doing so, like a critical update.  The upgrade
-	process <emphasis>can</emphasis> go wrong, leaving the
-	<acronym>BIOS</acronym> incomplete and the computer
-	inoperative.</para>
+      <para>製造商通常會建議若沒有特殊原因盡量避免升級主機板 <acronym>BIOS</acronym></para>
     </note>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">If the system hangs while probing hardware during boot, or
-      it behaves strangely during install, <acronym>ACPI</acronym> may
-      be the culprit.  FreeBSD makes extensive use of the system
-      <acronym>ACPI</acronym> service on the i386,
-      amd64, and ia64 platforms to aid in system configuration
-      if it is detected during boot.  Unfortunately, some bugs still
-      exist in both the <acronym>ACPI</acronym> driver and within
-      system motherboards and <acronym>BIOS</acronym> firmware.
-      <acronym>ACPI</acronym> can be disabled by setting the
-      <literal>hint.acpi.0.disabled</literal> hint in the third stage
-      boot loader:</para>
+    <para>若系統在開機偵測硬體時卡住或安裝時運作異常，可能主因為 <acronym>ACPI</acronym>，FreeBSD 在 i386, amd64 及 ia64 平台廣泛的使用了系統 <acronym>ACPI</acronym> 服務來協助設定系統組態，若在開機時有偵測到該功能。不幸的是，<acronym>ACPI</acronym> 驅動程式與系統主機板及 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 韌體之間仍存在部份問題。可於開機載入程式的第三階段設定 <literal>hint.acpi.0.disabled</literal> Hint 來關閉 <acronym>ACPI</acronym>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>set hint.acpi.0.disabled="1"</userinput></screen>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This is reset each time the system is booted, so it is
-      necessary to add <literal>hint.acpi.0.disabled="1"</literal> to
-      the file <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  More
-      information about the boot loader can be found in <xref linkend="boot-synopsis"/>.</para>
+    <para>每一次系統重開之後便會重設，因此需要在 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 檔案加入 <literal>hint.acpi.0.disabled="1"</literal>。更多有關開機載入程式的資訊可於 <xref linkend="boot-synopsis"/> 取得。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="using-live-cd">
     <title>使用 Live <acronym>CD</acronym></title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">The welcome menu of <application>bsdinstall</application>,
-      shown in <xref linkend="bsdinstall-choose-mode"/>, provides a
-      <guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> option.  This
-      is useful for those who are still wondering whether FreeBSD is the
-      right operating system for them and want to test some of the
-      features before installing.</para>
+    <para>如 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-choose-mode"/> 所示 <application>bsdinstall</application> 的歡迎選單提供了 <guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> 選項，這對那些對 FreeBSD 是否為正確的作業系統尚存疑慮的人非常有幫助，這可讓這些人在安裝前測試一部份功能。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">The following points should be noted before using the
-      <guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton>:</para>
+    <para>在使用 <guibutton>[ Live CD ]</guibutton> 之前必須注意以下幾點事項:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">To gain access to the system, authentication is
-	  required.  The username is <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> and the password is
-	  blank.</para>
+	<para>若要增加存取權限，必須透過認証。使用者名稱為 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 而密碼則是空白。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">As the system runs directly from the installation media,
-	  performance will be significantly slower than that of a
-	  system installed on a hard disk.</para>
+	<para>系統是直接從安裝媒體上執行，比起安裝到硬碟的系統，效能可能較差。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">This option only provides a command prompt and not a
-	  graphical interface.</para>
+	<para>這個選項只提供指令提示，不會有圖型化介面。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="basics">
   <!--
   <chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Chris</firstname>
 	<surname>Shumway</surname>
 	<contrib>Rewritten by in Mar 2000</contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
-  <title xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Basics</title>
+  <title>FreeBSD 基礎</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="basics-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>接下來的這一章將涵蓋 FreeBSD 作業系統的基本指令及功能。 大部份的內容在 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>-like 作業系統中都是相通的。 如果您對這些內容熟悉的話，可以放心的跳過。 如果您剛接觸 FreeBSD，那您一定要仔細的讀完這章。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用 FreeBSD 的虛擬 Console。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">How to create and manage users and groups on
-	  FreeBSD.</para>
+	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 建立與管理使用者與群組。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 檔案權限以及 FreeBSD 檔案標記的運作方式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>預設的 FreeBSD 檔案系統配置。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 的磁碟組織。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>如何掛載(mount)、卸載(umount)檔案系統。</para>
+	<para>如何掛載 (Mount)、卸載 (Umount) 檔案系統。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>什麼是程序、Daemon 以及 Signal。</para>
+	<para>什麼是程序、Daemon 以及信號 (Signal)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>什麼是 Shell，以及如何變更您預設的登入環境。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用基本的文字編輯器。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>什麼是 Devices 和 Device node 。</para>
+	<para>什麼是裝置 (Device) 和裝置節點 (Device node)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何閱讀操作手冊以獲得更多的資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="consoles">
     <title>虛擬 Console 與終端機</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>virtual consoles</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>terminals</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>console</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>如果您沒有將 FreeBSD 設定成開機時自動進入圖形化模式，系統會進入指令登入提示像是這樣的東西：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">FreeBSD/amd64 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0)
 
 login:</screen>
 
     <para>第一行包含了剛開機完系統的資訊，<literal>amd64</literal> 代表此範例所使用的系統是執行 64-位元版本的 FreeBSD，這台主機的名稱是 <systemitem>pc3.example.org</systemitem>，<filename>ttyv0</filename> 代表這是個 <quote>系統 Console</quote>。第二行則是登人的提示訊息。</para>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 是一個多使用者的系統，需要一套可以分辨不同使用者的方法。因此所有的使用者在執行程式之前必須先“登入”系統以取得系統內程式的存取權限。每個使用者都有一組獨特的帳號名稱 (<quote>username</quote>) 及個人密碼 (<quote>password</quote>)。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 是一個多使用者的系統，需要一套可以分辨不同使用者的方法。因此所有的使用者在執行程式之前必須先“登入”系統以取得系統內程式的存取權限。每個使用者都有一組獨一無二的使用者名稱 (<quote>username</quote>) 及個人密碼 (<quote>password</quote>)。</para>
 
     <para>要登入系統 Console 需輸入在系統安裝時設定的使用者名稱，請參考 <xref linkend="bsdinstall-addusers"/>，並按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>。 接著輸入該使用者名稱的密碼按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap>。 輸入的密碼為了安全起見<emphasis>不會顯示</emphasis>在畫面上。</para>
 
     <para>如果您輸入了正確的密碼，您應該會看到今日訊息 (Message of the day, <acronym>MOTD</acronym>)，後面接著顯示指令提示字元，依使用者建立時所選擇的 Shell 會有不同的提示字元可能為 <literal>#</literal>, <literal>$</literal> 或者 <literal>%</literal>。 看到指令提示代表使用者現在已經登入 FreeBSD 系統 Console 且已經準備好可以下指令。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="consoles-virtual">
       <title>虛擬 Console</title>
 
       <para>雖然系統 Console 已經可以用來與系統互動，但使用鍵盤來下指令使用 FreeBSD 系統的使用者通常會使用虛擬 Console 登入。 因為系統訊息預設會顯示在系統 Console，這些訊些會在使用者作業的過程中不斷出現，讓使用者難以專心作業。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 預設提供多個虛擬 Console 可輸入指令，每個虛擬 Console 都有自己的登入提示及 Shell 並且可以輕易的在虛擬 Console 間切換。 這實際上讓指令輸入有了類似於圖型化環境中可以同時開啟多個視窗的功能。</para>
 
       <para>組合鍵 <keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap></keycombo> 至  <keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F8</keycap></keycombo> 被 FreeBSD 保留用來切換虛擬 Console，使用 <keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap></keycombo> 可切換至系統 Console (<filename>ttyv0</filename>)，<keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F2</keycap></keycombo> 可存取第一個虛擬 Console (<filename>ttyv1</filename>)，<keycombo><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F3</keycap></keycombo> 可存取第二個虛擬 Console (<filename>ttyv2</filename>)，以此類推。</para>
 
       <para>當您從一個 Console 切換到下一個的時候，FreeBSD 會切換畫面顯示的內容， 這就好像有很多虛擬的螢幕和鍵盤可以讓您輸入指令到 FreeBSD 執行。 在某一個虛擬 Console 上執行的程式並不會因為使用者切到別的 Console 而停止執行。</para>
 
       <para>請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kbdcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vidcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>atkbd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syscons</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得更多有關 FreeBSD Console 及鍵盤驅動程式的技術說明。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 中虛擬 Console 的數量設定在 <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> 檔案中的下列章節:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># name    getty                         type  status comments
 #
 ttyv0   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 # Virtual terminals
 ttyv1   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv2   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv3   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv4   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv5   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv6   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv7   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         xterm   on  secure
 ttyv8   "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon"  xterm   off secure</programlisting>
 
 
       <para>要關閉虛擬 Console 只要在指定的虛擬 Console 該行設定的一開始加上註解符號 (<literal>#</literal>)。 例如要將虛擬 Console 的數量由 8 個改為 4 個，則可將 <literal>#</literal> 加在代表虛擬 Console 的 <filename>ttyv5</filename> 到 <filename>ttyv8</filename> 的最後四行一開始。 <emphasis>請勿</emphasis>將系統 Console <filename>ttyv0</filename> 加上註解符號。 注意，若有依照 <xref linkend="x11"/> 安裝並設定 <application>Xorg</application> 時，會用到最後一個虛擬 Console (<filename>ttyv8</filename>)。</para>
 
       <para>有關各欄位的設定以及其他選項，請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ttys</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="consoles-singleuser">
       <title>單使用者模式</title>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 開機選單會提供一個選項為 <quote>Boot Single User</quote>，若選擇該項目，系統將會進入所謂 <quote>單使用者模式</quote> 的特殊模式。 此模式通常用在修復系統無法開機或重設已忘掉的 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 密碼。 在當使用者模式中無法使用網路及其他虛擬 Console，但有完整 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 對系統的存取權限，而且預設是不須要輸入 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 密碼。 也因此，要能透過實體鍵盤操作才能進入此模式，在考量 FreeBSD 系統安全時須要限制可操作實體鍵盤的人員。</para>
 
       <para>有關單使用者模式的設定可在 <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> 中的以下章節中找到:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># name  getty                           type  status  comments
 #
 # If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password
 # when going to single-user mode.
 console none                            unknown  off  secure</programlisting>
 
-      <para>預設狀態為安全 (<literal>secure</literal>)，這代表誰能夠操作實體鍵盤不是不重要就是已受到實體安全規範管制。 若設定更該為不安全(<literal>insecure</literal>) 則代表主機所在的環境不安全，因為任何人皆可接觸鍵盤。 當此行設定更改為不安全 (<literal>insecure</literal>) 時，當使用擇選擇單使用者模式時，FreeBSD 將會要求輸入 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 的密碼。</para>
+      <para>預設狀態為安全 (<literal>secure</literal>)，這代表誰能夠操作實體鍵盤不是不重要就是已受到實體安全規範管制。 若設定更該為不安全 (<literal>insecure</literal>) 則代表主機所在的環境不安全，因為任何人皆可接觸鍵盤。 當此行設定更改為不安全 (<literal>insecure</literal>) 時，當使用擇選擇單使用者模式時，FreeBSD 將會要求輸入 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 的密碼。</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para><emphasis>請審慎考慮是否要改為 <literal>insecure</literal></emphasis>！ 因為萬一忘記 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 密碼的話，雖然還是有其他辦法可以登入單使用者模式，只是對不熟 FreeBSD 開機程序的人可就麻煩了。</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="consoles-vidcontrol">
       <title>更改 Console 影像模式</title>
 
       <para>FreeBSD Console 預設顯示大小可以調整為 1024x768、1280x1024 或其他顯示卡與螢幕有支援的解析度大小。 要使用不同的影像模式需載入 <literal>VESA</literal> 模組：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload vesa</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要偵測硬體支援的影像模式，可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vidcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 要取得支援的影像模式清單可輸入以下指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>vidcontrol -i mode</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>該指令會顯示硬體所支援的影像模式清單，要採用新的影像模式需以 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 使用者執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vidcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>vidcontrol MODE_279</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>若可接受新的影像模式，可以在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 加入設定，讓每次重開機後會自動生效：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">allscreens_flags="MODE_279"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
     <!--
   <chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Neil</firstname>
 	<surname>Blakey-Milner</surname>
 	<contrib>Contributed by in Feb 2000</contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
 
   <sect1 xml:id="users-synopsis">
     <title>使用者與基礎帳號管理</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD allows multiple users to use the computer at the same
-      time.  While only one user can sit in front of the screen and
-      use the keyboard at any one time, any number of users can log
-      in to the system through the network.  To use the system, each
-      user should have their own user account.</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 允許多使用者同時使用電腦，在一次只能有一位使用者坐在電腦螢幕前使用鍵盤操作的同時，可讓任何數量的使用者透過網路登入到系統。每一位要使用該系統的使用者應有自己的帳號。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This chapter describes:</para>
+    <para>本章介紹︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">The different types of user accounts on a
-	  FreeBSD system.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 系統中各種類型的使用者帳號。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">How to add, remove, and modify user accounts.</para>
+	<para>如何加入、移除與修改使用者帳號。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">How to set limits to control the
-	  resources that users and
-	  groups are allowed to access.</para>
+	<para>如何設定用來控制使用者與群組允許存取的資源的限制。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">How to create groups and add users as members of a
-	  group.</para>
+	<para>如何建立群組與加入使用者作為群組成員。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="users-introduction">
       <title>帳號類型</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Since all access to the FreeBSD system is achieved using
-	accounts and all processes are run by users, user and account
-	management is important.</para>
+      <para>由於所有對 FreeBSD 系統的存取是透過使用者帳號來達成，且所有的程序需要經由使用者來執行，因此使用者帳號管理非常重要。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">There are three main types of accounts: system accounts,
-	user accounts, and the superuser account.</para>
+      <para>有三種主要類型的帳號：系統帳號、使用者帳號以及超級使用者帳號。</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-system">
 	<title>系統帳號</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary>system</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">System accounts are used to run services such as DNS,
-	  mail, and web servers.  The reason for this is security; if
-	  all services ran as the superuser, they could act without
-	  restriction.</para>
+	<para>系統帳號用來執行服務，例如 DNS、郵件及網頁伺服器，要這麼作是因為安全性考量，若所有的服務均以超級使用者來執行，那麼這些服務的運作將不會受到限制。</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary><systemitem class="username">daemon</systemitem></secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary><systemitem class="username">operator</systemitem></secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Examples of system accounts are
-	  <systemitem class="username">daemon</systemitem>,
-	  <systemitem class="username">operator</systemitem>,
-	  <systemitem class="username">bind</systemitem>,
-	  <systemitem class="username">news</systemitem>, and
-	  <systemitem class="username">www</systemitem>.</para>
+	<para>系統帳號的例子有 <systemitem class="username">daemon</systemitem>, <systemitem class="username">operator</systemitem>, <systemitem class="username">bind</systemitem>, <systemitem class="username">news</systemitem>, and <systemitem class="username">www</systemitem>。</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary><systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem></secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem> is the
-	  generic unprivileged system account.  However, the more
-	  services that use
-	  <systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem>, the more
-	  files and processes that user will become associated with,
-	  and hence the more privileged that user becomes.</para>
+	<para><systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem> 是通用的無權限系統帳號。雖然如此，只有要越多的服務使用 <systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem>，就會有更多的檔案與程式與該使用者相關聯，會讓該使用者擁有更多的權限。</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-user">
 	<title>使用者帳號</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary>user</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">User accounts are assigned to real people and are used
-	  to log in and use the system.  Every person accessing the
-	  system should have a unique user account.  This allows the
-	  administrator to find out who is doing what and prevents
-	  users from clobbering the settings of other users.</para>
+	<para>使用者帳號會分配給實際人員，用來登入及使用系統。每位要存取系統的人員需要擁有一組唯一的使用者帳號，這可讓管理者辨識誰在做什麼以及避免使用者覆蓋其他使用者的設定。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Each user can set up their own environment to
-	  accommodate their use of the system, by configuring their
-	  default shell, editor, key bindings, and language
-	  settings.</para>
+	<para>每位使用者可以設定自己的環境來配合自己使用系統的習慣，透過設定預設的 Shell、編輯器、組合鍵 (Key Binding) 及語言設定。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Every user account on a FreeBSD system has certain
-	  information associated with it:</para>
+	<para>每個在 FreeBSD 系統的使用者帳號都會有一些相關的資訊：</para>
 
 	<variablelist>
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">User name</term>
+	    <term>使用者名稱 (User name)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The user name is typed at the
-		<prompt>login:</prompt> prompt.  Each user must have
-		a unique user name.  There are a number of rules for
-		creating valid user names which are documented in
-		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  It is recommended to use user names
-		that consist of eight or fewer, all lower case
-		characters in order to maintain backwards
-		compatibility with applications.</para>
+	      <para>在 <prompt>login:</prompt> 提示出現時便要輸入使用者名稱，每位使用者必須要有一個唯一的使用者名稱。要建立有效的使用者名稱要遵守數條規則，在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 中有說明。建議使用者名稱由 8 個或更少的字母組成，全部採用小寫字元以向下相容應用程式。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Password</term>
+	    <term>密碼 (Password)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Each account has an associated password.</para>
+	      <para>每個帳號都會有密碼。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">User ID (<acronym>UID</acronym>)</term>
+	    <term>使用者 ID (<acronym>UID</acronym>)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The User ID (<acronym>UID</acronym>) is a number
-		used to uniquely identify the user to the FreeBSD system.
-		Commands that allow a user name to be specified will
-		first convert it to the <acronym>UID</acronym>.  It is
-		recommended to use a UID less than 65535, since higher
-		values may cause compatibility issues with some
-		software.</para>
+	      <para>使用者 ID (User ID, <acronym>UID</acronym>) 是一組數字用來獨一無二的辨識 FreeBSD 系統的使用者，用到使用者名稱的指令會先將使用者名稱轉換為 <acronym>UID</acronym>。建議使用小於 65535 的 UID，超過這個值可能會造成部份軟體的相容性問題。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Group ID (<acronym>GID</acronym>)</term>
+	    <term>群組 ID (<acronym>GID</acronym>)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The Group ID (<acronym>GID</acronym>) is a number
-		used to uniquely identify the primary group that the
-		user belongs to.  Groups are a mechanism for
-		controlling access to resources based on a user's
-		<acronym>GID</acronym> rather than their
-		<acronym>UID</acronym>.  This can significantly reduce
-		the size of some configuration files and allows users
-		to be members of more than one group.  It is
-		recommended to use a GID of 65535 or lower as higher
-		GIDs may break some software.</para>
+	      <para>群組 ID (Group ID, <acronym>GID</acronym>) 是一組數字用來獨一無二的辨識使用者所屬的主要群組。群組是一個除了使用 <acronym>UID</acronym> 之外根據使用者的 <acronym>GID</acronym> 來控制資源存取權的機制。這可以顯著的降低某些設定檔的大小且可讓使用者成為一個以上群組的成員。建議使用 65535 或以下的 GID，因超過此值的 GID 可能會讓部份軟體無法運作。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Login class</term>
+	    <term>登入類別 (Login class)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Login classes are an extension to the group
-		mechanism that provide additional flexibility when
-		tailoring the system to different users.  Login
-		classes are discussed further in
-		<xref linkend="users-limiting"/>.</para>
+	      <para>登入類別 (Login class) 擴充了群組機制，當在對不同使用者客製化系統時可提供額外的彈性。在 <xref linkend="users-limiting"/> 有對登入類別更進一步的討論。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Password change time</term>
+	    <term>密碼更改時間 (Password change time)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">By default, passwords do not expire.  However,
-		password expiration can be enabled on a per-user
-		basis, forcing some or all users to change their
-		passwords after a certain amount of time has
-		elapsed.</para>
+	      <para>預設情況下密碼並不會過期，雖然如此，密碼期限可在各別使用者上開啟，可強制部份或所有使用者在某段期間過後更改他們的密碼。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Account expiration time</term>
+	    <term>帳號到期時間 (Account expiration time)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">By default, FreeBSD does not expire accounts.  When
-		creating accounts that need a limited lifespan, such
-		as student accounts in a school, specify the account
-		expiry date using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  After the expiry time
-		has elapsed, the account cannot be used to log in to
-		the system, although the account's directories and
-		files will remain.</para>
+	      <para>預設情況下 FreeBSD 的帳號不會有期限。當建立需要有限壽命的帳號時，例如，學校的學生帳號，可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指定帳號的到期日期。到期日期過後，便無法使用該帳號登入到系統，儘管該帳號的目錄及檔案仍存在。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">User's full name</term>
+	    <term>使用者的全名 (User's full name)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The user name uniquely identifies the account to
-		FreeBSD, but does not necessarily reflect the user's real
-		name.  Similar to a comment, this information can
-		contain spaces, uppercase characters, and be more
-		than 8 characters long.</para>
+	      <para>使用者名稱用來獨一無二的辦識 FreeBSD 的帳號，但並不一定反映了使用者的真實姓名。類似註解，這個資訊可以含有空白、大寫字元並可超過 8 個字母的長度。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Home directory</term>
+	    <term>家目錄 (Home directory)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The home directory is the full path to a directory
-		on the system.  This is the user's starting directory
-		when the user logs in.  A common convention is to put
-		all user home directories under <filename><replaceable>/home/username</replaceable></filename>
-		or <filename><replaceable>/usr/home/username</replaceable></filename>.
-		Each user stores their personal files and
-		subdirectories in their own home directory.</para>
+	      <para>家目錄是系統中某個目錄的完整路徑，這個目錄是使用者登入後的起點目錄。習慣上會將所有使用者目錄放置在 <filename><replaceable>/home/username</replaceable></filename> 或 <filename><replaceable>/usr/home/username</replaceable></filename>。每位使用者可以儲存他們的個人檔案及子目錄於他們自己的家目錄。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
-	    <term xml:lang="en">User shell</term>
+	    <term>使用者 Shell (User shell)</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The shell provides the user's default environment
-		for interacting with the system.  There are many
-		different kinds of shells and experienced users will
-		have their own preferences, which can be reflected in
-		their account settings.</para>
+	      <para>Shell 提供了使用者預設的環境來與系統互動。有數種不同類型的 Shell，有經驗的使用者會有自己偏好的選擇，可儲存在自己的帳號設定。</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 	</variablelist>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-superuser">
 	<title>超級使用者帳號</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary>superuser (root)</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The superuser account, usually called
-	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, is used to
-	  manage the system with no limitations on privileges.  For
-	  this reason, it should not be used for day-to-day tasks like
-	  sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the
-	  system, or programming.</para>
+	<para>超級使用者帳號，通常稱作 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>，用來管理系統，沒有權限的限制，也因這個原因，該帳號不應該用來做每日的例行作業，如：寄信與收信、系統的一般探索或程式設計。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The superuser, unlike other user accounts, can operate
-	  without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may
-	  result in spectacular disasters.  User accounts are unable
-	  to destroy the operating system by mistake, so it is
-	  recommended to login as a user account and to only become
-	  the superuser when a command requires extra
-	  privilege.</para>
+	<para>超級使用者並不像其他使用者帳號，可以沒有限制的操作，不正確的使用超級使用者帳號可能會造成可觀的災害。一般使用者帳號不會因為失誤而法摧毀作業系統，所以建議登入一般使用者帳號，只有在指令需要額外權限時切換為超級使用者。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Always double and triple-check any commands issued as
-	  the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can
-	  mean irreparable data loss.</para>
+	<para>使用超級使用者下指令時永遠要再三檢查，由於一個多餘的空白或缺少的字元可能意味著無法挽回的資料遺失。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">There are several ways to gain superuser privilege.
-	  While one can log in as
-	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, this is
-	  highly discouraged.</para>
+	<para>有數種方法可以提升為超級使用者權限，雖然可以直接登入為 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>，但強烈不建議這樣做。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Instead, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to become the superuser.  If
-	  <literal>-</literal> is specified when running this command,
-	  the user will also inherit the root user's environment.  The
-	  user running this command must be in the
-	  <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> group or
-	  else the command will fail.  The user must also know the
-	  password for the
-	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user
-	  account.</para>
+	<para>改使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 切換為超級使用者。執行此指令時若指定 <literal>-</literal> 參數，該使用者會繼承 root 的使用者環境。執行此指令的使用者必須在 <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> 群組中，否則指令會失敗。使用者也必須要知道 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 使用者帳號的密碼。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the user only becomes superuser in
-	  order to run <command>make install</command> as this step
-	  requires superuser privilege.  Once the command completes,
-	  the user types <command>exit</command> to leave the
-	  superuser account and return to the privilege of their user
-	  account.</para>
+	<para>在此例當中，該使用者只在要執行 <command>make install</command> 時切換為超級使用者，因為這個步驟需要超級使用者權限。指令完成之後，該使用者輸入 <command>exit</command> 離開超級使用者帳號並返回他的使用者帳號權限。</para>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>以超級使用者的身份安裝程式</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>configure</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>make</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>su -</userinput>
 Password:
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>exit</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt></screen>
 	</example>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The built-in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> framework works well for single
-	  systems or small networks with just one system
-	  administrator.  An alternative is to install the
-	  <package>security/sudo</package> package or port.  This
-	  software provides activity logging and allows the
-	  administrator to configure which users can run which
-	  commands as the superuser.</para>
+	<para>內建的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 框架在單人系統或只有一位系統管理者的小型網路可以運作的很好。另一種方式是安裝 <package>security/sudo</package> 套件或 Port。此軟體提供了活動記錄且允許管理者設定那個使用者可以用超級使用者執行那個指令。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="users-modifying">
       <title>管理帳號</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>accounts</primary>
 	<secondary>modifying</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides a variety of different commands to manage
-	user accounts.  The most common commands are summarized in
-	<xref linkend="users-modifying-utilities"/>, followed by some
-	examples of their usage.  See the manual page for each utility
-	for more details and usage examples.</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 提供了各種不同指令來管理使用者帳號，最常用的指令已摘要於 <xref linkend="users-modifying-utilities"/>，接著有一些用法的範例。請參考每個工具的操作手冊來取得更多詳細的資訊與用法範例。</para>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="users-modifying-utilities">
 	<title>管理使用者帳號的工具</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="2*"/>
 
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>指令</entry>
 	      <entry>摘要</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">The recommended command-line application for
-		adding new users.</entry>
+	      <entry>建議用來新增新使用者的指令列應用程式。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rmuser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">The recommended command-line application for
-		removing users.</entry>
+	      <entry>建議用來移除使用者的指令列應用程式。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">A flexible tool for changing user database
-		information.</entry>
+	      <entry>用來更改使用者資料庫資訊的工具。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">The command-line tool to change user
-		passwords.</entry>
+	      <entry>用來更改使用者密碼的指令列工具。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">A powerful and flexible tool for modifying all
-		aspects of user accounts.</entry>
+	      <entry>用來修改使用者帳號各方面資訊強大且靈活的工具。</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-adduser">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><command>adduser</command></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary>adding</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><command>adduser</command></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><filename>/usr/share/skel</filename></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>skeleton directory</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The recommended program for adding new users is
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  When a new user is added, this program
-	  automatically updates <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> and
-	  <filename>/etc/group</filename>.  It also creates a home
-	  directory for the new user, copies in the default
-	  configuration files from
-	  <filename>/usr/share/skel</filename>, and can optionally
-	  mail the new user a welcome message.  This utility must be
-	  run as the superuser.</para>
+	<para>建議用來新增新使用者的程式為 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。當新使用者新增之後，此程式會自動更新 <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> 以及 <filename>/etc/group</filename>，這同時也會建立新使用者的家目錄 (複製 <filename>/usr/share/skel</filename> 中的預設設定檔)，並且可以選擇是否要寄送歡迎訊息通知新使用者。這個工具必須使用超級使用者執行。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility is interactive and walks
-	  through the steps for creating a new user account.  As seen
-	  in <xref linkend="users-modifying-adduser"/>, either input
-	  the required information or press <keycap>Return</keycap>
-	  to accept the default value shown in square brackets.
-	  In this example, the user has been invited into the
-	  <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> group,
-	  allowing them to become the superuser with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
-	  When finished, the utility will prompt to either
-	  create another user or to exit.</para>
+	<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具採用互動的方式，只需幾個步驟便可建立新使用者帳號。如 <xref linkend="users-modifying-adduser"/> 所示，可輸入必填的資訊或按 <keycap>Return</keycap> 鍵採用方括中的預設值。在此例當中，使用者被邀請加入 <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> 群組，這讓使用者可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 變成超級使用者。完成之後，此工具會詢問是否要建立其他的使用者或離開。</para>
 
 	<example xml:id="users-modifying-adduser">
 	  <title>在 FreeBSD 新增使用者</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>adduser</userinput>
 Username: <userinput>jru</userinput>
 Full name: <userinput>J. Random User</userinput>
 Uid (Leave empty for default):
 Login group [jru]:
 Login group is jru. Invite jru into other groups? []: <userinput>wheel</userinput>
 Login class [default]:
 Shell (sh csh tcsh zsh nologin) [sh]: <userinput>zsh</userinput>
 Home directory [/home/jru]:
 Home directory permissions (Leave empty for default):
 Use password-based authentication? [yes]:
 Use an empty password? (yes/no) [no]:
 Use a random password? (yes/no) [no]:
 Enter password:
 Enter password again:
 Lock out the account after creation? [no]:
 Username   : jru
 Password   : ****
 Full Name  : J. Random User
 Uid        : 1001
 Class      :
 Groups     : jru wheel
 Home       : /home/jru
 Shell      : /usr/local/bin/zsh
 Locked     : no
 OK? (yes/no): <userinput>yes</userinput>
 adduser: INFO: Successfully added (jru) to the user database.
 Add another user? (yes/no): <userinput>no</userinput>
 Goodbye!
 <prompt>#</prompt></screen>
 	</example>
 
 	<note>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Since the password is not echoed when typed, be
-	    careful to not mistype the password when creating the user
-	    account.</para>
+	  <para>由於密碼在輸入時並不會顯示，在建立使用者帳號時要小心密碼不要輸入錯誤。</para>
 	</note>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-rmuser">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><command>rmuser</command></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><command>rmuser</command></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary>removing</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">To completely remove a user from the system, run
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rmuser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> as the superuser.  This command performs the
-	  following steps:</para>
+	<para>要自系統完全移除一個使用者可使用超級使用者執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rmuser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。這個指令會執行以下步驟：</para>
 
 	<procedure>
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Removes the user's <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crontab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> entry, if one
-	      exists.</para>
+	    <para>移除使用者的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crontab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 項目，若項目存在。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Removes any <citerefentry><refentrytitle>at</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> jobs belonging to the
-	      user.</para>
+	    <para>移除任何屬於該使用者的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>at</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工作。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Kills all processes owned by the user.</para>
+	    <para>中止所有該使用者擁有的程序。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Removes the user from the system's local password
-	      file.</para>
+	    <para>自系統本地密碼檔移除該使用者。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Optionally removes the user's home directory, if it
-	      is owned by the user.</para>
+	    <para>選擇性移除該使用者的家目錄，若使用者擁有該目錄。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the
-	      user from <filename>/var/mail</filename>.</para>
+	    <para>自 <filename>/var/mail</filename> 移除屬於該使用者的收件郵件檔。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Removes all files owned by the user from temporary
-	      file storage areas such as
-	      <filename>/tmp</filename>.</para>
+	    <para>自暫存檔儲存區域 (如 <filename>/tmp</filename>) 移除所有使用者擁有的檔案。</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Finally, removes the username from all groups to
-	      which it belongs in <filename>/etc/group</filename>.  If
-	      a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as
-	      the username, the group is removed.  This complements
-	      the per-user unique groups created by
-	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+	    <para>最後，自 <filename>/etc/group</filename> 中該使用者所屬的所有群組移除該使用者。若群組無任何成員且群組名稱與該使用者名稱相同，則該群組也會一併移除。這是為了輔助 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 替每位使用者建立獨一無二的群組。</para>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rmuser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> cannot be used to remove superuser
-	  accounts since that is almost always an indication of
-	  massive destruction.</para>
+	<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rmuser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 無法用來移除超級使用者帳號，因為這幾乎代表著大規模破壞。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">By default, an interactive mode is used, as shown
-	  in the following example.</para>
+	<para>預設會使用互動式模式，如下範例所示。</para>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title><command>rmuser</command> 互動式帳號移除</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rmuser jru</userinput>
 Matching password entry:
 jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/zsh
 Is this the entry you wish to remove? <userinput>y</userinput>
 Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? <userinput>y</userinput>
 Removing user (jru): mailspool home passwd.
 <prompt>#</prompt></screen>
 	</example>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-chpass">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><command>chpass</command></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><command>chpass</command></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Any user can use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to change their default
-	  shell and personal information associated with their user
-	  account.  The superuser can use this utility to change
-	  additional account information for any user.</para>
+	<para>任何使用者都可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來變更自己的預設 Shell 以及與自己的使用者帳號關聯的個人資訊。超級使用者可以使用這個工具更改任何使用者的其他帳號資訊。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">When passed no options, aside from an optional username,
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> displays an editor containing user
-	  information.  When the user exits from the editor, the user
-	  database is updated with the new information.</para>
+	<para>除了選填的使用者名稱外，未傳入任何選項時，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 會開啟含有使用者資訊的編輯器。當使用者自編輯器離開，便會更新新的資訊到使用者資料庫。</para>
 
 	<note>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">This utility will prompt for the user's password when
-	    exiting the editor, unless the utility is run as the
-	    superuser.</para>
+	  <para>離開編輯器時，此工具會提示使用者輸入密碼，除非使用超級使用者執行此工具。</para>
 	</note>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">In <xref linkend="users-modifying-chpass-su"/>, the
-	  superuser has typed <command>chpass jru</command> and is
-	  now viewing the fields that can be changed for this user.
-	  If <systemitem class="username">jru</systemitem> runs this
-	  command instead, only the last six fields will be displayed
-	  and available for editing.  This is shown in
-	  <xref linkend="users-modifying-chpass-ru"/>.</para>
+	<para>在 <xref linkend="users-modifying-chpass-su"/> 中，超級使用者輸入了 <command>chpass jru</command> 並正在檢視這個使用者可以更改的欄位。若改以 <systemitem class="username">jru</systemitem> 執行這個指令，只會顯示最後六個欄位供編輯，如 <xref linkend="users-modifying-chpass-ru"/> 所示。</para>
 
 	<example xml:id="users-modifying-chpass-su">
 	  <title>以超級使用者的身份使用 <command>chpass</command></title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en">#Changing user database information for jru.
 Login: jru
 Password: *
 Uid [#]: 1001
 Gid [# or name]: 1001
 Change [month day year]:
 Expire [month day year]:
 Class:
 Home directory: /home/jru
 Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh
 Full Name: J. Random User
 Office Location:
 Office Phone:
 Home Phone:
 Other information:</screen>
 	</example>
 
 	<example xml:id="users-modifying-chpass-ru">
 	  <title>以一般使用者的身份使用 <command>chpass</command></title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en">#Changing user database information for jru.
 Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh
 Full Name: J. Random User
 Office Location:
 Office Phone:
 Home Phone:
 Other information:</screen>
 	</example>
 
 	<note>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The commands <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chfn</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> are links
-	    to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, as are <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypchpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
-	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypchfn</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypchsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Since
-	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> support is automatic, specifying
-	    the <literal>yp</literal> before the command is not
-	    necessary.  How to configure NIS is covered in <xref linkend="network-servers"/>.</para>
+	  <para>指令 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chfn</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 皆連結至 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，就如同 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypchpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypchfn</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypchsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的關係。自從 NIS 支援自動化以後，便不再需要特別加上 <literal>yp</literal>，如何設定 NIS 在<xref linkend="network-servers"/> 中有說明。</para>
 	</note>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-passwd">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><command>passwd</command></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><command>passwd</command></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>accounts</primary>
 	  <secondary>changing password</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Any user can easily change their password using
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  To prevent accidental or unauthorized
-	  changes, this command will prompt for the user's original
-	  password before a new password can be set:</para>
+	<para>任何使用者皆可簡單的使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 更改自己的密碼。要避免意外或未授權的變更，這個指令在設定新密碼之前會提示使用者輸入原來的密碼。</para>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>更改您的密碼</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>passwd</userinput>
 Changing local password for jru.
 Old password:
 New password:
 Retype new password:
 passwd: updating the database...
 passwd: done</screen>
 	</example>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The superuser can change any user's password by
-	  specifying the username when running <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  When
-	  this utility is run as the superuser, it will not prompt for
-	  the user's current password.  This allows the password to be
-	  changed when a user cannot remember the original
-	  password.</para>
+	<para>超級使用者可以更改任何使用者的密碼透過在執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 時指定使用者名稱。當此工具以超級使用者執行時，將不會提示輸入使用者目前的密碼，這可在使用者忘記原來的密碼時更改密碼。</para>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>以超級使用者的身份更改其他使用者的密碼</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>passwd jru</userinput>
 Changing local password for jru.
 New password:
 Retype new password:
 passwd: updating the database...
 passwd: done</screen>
 	</example>
 
 	<note>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">As with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>yppasswd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is a link to
-	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, so <acronym>NIS</acronym> works with
-	    either command.</para>
+	  <para>如同 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chpass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>yppasswd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 連結到 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，因此 <acronym>NIS</acronym> 在兩個指令上皆可運作。</para>
 	</note>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="users-pw">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><command>pw</command></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><command>pw</command></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility can create, remove,
-	  modify, and display users and groups.  It functions as a
-	  front end to the system user and group files.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
-	  has a very powerful set of command line options that make it
-	  suitable for use in shell scripts, but new users may find it
-	  more complicated than the other commands presented in this
-	  section.</para>
+	<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具可以建立、移除、修改以及顯示使用者與群組，它的功能是做為系統使用者與群組檔的前端。<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 有非常強大的的指令列選項集，這讓該指令非常適合用於 Shell scripts，但新的使用者可能會發現它比其他在本節的指令要複雜許多。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="users-groups">
       <title>管理群組</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>groups</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/etc/groups</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>accounts</primary>
 	<secondary>groups</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A group is a list of users.  A group is identified by its
-	group name and <acronym>GID</acronym>.  In FreeBSD, the kernel
-	uses the <acronym>UID</acronym> of a process, and the list of
-	groups it belongs to, to determine what the process is allowed
-	to do.  Most of the time, the <acronym>GID</acronym> of a user
-	or process usually means the first group in the list.</para>
+      <para>群組代表一群使用者，群組可以由其群組名稱及 <acronym>GID</acronym> 來辨識。在 FreeBSD，核心會使用程序的 <acronym>UID</acronym> 以及其所屬的群組清單來決定程序可以做那些事。大多數情況使用者或程序的 <acronym>GID</acronym> 通常指的是清單中的第一個群組。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The group name to <acronym>GID</acronym> mapping is listed
-	in <filename>/etc/group</filename>.  This is a plain text file
-	with four colon-delimited fields.  The first field is the
-	group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third
-	the <acronym>GID</acronym>, and the fourth the comma-delimited
-	list of members.  For a more complete description of the
-	syntax, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>group</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para>群組名稱與 <acronym>GID</acronym> 的對應表列在 <filename>/etc/group</filename>。這個純文字檔案使用了四個以冒號分隔的欄位，第一個欄位為群組名稱，第二個欄位為加密後的密碼，第二個欄位為 <acronym>GID</acronym> 以及第四個欄位為以逗號分隔的成員清單。要取得更完整的語法說明，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>group</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The superuser can modify <filename>/etc/group</filename>
-	using a text editor.  Alternatively, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be used to
-	add and edit groups.  For example, to add a group called
-	<systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> and then
-	confirm that it exists:</para>
+      <para>超級使用者可以使用文字編輯器修改 <filename>/etc/group</filename>，或者可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 加入與編輯群組。例如，要加入一個叫做 <systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> 的群組然後確認該群組已新增：</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 新增群組</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupadd teamtwo</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupshow teamtwo</userinput>
 teamtwo:*:1100:</screen>
       </example>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In this example, <literal>1100</literal> is the
-	<acronym>GID</acronym> of
-	<systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem>.  Right
-	now, <systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> has no
-	members.  This command will add
-	<systemitem class="username">jru</systemitem> as a member of
-	<systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem>.</para>
+      <para>在本例中，<literal>1100</literal> 是 <systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> 的 <acronym>GID</acronym>。目前 <systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> 沒有任何成員，這個指令會加入 <systemitem class="username">jru</systemitem> 作為 <systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> 的成員。</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 加入使用者帳號到新的群組</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod teamtwo -M jru</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupshow teamtwo</userinput>
 teamtwo:*:1100:jru</screen>
       </example>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The argument to <option>-M</option> is a comma-delimited
-	list of users to be added to a new (empty) group or to replace
-	the members of an existing group.  To the user, this group
-	membership is different from (and in addition to) the user's
-	primary group listed in the password file.  This means that
-	the user will not show up as a member when using
-	<option>groupshow</option> with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, but will show up
-	when the information is queried via <citerefentry><refentrytitle>id</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> or a similar
-	tool.  When <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to add a user to a group, it
-	only manipulates <filename>/etc/group</filename> and does not
-	attempt to read additional data from
-	<filename>/etc/passwd</filename>.</para>
+      <para>給 <option>-M</option> 的參數是以逗號分隔的使用者清單，用來加入成員到新的 (空的) 群組或取代既有群組中的成員。對使用者來說這裡的群組成員與使用者列於密碼檔的主要群組不同 (額外的)，這代表在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 使用 <option>groupshow</option> 時不會顯示做為使用者主要群組的成員，但會顯示在使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>id</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 或同類工具所查詢的資訊當中。當使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來加入使用者到某個群組，該指令只會處理 <filename>/etc/group</filename> 且不會嘗試自 <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> 讀取其他的資料。</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 加入新成員到群組</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod teamtwo -m db</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupshow teamtwo</userinput>
 teamtwo:*:1100:jru,db</screen>
       </example>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the argument to <option>-m</option> is a
-	comma-delimited list of users who are to be added to the
-	group.  Unlike the previous example, these users are appended
-	to the group and do not replace existing users in the
-	group.</para>
+      <para>在本例當中，給 <option>-m</option> 的參數是以逗號分隔的使用者清單，用來加入使用者到群組。不像前面的例子，這些使用者會加入到群組，而非取代既有群組中的使用者。</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>id</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來查看所屬群組</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>id jru</userinput>
 uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo)</screen>
       </example>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In this example,
-	<systemitem class="username">jru</systemitem> is a member of
-	the groups <systemitem class="groupname">jru</systemitem> and
-	<systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem>.</para>
+      <para>在本例中，<systemitem class="username">jru</systemitem> 是群組 <systemitem class="groupname">jru</systemitem> 以及 <systemitem class="groupname">teamtwo</systemitem> 的成員。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">For more information about this command and the format of
-	<filename>/etc/group</filename>, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
-	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>group</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para>要取得更多有關此指令的資訊及 <filename>/etc/group</filename> 的格式，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>group</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="permissions">
     <title>權限</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>UNIX</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, every file and directory has an associated set of
-      permissions and several utilities are available for viewing
-      and modifying these permissions.  Understanding how permissions
-      work is necessary to make sure that users are able to access
-      the files that they need and are unable to improperly access
-      the files used by the operating system or owned by other
-      users.</para>
+    <para>在 FreeBSD 中，每個檔案與目都有相關聯的數個權限，且有許多工具可以檢視與修改這些權限。了解權限如何運作是必須的，這可確保使用者能夠存存取它們所需的檔案以及無法不正確的存取供作業系統或其他使用者擁有的檔案。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section discusses the traditional <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> permissions
-      used in FreeBSD.  For finer grained file system access control,
-      refer to <xref linkend="fs-acl"/>.</para>
+    <para>本節會探討在 FreeBSD 中所用到的傳統 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 權限。要做檔案系統存取控制的微調，請參考 <xref linkend="fs-acl"/>。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">In <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>, basic permissions are assigned using
-      three types of access: read, write, and execute.  These access
-      types are used to determine file access to the file's owner,
-      group, and others (everyone else).  The read, write, and execute
-      permissions can be represented as the letters
-      <literal>r</literal>, <literal>w</literal>, and
-      <literal>x</literal>.  They can also be represented as binary
-      numbers as each permission is either on or off
-      (<literal>0</literal>).  When represented as a number, the
-      order is always read as <literal>rwx</literal>, where
-      <literal>r</literal> has an on value of <literal>4</literal>,
-      <literal>w</literal> has an on value of <literal>2</literal>
-      and <literal>x</literal> has an on value of
-      <literal>1</literal>.</para>
+    <para>在 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>，基礎權限透過三種類型的存取來分配：讀取、寫入與執行。這些存取類型用來決定檔案擁有者、群組以及其他人 (其他任何人) 的檔案存取權。讀取、寫入及執行權限可使用 <literal>r</literal>, <literal>w</literal>, and <literal>x</literal> 字母來表示。這些權限也可以使用二進位數字來表示每種權限的開或關 (<literal>0</literal>)。當以二進位數字來表示時，閱讀的順序為 <literal>rwx</literal>，其中 <literal>r</literal> 開啟的值為 <literal>4</literal>，<literal>w</literal> 開啟的值為 <literal>2</literal> 以及 <literal>x</literal> 開啟的值為 <literal>1</literal>。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Table 4.1 summarizes the possible numeric and alphabetic
-      possibilities.  When reading the <quote>Directory
-	Listing</quote> column, a <literal>-</literal> is used to
-      represent a permission that is set to off.</para>
+    <para>表格 4.1 摘要了可用的數字及可用的字母。當閱讀 <quote>目錄清單標示</quote> 欄位時，<literal>-</literal> 用來代表該權限設為關閉。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>permissions</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>file permissions</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <table frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <title><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 權限</title>
 
       <tgroup cols="3">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>數值</entry>
 	    <entry>權限</entry>
-	    <entry>目錄標示</entry>
+	    <entry>目錄清單標示</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">0</entry>
 	    <entry>不可讀取, 不可寫入, 不可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>---</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">1</entry>
 	    <entry>不可讀取, 不可寫入, 可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>--x</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	    <entry>不可讀取, 可寫入, 不可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>-w-</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	    <entry>不可讀取, 可寫入, 可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>-wx</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	    <entry>可讀取, 不可寫入, 不可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>r--</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	    <entry>可讀取, 不可寫入, 可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>r-x</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	    <entry>可讀取, 可寫入, 不可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>rw-</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	    <entry>可讀取, 可寫入, 可執行</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>rwx</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </table>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>directories</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令時，可以加上 <option>-l</option> 參數， 來檢視詳細的目錄清單。 清單中欄位的資訊包含檔案對所有者、群組及其他人的權限。 在任一個目錄底下執行 <command>ls -l</command>，會顯示如下的結果:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls -l</userinput>
 total 530
 -rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel     512 Sep  5 12:31 myfile
 -rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel     512 Sep  5 12:31 otherfile
 -rw-r--r--  1 root  wheel    7680 Sep  5 12:31 email.txt</screen>
 
     <para>第一個 (最左邊) 的字元用來表示這個檔案的類型為何，除標準檔案以外，尚有目錄、特殊字元裝置、Socket 及其他特殊虛擬檔案裝置， 在此例當中，<literal>-</literal> 表示該檔案為一個標準的檔案。 範例中接下來的三個字元中，<literal>rw-</literal> 代表所有者對檔案擁有的權限。 再接下來的三個字元， <literal>r--</literal> 則代表群組對檔案擁有的權限， 最後三個字元，<literal>r--</literal> 則代表其他人對檔案擁有的權限。 破折號 (-) 表示沒有權限，範例中的這個檔案的權限， 只允許所有者讀取、寫入檔案，群組以及其他人僅能讀取檔案。 根據以上的表格，此種權限的檔案可以使用 <literal>644</literal> 來表示， 每組數字分別代表檔案的三種權限。</para>
 
     <para>那系統如何控制裝置的權限？ 實際上 FreeBSD 對大多的硬碟裝置就如同檔案，程式可以開啟、讀取以及寫入資料如一般檔案。 這些特殊裝置檔案都儲存於 <filename>/dev/</filename> 目錄中。</para>
 
     <para>目錄也同如檔案，擁有讀取、寫入及執行的權限， 但在執行權限上與檔案有明顯的差異。 當目錄被標示為可執行時，代表可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令切換進入該目錄。 也代表能夠存取在此目錄之中的已知檔名的檔案，但仍會受限於檔案本身所設定的權限。</para>
 
     <para>要能夠列出目錄內容，必須擁有目錄的讀取權限。 要刪除已知檔名的檔案，必須擁有檔案所在目錄的寫入 <emphasis>以及</emphasis> 執行的權限。</para>
 
-    <para>還有一些權限位元，但這些權限主要在特殊情況使用，如 setuid binaries 及 sticky directories。 如果您還想知道更多檔案權限的資訊及使用方法，請務必參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
+    <para>還有一些權限位元，但這些權限主要在特殊情況使用，如 setuid 執行檔及 sticky 目錄。 如果您還想知道更多檔案權限的資訊及使用方法，請務必參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <info>
 	<title>權限符號</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>permissions</primary>
 	<secondary>symbolic</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>權限符號可稱做符號表示，使用字元的方式來取代使用數值來設定檔案或目錄的權限。 符號表示的格式依序為 (某人)(動作)(權限)，可使用的符號如下:</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="3">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>項目</entry>
 	      <entry>字母</entry>
 	      <entry>代表意義</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(某人)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">u</entry>
 	      <entry>使用者</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(某人)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">g</entry>
 	      <entry>群組所有者</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(某人)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">o</entry>
 	      <entry>其他</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(某人)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">a</entry>
 	      <entry>全部 (<quote>world</quote>)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(動作)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">+</entry>
 	      <entry>	增加權限</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(動作)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">-</entry>
 	      <entry>移除權限</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(動作)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">=</entry>
 	      <entry>指定權限</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(權限)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">r</entry>
 	      <entry>讀取</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(權限)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">w</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Write</entry>
+	      <entry>寫入</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(權限)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">x</entry>
-	      <entry>寫入</entry>
+	      <entry>執行</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(權限)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">t</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Sticky bit</entry>
+	      <entry>Sticky 位元</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>(權限)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">s</entry>
-	      <entry>	Set UID 或 GID</entry>
+	      <entry>設定 UID 或 GID</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para>如先前同樣使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令來設定，但使用的參數為這些字元。 例如，您可以使用下列指令禁止其他使用者存取檔案 <replaceable>FILE</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod go= FILE</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>若有兩個以上的符號表示可以使用逗號 (,) 區隔。 例如，下列指令將會移除群組及其他人對檔案 <replaceable>FILE</replaceable> 的寫入權限， 並使全部人 (<quote>world</quote>) 對該檔有執行權限。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod go-w,a+x <replaceable>FILE</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 <!--
       <para>Most users will not notice this, but it should be pointed
 	out that using the octal method will only set or assign
 	permissions to a file; it does not add or delete them.</para>
 -->
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <info>
 	<title>FreeBSD 檔案旗標</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para>除了前面提到的檔案權限外，FreeBSD 支援使用 <quote>檔案旗標</quote>。 這些旗標增加了檔案的安全性及管理性，但不包含目錄。有了檔案旗標可確保在某些時候 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 不會意外將檔案修改或移除。</para>
 
       <para>修改的檔案 flag 僅需要使用擁有簡易的介面的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chflags</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具。 例如，標示系統禁止刪除的旗標於檔案 <filename>file1</filename>，使用下列指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chflags sunlink file1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>若要移除系統禁止刪除的旗標，只需要簡單在 <option>sunlink</option> 前加上 <quote>no</quote>，例如：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chflags nosunlink file1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及參數 <option>-lo</option> 可檢視檔案目前的旗標：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls -lo file1</userinput></screen>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">-rw-r--r--  1 trhodes  trhodes  sunlnk 0 Mar  1 05:54 file1</programlisting>
 
       <para>多數的旗標僅能由 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 使用者來標示或移除，而部份旗標可由檔案所有者設定。 我們建議系統管理者可閱讀 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chflags</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chflags</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明以瞭解相關細節。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <info>
 	<title><literal>setuid</literal> 、<literal>setgid</literal> 與 <literal>sticky</literal> 權限</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Other than the permissions already discussed, there are
-	three other specific settings that all administrators should
-	know about.  They are the <literal>setuid</literal>,
-	<literal>setgid</literal>, and <literal>sticky</literal>
-	permissions.</para>
+      <para>除了已經探討過的權限外，這裡尚有另外三種特別的設定所有管理者都應該知道，這些設定為 <literal>setuid</literal>, <literal>setgid</literal> 以及 <literal>sticky</literal> 權限。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">These settings are important for some <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> operations
-	as they provide functionality not normally granted to normal
-	users.  To understand them, the difference between the real
-	user ID and effective user ID must be noted.</para>
+      <para>這些設定對某些一般不會授權給一般使用者的 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 操作非常重要，它讓這些功能可運作。要了解這些權限，就必須說明真實使用者 ID (Real user ID) 與有效使用者 ID (Effective user ID) 的差異。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The real user ID is the <acronym>UID</acronym> who owns
-	or starts the process.  The effective <acronym>UID</acronym>
-	is the user ID the process runs as.  As an example,
-	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> runs with the real user ID when a user changes
-	their password.  However, in order to update the password
-	database, the command runs as the effective ID of the
-	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user.  This
-	allows users to change their passwords without seeing a
-	<errorname>Permission Denied</errorname> error.</para>
+      <para>真實使用者 ID 即是擁有者或啟動程序者的 <acronym>UID</acronym>，而有效 <acronym>UID</acronym> 是執行程序所使用的使用者 ID。例如，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 在使用者更改自己的密碼時會以真實使用者 ID 執行，然而，為了要更新密碼資料庫，該指令必須以 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 使用者做為有效 ID 來執行，這讓使用者可以更改自己的密碼而不會遇到權限不足 (<errorname>Permission Denied</errorname>) 的錯誤。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The setuid permission may be set by prefixing a permission
-	set with the number four (4) as shown in the following
-	example:</para>
+      <para>setuid 權限可以透過在權限集前加上數字 (4) 來設定，如下範例所示：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 4755 suidexample.sh</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The permissions on
-	<filename><replaceable>suidexample.sh</replaceable></filename>
-	now look like the following:</para>
+      <para>現在 <filename><replaceable>suidexample.sh</replaceable></filename> 的權限會如下所示：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">-rwsr-xr-x   1 trhodes  trhodes    63 Aug 29 06:36 suidexample.sh</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Note that a <literal>s</literal> is now part of the
-	permission set designated for the file owner, replacing the
-	executable bit.  This allows utilities which need elevated
-	permissions, such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para>注意，<literal>s</literal> 現在取代了原來的執行位元成為指定檔案擁有者權限集的一部份，這會允許須要提升權限的工具，如 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 可正常使用。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>nosuid</literal> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> option will
-	  cause such binaries to silently fail without alerting
-	  the user.  That option is not completely reliable as a
-	  <literal>nosuid</literal> wrapper may be able to circumvent
-	  it.</para>
+	<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的 <literal>nosuid</literal> 選項會造成這類 Binary 執行失敗，但不會警告使用者。由於 <literal>nosuid</literal> Wrapper 可能可繞過該選項，因此該選項並非完全可靠。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To view this in real time, open two terminals.  On
-	one, type <command>passwd</command> as a normal user.
-	While it waits for a new password, check the process
-	table and look at the user information for
-	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
+      <para>實際來看這個範例，先開啟兩個終端機，其中一個用一般使用者輸入 <command>passwd</command>。在等待輸入新密碼的同時，檢查程序表並查看 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 程序的使用者資訊：</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In terminal A:</para>
+      <para>於終端機 A：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Changing local password for trhodes
 Old Password:</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In terminal B:</para>
+      <para>於終端機 Ｂ：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ps aux | grep passwd</userinput></screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">trhodes  5232  0.0  0.2  3420  1608   0  R+    2:10AM   0:00.00 grep passwd
 root     5211  0.0  0.2  3620  1724   2  I+    2:09AM   0:00.01 passwd</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Although <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is run as a normal user, it is
-	using the effective <acronym>UID</acronym> of
-	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.</para>
+      <para>雖然使用一般使用者來執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，但該程序使用了 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 的有效 <acronym>UID</acronym>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>setgid</literal> permission performs the
-	same function as the <literal>setuid</literal> permission;
-	except that it alters the group settings.  When an application
-	or utility executes with this setting, it will be granted the
-	permissions based on the group that owns the file, not the
-	user who started the process.</para>
+      <para><literal>setgid</literal> 權限的功能與 <literal>setuid</literal> 相似，當應用程式或工具使用此設定執行時，將會以擁有該檔案的群組來執行，而非執行行該程序的使用者。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To set the <literal>setgid</literal> permission on a
-	file, provide <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> with a leading two (2):</para>
+      <para>要在檔案設定 <literal>setgid</literal> 權限，需在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的參數前加上 (2)：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 2755 sgidexample.sh</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In the following listing, notice that the
-	<literal>s</literal> is now in the field designated for the
-	group permission settings:</para>
+      <para>注意以下清單中，<literal>s</literal> 現在位於指定群組權限設定的欄位：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">-rwxr-sr-x   1 trhodes  trhodes    44 Aug 31 01:49 sgidexample.sh</screen>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">In these examples, even though the shell script in
-	  question is an executable file, it will not run with
-	  a different <acronym>EUID</acronym> or effective user ID.
-	  This is because shell scripts may not access the
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>setuid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> system calls.</para>
+	<para>在以上這些範例中，雖然在例子中的 Shell script 是可執行的檔案，但並不會以其他的 <acronym>EUID</acronym> 或有效使用者 ID 執行，這是因為 Shell script 並不會存取 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>setuid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> 系統呼叫 (System call)。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>setuid</literal> and
-	<literal>setgid</literal> permission bits may lower system
-	security, by allowing for elevated permissions.  The third
-	special permission, the <literal>sticky bit</literal>, can
-	strengthen the security of a system.</para>
+      <para><literal>setuid</literal> 及 <literal>setgid</literal> 權限位元可能會因允許提升權限而降低系統的安全性，因此有了第三個特殊的權限：<literal>sticky bit</literal>，可以加強系統的安全性。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When the <literal>sticky bit</literal> is set on a
-	directory, it allows file deletion only by the file owner.
-	This is useful to prevent file deletion in public directories,
-	such as <filename>/tmp</filename>, by users
-	who do not own the file.  To utilize this permission, prefix
-	the permission set with a one (1):</para>
+      <para>當在目錄上設定 <literal>sticky bit</literal>，將只允許由檔案擁有者刪除檔案。這對避免公開目錄，如 <filename>/tmp</filename> 中的檔案被不擁有該檔案的人刪除非常有用。要使用這個權限，可在權限集前加上 (1)：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 1777 /tmp</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>sticky bit</literal> permission will display
-	as a <literal>t</literal> at the very end of the permission
-	set:</para>
+      <para><literal>sticky bit</literal> 權限會以 <literal>t</literal> 顯示於權限集的最後：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls -al / | grep tmp</userinput></screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">drwxrwxrwt  10 root  wheel         512 Aug 31 01:49 tmp</screen>
 
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dirstructure">
     <title>目錄結構</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>directory hierarchy</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>認識 FreeBSD 的目錄架構，就可對系統有概略的基礎理解。 最重要的莫過於整個目錄的根目錄，就是 <quote>/</quote> 目錄， 該目錄會在開機時最先掛載 (mount)，裡面會有開機所會用到必備檔案。 此外，根目錄還有紀錄其他檔案系統的掛載點相關設定。</para>
 
     <para>「掛載點」就是讓新增的檔案系統，能接到上層的檔案系統 (通常就是「根目錄」檔案系統) 的目錄。 在 <xref linkend="disk-organization"/> 這邊對此有更詳細介紹。 標準的掛載點包括了 <filename>/usr/</filename>, <filename>/var/</filename>, <filename>/tmp/</filename>, <filename>/mnt/</filename> 以及 <filename>/cdrom/</filename>。 這些目錄通常會記錄在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 設定檔內。 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 是記錄各檔案系統及相關掛載點的表格。 大部分在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 有記錄的檔案系統，會在開機時由 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> Script 來自動掛載，除非它們有設定 <option>noauto</option> 選項。 其中細節說明可參閱 <xref linkend="disks-fstab"/>。</para>
 
     <para>有關檔案系統架構的完整說明可參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hier</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 現在呢，讓我們大致先一窺常見的目錄有哪些吧。</para>
 
     <para>
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>目錄</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 	  <tbody valign="top">
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>檔案系統的根目錄。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/bin/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>single-user、multi-user 兩種模式皆可使用的基本工具 。</entry>
+	      <entry>單使用者 (Single-user)、多使用者 (Multi-user) 兩種模式皆可使用的基本工具 。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/boot/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>作業系統開機過程會用到的程式、設定檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/boot/defaults/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>預設的開機啟動設定檔，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/dev/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>Device nodes，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>intro</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
+	      <entry>裝置節點 (Device node)，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>intro</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>系統設定檔及一些 script 檔。</entry>
+	      <entry>系統設定檔及一些 Script 檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/defaults/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>預設的系統設定檔，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>MTA(Mail Transport Agent)的相關設定檔，像是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendmail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
+	      <entry>MTA (Mail Transport Agent) 的相關設定檔，像是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendmail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/namedb/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry><citerefentry><refentrytitle>named</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 設定檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/periodic/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>每日、每週、每月透過 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>，執行的定期排程 script，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
+	      <entry>每日、每週、每月透過 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>，執行的定期排程 Script，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/ppp/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry><citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 設定檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/mnt/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>系統管理者慣用充當臨時掛載點的空目錄。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/proc/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>Process 檔案系統，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>procfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_procfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
+	      <entry>程序 (Process) 檔案系統，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>procfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_procfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/rescue/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>緊急救援用途的一些 statically linked 程式，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rescue</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
+	      <entry>緊急救援用途的一些靜態連結 (Statically linked) 的程式，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rescue</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/root/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry><systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 帳號的家目錄。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/sbin/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>供 single-user 及 multi-user 環境使用的系統程式及管理工具 。</entry>
+	      <entry>供單使用者 (Single-user) 及多使用者 (Multi-user) 環境使用的系統程式及管理工具 。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/tmp/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>臨時檔案。 一般而言，重開機之後 /tmp 內的東西會被<emphasis>清除</emphasis>掉。 而通常會將 memory-based 檔案系統掛載在 <filename>/tmp</filename> 上。 這些瑣事可透過 tmpmfs 相關的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 環境變數來自動完成 。(或是在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 內做設定， 詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdmfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>)。</entry>
+	      <entry>臨時檔案。 一般而言，重開機之後 /tmp 內的東西會被<emphasis>清除</emphasis>掉。 而通常會將以記憶體為基礎 (Memory-based) 的檔案系統掛載在 <filename>/tmp</filename> 上。 這些瑣事可透過 tmpmfs 相關的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 環境變數來自動完成 。(或是在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 內做設定， 詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdmfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>主要是使用者所安裝的工具程式、應用程式存放處。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/bin/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>常用工具、開發工具、應用軟體。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/include/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>標準 C include 檔案。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/lib/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>程式庫存放處。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/libdata/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>其他各式工具的資料檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/libexec/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>系統 Daemon 及系統工具程式 (透過其他程式來執行)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>存放一些自行安裝的執行檔、程式庫等等。 同時，也是 FreeBSD ports 架構的預設安裝目錄。 <filename>/usr/local</filename> 內的目錄架構大致與 <filename>/usr</filename> 相同，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hier</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明。 但 man 目錄例外，它們是直接放在 <filename>/usr/local</filename> 底下，而非 <filename>/usr/local/share</filename>，而 ports 所安裝的說明文件則在 <filename>share/doc/<replaceable>port</replaceable></filename>。</entry>
+	      <entry>存放一些自行安裝的執行檔、程式庫等等。 同時，也是 FreeBSD Port 架構的預設安裝目錄。 <filename>/usr/local</filename> 內的目錄架構大致與 <filename>/usr</filename> 相同，詳情請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hier</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明。 但 man 目錄例外，它們是直接放在 <filename>/usr/local</filename> 底下，而非 <filename>/usr/local/share</filename>，而 Port 所安裝的說明文件則在 <filename>share/doc/<replaceable>port</replaceable></filename>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/obj/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>在編譯 <filename>/usr/src</filename> 目錄時所產生的相關架構目地檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/ports/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>FreeBSD Ports 套件集 (選用)。</entry>
+	      <entry>FreeBSD Port 套件集 (選用)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/sbin/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>由使用者執行的系統 Daemon 及系統工具。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/share/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>各架構皆共通的檔案。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>BSD 原始碼 (或自行新增的)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>存放各種用途的日誌(log)檔、臨時或暫時存放、列印或郵件的 spool 檔案。有時候，memory-based 檔案系統也會掛載在 <filename>/var</filename>。 這些瑣事可透過 varmfs 相關的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 環境變數來自動完成。(或是在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 內做設定，相關細節請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdmfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>)。</entry>
+	      <entry>存放各種用途的日誌 (Log) 檔、臨時或暫時存放、列印或郵件的緩衝 (Spool) 檔案。有時候，以記憶體為基礎 (Memory-based) 的檔案系統也會掛載在 <filename>/var</filename>。 這些瑣事可透過 varmfs 相關的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 環境變數來自動完成。(或是在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 內做設定，相關細節請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdmfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>)。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/log/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>各項系統記錄的日誌(log)檔。</entry>
+	      <entry>各項系統記錄的日誌 (Log) 檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/mail/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>各使用者的郵件(mailbox)檔案。</entry>
+	      <entry>各使用者的郵件 (Mailbox) 檔案。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/spool/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>各種印表機、郵件系統的 spool 目錄。</entry>
+	      <entry>各種印表機、郵件系統的緩衝 (Spool) 目錄。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/tmp/</filename></entry>
-	      <entry>臨時檔案。 這些檔案在重開機後通常仍會保留，除非 <filename>/var</filename> 是屬於 memory-based 檔案系統。</entry>
+	      <entry>臨時檔案。 這些檔案在重開機後通常仍會保留，除非 <filename>/var</filename> 是屬於以記憶體為基礎 (Memory-based) 的檔案系統。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/yp/</filename></entry>
 	      <entry>NIS 對應表。</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable></para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disk-organization">
     <title>磁碟組織</title>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 用來尋找檔案的最小單位就是檔案的名稱了。 檔案的名稱有大小寫之分，所以說 <filename>readme.txt</filename> 和 <filename>README.TXT</filename> 是兩個不同的檔案。 FreeBSD 並不使用副檔名 (.txt) 來判別這是一個程式檔、文件檔或是其他類型的檔案。</para>
 
     <para>檔案存在目錄裡面。 一個目錄中可能沒有任何檔案，也可能有好幾百個檔案。 目錄之中也可以包含其他的目錄； 您可以建立階層式的目錄以便資料的管理。</para>
 
-    <para>檔案或目錄的對應是藉由給定的檔案或目錄名稱，然後加上正斜線符號 (<literal>/</literal>)；之後再視需要加上其他的目錄名稱。 如果您有一個目錄 <filename>foo</filename> ，裡面有一個目錄叫作 <filename>bar</filename>，這個目錄中又包含了一個叫 <filename>readme.txt</filename> 的檔案，那麼這個檔案的全名，或者說檔案的<firstterm>路徑</firstterm>就是 <filename>foo/bar/readme.txt</filename>。Note that this is different from <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> which uses <literal>\</literal> to separate file and directory names. FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the path. For example, one would not type <filename>c:\foo\bar\readme.txt</filename> on FreeBSD.</para>
+    <para>檔案或目錄的對應是藉由給定的檔案或目錄名稱，然後加上正斜線符號 (<literal>/</literal>)；之後再視需要加上其他的目錄名稱。 如果您有一個目錄 <filename>foo</filename> ，裡面有一個目錄叫作 <filename>bar</filename>，這個目錄中又包含了一個叫 <filename>readme.txt</filename> 的檔案，那麼這個檔案的全名，或者說檔案的<firstterm>路徑 (Path)</firstterm>就是 <filename>foo/bar/readme.txt</filename>。注意這與 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 用來分隔檔案與目錄名稱所使用的 <literal>\</literal> 不同，且 FreeBSD 在路徑上並不使用磁碟機代號或其他磁碟機名稱，意思是，在 FreeBSD 上不會有人輸入 <filename>c:\foo\bar\readme.txt</filename> 這種路徑。</para>
 
-    <para>目錄及檔案儲存在檔案系統之中。 每個檔案系統都有唯一一個最上層的目錄，叫做<firstterm>根目錄</firstterm> (root directory)。 然後在這個根目錄下面才能有其他的目錄。One file system is designated the <firstterm>root file system</firstterm> or <literal>/</literal>. Every other file system is <firstterm>mounted</firstterm> under the root file system. No matter how many disks are on the FreeBSD system, every directory appears to be part of the same disk.</para>
+    <para>目錄及檔案儲存在檔案系統 (File system) 之中。 每個檔案系統都有唯一一個最上層的目錄，叫做<firstterm>根目錄 (Root directory)</firstterm>。 然後在這個根目錄下面才能有其他的目錄。其中一個檔案系統會被指定成為<firstterm>根檔案系統 (Root file system)</firstterm> 或 <literal>/</literal>，其他的檔案系統均會<firstterm>掛載 (mounted)</firstterm> 在該根檔案系統之下，不論在 FreeBSD 有多少個磁碟，所有目錄都會成為該磁碟的一部份。</para>
 
-    <para>假設您有三個檔案系統，分別叫作 <literal>A</literal>, <literal>B</literal> 及 <literal>C</literal>。 每個檔案系統都包含兩個目錄，叫做 <literal>A1</literal>, <literal>A2</literal> (依此類推得 <literal>B1</literal>, <literal>B2</literal> 及 <literal>C1</literal>, <literal>C2</literal>)。</para>
+    <para>假設您有三個檔案系統，分別叫作 <literal>A</literal>, <literal>B</literal> 及 <literal>C</literal>。 每個檔案系統都包含兩個目錄，叫做 <literal>A1</literal>, <literal>A2</literal> (以此類推得 <literal>B1</literal>, <literal>B2</literal> 及 <literal>C1</literal>, <literal>C2</literal>)。</para>
 
     <para>稱 <literal>A</literal> 為主要的檔案系統；如果您用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令查看此目錄的內容，您會看到兩個子目錄： <literal>A1</literal> 及 <literal>A2</literal>，如下所示：</para>
 
     <mediaobject>
       <imageobject>
 	<imagedata fileref="basics/example-dir1"/>
       </imageobject>
 
       <textobject>
 	<literallayout class="monospaced" xml:lang="en"> /
  |
  +--- A1
  |
  `--- A2</literallayout>
       </textobject>
     </mediaobject>
 
     <para>一個檔案系統必須以目錄形式掛載於另一個檔案系統上。 因此，假設您將 <literal>B</literal> 掛載於 <literal>A1</literal> 之上，則 <literal>B</literal> 的根目錄就變成了 <literal>A1</literal>，而在 <literal>B</literal> 之下的任何目錄的路徑也隨之改變:</para>
 
     <mediaobject>
       <imageobject>
 	<imagedata fileref="basics/example-dir2"/>
       </imageobject>
 
       <textobject>
 	<literallayout class="monospaced" xml:lang="en"> /
  |
  +--- A1
  |     |
  |     +--- B1
  |     |
  |     `--- B2
  |
  `--- A2</literallayout>
       </textobject>
     </mediaobject>
 
-    <para>在 <literal>B1</literal> 或 <literal>B2</literal> 目錄中的任何檔案必須經由路徑 <filename>/A1/B1</filename> 或 <filename>/A1/B2</filename> 才能達到。 所有原來在 <filename>/A1</filename> 中的檔案會暫時被隱藏起來，直到 <literal>B</literal> 被<firstterm>移除</firstterm>後才會再顯現出來。</para>
+    <para>在 <literal>B1</literal> 或 <literal>B2</literal> 目錄中的任何檔案必須經由路徑 <filename>/A1/B1</filename> 或 <filename>/A1/B2</filename> 才能達到。 所有原來在 <filename>/A1</filename> 中的檔案會暫時被隱藏起來，直到 <literal>B</literal> 被<firstterm>解除掛載 (Unmounted)</firstterm> 後才會再顯現出來。</para>
 
     <para>如果 <literal>B</literal> 掛載在 <literal>A2</literal> 之上，則會變成：</para>
 
     <mediaobject>
       <imageobject>
 	<imagedata fileref="basics/example-dir3"/>
       </imageobject>
 
       <textobject>
 	<literallayout class="monospaced" xml:lang="en"> /
  |
  +--- A1
  |
  `--- A2
        |
        +--- B1
        |
        `--- B2</literallayout>
       </textobject>
     </mediaobject>
 
     <para>上面的路徑分別為 <filename>/A2/B1</filename> 及 <filename>/A2/B2</filename>。</para>
 
     <para>檔案系統可以掛在其他檔案系統的目錄之上。 延續之前的例子，<literal>C</literal> 檔案系統可以掛在檔案系統 <literal>B</literal> 的 <literal>B1</literal> 目錄之上，如圖所示：</para>
 
     <mediaobject>
       <imageobject>
 	<imagedata fileref="basics/example-dir4"/>
       </imageobject>
 
       <textobject>
 	<literallayout class="monospaced" xml:lang="en"> /
  |
  +--- A1
  |
  `--- A2
        |
        +--- B1
        |     |
        |     +--- C1
        |     |
        |     `--- C2
        |
        `--- B2</literallayout>
       </textobject>
     </mediaobject>
 
     <para>或者 <literal>C</literal> 直接掛載於 <literal>A</literal> 的 <literal>A1</literal> 目錄之上：</para>
 
     <mediaobject>
       <imageobject>
 	<imagedata fileref="basics/example-dir5"/>
       </imageobject>
 
       <textobject>
 	<literallayout class="monospaced" xml:lang="en"> /
  |
  +--- A1
  |     |
  |     +--- C1
  |     |
  |     `--- C2
  |
  `--- A2
        |
        +--- B1
        |
        `--- B2</literallayout>
       </textobject>
     </mediaobject>
 
-    <para>您完全可以使用單一的一個大的根檔案系統 (root file system) 而不建立其他的檔案系統。 這樣有好處也有有壞處。</para>
+    <para>您可以使用單一的一個大的根檔案系統而不建立其他的檔案系統。 這樣有好處也有有壞處。</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <title>使用多個檔案系統的好處</title>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>不同的檔案系統在掛上的時候可以有不同的 <firstterm>掛載參數</firstterm>。 舉例來說，為求謹慎您可以將根檔案系統設成唯讀， 以避免不小心刪除或修改掉重要的檔案。 將使用者可寫入的檔案系統 (例如 <filename>/home</filename>) 獨立出來也可以讓他們用 <firstterm>nosuid</firstterm> 的參數掛載，此選項可以讓在這個檔案系統中執行檔的 <firstterm>suid</firstterm>/<firstterm>guid</firstterm> bits 失效，也許可以讓系統更安全。</para>
+	<para>不同的檔案系統在掛上的時候可以有不同的 <firstterm>掛載參數 (Mount option)</firstterm>。 舉例來說，為求謹慎您可以將根檔案系統設成唯讀， 以避免不小心刪除或修改掉重要的檔案。 將使用者可寫入的檔案系統 (例如 <filename>/home</filename>) 獨立出來也可以讓他們用 <firstterm>nosuid</firstterm> 的參數掛載，此選項可以讓在這個檔案系統中執行檔的 <firstterm>suid</firstterm>/<firstterm>guid</firstterm> 位元失效，可讓系統更安全。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>FreeBSD 會自動根據您檔案系統的使用方式來做最佳的檔案配置方式。 因此，一個有很多小檔案、 常常寫入的檔案系統跟只有幾個較大的檔案的檔案系統配置是不一樣的。 如果您只有單一一個大的檔案系統，這部分就沒用了。</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 會自動根據您檔案系統的使用方式來做最佳的檔案配置方式。 因此，一個有很多小檔案、 常常寫入的檔案系統跟只有幾個較大的檔案的檔案系統配置是不一樣的。 如果您只有單一個大的檔案系統，這部分就沒用了。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 的檔案系統在停電的時候很穩固。 然而，在某些重要的時候停電仍然會對檔案系統結構造成損害。 分割成許多個檔案系統的話在系統在停電後比較能夠正常啟動， 以便您在需要的時候將備份資料回存回來。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <title>使用單一檔案系統的好處</title>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>檔案系統的大小是固定的。 您當初安裝 FreeBSD 的時候應該會給定一個大小，可是後來您可能會想把空間加大。 如果沒有備份的話是很難達成的； 您必須將檔案系統重新建立為您需要的大小，然後將備份回存回來。</para>
+	<para>檔案系統的大小是固定的。 若您在當初安裝 FreeBSD 的時指定了一個大小，可是後來您想把空間加大，在沒有備份的情況下很難達成，您必須將檔案系統重新建立為您需要的大小，然後將備份回存回來。</para>
 
 	<important>
 	  <para>FreeBSD 的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>growfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令可以突破此限制直接變更檔案系統的大小。</para>
 	</important>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
-    <para>檔案系統包含在分割區裡面。 因為 FreeBSD 承襲 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 架構，這邊講的分割區和一般提到的分割區 (例如 <trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> 分割區) 不同。 每一個分割區由一個代號(字母)表示，從 <literal>a</literal> 到 <literal>h</literal>。 每個分割區只能包含一個檔案系統。 因此除了說常見到用檔案系統同的掛載點來表示檔案系統外， 也可以用包含他的分割區代號來表示。</para>
+    <para>檔案系統放在分區 (Partition) 中。 因為 FreeBSD 承襲 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 架構，這邊講的分區和一般提到的分割區 (例如 <trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> 分割區) 不同。每一個分區由一個代號 (字母) 表示，從 <literal>a</literal> 到 <literal>h</literal>。 每個分區只能含有一個檔案系統，因此在表示檔案系統時，除了用該檔案系統的常用的掛載點表示外，也可以使用該檔案系統所在的分區來表示。</para>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 也會拿磁碟空間來當 <firstterm>swap space</firstterm>。 Swap space 給 FreeBSD 當作<firstterm>虛擬記憶體</firstterm>用。 這讓您的電腦好像擁有比實際更多的記憶體。 當 FreeBSD 的記憶體用完的時候，它會把一些目前沒用到的資料移到 swap space，然後在用到的時候移回去 (同時移出部份沒用到的)。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 也會使用磁碟空間作為<firstterm>交換空間 (Swap space)</firstterm> 來提供<firstterm>虛擬記憶體 (Virtual memory)</firstterm>。 這讓您的電腦好像擁有比實際更多的記憶體。 當 FreeBSD 的記憶體用完的時候，它會把一些目前沒用到的資料移到交換空間，然後在用到的時候移回去 (同時移出部份沒用到的)。</para>
 
-    <para>某些分割區有慣例的使用方式如下：</para>
+    <para>部份分區有使用的慣例如下：</para>
 
     <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="2">
 	<colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	<colspec colwidth="5*"/>
 
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
-	    <entry>分割區</entry>
+	    <entry>分區</entry>
 	    <entry>慣例</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody valign="top">
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>a</literal></entry>
-	    <entry>通常包含根檔案系統 (root file system)</entry>
+	    <entry>通常內含根檔案系統</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>b</literal></entry>
-	    <entry>通常是 swap space</entry>
+	    <entry>通常內含交換空間</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>c</literal></entry>
-	    <entry>通常和整個 slice 的大小一樣，給一些會用到整個 slice 的工具程式 (例如硬碟壞軌檢查工具) 來使用。 一般來說您應該不會把檔案系統建立在這個分割區。</entry>
+	    <entry>通常用來代表整個切割區 (Slice)，因此大小會與其所在的切割區一樣。這可讓需要對整個切割區處理的工具 (例如硬碟壞軌檢查工具) 可在 <literal>c</literal> 分區上執行。一般來說不會把檔案系統建立在這個分區。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>d</literal></entry>
-	    <entry>分割區 <literal>d</literal> 曾經有代表特殊意義，但是已經不再使用。 所以現在 <literal>d</literal> 就和其他一般的分割區相同了。</entry>
+	    <entry>分區 <literal>d</literal> 曾經有代表特殊意義，但是已經不再使用。所以現在 <literal>d</literal> 和一般的分區相同。</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
 
-    <para>每個包含有檔案系統的分割區是存在所謂的 slice 裡面。 FreeBSD 的 slice 就是指平常我們在 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 稱為分割區 (partition) 的東西一樣有自己的檔案系統，用單字標示，編號從 1 號到 4 號。</para>
+    <para>在 FreeBSD 的磁碟會分割成數個切割區 (Slice)，如同 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 中由編號 1 到 4 表示的分割區。這些切割區會再分成數個分區，每個分區內含檔案系統，且會使用字母來標示。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>slices</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>partitions</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>dangerously dedicated</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>slice 號碼跟在裝置名稱後面，先接一個字母 <literal>s</literal>，然後從 1 號開始編下去。 因此 <quote>da0<emphasis>s1</emphasis></quote> 就是指第一個 SCSI 硬碟的第一個 slice。 一個磁碟上只能有四個實體的 slice，但是在實體的 slice 中您可以塞進適當類型的邏輯 slice。 這些延伸的 slice 編號從 5 開始，所以 <quote>ada0<emphasis>s5</emphasis></quote> 是第一個 SATA 硬碟上的第一個延伸 slice。 檔案系統在裝置 (device) 裡就是在一個 slice 之中。</para>
+    <para>切割區的編號在裝置名稱後面，會先以 <literal>s</literal> 為字首，然後從 1 開始編號。 因此 <quote>da0<emphasis>s1</emphasis></quote> 是指第一個 SCSI 硬碟的第一個切割區。 一個磁碟上只能有四個實體切割區，但是在實體切割區中放進適當類型的邏輯切割區。這些延伸的切割區編號會從 5 開始，所以 <quote>ada0<emphasis>s5</emphasis></quote> 是第一個 SATA 硬碟上的第一個延伸切割區。因此可以預期這些由檔案系統使用的裝置 (Device) 上均會各別佔據一個切割區。</para>
 
-    <para>Slices、<quote>dangerously dedicated</quote> 模式的實體磁碟機，以及其他包含<firstterm>分割區</firstterm>(partition) 的磁碟都是以字母 <literal>a</literal> 到 <literal>h</literal> 的編號來表示。 編號是接在裝置名稱的後面的，因此 <quote>da0<emphasis>a</emphasis></quote> is the <literal>a</literal> 是磁碟機 <literal>da</literal> 上的第一個 <quote>dangerously dedicated</quote> 模式之分割區。 而 <quote>ada1s3<emphasis>e</emphasis></quote> 則是第二顆 SATA 硬碟上第三個 slice 的第五個分割區。</para>
+    <para>切割區、<quote>危險專用 (Dangerously dedicated)</quote> 的實體磁碟機以及其他內含<firstterm>分割區 (Partition)</firstterm> 的磁碟都是以字母 <literal>a</literal> 到 <literal>h</literal> 來表示。 字母會接在裝置名稱的後面，因此 <quote>da0<emphasis>a</emphasis></quote> 是第一顆 <quote>dangerously dedicated</quote> 磁碟機 <literal>da</literal> 上的 <literal>a</literal> 分割區。 而 <quote>ada1s3<emphasis>e</emphasis></quote> 則是第二顆 SATA 硬碟上第三個切割區的第五個分區。</para>
 
-    <para>最後，我們就可以把系統上的每個磁碟都區分出來了。 一個磁碟的名稱會有一個代碼來表示這個磁碟的類型，接著是一個數字， 表示這是哪一個磁碟。 這邊跟 slice 每個磁碟編號從 0 開始不一樣。 常見的代碼可以參考 表格 <xref linkend="disks-naming"/>。</para>
+    <para>終於，我們可以辨識系統上的每個磁碟了，一個磁碟的名稱會有一個代碼來表示這個磁碟的類型，接著是一個表示這是那一個磁碟的編號。不像切割區，磁碟的編號從 0 開始。常見的代碼可以參考 <xref linkend="disks-naming"/>。</para>
 
-    <para>當要參照一個分割區的時候，需包含磁碟機名稱 <literal>s</literal> 加上 slice 編號，最後再輸入分割區字母代號。 範例可以參考 <xref linkend="basics-disk-slice-part"/>。</para>
+    <para>當要參照一個分區的時候，需包含磁碟機名稱、<literal>s</literal>、切割區編號以及分區字母。範例可以參考 <xref linkend="basics-disk-slice-part"/>。</para>
 
     <para><xref linkend="basics-concept-disk-model"/> 示範了一個基本的磁碟配置，相信對您有些幫助。</para>
 
-    <para>要安裝 FreeBSD，您必須先建置磁碟的 slice，接著於 slice 中建立要給 FreeBSD 用的分割區。 最後在這些分割區中建立檔案系統 (或 swap space) 並決定要將這些檔案系統掛載於哪裡。</para>
+    <para>要安裝 FreeBSD，您必須先建置磁碟的切割區，接著於切割區中建立要給 FreeBSD 用的分區。 最後在這些分區中建立檔案系統 (或交換空間) 並決定要將這些檔案系統掛載於哪裡。</para>
 
     <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="disks-naming">
       <title>磁碟裝置名稱</title>
 
       <tgroup cols="2">
 	<colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	<colspec colwidth="5*"/>
 
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>磁碟機類型</entry>
 	    <entry>磁碟機裝置稱</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
-	    <entry><acronym>SATA</acronym> 及<acronym>IDE</acronym> 硬碟</entry>
+	    <entry><acronym>SATA</acronym> 及 <acronym>IDE</acronym> 硬碟</entry>
 	    <entry><literal>ada</literal> 或 <literal>ad</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry><acronym>SCSI</acronym> 硬碟與 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>da</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry><acronym>SATA</acronym> 與 <acronym>IDE</acronym> <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 光碟機</entry>
 	    <entry><literal>cd</literal> 或 <literal>acd</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry><acronym>SCSI</acronym> <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 光碟機</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cd</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>軟碟機</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>fd</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>各種非標準 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 光碟機</entry>
 	    <entry><literal>mcd</literal> 代表 Mitsumi <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 以及 <literal>scd</literal> 代表 Sony <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 光碟機</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry><acronym>SCSI</acronym> 磁帶機</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>sa</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry><acronym>IDE</acronym> 磁帶機</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>ast</literal></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>RAID 磁碟機</entry>
 	    <entry>範例包含 <literal>aacd</literal> 代表 <trademark class="registered">Adaptec</trademark> AdvancedRAID，<literal>mlxd</literal> 及 <literal>mlyd</literal> 代表 <trademark class="registered">Mylex</trademark>，<literal>amrd</literal> 代表 AMI <trademark class="registered">MegaRAID</trademark>，<literal>idad</literal> 代表 Compaq Smart RAID，<literal>twed</literal> 代表 <trademark class="registered">3ware</trademark> RAID.</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </table>
 
     <example xml:id="basics-disk-slice-part">
-      <title>磁碟、Slice 及分割區命名範例</title>
+      <title>磁碟、切割區及分區命名範例</title>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="5*"/>
 
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>名稱</entry>
 	      <entry>意義</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>ada0s1a</literal></entry>
-	      <entry>第一個 SATA 硬碟 (<literal>ada0</literal>) 上第一個 slice (<literal>s1</literal>)的第一個分割區(<literal>a</literal>) 。</entry>
+	      <entry>第一個 SATA 硬碟 (<literal>ada0</literal>) 上第一個切割區 (<literal>s1</literal>)的第一個分區(<literal>a</literal>) 。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>da1s2e</literal></entry>
-	      <entry>第二個 SCSI 硬碟 (<literal>da1</literal>) 上第二個 slice (<literal>s2</literal>) 的第五個分割區 (<literal>e</literal>) 。</entry>
+	      <entry>第二個 SCSI 硬碟 (<literal>da1</literal>) 上第二個切割區 (<literal>s2</literal>) 的第五個分區 (<literal>e</literal>) 。</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
     </example>
 
     <example xml:id="basics-concept-disk-model">
       <title>磁碟的概念模型</title>
 
-      <para>此圖顯示 FreeBSD 中接到系統的第一個 <acronym>SATA</acronym> 磁碟機內部配置圖。 假設這個磁碟的容量是 250 GB，並且包含了一個 80 GB 的 slice 及一個 170 GB 的 slice (<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> 的分割區)。 第一個 slice 是 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> <acronym>NTFS</acronym> 檔案系統的 <filename>C:</filename> 磁碟機，第二個則安裝了 FreeBSD。 本範例的 FreeBSD 有三個分割區以及一個 swap 分割區。</para>
+      <para>此圖顯示 FreeBSD 中連接到系統的第一個 <acronym>SATA</acronym> 磁碟機內部配置圖。 假設這個磁碟的容量是 250 GB，並且包含了一個 80 GB 的切割區及一個 170 GB 的切割區 (<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> 的分割區)。 第一個切割區是 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> <acronym>NTFS</acronym> 檔案系統的 <filename>C:</filename> 磁碟機，第二個則安裝了 FreeBSD。 本範例中安裝的 FreeBSD 有四個資料分區及一個交換分區。</para>
 
-      <para>這四個分割區每個都是一個檔案系統。 <literal>a</literal> 分割是根 (root) 檔案系統；分割 <literal>d</literal> 是 <filename>/var/</filename>；分割 <literal>e</literal> 是 <filename>/tmp/</filename>，而 <literal>f</literal> 分割是 <filename>/usr/</filename> 目錄結構。Partition letter <literal>c</literal> refers to the entire slice, and so is not used for ordinary partitions.</para>
+      <para>這四個分區中各有一個檔案系統。 分區 <literal>a</literal> 是根檔案系統、分區 <literal>d</literal> 是 <filename>/var/</filename>、分區 <literal>e</literal> 是 <filename>/tmp/</filename>，而分區 <literal>f</literal> 是 <filename>/usr/</filename>。分區字母 <literal>c</literal> 用來代表整個切割區，因此並不作為一般分區使用。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="basics/disk-layout"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </example>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mount-unmount">
-    <title>掛載與缷載檔案系組</title>
+    <title>掛載與缷載檔案系統</title>
 
     <para>檔案系統就像一顆樹。<filename>/</filename> 就像是樹根，而 <filename>/dev</filename>，<filename>/usr</filename> 以及其他在根目錄下的目錄就像是樹枝，而這些樹枝上面又還有分支，像是 <filename>/usr/local</filename> 等。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>root file system</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>因為某些原因，我們會將一些目錄分別放在不同的檔案系統上。 如 <filename>/var</filename> 包含了可能會滿出來的 <filename>log/</filename>，<filename>spool/</filename> 等目錄以及各式各樣的暫存檔。 把根檔案系統塞到滿出來顯然不是個好主意，所以我們往往會比較傾向把 <filename>/var</filename> 從 <filename>/</filename> 中拉出來。</para>
 
     <para>另一個常見到把某些目錄放在不同檔案系統上的理由是： 這些檔案在不同的實體或虛擬磁碟機上。 像是網路檔案系統 (Network File System) 詳情可參考 <xref linkend="network-nfs"/> 或是光碟機。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="disks-fstab">
       <title><filename>fstab</filename> 檔</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>file systems</primary>
 	<secondary>mounted with fstab</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 裡面有設定的檔案系統會在開機(<xref linkend="boot"/>)的過程中自動地被掛載 (除非該檔案系統有被加上 <option>noauto</option> 參數)。檔案內容的格式如下：</para>
+      <para>在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 裡面有設定的檔案系統會在開機 (<xref linkend="boot"/>) 的過程中自動地被掛載 (除非該檔案系統有被加上 <option>noauto</option> 參數)。檔案內容的格式如下：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"><replaceable>device</replaceable>       <replaceable>/mount-point</replaceable> <replaceable>fstype</replaceable>     <replaceable>options</replaceable>      <replaceable>dumpfreq</replaceable>     <replaceable>passno</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>device</literal></term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>已存在的裝置名稱，詳情請參閱 <xref linkend="disks-naming"/>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>mount-point</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>檔案系統要掛載到的目錄 (該目錄必須存在)。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>fstype</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>檔案系統類型，這是要傳給 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的參數。 FreeBSD 預設的檔案系統是 <literal>ufs</literal>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>options</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>可讀可寫(Read-Write)的檔案系統用 <option>rw</option>，而唯讀(Read-Only)的檔案系統則是用 <option>ro</option>，後面視需要還可以加其他選項。 常見的選項如 <option>noauto</option> 是用在不要於開機過程中自動的掛載的檔案系統。 其他選項可參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明。</para>
+	    <para>可讀可寫 (Read-Write) 的檔案系統用 <option>rw</option>，而唯讀 (Read-Only) 的檔案系統則是用 <option>ro</option>，後面視需要還可以加其他選項。 常見的選項如 <option>noauto</option> 是用在不要於開機過程中自動的掛載的檔案系統。 其他選項可參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>dumpfreq</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 由此項目決定那些檔案系統需要傾印。 如果這格空白則以零為預設值。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>passno</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>這個項目決定檔案系統檢查的順序。 對於要跳過檢查的檔案系統，它們的 <literal>passno</literal> 值要設為零。 根檔案系統的 <literal>passno</literal> 值應設為一 (因為需要比所有其他的還要先檢查)，而其他的檔案系統的 <literal>passno</literal> 值應該要設得比一大。 若有多個檔案系統具有相同的 <literal>passno</literal> 值，則 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 會試著平行地 (如果可能的話) 檢查這些檔案系統。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para>更多關於 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 檔案格式及選項的資訊請參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明文件。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="disks-mount">
       <title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>file systems</primary>
 	<secondary>mounting</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令是拿來掛載檔案系統用的。基本的操作指令格式如下:</para>
 
       <informalexample>
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount <replaceable>device</replaceable> <replaceable>mountpoint</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </informalexample>
 
       <para>在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 裡面有提到一大堆的選項，不過最常用的就是這些：</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<title>掛載選項</title>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-a</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>把 /etc/fstab 裡面所有還沒有被掛載、沒有被標記成 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 而且沒有用 <option>-t</option> 排除的檔案系統掛載起來。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-d</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 
-	    <para>執行所有的動作，但是不真的去呼叫掛載的 system call。 這個選項和 <option>-v</option> 搭配拿來推測 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 將要做什麼動作時很好用。</para>
+	    <para>執行所有的動作，但是不真的去呼叫掛載的系統呼叫 (System call)。 這個選項和 <option>-v</option> 搭配拿來推測 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 將要做什麼動作時很好用。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-f</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>強迫掛載不乾淨的檔案系統 (危險)，或是用來強制取消寫入權限 (把檔案系統的掛載狀態從可存取變成唯讀)。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-r</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>用唯讀的方式掛載檔案系統。 這個選項和在 -o 選項中指定 ro 參數是一樣的。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-t</option>
 	    <replaceable>fstype</replaceable></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>用指定的檔案系統型態來掛載指定的檔案系統，或是在有 <option>-a</option> 選項時只掛載指定型態的檔案系統。預設的檔案系統類型為 <quote>ufs</quote>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-u</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>更新檔案系統的掛載選項。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-v</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>顯示詳細資訊。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><option>-w</option></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>以可讀寫的模式掛載檔案系統。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para><option>-o</option> 選項後面會接著以逗號分隔的參數：</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">nosuid</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>不解析檔案系統上的 setuid 或 setgid 旗標， 這也是一個蠻有用的安全選項。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="disks-umount">
       <title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>umount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>file systems</primary>
 	<secondary>unmounting</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>要缺載檔案系統可使用 umount(8) 指令。該指令需要一個參數可以是掛載點 (mountpoint)，裝置名稱，以及 -a 或是 -A 等選項。 </para>
 
       <para>加上 <option>-f</option> 可以強制卸載，加上 <option>-v</option> 則是會顯示詳細資訊。 要注意的是一般來說用 <option>-f</option> 並不是個好主意，強制卸載檔案系統有可能會造成電腦當機， 或者損壞檔案系統內的資料。</para>
 
       <para><option>-a</option> 和 <option>-A</option> 是用來卸載所有已掛載的檔案系統，另外還可以用 <option>-t</option> 來指定要卸載的是哪些種類的檔案系統。 要注意的是 <option>-A</option> 並不會試圖卸載根檔案系統。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="basics-processes">
     <title>程序與 Daemon</title>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 是一個多工的作業系統，也就是說在同一時間內可以跑超過一個程式。 每一個正在花時間跑的程式就叫做 <firstterm>程序</firstterm> (process)。 您下的每個指令都至少會開啟一個新的程序， 而有些系統程序是一直在跑以維持系統正常運作的。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 是一個多工的作業系統，也就是說在同一時間內可以跑超過一個程式。 每一個正在花時間跑的程式就叫做<firstterm>程序 (Process)</firstterm>。 您下的每個指令都至少會開啟一個新的程序， 而有些系統程序是一直在跑以維持系統正常運作的。</para>
 
-    <para>每一個程序都有一個獨一無二的數字叫做 <firstterm>程序代號</firstterm> (Process ID, PID)，而且就像檔案一樣，每一個程序也有擁有者及群組。 擁有者及群組的資訊是用來決定什麼檔案或裝置是這個程序可以開啟的 (前面有提到過檔案權限)。 大部份的程序都有父程序。 父程序是開啟這個程序的程序，例如：您對 shell 輸入指令，shell 本身就是一個程序，而您執行的指令也是程序。 每一個您用這種方式跑的程序的父程序都是 shell。 有一個特別的程序叫做 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 是個例外，在 FreeBSD 開機的時候 init 會自動地被開啟，init 永遠是第一個程序，所以他的 <acronym>PID</acronym> 一直都會是 <literal>1</literal>。</para>
+    <para>每一個程序都有一個獨一無二的數字叫做 <firstterm>程序代號 (Process ID, <acronym>PID</acronym>)</firstterm>，而且就像檔案一樣，每一個程序也有擁有者及群組。 擁有者及群組的資訊是用來決定什麼檔案或裝置是這個程序可以開啟的 (前面有提到過檔案權限)。 大部份的程序都有父程序。 父程序是開啟這個程序的程序，例如：您對 Shell 輸入指令，Shell 本身就是一個程序，而您執行的指令也是程序。 每一個您用這種方式跑的程序的父程序都是 Shell。 有一個特別的程序叫做 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 是個例外，在 FreeBSD 開機的時候 init 會自動地被開啟，init 永遠是第一個程序，所以他的 <acronym>PID</acronym> 一直都會是 <literal>1</literal>。</para>
 
     <para>有些程式並不是設計成一直在接收使用者的輸入的， 而是在開始執行的時候就從中斷與終端機的連線。 例如說， 網頁伺服器整天都在回應網頁方面的要求，它通常不需要您輸入任何東西。 另外，像是把信從一個站傳送到另一個站的程式，也是這種類型的應用程式。我們把這種程式稱作 <firstterm>Daemon</firstterm>。 Daemon 一詞是來自是希臘神話中的角色：祂們既不屬於善良陣營或邪惡陣營，祂們在背地裡做一些有用的事情。這也就是為何 BSD 的吉祥物，是一隻穿著帆布鞋拿著三叉耙的快樂小惡魔的原因。</para>
 
-    <para>通常來說做為 Deamon 執行的程式名字後面都會加一個字母 <quote>d</quote>。 <application>BIND</application> 是 Berkeley Internet Name Domain 的縮寫，但實際上執行的程式名稱是 <command>named</command>、<application>Apache</application> 網頁伺服器的程式名稱是 <command>httpd</command>、行列式印表機暫存服務(Line Printer Spooling) Daemon 是 <command>lpd</command>，依此類推。 但這是習慣用法，並沒有硬性規定，例如 <application>Sendmail</application> 主要的寄信 Daemon 是叫做 <command>sendmail</command> 而不是 <literal>maild</literal>。</para>
+    <para>通常來說做為 Deamon 執行的程式名字後面都會加一個字母 <quote>d</quote>。 <application>BIND</application> 是 Berkeley Internet Name Domain 的縮寫，但實際上執行的程式名稱是 <command>named</command>、<application>Apache</application> 網頁伺服器的程式名稱是 <command>httpd</command>、行列式印表機緩衝服務(Line Printer Spooling) Daemon 是 <command>lpd</command>，依此類推。 但這是習慣用法，並沒有硬性規定，例如 <application>Sendmail</application> 主要的寄信 Daemon 是叫做 <command>sendmail</command> 而不是 <literal>maild</literal>。</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>檢視程序</title>
 
       <para>要看系統執行中的程序，有兩個相當有用的指令可用： <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令是用來列出正在執行之程序，而且可以顯示它們的 <acronym>PID</acronym>、用了多少記憶體、執行的指令名稱及其後之參數是什麼等等。 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令則是顯示所有正在執行的程序， 並且數秒鐘更新一次。因此您可以互動式的觀看您的電腦正在做什麼。</para>
 
       <para>在預設的情況下，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令只會顯示使用者所擁有的的程序。 例如：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ps</userinput>
  PID TT  STAT    TIME COMMAND
 8203  0  Ss   0:00.59 /bin/csh
 8895  0  R+   0:00.00 ps</screen>
 
       <para>在這個範例裡可以看到 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的輸出分成好幾個欄位。 <literal>PID</literal> 就是前面有提到的程序代號。 <literal>PID</literal> 的分配是從 1 開始一直到 99999，如果用完的話又會繞回來重頭開始分配 (若該 <acronym>PID</acronym> 已經在用了，則 PID 不會重新分配)。 <literal>TT</literal> 欄位是指這個程式在哪個 Console (tty) 上執行，在這裡可以先忽略不管。<literal>STAT</literal> 是程式的狀態，也可以先不要管。<literal>TIME</literal> 是這個程式在 CPU 上執行的時間—這通常不是程式總共花的時間， 因為當您開始執行程式後，大部份的程式在 CPU 上執行前會先花上不少時間等待 。 最後，<literal>COMMAND</literal> 是執行這個程式的指令。</para>
 
       <para>有幾個不同的選項組合可以用來變更顯示出來的資訊，其中一個最有用的組合是 <literal>auxww</literal>。 <option>a</option> 可以顯示所有正在跑的程序的指令，不只是您自已的。 <option>u</option> 則是顯示程序的擁有者名稱以及記憶體使用情況。 <option>x</option> 可以把 daemon 程序顯示出來， 而 <option>ww</option> 可讓 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 顯示出每個程序完整的內容， 而不致因過長而被螢幕截掉了。</para>
 
       <para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 也有類似的輸出。 一般的情況看像是這樣：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>top</userinput>
 last pid:  9609;  load averages:  0.56,  0.45,  0.36              up 0+00:20:03  10:21:46
 107 processes: 2 running, 104 sleeping, 1 zombie
 CPU:  6.2% user,  0.1% nice,  8.2% system,  0.4% interrupt, 85.1% idle
 Mem: 541M Active, 450M Inact, 1333M Wired, 4064K Cache, 1498M Free
 ARC: 992M Total, 377M MFU, 589M MRU, 250K Anon, 5280K Header, 21M Other
 Swap: 2048M Total, 2048M Free
 
   PID USERNAME    THR PRI NICE   SIZE    RES STATE   C   TIME   WCPU COMMAND
   557 root          1 -21  r31   136M 42296K select  0   2:20  9.96% Xorg
  8198 dru           2  52    0   449M 82736K select  3   0:08  5.96% kdeinit4
  8311 dru          27  30    0  1150M   187M uwait   1   1:37  0.98% firefox
   431 root          1  20    0 14268K  1728K select  0   0:06  0.98% moused
  9551 dru           1  21    0 16600K  2660K CPU3    3   0:01  0.98% top
  2357 dru           4  37    0   718M   141M select  0   0:21  0.00% kdeinit4
  8705 dru           4  35    0   480M    98M select  2   0:20  0.00% kdeinit4
  8076 dru           6  20    0   552M   113M uwait   0   0:12  0.00% soffice.bin
  2623 root          1  30   10 12088K  1636K select  3   0:09  0.00% powerd
  2338 dru           1  20    0   440M 84532K select  1   0:06  0.00% kwin
  1427 dru           5  22    0   605M 86412K select  1   0:05  0.00% kdeinit4</screen>
 
-      <para>輸出的資訊分成兩個部份。開頭 (前五行或六行) 顯示出最近一個程序的 <acronym>PID</acronym>、系統平均負載 (系統有多忙錄的測試)、系統的開機時間 (從上次重開算起) 以及現在的時間等。 在開頭裡面的其他數字分別是在講有多少程序正在執行、有多少記憶體及 swap 空間被占用了，還有就是系統分別花了多少時間在不同的 CPU 狀態上。If the <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file system module has been loaded, an <literal>ARC</literal> line indicates how much data was read from the memory cache instead of from disk.</para>
+      <para>輸出的資訊分成兩個部份。開頭 (前五行或六行) 顯示出最近一個程序的 <acronym>PID</acronym>、系統平均負載 (系統忙磁程度評估方式)、系統的開機時間 (自上次重新開機) 以及現在的時間等。 在開頭裡面的其他數字分別是在講有多少程序正在執行、有多少記憶體及交換空間被占用了，還有就是系統分別花了多少時間在不同的 CPU 狀態上。若有載入 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 檔案系統模組，會有一行 <literal>ARC</literal> 標示有多少資料從磁碟改由記憶體快取中取得。</para>
 
-      <para>接下來的部份是由好幾個欄位所構成，和 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 輸出的資訊類似。 就如同前例，您可以看到 <acronym>PID</acronym>、使用者名稱、CPU 花費的時間以及正在執行的指令。 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 在預設的情況下還會告訴您程序用掉了多少的記憶體空間。 在這邊會分成兩欄，一個是總用量 (total size)，另一個是實際用量 (resident size)——總用量是指這個應用程式需要的記憶體空間，而實際用量則是指目前實際上該程式的記憶體使用量。</para>
+      <para>接下來的部份是由好幾個欄位所構成，和 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 輸出的資訊類似。 就如同前例，您可以看到 <acronym>PID</acronym>、使用者名稱、CPU 花費的時間以及正在執行的指令。 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 在預設的情況下還會告訴您程序用掉了多少的記憶體空間。 在這邊會分成兩欄，一個是總用量 (Total size)，另一個是實際用量 (Resident size)——總用量是指這個應用程式需要的記憶體空間，而實際用量則是指目前實際上該程式的記憶體使用量。</para>
 
       <para>top(1) 每隔 2 秒鐘會自動更新顯示內容，可用 <option>-s</option> 選項來改變間隔的時間。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="basics-daemons">
       <title>終止程序</title>
 
-      <para>要與執行中的程序或 Daemon 溝通唯一的方法是透過 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kill</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令傳送<firstterm>信號</firstterm> (signal)。 信號有很多種，有些有特定的意義，有些則是會由應用程式來解讀，應用程式的說明文件會告訴您該程式是如何解讀信號。 使用者只能送信號給自己所擁有的程序，送信號給其他人的程序會出現權限不足的錯誤。 唯一的例外是 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>使用者，他可以送信號給任何人的程序。</para>
+      <para>要與執行中的程序或 Daemon 溝通唯一的方法是透過 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kill</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令傳送<firstterm>信號 (Signal)</firstterm>。 信號有很多種，有些有特定的意義，有些則是會由應用程式來解讀，應用程式的說明文件會告訴您該程式是如何解讀信號。 使用者只能送信號給自己所擁有的程序，送信號給其他人的程序會出現權限不足的錯誤。 唯一的例外是 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>使用者，他可以送信號給任何人的程序。</para>
 
-      <para>作業系統在某些情況也會送信號給應用程式。 假設有個應用程式寫得不好，企圖要存取它不該碰的記憶體的時候，FreeBSD 會送一個 <quote>Segmentation Violation</quote> 信號 (<literal>SIGSEGV</literal>) 給這個程序。 如果有一個應用程式用了 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>alarm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的 system call 要求系統在過一段時間之後發出通知，時間到了的時候系統就會發出通知信號 (SIGALRM) 給該程式。</para>
+      <para>作業系統在某些情況也會送信號給應用程式。 假設有個應用程式寫得不好，企圖要存取它不該碰的記憶體的時候，FreeBSD 會送一個 <quote>Segmentation Violation</quote> 信號 (<literal>SIGSEGV</literal>) 給這個程序。 如果有一個應用程式用了 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>alarm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的系統呼叫 (System call) 要求系統在過一段時間之後發出通知，時間到了的時候系統就會發出通知信號 (SIGALRM) 給該程式。</para>
 
       <para><literal>SIGTERM</literal> 與 <literal>SIGKILL</literal> 這兩個信號可以拿來終止程序。 用 <literal>SIGTERM</literal> 結束程序是比較有禮貌的方式，該程序收到信號後可以把自已所使用的日誌檔關閉及其他要在結束前要做的事完成， 然後在關掉程序之前結束掉手邊的工作。 在某些情況下程序有可能會忽略 <literal>SIGTERM</literal>，如它正在做一些不能中斷的工作的話。</para>
 
       <para><literal>SIGKILL</literal> 就沒有辦法被程序忽略。 傳送 <literal>SIGKILL</literal> 信號給程序通常會將程序直接中止<footnote><para>還是有少數東西不能被中斷。 例如有個程序正在從網路上的別的電腦讀一個檔案， 而那部電腦因為某些理由連不到，那這個程序就是一個 <quote>不能中斷的</quote> 程序。 通常在經過 2 分鐘左右之後這個程序會逾時。 當發生逾時的時候這個程序就會被結束掉了。</para></footnote>。</para>
 
       <para>其他常用的信號有：<literal>SIGHUP</literal>, <literal>SIGUSR1</literal> 及 <literal>SIGUSR2</literal>。 這些是通用的信號，對不同的應用程式會有不同的反應。</para>
 
       <para>舉例來說，當您更動了網頁伺服器的設定檔，您想要叫網頁伺服器去重新讀取設定。 重新啟動 <command>httpd</command> 會造成網頁伺服器暫停服務一段時間，我們可以傳送 <literal>SIGHUP</literal> 信號來取代關掉重開。 不同的 Daemon 會有不同的行為，所以使用前請先參考 Deamon 的說明文件查看是否可以達到想要的結果。</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<title>送信號給程序</title>
 
 	<para>這個範例將會示範如何送一個信號給 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。<citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的設定檔是 <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename>，而 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 會在收到 <literal>SIGHUP</literal> 的時候重新讀取這個設定檔。</para>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pgrep</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來查詢要傳送信號的目標程序。 在這個例子中 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的 <acronym>PID</acronym> 為 198：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>pgrep -l inetd</userinput>
 198  inetd -wW</screen>
 
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kill</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來發送信號。因為 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 是 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 所有，因此必須先用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 切換成 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 先。</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>su</userinput>
 <prompt>Password:</prompt>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/bin/kill -s HUP 198</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>對大多數 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 指令來講，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>kill</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 執行成功時並不會輸出任何訊息。 假設您送一個信號給某個不是使用者所擁有的程序， 那麼就會顯示這個錯誤訊息： <errorname>kill: <replaceable>PID</replaceable>: Operation not permitted</errorname>。 若打錯 <acronym>PID</acronym> 的話，那就會把信號送給錯誤的程序，並把該程序關閉，或者是把信號送給一個非使用中的 <acronym>PID</acronym>，那您就會看到錯誤：<errorname>kill: <replaceable>PID</replaceable>: No such process</errorname>。</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <title>為何要使用 <command>/bin/kill</command>？ </title>
 
 	    <para>多數 shell 都有提供內建的 <command>kill</command> 指令。 也就是說這種 shell 會直接發送信號，而不是執行 <filename>/bin/kill</filename>。 但要小心不同的 shell 會有不同的語法來指定信號的名稱等。 與其嘗試去把它們通通學會，不如就單純的直接用 <command>/bin/kill</command>。</para>
 	  </note>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para>要送其他的信號的話也是非常類似，就視需要把指令中的 <literal>TERM</literal> 或 <literal>KILL</literal> 替換成其他信號的名稱即可。</para>
 
       <important>
 	<para>隨便抓一個系統中的程序然後把他砍掉並不是個好主意。 特別是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>， <acronym>PID</acronym> 1 是一個非常特別的程序。 執行 <command>/bin/kill -s KILL 1</command> 的結果就是系統立刻關機。 因此在您按下 <keycap>Return</keycap> 要執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kill</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 之前， 請<emphasis>一定要</emphasis>記得再次確認您下的參數。</para>
       </important>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="shells">
     <title>Shell</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>shells</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>command line</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para><firstterm>Shell</firstterm> 提供了指令列介面可用來與作業系統互動，Shell 負責從輸入的頻道接收指令並執行它們。 多數 Shell 也內建一些有助於日常工作的功能，像是檔案管理、檔案搜尋、指令列編輯、指令巨集以及環境變數等。 FreeBSD 有內附了幾個 Shell，包含 Bourne Shell (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>)，與改良版的 C-shell (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>)。 還有許多其他的 Shell 可以從 FreeBSD Ports 套件集中取得，像是 <command>zsh</command> 以及 <command>bash</command> 等。</para>
+    <para><firstterm>Shell</firstterm> 提供了指令列介面可用來與作業系統互動，Shell 負責從輸入的頻道接收指令並執行它們。 多數 Shell 也內建一些有助於日常工作的功能，像是檔案管理、檔案搜尋、指令列編輯、指令巨集以及環境變數等。 FreeBSD 有內附了幾個 Shell，包含 Bourne Shell (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>)，與改良版的 C-shell (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>)。 還有許多其他的 Shell 可以從 FreeBSD Port 套件集中取得，像是 <command>zsh</command> 以及 <command>bash</command> 等。</para>
 
     <para>要用哪個 Shell 牽涉到每個人的喜好。 如果您是一個 C 程式設計師，那對於使用像是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 這種 C-like 的 shell 可能會感到較容易上手。 如果是 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 的使用者，那您也許會想要用 <command>bash</command>。 每一個 Shell 都有自已獨特之處，至於這些特點能不能符合使用者的喜好，就是您選擇 shell 的重點了。</para>
 
     <para>常見的 Shell 功能之一就是檔名自動補齊。 首先輸入指令或檔案的前幾個字母，然後按下 <keycap>Tab</keycap> 鍵，Shell 就會自動把指令或是檔案名稱剩餘的部份補齊。 假設您有兩個檔案分別叫作 <filename>foobar</filename> 及 <filename>football</filename>。 要刪掉 <filename>foobar</filename>，那麼可以輸入 <command>rm foo</command> 然後按下 <keycap>Tab</keycap> 來補齊檔名。</para>
 
     <para>但 Shell 只顯示了 <command>rm foo</command>，這代表它沒有辦法完全自動補齊檔名，因為有不只一個檔名符合條件。 <filename>foobar</filename> 和 <filename>football</filename> 都是 <literal>foo</literal> 開頭的檔名。 有一些 Shell 會有嗶的音效或者顯示所有符符條件的檔名。 使用者只需要多打幾個字元來分辦想要的檔名。 輸入 <literal>t</literal> 然後再按 <keycap>Tab</keycap> 一次，那 Shell 就能夠替您把剩下的檔名填滿了。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>environment variables</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>Shell 的另一項特點是使用了環境變數。 環境變數是以變數與鍵值 (variable/key) 的對應關係儲存於 Shell 的環境，任何由該 Shell 所產生的程序都可以讀取此環境變數， 因此環境變數儲存了許多程序的設定。 <xref linkend="shell-env-vars"/> 提供了常見的環境變數與其涵義的清單。 請注意環境變數的名稱永遠以大寫表示。</para>
 
     <table xml:id="shell-env-vars" frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <title>常用環境變數</title>
 
       <tgroup cols="2">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>變數</entry>
 	    <entry>說明</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>USER</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>目前登入的使用者名稱。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>PATH</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>以冒號 (:) 隔開的目錄列表，用以搜尋執行檔的路徑。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>DISPLAY</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>若存在這個環境變數，則代表 <application>Xorg</application> 顯示器的網路名稱。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>SHELL</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>目前使用的 Shell。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>TERM</envar></entry>
 
 	    <entry>使用者終端機類型的名稱，用來判斷終端機有那些功能。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>TERMCAP</envar></entry>
 
-	    <entry xml:lang="en">Database entry of the terminal escape codes to
-	      perform various terminal functions.</entry>
+	    <entry>用來執行各種終端機功能的終端機跳脫碼 (Terminal escape code) 的資料庫項目。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>OSTYPE</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>作業系統的類型。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>MACHTYPE</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>系統的 CPU 架構。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>EDITOR</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>使用者偏好的文字編輯器。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>PAGER</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>使用者偏好的文字分頁檢視工具。</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><envar>MANPATH</envar></entry>
 	    <entry>以冒號 (:) 隔開的目錄列表，用以搜尋使用手冊的路徑。</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </table>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Bourne shells</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>在不同的 shell 底下設定環境變數的方式也有所不同。 在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 和 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>csh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，使用 setenv 來設定環境變數。 在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 和 <command>bash</command>, use <command>export</command>，則使用 <command>export</command> 來設定目前環境的變數。 以下範例將 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 下的 <envar>EDITOR</envar> 環境變數從預設值更改為 <filename>/usr/local/bin/emacs</filename>：</para>
+    <para>在不同的 Shell 底下設定環境變數的方式也有所不同。 在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 和 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>csh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，使用 <command>setenv</command> 來設定環境變數。 在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 和 <command>bash</command> 則使用 <command>export</command> 來設定目前環境的變數。 以下範例將 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> Shell 下的 <envar>EDITOR</envar> 環境變數從預設值更改為 <filename>/usr/local/bin/emacs</filename>：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>相同功能的指令在 <command>bash</command> 下則是：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs"</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>要展開以顯示目前環境變數中的值，只要在指令列輸入環境變數之前加上 <literal>$</literal> 字元。 舉例來說，<command>echo $TERM</command> 會顯示出目前 <envar>$TERM</envar> 的設定值。</para>
 
     <para>Shell 中有特殊字元用來表示特殊資料，我們將其稱作 Ｍeta-characters。 其中最常見的 Ｍeta-characters 是 <literal>*</literal> 字元，它代表了檔名中的任意字元。 Meta-characters 可以用在搜尋檔名，舉例來說，輸入 <command>echo *</command> 會和輸入 <command>ls</command> 得到幾乎相同的結果，這是因為 shell 會將所有符合 <literal>*</literal> 字元的檔案由 <command>echo</command> 顯示出來。</para>
 
-    <para>為了避免 Shell 轉譯這些特殊字元，我們可以在這些特殊字元前放一個反斜線 (<literal>\</literal>) 字元使他們跳脫(escape) Shell 的轉譯。舉例來說，<command>echo $TERM</command> 會印出你目前終端機的設定， <command>echo \$TERM</command> 則會直接印出 <literal>$TERM</literal> 這幾個字。</para>
+    <para>為了避免 Shell 轉譯這些特殊字元，我們可以在這些特殊字元前放一個反斜線 (<literal>\</literal>) 字元使他們跳脫 (Escape) Shell 的轉譯。舉例來說，<command>echo $TERM</command> 會印出你目前終端機的設定， <command>echo \$TERM</command> 則會直接印出 <literal>$TERM</literal> 這幾個字。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="changing-shells">
       <title>變更 Shell</title>
 
-      <para>永久變更 Shell 最簡單的方法就是透過 <command>chsh</command> 命令。 執行 <command>chsh</command> 將會使用環境變數中 <envar>EDITOR</envar> 指定的文字編輯器，如果沒有設定，則預設是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 請修改 <literal>Shell:</literal> 為新的 Shell 的完整路徑。</para>
+      <para>永久變更 Shell 最簡單的方法就是透過 <command>chsh</command> 指令。 執行 <command>chsh</command> 將會使用環境變數中 <envar>EDITOR</envar> 指定的文字編輯器，如果沒有設定，則預設是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 請修改 <literal>Shell:</literal> 為新的 Shell 的完整路徑。</para>
 
       <para>或者，使用 <command>chsh -s</command>， 來直接設定 Shell 而不開啟文字編輯器。 例如， 假設想把 Shell 更改為 <command>bash</command>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
-	<para>新的 Shell <emphasis>必須</emphasis>已列於 <filename>/etc/shells</filename> 裡頭。 若是依 <xref linkend="ports"/> 說明由 Ports 套件集來裝的 Shell， 那就會自動列入至該檔案裡。 若仍缺少，請使用以下指令加入檔案 (請將路徑替換為新的 Shell 的路徑)：</para>
+	<para>新的 Shell <emphasis>必須</emphasis>已列於 <filename>/etc/shells</filename> 裡頭。 若是依 <xref linkend="ports"/> 說明由 Port 套件集來裝的 Shell， 那就會自動列入至該檔案裡。 若仍缺少，請使用以下指令加入檔案 (請將路徑替換為新的 Shell 的路徑)：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo <replaceable>/usr/local/bin/bash</replaceable> &gt;&gt; /etc/shells</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>然後重新執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <info>
 	<title>進階 Shell 技巧</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> shell is not just a command interpreter, it
-	acts as a powerful tool which allows users to execute
-	commands, redirect their output, redirect their input and
-	chain commands together to improve the final command output.
-	When this functionality is mixed with built in commands, the
-	user is provided with an environment that can maximize
-	efficiency.</para>
+      <para><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> Shell 不只是指令的直譯器，它是一個強大的工具可讓使用者執行指令、重新導向指令的輸出、重新導向指令的輸入並將指令串連在一起來改進最終指令的輸出結果。當這個功能與內建的指令混合使用時，可提供一個可以最佳化效率的環境給使用者。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Shell redirection is the action of sending the output or
-	the input of a command into another command or into a file.
-	To capture the output of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command, for example,
-	into a file, redirect the output:</para>
+      <para>Shell 重新導向是將一個指令的輸出或輸入傳送給另一個指令或檔案。例如，要擷取 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令的輸出到一個檔案，可以重新導向輸出:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls &gt; directory_listing.txt</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The directory contents will now be listed in
-	<filename>directory_listing.txt</filename>.  Some commands can
-	be used to read input, such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sort</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  To sort this
-	listing, redirect the input:</para>
+      <para>目錄的內容現在會列到 <filename>directory_listing.txt</filename> 中，部份指令可以讀取輸入，例如 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sort</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。要排序這個清單，可重新導向輸入:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sort &lt; directory_listing.txt</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The input will be sorted and placed on the screen.  To
-	redirect that input into another file, one could redirect the
-	output of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sort</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> by mixing the direction:</para>
+      <para>輸入的內容會被排序後呈現在畫面上，要重新導向該輸入到另一個檔案，可以重新導向 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sort</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的出輸:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sort &lt; directory_listing.txt &gt; sorted.txt</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In all of the previous examples, the commands are
-	performing redirection using file descriptors.  Every <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>
-	system has file descriptors, which include standard input
-	(stdin), standard output (stdout), and standard error
-	(stderr).  Each one has a purpose, where input could be a
-	keyboard or a mouse, something that provides input.  Output
-	could be a screen or paper in a printer.  And error would be
-	anything that is used for diagnostic or error messages.  All
-	three are considered <acronym>I/O</acronym> based file
-	descriptors and sometimes considered streams.</para>
+      <para>於上述所有的範例中，指令會透過檔案描述符 (File descriptor) 來執行重新導向。每個 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 系統都有檔案描述符，其中包含了標準輸入 (stdin)、標準輸出 (stdout) 以及標準錯誤 (stderr)。每一種檔案描述符都有特定的用途，輸入可能來自鍵盤或滑鼠、任何可能提供輸入的來源，輸出則可能是螢幕或印表機中的紙張，而錯誤則為任何可能用來診斷的資訊或錯誤訊息。這三種皆被認為是以 I/O 為基礎的檔案描述符，有些也會被當做串流。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Through the use of these descriptors, the shell allows
-	output and input to be passed around through various commands
-	and redirected to or from a file.  Another method of
-	redirection is the pipe operator.</para>
+      <para>透過使用這些檔案描述符，Shell 能夠讓輸出與輸入在各種指令間傳遞與重新導向到或自檔案。另一種重新導向的方式是使用管線運算子 (Pipe operator)。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> pipe operator, <quote>|</quote> allows the
-	output of one command to be directly passed or directed to
-	another program.  Basically, a pipe allows the standard
-	output of a command to be passed as standard input to another
-	command, for example:</para>
+      <para><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 的管線運算子，即 <quote>|</quote>，可允許指令的輸出可直接傳遞或導向到另一個程式。基本上，管線運算子允許指令的標準輸出以標準輸入傳遞給另一個指令，例如:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cat directory_listing.txt | sort | less</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In that example, the contents of
-	<filename>directory_listing.txt</filename> will be sorted and
-	the output passed to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>less</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This allows the user to
-	scroll through the output at their own pace and prevent it
-	from scrolling off the screen.</para>
+      <para>在這個例子中，<filename>directory_listing.txt</filename> 的內容會被排序然後輸出傳遞給 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>less</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，這可讓使用者依自己的閱讀步調捲動輸出的結果，避免結果直接捲動出畫面。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="editors">
     <title>文字編輯器</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>text editors</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>editors</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>在 FreeBSD 中有許多設定必須透過編輯文字檔完成。 因此，若能熟悉文字編輯器是再好不過的。 FreeBSD 本身就內建幾種文字編輯器， 您也可以透過 Ports 套件集來安裝其他的文字編輯器。</para>
+    <para>在 FreeBSD 中有許多設定必須透過編輯文字檔完成。 因此，若能熟悉文字編輯器是再好不過的。 FreeBSD 本身就內建幾種文字編輯器， 您也可以透過 Port 套件集來安裝其他的文字編輯器。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><command>ee</command></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>editors</primary>
       <secondary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>最簡單易學的文字編輯器叫做 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，意為簡易的編輯器(Easy Editor)。 要開始使用這個編輯器， 只需輸入 <command>ee <replaceable>filename</replaceable></command>，其中 <replaceable>filename</replaceable> 代表你想要編輯的檔案名稱。 在編輯器中， 所有編輯器的功能與操作都顯示在螢幕的上方。 其中的插入符號 (<literal>^</literal>) 代表鍵盤上的 <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> 鍵，所以 <literal>^e</literal> 代表的是  <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>e</keycap> </keycombo>。 若要結束 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，請按下 <keycap>Esc</keycap> 鍵，接著選擇 <quote>leave editor</quote> 即可。 此時如果該檔案有修改過，編輯器會提醒你是否要存檔。</para>
+    <para>最簡單易學的文字編輯器叫做 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，意為簡易的編輯器 (Easy Editor)。 要開始使用這個編輯器， 只需輸入 <command>ee <replaceable>filename</replaceable></command>，其中 <replaceable>filename</replaceable> 代表你想要編輯的檔案名稱。 在編輯器中， 所有編輯器的功能與操作都顯示在螢幕的上方。 其中的插入符號 (<literal>^</literal>) 代表鍵盤上的 <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> 鍵，所以 <literal>^e</literal> 代表的是  <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> <keycap>e</keycap> </keycombo>。 若要結束 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>，請按下 <keycap>Esc</keycap> 鍵，接著選擇 <quote>leave editor</quote> 即可。 此時如果該檔案有修改過，編輯器會提醒你是否要存檔。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><command>vi</command></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>editors</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><command>emacs</command></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 同時也內建功能強大的文字編輯器，像是<citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 其他編輯器如 <package>editors/emacs</package> 及 <package>editors/vim</package> 則由 FreeBSD Ports 套件集提供。 這些編輯器提供更強的功能，但是也比較難學習。 長期來看學習 <application>vim</application> 或 <application>Emacs</application> 會在日後為您省下更多的時間。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 同時也內建功能強大的文字編輯器，像是<citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 其他編輯器如 <package>editors/emacs</package> 及 <package>editors/vim</package> 則由 FreeBSD Port 套件集提供。 這些編輯器提供更強的功能，但是也比較難學習。 長期來看學習 <application>vim</application> 或 <application>Emacs</application> 會在日後為您省下更多的時間。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Many applications which modify files or require typed input
-      will automatically open a text editor.  To change the default
-      editor, set the <envar>EDITOR</envar> environment
-      variable as described in <xref linkend="shells"/>.</para>
+    <para>有許多應用程式在修改檔案或需要輸入時會自動開啟文字編輯器，要更改預設的編輯器可設定 <envar>EDITOR</envar> 環境變數如 <xref linkend="shells"/> 所說明。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="basics-devices">
     <title>裝置及裝置節點</title>
 
-    <para>裝置(Device)一詞大多是跟硬體比較有關的術語，包括磁碟、印表機、顯示卡和鍵盤。 FreeBSD 開機過程當中，開機訊息(Boot Message)中主要是會列出偵測到的硬體裝置，開機訊息的複本也會存放在 <filename>/var/run/dmesg.boot</filename>。</para>
+    <para>裝置 (Device) 一詞大多是跟硬體比較有關的術語，包括磁碟、印表機、顯示卡和鍵盤。 FreeBSD 開機過程當中，開機訊息 (Boot Message) 中主要是會列出偵測到的硬體裝置，開機訊息的複本也會存放在 <filename>/var/run/dmesg.boot</filename>。</para>
 
     <para>每一個裝置都有一個裝置名稱及編號，舉例來說 <filename>ada0</filename> 是第一台 SATA 硬碟，而 <filename>kbd0</filename> 則代表鍵盤。</para>
 
-    <para>在 FreeBSD 中大多數的裝置必須透過裝置節點(Device Node)的特殊檔案來存取，這些檔案會放置在 <filename>/dev</filename>。</para>
+    <para>在 FreeBSD 中大多數的裝置必須透過裝置節點 (Device Node) 的特殊檔案來存取，這些檔案會放置在 <filename>/dev</filename>。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="basics-more-information">
     <title>操作手冊</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>manual pages</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>在 FreeBSD 中，最詳細的文件莫過於操作手冊。 幾乎在系統上所有程式都會有簡短的操作手冊來介紹該程式的基本操作以及可用的參數。 這些操作手冊可以使用 <command>man</command> 指令來檢視：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>man <replaceable>command</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para>其中 <replaceable>command</replaceable> 想要瞭解指令的名稱。 舉例，要知道 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的詳細用法，就可以打：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>man ls</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>操作手冊被分成很多個章節，每個章節有不同的主題。 在 FreeBSD 中操作手冊有以下章節：</para>
 
     <orderedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>使用者指令。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>系統呼叫(System call)與錯誤編號。</para>
+	<para>系統呼叫 (System call) 與錯誤編號。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>C 程式庫函數。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>裝置驅動程式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>檔案格式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>遊戲及其他程式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>其他資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>系統維護與操作指令。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>系統核心介面。</para>
       </listitem>
     </orderedlist>
 
     <para>有些情況會有同樣主題會同時出現在不同章節。 舉個例子，系統內會有 <command>chmod</command> 使用者指令，但同時也有 <function>chmod()</function> 系統呼叫。 在這種情況，要告訴 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>man</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 要查詢的章節編號：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>man 1 chmod</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>如此一來就會查詢使用者指令 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。 通常在寫文件時會把有參考到特定章節的號碼寫在括號內。 所以 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 就是指使用者指令，而 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chmod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> 則是指系統呼叫。</para>
 
     <para>若不曉得操作手冊的名稱，可以使用 <command>man -k</command> 來以關鍵字查詢所有操作手冊的描述：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>man -k <replaceable>mail</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para>這個指令會顯示所有描述中有使用到關鍵字 <quote>mail</quote> 的指令。 這等同使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>apropos</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
     <para>想要閱讀所有在 <filename>/usr/bin</filename> 底下的指令說明則可輸入：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/bin</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>man -f * | more</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>或</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/bin</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>whatis * |more</userinput></screen>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="basics-info">
       <title>GNU Info 檔</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Free Software Foundation</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>FreeBSD 有許多應用程式與工具來自自由軟體基金會(Free Software Foundation, FSF)。 除了操作手冊之外，這些程式提供了另外一種更具有彈性的超文字文件叫做 <literal>info</literal> 檔。 這些檔案可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>info</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令來閱讀，或者若有裝 <package>editors/emacs</package> 亦可透過 <application>emacs</application> 的 info 模式閱讀。</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 有許多應用程式與工具來自自由軟體基金會 (Free Software Foundation, FSF)。 除了操作手冊之外，這些程式提供了另外一種更具有彈性的超文字文件叫做 <literal>info</literal> 檔。 這些檔案可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>info</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令來閱讀，或者若有裝 <package>editors/emacs</package> 亦可透過 <application>emacs</application> 的 info 模式閱讀。</para>
 
       <para>要使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>info</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令，只需輸入：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>info</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要查詢簡單說明請按 <literal>h</literal> 鍵，若要查訊快速指令參考請按 <literal>?</literal> 鍵。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="ports">
 
-  <title>安裝應用程式: 套件與 Ports</title>
+  <title>安裝應用程式: 套件與 Port</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>ports</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>套件</primary></indexterm>
-    <para>FreeBSD 已內建豐富的系統工具，此外 FreeBSD 提供了 2 種安裝第三方軟體的套件管理技術︰由原始碼安的 FreeBSD Ports 套件集，以及由預先編譯好的 Binary 安裝的 Binary  套件集。 無論要用哪一種方式，都可由本地的媒體或網路來安裝軟體。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 已內建豐富的系統工具，此外 FreeBSD 提供了 2 種安裝第三方軟體的套件管理技術︰由原始碼安的 FreeBSD Port 套件集，以及由預先編譯好的 Binary 安裝的 Binary  套件集。 無論要用哪一種方式，都可由本地的媒體或網路來安裝軟體。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
-	<para>Binary 套件集與 Ports 的差別。</para>
+	<para>Binary 套件集與 Port 的差別。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何找到已移植到 FreeBSD 的第三方軟體。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用 <application>pkg</application> 管理 Binary 套件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>如何編譯來自 Ports 套件集的第三方軟體原始碼。</para>
+	<para>如何編譯來自 Port 套件集的第三方軟體原始碼。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何找到應用程式已安裝的檔案來完成安裝後的設定。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>若軟體安裝失敗要如何處理。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-overview">
     <title>安裝軟體的概要</title>
 
     <para>通常要在 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 系統上安裝第三方軟體時，有幾個步驟要作：</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <step>
 	<para>找到並且下載軟體，該軟體有可能以原始碼或 Binary 格式發佈。</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>解壓縮軟體。 發佈的格式通常會使用 tarball 並以 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>compress</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gzip</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 或 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bzip2</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 壓縮。</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>找到位於 <filename>INSTALL</filename>, <filename>README</filename> 或者 <filename>doc/</filename> 子目錄底下的檔案閱讀如何安裝該軟體。</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>若軟體是以原始碼的格式發佈則需要編譯該軟體。 這可能會需要修改 <filename>Makefile</filename> 或執行 <command>configure</command> Script。</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>測試並安裝該軟體。</para>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <para>如果軟體套件未被特意移植到 FreeBSD 或測試是否可運作。 那可能需要修改一下該軟體的原始碼才能正常使用。 在搛寫此篇文章時候， 已經有超過 24,000 個第三方應用程式已經被移植到 FreeBSD。</para>
 
     <para>FreeBSD Binary 套件中包含了應用程式預先編譯好的指令、設定檔及文件。 套件可以使用 <application>pkg</application> 指令來管理，如 <command>pkg install</command>。</para>
 
     <para>FreeBSD Port 套件則包含了已設計好從原始碼編譯成應用程式的自動化程序。 Port 套件中的檔案包含自動下載、解壓縮、修補、編譯及安裝應用程式流程中所有需要的資訊。</para>
 
-    <para>Ports 系統可以透過 FreeBSD 套件管理指令來產生套件。</para>
+    <para>Port 系統可以透過 FreeBSD 套件管理指令來產生套件。</para>
 
-    <para>不論是 Binary 套件或者 Ports 套件都有相依的功能，若以 Binary 或 Port 套件安裝應用程式，且該應用程式有相依的程式庫尚未被安裝，則會自動先安裝該程式庫。</para>
+    <para>不論是 Binary 套件或者 Port 套件都有相依的功能，若以 Binary 或 Port 套件安裝應用程式，且該應用程式有相依的程式庫尚未被安裝，則會自動先安裝該程式庫。</para>
 
-    <para>雖然兩種技術非常相似，但 Binary 套件及 Ports 套件有各自的優點。 要視您要安裝的應用程式需求來選擇。</para>
+    <para>雖然兩種技術非常相似，但 Binary 套件及 Port 套件有各自的優點。 要視您要安裝的應用程式需求來選擇。</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <title>Binary 套件優點</title>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>應用程式壓縮 Binary 套件的 tarball 會比壓縮原始碼的 tarball 還要小。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>安裝 Binary 套件不需要編譯的時間，對於較慢的電腦要安裝大型的應用程式如 <application>Mozilla</application>, <application>KDE</application> 或 <application>GNOME</application> 這點顯的相當重要。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>Binary 套件不需要了解在 FreeBSD 上編譯軟體的流程。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <title>Port 套件優點</title>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>由於 Binary 套件必須盡可能在大多數系統上執行，通常會採用較通用的編譯選項來編譯，由 Port 來編輯可更改編譯選項。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>部份應用程式編譯期選項會與要安裝的功能有關，舉例來說 <application>Apache</application> 便有大量不同的內建選項可以設定。</para>
 
 	<para>在某些情況，同樣的應用程式會存在多個不同的 Binary 套件，如 <application>Ghostscript</application> 有 <filename>ghostscript</filename> 及 <filename>ghostscript-nox11</filename> 兩種 Binary 套件，用來區別是否有安裝 <application>Xorg</application>。 若應用程式有一個以上的編譯期選項便無法用這個方式來區別 Binary 套件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>部份軟體的授權條款中禁止以 Binary 格式發佈。 這種軟體必須以原始碼發佈並由終端使用者編譯。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>部份人並不相信 Binary 發佈版本，寧願閱讀原始碼來查看是否潛藏的問題。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>原始碼可套用自訂的修補。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
-    <para>要持續追蹤 Ports 的更新可以訂閱 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports">FreeBSD Ports 郵遞論壇</link> 與 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports-bugs">FreeBSD Ports 問題郵遞論壇</link>。</para>
+    <para>要持續追蹤 Port 的更新可以訂閱 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports">FreeBSD Port 郵遞論壇</link> 與 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports-bugs">FreeBSD Port 問題郵遞論壇</link>。</para>
 
     <warning>
       <para>在安裝任何應用程式之前，請先查看 <link xlink:href="http://vuxml.freebsd.org/"/> 是否有與該應用程式相關的安全性問題或輸入 <command>pkg audit -F</command> 來檢查所有已安裝的應用程式是否有已知的漏洞。</para>
     </warning>
 
-    <para>本章接下來的部份將說明如何在 FreeBSD 使用 Binary 套件及 Ports 套件安裝與管理第三方軟體。</para>
+    <para>本章接下來的部份將說明如何在 FreeBSD 使用 Binary 套件及 Port 套件安裝與管理第三方軟體。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-finding-applications">
     <title>搜尋軟體</title>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 上可安裝的軟體清單不斷在增加， 有幾種方式可以來找你想安裝的軟體：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
-	<para>FreeBSD 網站有維護一份可搜尋的最新應用程式清單，在 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/ports/index.html">http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/</link>。 可以依應用程式名稱或軟體分類來搜尋 Ports。</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 網站有維護一份可搜尋的最新應用程式清單，在 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/ports/index.html">http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/</link>。 可以依應用程式名稱或軟體分類來搜尋 Port。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>FreshPorts</primary></indexterm>
 
-	<para>由 Dan Langille 維護的 <link xlink:href="http://www.FreshPorts.org/">FreshPorts.org</link>，提供完整的搜尋工具並且可追蹤在 Ports 套件集中的應用程式變更。註冊的使用者可以建立自訂的監視清單會自動寄發電子郵件通知 Ports 的更新資訊。</para>
+	<para>由 Dan Langille 維護的 <link xlink:href="http://www.FreshPorts.org/">FreshPorts.org</link>，提供完整的搜尋工具並且可追蹤在 Port 套件集中的應用程式變更。註冊的使用者可以建立自訂的監視清單會自動寄發電子郵件通知 Port 的更新資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>SourceForge</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para>若找不到指定的應用程式，可以先到網站 <link xlink:href="http://www.sourceforge.net/">SourceForge.net</link> 或 <link xlink:href="http://www.github.com/">GitHub.com</link> 搜尋，後然再回到 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/ports/index.html">FreeBSD 網站</link> 檢查該應用程式是否已被移植。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>pkg</primary>
 	  <secondary>search</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:id="pkg-search">要搜尋 Binary 套件檔案庫中的應用程式可：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg search <replaceable>subversion</replaceable></userinput>
 git-subversion-<replaceable>1.9.2</replaceable>
 java-subversion-<replaceable>1.8.8_2</replaceable>
 p5-subversion-<replaceable>1.8.8_2</replaceable>
 py27-hgsubversion-<replaceable>1.6</replaceable>
 py27-subversion-<replaceable>1.8.8_2</replaceable>
 ruby-subversion-<replaceable>1.8.8_2</replaceable>
 subversion-<replaceable>1.8.8_2</replaceable>
 subversion-book-<replaceable>4515</replaceable>
 subversion-static-<replaceable>1.8.8_2</replaceable>
 subversion16-<replaceable>1.6.23_4</replaceable>
 subversion17-<replaceable>1.7.16_2</replaceable></screen>
 
-	<para>套件名稱包含版本編號，且若 Ports 使用 Python 為基礎，也會包含用來編譯該套件的 Python 版本。有些 Ports 會有多個版本可使用，如 <application>subversion</application> ，因編譯選項不同，有多個版本可用，這個例子中即指靜態連結版本的 <application>subversion</application>。在指定要安裝的套件時，最好使用 Ports 來源來指定該應用程式，Ports 來源是指應用程式在 Ports 樹中的路徑。再輸入一次 <command>pkg search</command> 並加上 <option>-o</option> 來列出每個套件來源：</para>
+	<para>套件名稱包含版本編號，且若 Port 使用 Python 為基礎，也會包含用來編譯該套件的 Python 版本。有些 Port 會有多個版本可使用，如 <application>subversion</application> ，因編譯選項不同，有多個版本可用，這個例子中即指靜態連結版本的 <application>subversion</application>。在指定要安裝的套件時，最好使用 Port 來源來指定該應用程式，Port 來源是指應用程式在 Port 樹中的路徑。再輸入一次 <command>pkg search</command> 並加上 <option>-o</option> 來列出每個套件來源：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg search -o <replaceable>subversion</replaceable></userinput>
 devel/git-subversion
 java/java-subversion
 devel/p5-subversion
 devel/py-hgsubversion
 devel/py-subversion
 devel/ruby-subversion
 devel/subversion16
 devel/subversion17
 devel/subversion
 devel/subversion-book
 devel/subversion-static</screen>
 
-	<para><command>pkg search</command> 支援使用 Shell 萬手字元(globs)、正規表示法、描述或檔案庫中的其他其他內容。在安裝 <package>ports-mgmt/pkg</package> 或 <package>ports-mgmt/pkg-devel</package> 之後，可參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg-search</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以取得更多詳細資訊。</para>
+	<para><command>pkg search</command> 支援使用 Shell 萬手字元 (globs)、正規表示法、描述或檔案庫中的其他其他內容。在安裝 <package>ports-mgmt/pkg</package> 或 <package>ports-mgmt/pkg-devel</package> 之後，可參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg-search</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以取得更多詳細資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>若 Ports 套件集已安裝，有數個方法可以查詢 Ports 樹中的本地版本。要找到 Port 所在的分類，可輸入 <command>whereis <replaceable>file</replaceable></command>，其中 <replaceable>file</replaceable> 是要安裝的程式：</para>
+	<para>若 Port 套件集已安裝，有數個方法可以查詢 Port 樹中的本地版本。要找到 Port 所在的分類，可輸入 <command>whereis <replaceable>file</replaceable></command>，其中 <replaceable>file</replaceable> 是要安裝的程式：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>whereis lsof</userinput>
 lsof: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof</screen>
+
+	<para>或者，也可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>echo</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>：</para>
+
+	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo /usr/ports/*/*lsof*</userinput>
+/usr/ports/sysutils/lsof</screen>
+
+	<para>請注意，這也會顯示已下載至 <filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename> 目錄中任何已符合條件的檔案。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>另一個方法是使用 Ports 套件集內建的搜尋機制來找軟體。要使用搜尋的功能需先 <application>cd</application> 到 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> 然後執行 <command>make search name=program-name</command>，其中 <replaceable>program-name</replaceable> 代表軟體的名稱。舉例搜尋 <command>lsof</command>：</para>
+	<para>另一個方法是使用 Port 套件集內建的搜尋機制來找軟體。要使用搜尋的功能需先 <application>cd</application> 到 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> 然後執行 <command>make search name=program-name</command>，其中 <replaceable>program-name</replaceable> 代表軟體的名稱。舉例搜尋 <command>lsof</command>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make search name=lsof</userinput>
 Port:   lsof-4.88.d,8
 Path:   /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
 Info:   Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1))
 Maint:  ler@lerctr.org
 Index:  sysutils
 B-deps:
 R-deps: </screen>
 
 	<tip>
 	  <para>內建的搜尋機制會使用索引檔內的資訊。若出現訊息指出需要 <filename>INDEX</filename> 檔，可執行 <command>make fetchindex</command> 來下載最新的索引檔。當 <filename>INDEX</filename> 檔存在時，<command>make search</command> 方可執行請求的搜尋動作。</para>
 	</tip>
 
-	<para><quote>Path:</quote> 此行代表 Ports 的所在位置。</para>
+	<para><quote>Path:</quote> 此行代表 Port 的所在位置。</para>
 
 	<para>若不要接受這麼多資訊，可使用 <command>quicksearch</command> 功能：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make quicksearch name=lsof</userinput>
 Port:   lsof-4.88.d,8
 Path:   /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
 Info:   Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1))</screen>
 
-	<para>若要進行更有深度的搜尋，使用 <command>make search key=<replaceable>string</replaceable></command> 或 <command>make quicksearch key=<replaceable>string</replaceable></command> 其中 <replaceable>string</replaceable> 是要搜尋的文字。該文字可以是一部份的註解、描述或相依套件，當不清楚程式的名稱時可以找到與特定主題相關的 Ports。</para>
+	<para>若要進行更有深度的搜尋，使用 <command>make search key=<replaceable>string</replaceable></command> 或 <command>make quicksearch key=<replaceable>string</replaceable></command> 其中 <replaceable>string</replaceable> 是要搜尋的文字。該文字可以是一部份的註解、描述或相依套件，當不清楚程式的名稱時可以找到與特定主題相關的 Port。</para>
 
 	<para>當使用 <buildtarget>search</buildtarget> 或 <buildtarget>quicksearch</buildtarget> 時，搜尋的字串不分大小寫。 搜尋 <quote>LSOF</quote> 會與搜尋 <quote>lsof</quote> 產生相同的結果。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="pkgng-intro">
     <title>使用 <application>pkg</application> 管理 Binary 套件</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en"><application>pkg</application> is the
-      FreeBSD package management tool,
-      offering many features that make dealing with binary packages
-      fast and easy.</para>
+    <para><application>pkg</application> 是新一代套件管理工具用來取代舊版工具，提供許多功能讓處理 Binary 套件更快更簡單。</para>
 
+    <para><application>pkg</application> 並不是用來取代 Port 管理工具如 <package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 或 <package>ports-mgmt/portupgrade</package>，這些工具可用來安裝來自 Binary 與 Port 套件集的第三方軟體，而 <application>pkg</application> 僅能安裝 Binary 套件。</para>
+
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-initial-setup">
       <title>開始使用 <application>pkg</application></title>
 
-      <para>FreeBSD 內建啟動(Bootstrap)工具可用來下載並安裝 <application>pkg</application> 及其操作手冊。</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 內建啟動 (Bootstrap) 工具可用來下載並安裝 <application>pkg</application> 及其操作手冊。</para>
 
       <para>要啟動(Bootstrap)系統請執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/usr/sbin/pkg</userinput></screen>
 
+      <para>對較舊的 FreeBSD 版本，<application>pkg</application> 必須改透過 Port 套件集或者 Binary 套件來安裝。</para>
+
       <para>要安裝 Port 套件，請執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/ports-mgmt/pkg</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
+      <para>當升級原使用舊版套件系統的既有系統時，必須將資料庫轉換成新的格式，因此新的工具才會知道有那些已安裝過的套件。一旦 <application>pkg</application> 已安裝，必須執行以下指令將套件資料庫從舊版格式轉換到新版格式：</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg2ng</userinput></screen>
+
+      <note><para>新安裝的版本因尚未安裝任何第三方軟體因此不須做這個步驟。</para></note>
+
+      <important>
+	<para>這個步驟無法還原。一旦套件資料庫轉為成 <application>pkg</application> 的格式，舊版 <literal>pkg_*</literal> 工具就不該再繼續使用。</para>
+      </important>
+
+      <note>
+	<para>套件資料庫轉換的過程可能會因內容轉換為新版本產生錯誤。通常，這些錯誤皆可安全忽略，雖然如此，仍然有在執行 <command>pkg2ng</command> 後無法成功轉換的第三方軟體清單，這些應用程式則必須手動重新安裝。</para>
+      </note>
+
+      <para>為了確保 FreeBSD Port 套件集會將新軟體的資訊註冊到 <application>pkg</application> 而非舊版套件格式，FreeBSD 版本 10.<replaceable>X</replaceable> 之前需要在 <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> 加入此行：</para>
+
+      <programlisting xml:lang="en">WITH_PKGNG=	yes</programlisting>
+
       <para>預設 <application>pkg</application> 會使用 FreeBSD 套件鏡像站。若要取得有關編譯自訂套件檔案庫的資訊，請參考 
 <xref linkend="ports-poudriere"/></para>
 
       <para>其他 <application>pkg</application> 設定選項說明請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
       <para><application>pkg</application> 的用法資訊可在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊或不加任何參數執行 <command>pkg</command> 來取得。</para>
 
       <para>每個 <application>pkg</application> 指令參數皆記庫在指令操件手冊。要閱讀 <command>pkg install</command> 的操作手冊，可執行以下指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg help install</userinput></screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>man pkg-install</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The rest of this section demonstrates common binary
-	package management tasks which can be performed using
-	<application>pkg</application>.  Each command
-	provides many switches to customize its use.  Refer to a
-	command's help or man page for details and more
-	examples.</para>
+      <para>本章節剩餘的部份將會示範使用 <application>pkg</application> 執行常用的 Binary 套件管理工作。每個示範的指令皆會提供多個參數可使用，請參考指令的說明或操作手冊以取得詳細資訊或更多範例。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-pkg-info">
       <title>取得有關已安裝套件的資訊</title>
 
       <para>有關已安裝在系統的套件資訊可透過執行 <command>pkg info</command> 來檢視，若執行時未指定任何參數，將會列出所有已安裝或指定的套件版本。</para>
 
       <para>例如，要查看已安裝的 <application>pkg</application> 版本可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg info pkg</userinput>
 pkg-1.1.4_1</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-installing-deinstalling">
       <title>安裝與移除套件</title>
 
       <para>要安裝 Binary 套件可使用以下指令，其中 <replaceable>packagename</replaceable> 為要安裝的套件名稱：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install <replaceable>packagename</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>這個指令會使用檔案庫的資料來決定要安裝的軟體版本以及是否有任何未安裝的相依。例如，要安裝 <application>curl</application>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install curl</userinput>
 Updating repository catalogue
 /usr/local/tmp/All/curl-7.31.0_1.txz          100% of 1181 kB 1380 kBps 00m01s
 
 /usr/local/tmp/All/ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1.txz   100% of  288 kB 1700 kBps 00m00s
 
 Updating repository catalogue
 The following 2 packages will be installed:
 
         Installing ca_root_nss: 3.15.1_1
         Installing curl: 7.31.0_1
 
 The installation will require 3 MB more space
 
 0 B to be downloaded
 
 Proceed with installing packages [y/N]: <userinput>y</userinput>
 Checking integrity... done
 [1/2] Installing ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1... done
 [2/2] Installing curl-7.31.0_1... done
 Cleaning up cache files...Done</screen>
 
 	<para>新的套件以及任何做為相依安裝的額外套件可在已安裝的套件清單中看到：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg info</userinput>
 ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1	The root certificate bundle from the Mozilla Project
 curl-7.31.0_1	Non-interactive tool to get files from FTP, GOPHER, HTTP(S) servers
 pkg-1.1.4_6	New generation package manager</screen>
 
 	<para>不再需要的套件可以使用 <command>pkg delete</command> 來移除，例如：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg delete curl</userinput>
 The following packages will be deleted:
 
 	curl-7.31.0_1
 
 The deletion will free 3 MB
 
 Proceed with deleting packages [y/N]: <userinput>y</userinput>
 [1/1] Deleting curl-7.31.0_1... done</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-upgrading">
       <title>升級已安裝套件</title>
 
       <para>執行以下指令，可將已安裝的套件升級到最新版本：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg upgrade</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>這個指令將會比對已安裝的版本與在檔案庫分類中的版本，並從檔案庫升級這些套件。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-auditing">
       <title>稽查已安裝套件</title>
 
       <para>偶爾可能會在第三方的應用程式中發現軟體漏洞，要找出這些程式，可使用 <application>pkg</application> 內建的稽查機制。要查詢已安裝在系統上的軟體是否有任何已知的漏洞可執行：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg audit -F</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-autoremove">
       <title>自動移除不使用的相依</title>
 
       <para>移除一個套件可能會留下不再需要使用的相依套件。不再需要的相依套件可以使用以下指令自動偵測並移除：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg autoremove</userinput>
 Packages to be autoremoved:
 	ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1
 
 The autoremoval will free 723 kB
 
 Proceed with autoremoval of packages [y/N]: <userinput>y</userinput>
 Deinstalling ca_root_nss-3.15.1_1... done</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-backup">
       <title>還原套件資料庫</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">
-	<application>pkg</application> includes its own package
-	database backup mechanism.  This functionality is enabled by
-	default.</para>
+      <para>不如傳統的套件管理系統，<application>pkg</application> 有自己的套件資料庫備份機制，此功能預設是開啟的。</para>
 
       <tip>
-	<para xml:lang="en">To disable periodic backups of the
-	  package database, set
-	  <literal>daily_backup_pkgdb_enable="NO"</literal> in
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+	<para>要停止週期的 Script 備份套件資料庫可在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 設定 <literal>daily_backup_pkgdb_enable="NO"</literal>。</para>
       </tip>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To restore the contents of a previous package database
-	backup, run this command replacing
-	<replaceable>/path/to/pkg.sql</replaceable> with the location
-	of the backup:</para>
+      <para>要還原先前套件資料庫的備份，可執行以下指令並將 <replaceable>/path/to/pkg.sql</replaceable> 替換為備份的位置：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg backup -r <replaceable>/path/to/pkg.sql</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">If restoring a backup made by the periodic script,
-	  it must be decompressed prior to being restored.</para>
+	<para>若要還原有週期 Script 所產生的備份必須在還原前先解壓縮。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To create a manual backup of the
-	<application>pkg</application> database, run the following
-	command, replacing <replaceable>/path/to/pkg.sql</replaceable>
-	with a suitable file name and location:</para>
+      <para>要手動備份 <application>pkg</application> 資料庫，可執行以下指令，並替換 <replaceable>/path/to/pkg.sql</replaceable> 為適當的檔案名稱與位置：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg backup -d <replaceable>/path/to/pkg.sql</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-clean">
       <title>移除過時的套件</title>
 
       <para>預設 <application>pkg</application> 會儲存 Binary 套件在快取目錄定義在  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 中的 <envar>PKG_CACHEDIR</envar>，只會保留最後安裝的套件複本。較舊版的 <application>pkg</application>  會保留所有先前的套件，若要移除這些過時的  Binary 套件，可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg clean</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The entire cache can be cleared by running:</para>
+      <para>使用以下指令可清空全部的快取：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg clean -a</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pkgng-set">
       <title>修改套件 Metadata</title>
 
-      <para>在 FreeBSD Ports 套件集中的軟體可能會經歷主要版號的修改，要解決這個問題可使用 <application>pkg</application> 內建的指令來更新套件來源。這非常有用，例如 <package>lang/php5</package> 重新命名為 <package>lang/php53</package> 因此 <package>lang/php5</package> 從此之後代表版本 <literal>5.4</literal>。</para>
+      <para>在 FreeBSD Port 套件集中的軟體可能會經歷主要版號的修改，要解決這個問題可使用 <application>pkg</application> 內建的指令來更新套件來源。這非常有用，例如 <package>lang/php5</package> 重新命名為 <package>lang/php53</package> 因此 <package>lang/php5</package> 從此之後代表版本 <literal>5.4</literal>。</para>
 
       <para>要更改上述例子中的套件來源，可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg set -o lang/php5:lang/php53</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>再一個例子，要更新 <package>lang/ruby18</package> 為 <package>lang/ruby19</package>，可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg set -o lang/ruby18:lang/ruby19</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>最後一個例子，要更改 <filename>libglut</filename> 共用程式庫的來源從 <package>graphics/libglut</package> 改成 <package>graphics/freeglut</package> 可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg set -o graphics/libglut:graphics/freeglut</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para>在更改套件來源之後，很重要的一件事是要重新安裝套件，來讓相依的套件也同時使用修改後的來源。要強制重新安裝相依套件，可執行：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install -Rf <replaceable>graphics/freeglut</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-using">
-    <title>使用 Ports 套件集</title>
+    <title>使用 Port 套件集</title>
 
-    <para>Ports 套件集是指一系列儲存在 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> 的 <filename>Makefiles</filename>、修補及描述檔，這一系列檔案用來編譯與安裝在 FreeBSD 上的應用程式。在使用 Port 安裝應用程式前，必須先安裝 Ports 套件集，若未在安裝 FreeBSD 的過程式中安裝，可使用下列其中一種方法來安裝：</para>
+    <para>Port 套件集是指一系列儲存在 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> 的 <filename>Makefiles</filename>、修補及描述檔，這一系列檔案用來編譯與安裝在 FreeBSD 上的應用程式。在使用 Port 安裝應用程式前，必須先安裝 Port 套件集，若未在安裝 FreeBSD 的過程式中安裝，可使用下列其中一種方法來安裝：</para>
 
     <procedure xml:id="ports-using-portsnap-method">
       <title>Portsnap 方法</title>
 
-      <para>FreeBSD 的基礎系統內含 <application>Portsnap</application>，這是一個可用來取得 Ports 套件集簡單又快速的工具，較建議多數使用者使用這個方式。此工具會連線到 FreeBSD 的網站，驗証密鑰，然後下載 Ports 套件集的新複本。該金鑰是要用來檢驗所有已下載檔案的完整性。</para>
+      <para>FreeBSD 的基礎系統內含 <application>Portsnap</application>，這是一個可用來取得 Port 套件集簡單又快速的工具，較建議多數使用者使用這個方式。此工具會連線到 FreeBSD 的網站，驗証密鑰，然後下載 Port 套件集的新複本。該金鑰是要用來檢驗所有已下載檔案的完整性。</para>
 
       <step>
-	<para>要下載壓縮後的 Ports 套件集快照 (Snapshot) 到 <filename>/var/db/portsnap</filename>：</para>
+	<para>要下載壓縮後的 Port 套件集快照 (Snapshot) 到 <filename>/var/db/portsnap</filename>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsnap fetch</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>當第一次執行 <application>Portsnap</application> 時，要先解壓縮快照到 <filename>/usr/ports</filename>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsnap extract</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>在完成上述第一次使用 <application>Portsnap</application> 的動作之後，往後可隨需要執行以下指令來更新 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> ：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsnap fetch</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsnap update</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>當使用 <literal>fetch</literal> 時也可同時執行 <literal>extract</literal> 或 <literal>update</literal> 如：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsnap fetch update</userinput></screen>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <procedure xml:id="ports-using-subversion-method">
       <title>Subversion 方法</title>
 
-      <para>若要取得更多對 Ports 樹的控制，或若有本地的變更需要維護，可以使用 <application>Subversion</application> 來取得 Ports 套件集。請參考 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/committers-guide/subversion-primer.html">Subversion Primer</link> 來取得 <application>Subversion</application> 的詳細說明。</para>
+      <para>若要取得更多對 Port 樹的控制，或若有本地的變更需要維護，可以使用 <application>Subversion</application> 來取得 Port 套件集。請參考 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/committers-guide/subversion-primer.html">Subversion Primer</link> 來取得 <application>Subversion</application> 的詳細說明。</para>
 
       <step>
-	<para>必須安裝 <application>Subversion</application> 才可用來取出 (Check out) Ports 樹。若已存在 Ports 樹的複本，可使用此方式安裝 <application>Subversion</application>：</para>
+	<para>必須安裝 <application>Subversion</application> 才可用來取出 (Check out) Port 樹。若已存在 Port 樹的複本，可使用此方式安裝 <application>Subversion</application>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/devel/subversion</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para>若尚無法使用 Ports 樹，或已經使用 <application>pkg</application> 來管理套件，可使用套件來安裝 <application>Subversion</application>：</para>
+	<para>若尚無法使用 Port 樹，或已經使用 <application>pkg</application> 來管理套件，可使用套件來安裝 <application>Subversion</application>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install subversion</userinput></screen>
 
       </step>
 
       <step>
-	<para>取出 Ports 樹的複本：</para>
+	<para>取出 Port 樹的複本：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn checkout https://svn.FreeBSD.org/ports/head /usr/ports</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>若需要，在第一次 <application>Subversion</application> 取出後可使用以下指令更新 <filename>/usr/ports</filename>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn update /usr/ports</userinput></screen>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
-    <para>Ports 套件集會安裝一系列代表軟體分類的目錄，每個分類底下的子目錄代表每隻應用程式。 這些子目錄又稱做 Ports Skeleton，裡面檔案是用來告訴 FreeBSD 如何編譯與安裝該程式，每個 Port Skeleton 會含有以下檔案及目錄：</para>
+    <para>Port 套件集會安裝一系列代表軟體分類的目錄，每個分類底下的子目錄代表每隻應用程式。 這些子目錄又稱做 Port Skeleton，裡面檔案是用來告訴 FreeBSD 如何編譯與安裝該程式，每個 Port Skeleton 會含有以下檔案及目錄：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para><filename>Makefile</filename>: 內含用來說明應用程式要如何編譯、要安裝該程式到那的敘述句。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><filename>distinfo</filename>: 內含編譯 Port 必須下載的檔案名稱以及校驗碼 (Checksums)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para><filename>files/</filename>: 此目錄含有編譯與安裝程式到 FreeBSD 時所需的修補檔。此目錄也可能含有其他用來編譯 Ports 的檔案。</para>
+	<para><filename>files/</filename>: 此目錄含有編譯與安裝程式到 FreeBSD 時所需的修補檔。此目錄也可能含有其他用來編譯 Port 的檔案。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><filename>pkg-descr</filename>: 提供程式更詳細的說明。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para><filename>pkg-plist</filename>: Port 安裝的所有檔案清單，也同時會告訴 Ports 系統解除安裝時要移除那一些檔案。</para>
+	<para><filename>pkg-plist</filename>: Port 安裝的所有檔案清單，也同時會告訴 Port 系統解除安裝時要移除那一些檔案。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
-    <para>部份 Ports 含有 <filename>pkg-message</filename> 或其他檔案用來處理特殊情況。要取得有關這些檔案的詳細資訊，以及 Ports 的概要可參考 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/porters-handbook/index.html">FreeBSD Porter's Handbook</link>。</para>
+    <para>部份 Port 含有 <filename>pkg-message</filename> 或其他檔案用來處理特殊情況。要取得有關這些檔案的詳細資訊，以及 Port 的概要可參考 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/porters-handbook/index.html">FreeBSD Porter's Handbook</link>。</para>
 
     <para>Port 中並不含實際的原始碼，即為 <filename>distfile</filename>，在編譯 Port 解壓縮時會自動下載的原始碼到 <filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ports-skeleton">
-      <title>安裝 Ports</title>
+      <title>安裝 Port</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ports</primary>
 	<secondary>installing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>下面我們會介紹如何使用 Ports 套件集來安裝、移除軟體的基本用法。 <command>make</command> 可用的目標及環境變數詳細說明可參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ports</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
+      <para>下面我們會介紹如何使用 Port 套件集來安裝、移除軟體的基本用法。 <command>make</command> 可用的目標及環境變數詳細說明可參閱 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ports</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
       <warning>
-	<para>在編譯任何 Port 套件前，請先確認已經如前章節所敘述之方法更新 Ports 套件集。安裝任何第三方軟體皆可能會導致安全性漏洞，建議在安裝前先閱讀 <link xlink:href="http://vuxml.freebsd.org/"/> 了解  Port 已知的安全性問題。或者在每次安裝新 Port 前執行 <command>pkg audit -F</command>。此指令可以設定在每日系統安全性檢查時自動完成安全性稽查以及更新漏洞資料庫。要取得更多資訊，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg-audit</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
+	<para>在編譯任何 Port 套件前，請先確認已經如前章節所敘述之方法更新 Port 套件集。安裝任何第三方軟體皆可能會導致安全性漏洞，建議在安裝前先閱讀 <link xlink:href="http://vuxml.freebsd.org/"/> 了解  Port 已知的安全性問題。或者在每次安裝新 Port 前執行 <command>pkg audit -F</command>。此指令可以設定在每日系統安全性檢查時自動完成安全性稽查以及更新漏洞資料庫。要取得更多資訊，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg-audit</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
       </warning>
 
-      <para>使用 Ports 套件集會假設您擁有可正常連線的網路，同時也會需要超級使用者的權限。</para>
+      <para>使用 Port 套件集會假設您擁有可正常連線的網路，同時也會需要超級使用者的權限。</para>
 
       <para>要編譯並安裝 Port，需切換目錄到要安裝的 Port 底下，然後輸入 <command>make install</command>，訊息中會顯示安裝的進度：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install</userinput>
 &gt;&gt; lsof_4.88D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/.
 &gt;&gt; Attempting to fetch from ftp://lsof.itap.purdue.edu/pub/tools/unix/lsof/.
 ===&gt;  Extracting for lsof-4.88
 ...
 [extraction output snipped]
 ...
 &gt;&gt; Checksum OK for lsof_4.88D.freebsd.tar.gz.
 ===&gt;  Patching for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ===&gt;  Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ===&gt;  Configuring for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ...
 [configure output snipped]
 ...
 ===&gt;  Building for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ...
 [compilation output snipped]
 ...
 
 ===&gt;  Installing for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ...
 [installation output snipped]
 ...
 ===&gt;   Generating temporary packing list
 ===&gt;   Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ===&gt;   Registering installation for lsof-4.88.d,8
 ===&gt;  SECURITY NOTE:
       This port has installed the following binaries which execute with
       increased privileges.
 /usr/local/sbin/lsof
 <prompt>#</prompt></screen>
 
       <para><command>lsof</command> 是需要進階權限才有辦法執行的程式，因此當該程式安裝完成時會顯示安全性警告。一旦安裝完成便會顯示指令提示。</para>
 
       <para>有些 Shell 會將 <envar>PATH</envar> 環境變數中所列目錄中可用的指令做快取，來增加在執行指這些指令時的查詢速度。<command>tcsh</command> Shell 的使用者應輸入 <command>rehash</command> 來讓新安裝的指令不須指定完整路徑便可使用。若在 <command>sh</command> Shell 則使用 <command>hash -r</command>。請參考 Shell 的說明文件以取得更多資訊。</para>
 
       <para>安裝過程中會建立工作用的子目錄用來儲存編譯時暫存的檔案。可移除此目錄來節省磁碟空間並漸少往後升級新版 Port 時造成問題：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make clean</userinput>
 ===&gt;  Cleaning for lsof-88.d,8
 <prompt>#</prompt></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para>若想要少做這個額外的步驟，可以編譯 Port 時使用 <command>make install clean</command>。</para>
       </note>
 
       <sect3>
-	<title>自訂 Ports 安裝</title>
+	<title>自訂 Port 安裝</title>
 
-	<para>部份 Ports 提供編譯選項，可用來開啟或關閉應用程式中的元件、安全選項、或其他允許自訂的項目。這類的應用程式例子包括 <package>www/firefox</package>, <package>security/gpgme</package> 以及 <package>mail/sylpheed-claws</package>。若 Port 相依的其他 Port 有可設定的選項時，預設的模式會提示使用者選擇選單中的選項，這可能會讓安裝的過程暫停讓使用者操作數次。要避免這個情況，可在 Port skeleton 中執行 <command>make config-recursive</command> 來一次設定所有選項。然後再執行 <command>make install [clean]</command> 編譯與安裝該 Port。</para>
+	<para>部份 Port 提供編譯選項，可用來開啟或關閉應用程式中的元件、安全選項、或其他允許自訂的項目。這類的應用程式例子包括 <package>www/firefox</package>, <package>security/gpgme</package> 以及 <package>mail/sylpheed-claws</package>。若 Port 相依的其他 Port 有可設定的選項時，預設的模式會提示使用者選擇選單中的選項，這可能會讓安裝的過程暫停讓使用者操作數次。要避免這個情況，可在 Port skeleton 中執行 <command>make config-recursive</command> 來一次設定所有選項。然後再執行 <command>make install [clean]</command> 編譯與安裝該 Port。</para>
 
 	<tip>
-	  <para>使用 <buildtarget>config-recursive</buildtarget> 時，會使用 <buildtarget>all-depends-list</buildtarget> Target 來收集所有要設定 Port 清單。建議執行 <command>make config-recursive</command> 直到所有相依的 Port 選項都已定義，直到 Ports 的選項畫面不會再出現，來確定所有相依的選項都已經設定。</para>
+	  <para>使用 <buildtarget>config-recursive</buildtarget> 時，會使用 <buildtarget>all-depends-list</buildtarget> Target 來收集所有要設定 Port 清單。建議執行 <command>make config-recursive</command> 直到所有相依的 Port 選項都已定義，直到 Port 的選項畫面不會再出現，來確定所有相依的選項都已經設定。</para>
 	</tip>
 
 	<para>有許多方式可以重新進入 Port 的編譯選項清單，以便在編譯 Port 之後加入、移除或更改這些選項。方法之一是 <command>cd</command> 進入含有 Port 的目錄並輸入 <command>make config</command>。還有另一個方法是使用 <command>make showconfig</command>。最後一個方法是執行 <command>make rmconfig</command> 來移除所有曾選擇過的選項，讓您能夠重新設定。這些方法在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ports</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> 中都有詳細的說明。</para>
 
-	<para>Ports 系統使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fetch</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來下載檔案，它支援許多的環境變數可設定。若 FreeBSD 系統在防火牆或 FTP/HTTP 代理伺服器後面，可以設定 <envar>FTP_PASSIVE_MODE</envar>, <envar>FTP_PROXY</envar> 以及 <envar>FTP_PASSWORD</envar> 變數。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fetch</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得完整支援的變數清單。</para>
+	<para>Port 系統使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fetch</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來下載檔案，它支援許多的環境變數可設定。若 FreeBSD 系統在防火牆或 FTP/HTTP 代理伺服器後面，可以設定 <envar>FTP_PASSIVE_MODE</envar>, <envar>FTP_PROXY</envar> 以及 <envar>FTP_PASSWORD</envar> 變數。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fetch</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得完整支援的變數清單。</para>
 
-	<para>對於那些無法一直連線到網際網路的使用者，可在 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> 下執行 <command>make fetch</command> 來下載所有的 distfiles，或是可在某個分類的目錄中，例如 <filename>/usr/ports/net</filename>，或指定的 Port Skeleton 中執行。要注意的是，若 Port 有任何的相依，在分類或 Ports Skeleton 中執行此指令並 <emphasis>不會</emphasis> 下載相依在其他分類的 Port distfiles。可使用 <command>make fetch-recursive</command> 來下載所有相依 Port 的 distfiles。</para>
+	<para>對於那些無法一直連線到網際網路的使用者，可在 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> 下執行 <command>make fetch</command> 來下載所有的 distfiles，或是可在某個分類的目錄中，例如 <filename>/usr/ports/net</filename>，或指定的 Port Skeleton 中執行。要注意的是，若 Port 有任何的相依，在分類或 Port Skeleton 中執行此指令並 <emphasis>不會</emphasis> 下載相依在其他分類的 Port distfiles。可使用 <command>make fetch-recursive</command> 來下載所有相依 Port 的 distfiles。</para>
 
 	<para>在部份少數情況，例如當公司或組織有自己的本地 distfiles 檔案庫，可使用 <varname>MASTER_SITES</varname> 變數來覆蓋在 <filename>Makefile</filename> 中指定的下載位址。當要指定替代的位址時可：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/<replaceable>directory</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \
 <replaceable>ftp://ftp.organization.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/</replaceable> fetch</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>也可使用 <varname>WRKDIRPREFIX</varname> 及 <varname>PREFIX</varname> 變數來覆蓋預設的工作及目標目錄。例如：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make WRKDIRPREFIX=/usr/home/example/ports install</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>會編譯在 <filename>/usr/home/example/ports</filename> 的 Port 並安裝所有東西到 <filename>/usr/local</filename> 下。</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make PREFIX=/usr/home/example/local install</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>會編譯在 <filename>/usr/ports</filename> Port 並安裝到 <filename>/usr/home/example/local</filename>。然後：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make WRKDIRPREFIX=../ports PREFIX=../local install</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>來同時設定工作及目標目錄。</para>
 
 	<para>這些變數也可做為環境變數設定，請參考您使用的 Shell 操作手冊來取得如何設定環境變數的說明。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ports-removing">
-      <title>移除已安裝的 Ports</title>
+      <title>移除已安裝的 Port</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ports</primary>
 	<secondary>removing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>安裝的 Ports 可以使用 <command>pkg delete</command> 解除安裝。 使用這個指令的範例可以在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg-delete</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊找到。</para>
+      <para>安裝的 Port 可以使用 <command>pkg delete</command> 解除安裝。 使用這個指令的範例可以在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg-delete</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊找到。</para>
 
       <para>或者，可在 Port 的目錄下執行 <command>make deinstall</command>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof</userinput>
 <userinput>make deinstall</userinput>
 ===&gt;  Deinstalling for sysutils/lsof
 ===&gt;   Deinstalling
 Deinstallation has been requested for the following 1 packages:
 
 	lsof-4.88.d,8
 
 The deinstallation will free 229 kB
 [1/1] Deleting lsof-4.88.d,8... done</screen>
 
       <para>建議閱讀 Port 解除安裝後的訊息，若有任何相依該 Port 的應用程式，這些資訊會被顯示出來，但解除安裝的程序仍會繼續。在這種情況下最好重新安裝應用程式來避免破壞相依性。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ports-upgrading">
-      <title>升級 Ports</title>
+      <title>升級 Port</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ports</primary>
 	<secondary>upgrading</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>隨著時間推移，Ports 套件集中會有新版的軟體可用。本節將說明如何檢查是否有可以升級的軟體及如何升級。</para>
+      <para>隨著時間推移，Port 套件集中會有新版的軟體可用。本節將說明如何檢查是否有可以升級的軟體及如何升級。</para>
 
-      <para>要檢查已安裝 Ports 是否有新版可用，請先確定已安裝最新版本的 Ports 樹，使用 <xref linkend="ports-using-portsnap-method"/> 或 <xref linkend="ports-using-subversion-method"/> 中說明的指令來更新。在 FreeBSD 10 與更新的版本，或若套件系統已轉換為 <application>pkg</application>，可以使用下列指令列出已經安裝的 Ports 中有那些已過時：</para>
+      <para>要檢查已安裝 Port 是否有新版可用，請先確定已安裝最新版本的 Port 樹，使用 <xref linkend="ports-using-portsnap-method"/> 或 <xref linkend="ports-using-subversion-method"/> 中說明的指令來更新。在 FreeBSD 10 與更新的版本，或若套件系統已轉換為 <application>pkg</application>，可以使用下列指令列出已經安裝的 Port 中有那些已過時：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg version -l "&lt;"</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>在 FreeBSD 9.<replaceable>X</replaceable> 與較舊的版本，可以使用下列指令列出已經安裝的 Ports 中有那些已過時：</para>
+      <para>在 FreeBSD 9.<replaceable>X</replaceable> 與較舊的版本，可以使用下列指令列出已經安裝的 Port 中有那些已過時：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg_version -l "&lt;"</userinput></screen>
 
       <important>
-	<para>在嘗試升級之前，請先從檔首閱讀 <filename>/usr/ports/UPDATING</filename> 來取得最近有那些 Ports 已升級或系統已安裝。這個檔案中會說明各種問題及在升級 Port 時可能會需要使用者執行的額外步驟，例如檔案格式更改、設定檔位置更改、或任何與先前版本不相容的問題。留意那些與您要升級 Ports 相關的指示，並依照這些指示執行升級。</para>
+	<para>在嘗試升級之前，請先從檔首閱讀 <filename>/usr/ports/UPDATING</filename> 來取得最近有那些 Port 已升級或系統已安裝。這個檔案中會說明各種問題及在升級 Port 時可能會需要使用者執行的額外步驟，例如檔案格式更改、設定檔位置更改、或任何與先前版本不相容的問題。留意那些與您要升級 Port 相關的指示，並依照這些指示執行升級。</para>
       </important>
 
       <para>要執行實際的升級，可使用 <application>Portmaster</application> 或 <application>Portupgrade</application>。</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="portmaster">
-	<title>使用 <application>Portmaster</application> 升級 Ports</title>
+	<title>使用 <application>Portmaster</application> 升級 Port</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>portmaster</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para><package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 是可用來升級已安裝 Port 的小巧工具，它可不需要相依其他 Ports 或資料庫便可在 FreeBSD 使用，要使用 Port 安裝此工具可：</para>
+	<para><package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 是可用來升級已安裝 Port 的小巧工具，它可不需要相依其他 Port 或資料庫便可在 FreeBSD 使用，要使用 Port 安裝此工具可：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/ports-mgmt/portmaster</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para><application>Portmaster</application> 將 Ports 定義成四種類型：</para>
+	<para><application>Portmaster</application> 將 Port 定義成四種類型：</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>根 Port：沒有相依且也不被任何其他 Ports 相依。</para>
+	    <para>根 Port：沒有相依且也不被任何其他 Port 相依。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>主幹 Port：沒有相依，但被其他 Ports 相依。</para>
+	    <para>主幹 Port：沒有相依，但被其他 Port 相依。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>分支 Port：有相依，且其被其他 Ports 相依。</para>
+	    <para>分支 Port：有相依，且其被其他 Port 相依。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para>枝 Port：有相依，但沒有被其他 Ports 相依。</para>
+	    <para>枝 Port：有相依，但沒有被其他 Port 相依。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para>要列出這幾個分類並搜尋是否有新版：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster -L</userinput>
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; Root ports (No dependencies, not depended on)
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; ispell-3.2.06_18
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; screen-4.0.3
         ===&gt;&gt;&gt; New version available: screen-4.0.3_1
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; tcpflow-0.21_1
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; 7 root ports
 ...
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; Branch ports (Have dependencies, are depended on)
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; apache22-2.2.3
         ===&gt;&gt;&gt; New version available: apache22-2.2.8
 ...
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; Leaf ports (Have dependencies, not depended on)
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; automake-1.9.6_2
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; bash-3.1.17
         ===&gt;&gt;&gt; New version available: bash-3.2.33
 ...
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; 32 leaf ports
 
 ===&gt;&gt;&gt; 137 total installed ports
         ===&gt;&gt;&gt; 83 have new versions available</screen>
 
 	<para>此指令用來升級所有過時的 Port：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster -a</userinput></screen>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para>預設 <application>Portmaster</application> 會在刪除已存在的 Port 前備份套件，若成功安裝新版 <application>Portmaster</application> 會刪除該備份。使用 <option>-b</option> 來讓 <application>Portmaster</application> 不會自動刪除備份。加入 <option>-i</option> 可啟動 <application>Portmaster</application> 的互動模式，會在升級每個 Port 前提示訊息。尚有許多可用的其他選項，請閱讀 <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>portmaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的操作手冊來取得詳細的用法。</para>
 	</note>
 
-	<para>若升級的過程發生錯誤，可加入 <option>-f</option> 來升級並重新編譯所有 Ports：</para>
+	<para>若升級的過程發生錯誤，可加入 <option>-f</option> 來升級並重新編譯所有 Port：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster -af</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para><application>Portmaster</application> 也可用來安裝新的 Ports 到系統，在編譯及安裝新 Port 前升級所有相依模組。要使用這個功能，要指定 Port 位於 Ports 套件集中的位置：</para>
+	<para><application>Portmaster</application> 也可用來安裝新的 Port 到系統，在編譯及安裝新 Port 前升級所有相依模組。要使用這個功能，要指定 Port 位於 Port 套件集中的位置：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster <replaceable>shells/bash</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="portupgrade">
-	<title>使用 Portupgrade 升級 Ports</title>
+	<title>使用 Portupgrade 升級 Port</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>portupgrade</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para>另一個可以用來升級 Ports 的工具是 <application>Portupgrade</application>，可在 <package>ports-mgmt/portupgrade</package> 取得套件或 Ports，此工具會安裝一套可以用來管理 Ports 的應用程式，但是它需要相依 Ruby。要安裝該 Port：</para>
+	<para>另一個可以用來升級 Port 的工具是 <application>Portupgrade</application>，可在 <package>ports-mgmt/portupgrade</package> 取得套件或 Port，此工具會安裝一套可以用來管理 Port 的應用程式，但是它需要相依 Ruby。要安裝該 Port：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/ports-mgmt/portupgrade</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para>在執行升級之前使用此工具，建議使用 <command>pkgdb -F</command> 掃描已安裝的 Ports 並修正該指令回報的所有資訊不一致的套件。</para>
+	<para>在執行升級之前使用此工具，建議使用 <command>pkgdb -F</command> 掃描已安裝的 Port 並修正該指令回報的所有資訊不一致的套件。</para>
 
-	<para>要升級所有安裝在系統上過時的 Ports，可使用 <command>portupgrade -a</command>，或者加上 <option>-i</option> 會在每個套件升級時詢問確認：</para>
+	<para>要升級所有安裝在系統上過時的 Port，可使用 <command>portupgrade -a</command>，或者加上 <option>-i</option> 會在每個套件升級時詢問確認：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portupgrade -ai</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para>要升級指定的應用程式而非所有可用 Ports 可使用 <command>portupgrade <replaceable>pkgname</replaceable></command>，非常重要的是，要加上 <option>-R</option> 來先升級指定應用程式所有相依的 Ports：</para>
+	<para>要升級指定的應用程式而非所有可用 Port 可使用 <command>portupgrade <replaceable>pkgname</replaceable></command>，非常重要的是，要加上 <option>-R</option> 來先升級指定應用程式所有相依的 Port：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portupgrade -R firefox</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para>若使用 <option>-P</option>，<application>Portupgrade</application> 會先在 <envar>PKG_PATH</envar> 清單中的本地目錄中搜尋可用的套件。若本地沒有可用的套件，則會從遠端下載。若套件無法在本地或遠端找到，<application>Portupgrade</application> 則會使用 Ports 來安裝。要避免完全使用 Ports 安裝，可使用 <option>-PP</option>，這個選項會告訴 <application>Portupgrade</application> 若沒有套件可用時放棄安裝：</para>
+	<para>若使用 <option>-P</option>，<application>Portupgrade</application> 會先在 <envar>PKG_PATH</envar> 清單中的本地目錄中搜尋可用的套件。若本地沒有可用的套件，則會從遠端下載。若套件無法在本地或遠端找到，<application>Portupgrade</application> 則會使用 Port 來安裝。要避免完全使用 Port 安裝，可使用 <option>-PP</option>，這個選項會告訴 <application>Portupgrade</application> 若沒有套件可用時放棄安裝：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portupgrade -PP gnome3</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>若只想要下載 Port distfiles 或套件，使用 <option>-P</option> 參數。若不要編譯或安裝任何東西，使用 <option>-F</option>。請參考 <command>portupgrade</command> 的操作手冊來取得所有可用選項的更多資訊。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ports-disk-space">
-      <title>Ports 與磁碟空間</title>
+      <title>Port 與磁碟空間</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ports</primary>
 	<secondary>disk-space</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>使用 Ports 套件集會隨著時間消耗磁碟空間。在編譯與安裝 Port 完之後，在 Ports Skeleton 中執行 <command>make clean</command> 可清除暫存的 <filename>work</filename> 目錄。若使用 <application>Portmaster</application> 來安裝 Port，則會自動移除該目錄，除非使用 <option>-K</option>。若有安裝 <application>Portupgrade</application>，此指令將會移除所有在 Ports 套件集的本地複本中找到的 <filename>work</filename> 目錄：</para>
+      <para>使用 Port 套件集會隨著時間消耗磁碟空間。在編譯與安裝 Port 完之後，在 Port Skeleton 中執行 <command>make clean</command> 可清除暫存的 <filename>work</filename> 目錄。若使用 <application>Portmaster</application> 來安裝 Port，則會自動移除該目錄，除非使用 <option>-K</option>。若有安裝 <application>Portupgrade</application>，此指令將會移除所有在 Port 套件集的本地複本中找到的 <filename>work</filename> 目錄：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsclean -C</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>除此之外，許多過時的原始碼發行檔案會儲存在 <filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>。若有安裝 <application>Portupgrade</application>，此指令將會刪除所有不再被任何 Ports 所引用的 distfiles：</para>
+      <para>除此之外，許多過時的原始碼發行檔案會儲存在 <filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename>。若有安裝 <application>Portupgrade</application>，此指令將會刪除所有不再被任何 Port 所引用的 distfiles：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsclean -D</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要使用 <application>Portupgrade</application> 來移除所有未被任何安裝在系統上的 Port 所引用的 distfiles：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsclean -DD</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>若有安裝 <application>Portmaster</application>，則可使用：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster --clean-distfiles</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>預設這個指令會互動的方式詢問使用者確認是否要刪除 distfile。</para>
 
-      <para>除了以上指令外，<package>ports-mgmt/pkg_cutleaves</package> 套件或 Port 可自動移除不再需要使用的 Ports。</para>
+      <para>除了以上指令外，<package>ports-mgmt/pkg_cutleaves</package> 套件或 Port 可自動移除不再需要使用的 Port。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-poudriere">
     <title>使用 <application>Poudriere</application> 編譯套件</title>
 
     <para><application>Poudriere</application> 是一個使用 <acronym>BSD</acronym> 授權條款用來建立與測試 FreeBSD 套件的工具。它使用 FreeBSD Jail 來建置獨立的編譯環境，這些 Jail 可以用來編譯與目前所在系統不同 FreeBSD 版本的套件，也同樣可以在主機為 amd64 的系統上編譯供 i386 使用的套件。套件編譯完成後的目錄配置會與官方鏡像站完全相同。這些套件可由 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及其他套件管理工具使用。</para>
 
-    <para><application>Poudriere</application> 可使用 <package role="port">ports-mgmt/poudriere</package> 套件或 Ports 安裝。安裝完成後會有一個範例的設定檔 <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf.sample</filename>。複製此檔案到 <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf</filename>，編輯複製的檔案來配合本地的設定。</para>
+    <para><application>Poudriere</application> 可使用 <package role="port">ports-mgmt/poudriere</package> 套件或 Port 安裝。安裝完成後會有一個範例的設定檔 <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf.sample</filename>。複製此檔案到 <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf</filename>，編輯複製的檔案來配合本地的設定。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">While <acronym>ZFS</acronym> is not required on the system
-      running <application>poudriere</application>, it is beneficial.
-      When <acronym>ZFS</acronym> is used,
-      <varname>ZPOOL</varname> must be specified in
-      <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf</filename> and
-      <varname>FREEBSD_HOST</varname> should be set to a nearby
-      mirror.  Defining <varname>CCACHE_DIR</varname> enables the use
-      of <package role="port">devel/ccache</package> to cache
-      compilation and reduce build times for frequently-compiled code.
-      It may be convenient to put
-      <application>poudriere</application> datasets in an isolated
-      tree mounted at <filename>/poudriere</filename>.  Defaults for the
-      other configuration values are adequate.</para>
+    <para>雖然在系統上執行 <application>poudriere</application> 並不一定要使用 <acronym>ZFS</acronym>，但使用了是有幫助的。當使用了 <acronym>ZFS</acronym>，則必須在 <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.conf</filename> 指定 <varname>ZPOOL</varname> 以及 <varname>FREEBSD_HOST</varname> 應設定到一個最近的鏡像站。定義 <varname>CCACHE_DIR</varname> 可開啟使用 <package role="port">devel/ccache</package> 快取的功能來快取編譯結果並減少那些需時常編譯的程式碼的編譯次數。將 <application>poudriere</application> 資料集放到一個獨立的目錄並掛載到 <filename>/poudriere</filename> 可能會比較方便，其他設定項目採用預設值便足夠。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">The number of processor cores detected is used to define how
-      many builds should run in parallel.  Supply enough virtual
-      memory, either with <acronym>RAM</acronym> or swap space.  If
-      virtual memory runs out, compiling jails will stop and be torn
-      down, resulting in weird error messages.</para>
+    <para>偵測到的處理器數量可用來定義要同時執行多少個編譯。並請給予足夠的虛擬記憶體，不論是 <acronym>RAM</acronym> 或交換空間，若虛擬記憶體不足，編譯 Jail 將會停止並被清除，可能會造成奇怪的錯誤訊息。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="poudriere-initialization">
-      <title>初始化 Jails 與 Port 樹</title>
+      <title>初始化 Jail 與 Port 樹</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After configuration, initialize
-	<application>poudriere</application> so that it installs a
-	jail with the required FreeBSD tree and a ports tree.  Specify a
-	name for the jail using <option>-j</option> and the FreeBSD
-	version with <option>-v</option>.  On systems running
-	FreeBSD/amd64, the architecture can be set with
-	<option>-a</option> to either <literal>i386</literal> or
-	<literal>amd64</literal>.  The default is the
-	architecture shown by <command>uname</command>.</para>
+      <para>在設定之後，初始化 <application>poudriere</application> 來安裝 Jail 及其所需的 FreeBSD 樹與 Port 樹。使用 <option>-j</option> 來指定 Jail 的名稱以及 <option>-v</option> 來指定 FreeBSD 的版本。在執行 FreeBSD/amd64 的系統上可使用 <option>-a</option> 來設定要使用的架構為 <literal>i386</literal> 或 <literal>amd64</literal>，預設會採用使用 <command>uname</command> 所顯示的架構。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>poudriere jail -c -j <replaceable>10amd64</replaceable> -v <replaceable>10.0-RELEASE</replaceable></userinput>
 ====&gt;&gt; Creating 10amd64 fs... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Fetching base.txz for FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE amd64
 /poudriere/jails/10amd64/fromftp/base.txz      100% of   59 MB 1470 kBps 00m42s
 ====&gt;&gt; Extracting base.txz... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Fetching src.txz for FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE amd64
 /poudriere/jails/10amd64/fromftp/src.txz       100% of  107 MB 1476 kBps 01m14s
 ====&gt;&gt; Extracting src.txz... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Fetching games.txz for FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE amd64
 /poudriere/jails/10amd64/fromftp/games.txz     100% of  865 kB  734 kBps 00m01s
 ====&gt;&gt; Extracting games.txz... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Fetching lib32.txz for FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE amd64
 /poudriere/jails/10amd64/fromftp/lib32.txz     100% of   14 MB 1316 kBps 00m12s
 ====&gt;&gt; Extracting lib32.txz... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Cleaning up... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Jail 10amd64 10.0-RELEASE amd64 is ready to be used</screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>poudriere ports -c -p <replaceable>local</replaceable></userinput>
 ====&gt;&gt; Creating local fs... done
 ====&gt;&gt; Extracting portstree "local"...
 Looking up portsnap.FreeBSD.org mirrors... 7 mirrors found.
 Fetching public key from ec2-eu-west-1.portsnap.freebsd.org... done.
 Fetching snapshot tag from ec2-eu-west-1.portsnap.freebsd.org... done.
 Fetching snapshot metadata... done.
 Fetching snapshot generated at Tue Feb 11 01:07:15 CET 2014:
 94a3431f0ce567f6452ffde4fd3d7d3c6e1da143efec76100% of   69 MB 1246 kBps 00m57s
 Extracting snapshot... done.
 Verifying snapshot integrity... done.
 Fetching snapshot tag from ec2-eu-west-1.portsnap.freebsd.org... done.
 Fetching snapshot metadata... done.
 Updating from Tue Feb 11 01:07:15 CET 2014 to Tue Feb 11 16:05:20 CET 2014.
 Fetching 4 metadata patches... done.
 Applying metadata patches... done.
 Fetching 0 metadata files... done.
 Fetching 48 patches.
 (48/48) 100.00%  done.
 done.
 Applying patches...
 done.
 Fetching 1 new ports or files... done.
 /poudriere/ports/tester/CHANGES
 /poudriere/ports/tester/COPYRIGHT
 
 [...]
 
 Building new INDEX files... done.</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">On a single computer, <application>poudriere</application>
-	can build ports with multiple configurations, in multiple
-	jails, and from different port trees.  Custom configurations
-	for these combinations are called <emphasis>sets</emphasis>.
-	See the CUSTOMIZATION section of <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>poudriere</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details
-	after <package>ports-mgmt/poudriere</package> or
-	<package>ports-mgmt/poudriere-devel</package> is
-	installed.</para>
+      <para>在一台電腦，<application>poudriere</application> 可使用多組設定在多個 Jail 編譯來自不同 Port 樹的 Port。用來定義這些組合的自訂設定稱作 <emphasis>sets</emphasis>，可在安裝 <package>ports-mgmt/poudriere</package> 或 <package>ports-mgmt/poudriere-devel</package> 後參考 <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>poudriere</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 中的 CUSTOMIZATION 章節來取得詳細的資訊。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The basic configuration shown here puts a single jail-,
-	port-, and set-specific <filename>make.conf</filename> in
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.d</filename>.
-	The filename in this example is created by combining the jail
-	name, port name, and set name:
-	<filename><replaceable>10amd64-local-workstation</replaceable>-make.conf</filename>.
-	The system <filename>make.conf</filename> and this new file
-	are combined at build time to create the
-	<filename>make.conf</filename> used by the build jail.</para>
+      <para>在此處示範的基本設定放了單一個 jail-, port- 以及 set- 特定的 <filename>make.conf</filename> 在 <filename>/usr/local/etc/poudriere.d</filename>。在此範例使用的檔案名稱由 Jail 名稱、Port 名稱以及 set 名稱所組成: <filename><replaceable>10amd64-local-workstation</replaceable>-make.conf</filename>。系統 <filename>make.conf</filename> 與這個新的檔案在編譯時期會被合併為編譯 Jail 要使用的 <filename>make.conf</filename>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Packages to be built are entered in
-	<filename><replaceable>10amd64-local-workstation</replaceable>-pkglist</filename>:</para>
+      <para>要編譯的套件會輸入到 <filename><replaceable>10amd64-local-workstation</replaceable>-pkglist</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">editors/emacs
 devel/git
 ports-mgmt/pkg
 ...</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Options and dependencies for the specified ports are
-	configured:</para>
+      <para>可使用以下方式設定選項及相依:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>poudriere options -j <replaceable>10amd64</replaceable> -p <replaceable>local</replaceable> -z <replaceable>workstation</replaceable> -f <replaceable>10amd64-local-workstation-pkglist</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Finally, packages are built and a package
-	repository is created:</para>
+      <para>最後，編譯套件並建立套件檔案庫:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>poudriere bulk -j <replaceable>10amd64</replaceable> -p <replaceable>local</replaceable> -z <replaceable>workstation</replaceable> -f <replaceable>10amd64-local-workstation-pkglist</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>t</keycap></keycombo>
-	displays the current state of the build.
-	<application>Poudriere</application> also builds files in
-	<filename>/poudriere/logs/bulk/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable></filename>
-	that can be used with a web server to display build
-	information.</para>
+      <para><keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>t</keycap></keycombo> 可以顯示目前編譯的狀態，<application>Poudriere</application> 也會編譯在 <filename>/poudriere/logs/bulk/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable></filename> 中的檔案，可用在網頁伺服器來顯示編譯資訊。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Packages are now available for
-	installation from the <application>poudriere</application>
-	repository.</para>
+      <para>套件現在可以從 <application>poudriere</application> 檔案庫來安裝。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">For more information on using
-	<application>poudriere</application>, see <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>poudriere</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
-	and the main web site, <link xlink:href="https://github.com/freebsd/poudriere/wiki"/>.</para>
+      <para>要取得更多使用 <application>poudriere</application> 的資訊，請參考 <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>poudriere</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及主網站 <link xlink:href="https://github.com/freebsd/poudriere/wiki"/>。</para>
     </sect2>
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 pkg 客戶端使用 Poudriere 檔案庫</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">While it is possible to use both a custom repository along
-	side of the official repository, sometimes it is useful to
-	disable the official repository.  This is done by creating a
-	configuration file that overrides and disables the official
-	configuration file.  Create
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf</filename>
-	that contains the following:</para>
+      <para>雖然可以同時使用自訂的檔案庫與官方檔案庫，但有時關閉官方檔案庫會有幫助。這可以透過建立一個設定檔覆蓋並關閉官方的設定檔來完成。建立 <filename>/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/FreeBSD.conf</filename> 包含以下內容:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: {
 	enabled: no
 }</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Usually it is easiest to serve a poudriere repository to
-	the client machines via HTTP.  Setup a webserver to serve up
-	the package directory, usually something like:
-	<filename>/usr/local/poudriere/data/packages/<replaceable>10amd64</replaceable></filename>.
-	Where <filename>10amd64</filename> is the name of the
-	build.</para>
+      <para>通常最簡單要提供 poudriere 給客戶端的方式是透過 HTTP。安裝一個網頁伺服器來提供套件目錄，通常會像: <filename>/usr/local/poudriere/data/packages/<replaceable>10amd64</replaceable></filename>，其中 <filename>10amd64</filename> 是編譯的名稱。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If the URL to the package repository is:
-	<literal>http://pkg.example.com/10amd64</literal>, then the
-	repository configuration file in
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/custom.conf</filename>
-	would look like:</para>
+      <para>若要連往套件檔案庫的 URL 是: <literal>http://pkg.example.com/10amd64</literal>，則在 <filename>/usr/local/etc/pkg/repos/custom.conf</filename> 的檔案庫設定檔為:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">custom: {
 	url: "<replaceable>http://pkg.example.com/10amd64</replaceable>",
 	enabled: yes,
 }</screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-nextsteps">
     <title>安裝後的注意事項</title>
 
     <para>不論軟體是從套件或 Port 安裝，大部份的第三方應用程式安裝完後需要做某種程度的設定，下列指令與位置可以用來協助找到應用程式安裝了什麼。</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>大部份應用程式安裝會在 <filename>/usr/local/etc</filename> 安裝至少一個預設的設定檔，在應用程式有大量設定檔的情況會建立一個子目錄來存放這些設定檔。範例的設定檔名通常會使用 <filename>.sample</filename> 結尾，應要檢查這些檔案的內容，並可能要做一些編輯讓設定檔符合系統的需求，要編輯設定檔範本前需先複製該檔案並去除 <filename>.sample</filename> 副檔名。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>應用程式提供的文件會安裝到 <filename>/usr/local/share/doc</filename>，且許多應用程式也同時會安裝操作手冊，在繼續使用應用程式前應先查看這些文件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>部份應用程式會以服務的方式執行，在啟動應用程式前前需要加入設定到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>。這些應用程式通常會安裝啟動 Script 到 <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d</filename>，請參考 <link linkend="configtuning-starting-services">啟動服務</link> 來取得更多資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>csh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的使用者應要執行 <command>rehash</command> 來更新已知 Binary 清單到 Shell 的 <envar>PATH</envar>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>使用 <command>pkg info</command> 來了解應用程式安裝了那些檔案、操作手冊以及 Binary。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ports-broken">
-    <title>處理損壞的 Ports</title>
+    <title>處理損壞的 Port</title>
 
     <para>當發現某個 Port 無法順利編譯或安裝，可以嘗試以下幾種方法解決：</para>
 
     <orderedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>搜尋 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/support.html">問題回報資料庫</link> 看該 Port 有沒有待審核的修正，若有的話可以使用該修正來修正問題。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>尋求維護人員的協助，在 Ports Skeleton 目錄中輸入 <command>make maintainer</command> 或閱讀 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 來取得維護人員的電子郵件位址。寄給維護人員的郵件內容請記得要包含 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 中的 <literal>$FreeBSD:</literal> 一整行及輸出的錯誤訊息。</para>
+	<para>尋求維護人員的協助，在 Port Skeleton 目錄中輸入 <command>make maintainer</command> 或閱讀 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 來取得維護人員的電子郵件位址。寄給維護人員的郵件內容請記得要包含 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 中的 <literal>$FreeBSD:</literal> 一整行及輸出的錯誤訊息。</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para>有一些 Port 並非由個人維護，而是由 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/mailing-list-faq/article.html">郵遞論壇</link> 維護，只要郵件地址長的像 <email role="nolink">freebsd-listname@FreeBSD.org</email> 都是，寄信時記得代入實際的論壇名稱。</para>
 
-	  <para>尤其是顯示 <email role="nolink">ports@FreeBSD.org</email> 的  Port  都不是由特定個人維護，該 Ports 的修正與支援來自訂閱該郵遞論壇的一般社群所提供，我們非常歡迎志工參與。</para>
+	  <para>尤其是顯示 <email role="nolink">ports@FreeBSD.org</email> 的  Port  都不是由特定個人維護，該 Port 的修正與支援來自訂閱該郵遞論壇的一般社群所提供，我們非常歡迎志工參與。</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para>若寄信後沒有取得任何回應，可以依照 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/problem-reports/article.html">撰寫 FreeBSD 問題回報</link> 的說明使用 Bugzilla 提出問題回報。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>自行修正看看! <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/porters-handbook/index.html">Porter's Handbook</link> 中含有 Port 基礎架構的詳細資訊，可提供資訊讓您可修正偶然損壞的 Port 或甚至您可以提交之自己的 Port。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>依照 <xref linkend="pkgng-intro"/> 中的說明安裝 Binary 套件，替代使用 Port 安裝。</para>
       </listitem>
     </orderedlist>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="x11">
   <!--
   <chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Ken</firstname>
 	<surname>Tom</surname>
 	<contrib>Updated for X.Org's X11 server by </contrib>
       </author>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	<surname>Fonvieille</surname>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
 
   <title>X Window 系統</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x11-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>使用 <application>bsdinstall</application> 安裝 FreeBSD 並不會自動安裝圖型化使用者介面。本章將說明如何安裝並設定 <application>Xorg</application>，該應用程式提供開放源碼的 X Window 系統來提供圖型化環境。接著會說明如何找到並安裝桌面環境或視窗管理程式。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>偏好安裝時會自動設定 <application>Xorg</application> 並且在安裝過程提供視窗管理程式選項的使用者請參考 <link xlink:href="http://www.pcbsd.org/">pcbsd.org</link> 網站。</para>
     </note>
 
     <para>更多有關 <application>Xorg</application> 支援影像硬體資訊，請參考 <link xlink:href="http://www.x.org/">x.org</link> 網站。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>組成 X Window 系統的各種元件以及它們是如何相互運作。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何安裝並設定 <application>Xorg</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何安裝並設定各種視窗管理程式與桌面環境。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 <application>Xorg</application> 上使用 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定系統以使用圖形化登入 (<application>XDM</application>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何依照 <xref linkend="ports"/> 說明安裝其他第三方軟體。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x-understanding">
     <title>術語</title>
 
     <para>雖然 X 各元件的所有細節及運作方式，並不是必須要知道的。 但對它們有些基本概念會更容易上手。</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
-	<term>X 伺服器(X Server)</term>
+	<term>X 伺服器 (X Server)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>X 最初設計是以網路為中心，採用 <quote>client-server</quote> 架構。在此架構下 <quote>X 伺服器</quote> 在有鍵盤、螢幕、滑鼠的電腦上運作。該伺服器負責的工作包含管理顯示、處理來自鍵盤、滑鼠的輸入及來自其他設備(如平板或或影像投影機)的輸入或輸出。這點可能會讓人感到困惑，因為 X 使用的術語與一般的認知剛好相反。 一般認知會以為 <quote>X 伺服器</quote> 是要在最強悍的主機上執行，而 <quote>X 客戶端</quote> 才是在桌機上面執行，實際上卻是相反。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
-	<term>X 客戶端(X Client)</term>
+	<term>X 客戶端 (X Client)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>每個 X 應用程式，如 <application>XTerm</application>、<application>Firefox</application> 都是 <quote>客戶端</quote>。 客戶端會傳訊息到伺服器，例如：<quote>請在這些座標畫一個視窗</quote>，接著伺服器會傳回訊息，如：<quote>使用者剛點選了確定按鈕</quote>。</para>
 
 	  <para>在家庭或小型辦公室環境，通常 X 伺服器跟 X 客戶端都是在同一台電腦上執行。也可以在比較慢的電腦上執行 X 伺服器， 並在比較強、比較貴的系統上執行 X 應用程式。 在這種情景，X 客戶端與伺服器之間的溝通就需透過網路來進行。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
-	<term>視窗管理程式(Window Manager)</term>
+	<term>視窗管理程式 (Window Manager)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>X 並不規定螢幕上的視窗該長什麼樣、要如何移動滑鼠指標、 要用什麼鍵來在視窗切換、每個視窗的標題列長相，及是否該有關閉按鈕，等等。事實上，X 把這部分交給所謂的視窗管理程式來管理。可用的<link xlink:href="http://xwinman.org/">視窗管理程式有很多種</link>，每一種視窗管理程式都提供不同的使用介面風格：有些支援虛擬桌面，有些允許自訂組合鍵來管理桌面，有些有 <quote>開始</quote> 鈕，有些則是可更換佈景主題，可自行安裝新的佈景主題以更換外觀。 視窗管理程式可在 Ports 套件集的 <filename>x11-wm</filename> 分類找到。</para>
+	  <para>X 並不規定螢幕上的視窗該長什麼樣、要如何移動滑鼠指標、 要用什麼鍵來在視窗切換、每個視窗的標題列長相，及是否該有關閉按鈕，等等。事實上，X 把這部分交給所謂的視窗管理程式來管理。可用的<link xlink:href="http://xwinman.org/">視窗管理程式有很多種</link>，每一種視窗管理程式都提供不同的使用介面風格：有些支援虛擬桌面，有些允許自訂組合鍵來管理桌面，有些有 <quote>開始</quote> 鈕，有些則是可更換佈景主題，可自行安裝新的佈景主題以更換外觀。 視窗管理程式可在 Port 套件集的 <filename>x11-wm</filename> 分類找到。</para>
 
 	  <para>每個視窗管理程式也各有其不同的設定機制，有些需要手動修改設定檔， 而有的則可透過圖型化工具來完成大部分的設定工作。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
-	<term>桌面環境(Desktop Environment)</term>
+	<term>桌面環境 (Desktop Environment)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><application>KDE</application> 與 <application>GNOME</application> 會被稱作桌面環境是因為包含了完整常用桌面作業的應用程式，這些應用程式可能包含文書軟體、網頁瀏覽器及遊戲。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
-	<term>聚焦政策(Focus Policy)</term>
+	<term>聚焦政策 (Focus Policy)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>視窗管理程式負責滑鼠指標的聚焦政策。 聚焦政策指的是如何決定使用中及接收鍵盤輸入的視窗。</para>
 
-	  <para>通常較為人熟悉的聚焦政策叫做 <quote>click-to-focus</quote>，這個模式中，滑鼠點選到的視窗便會處於作用中(Active)的狀態。在 <quote>focus-follows-mouse</quote> 模式滑鼠指標所在的視窗便是作用中的視窗，只要把滑鼠移到其他視窗就可以改變作用中的視窗，若滑鼠移到根視窗(Root Window)，則會聚焦在根視窗。在 <quote>sloppy-focus</quote> 模式，既使滑鼠移到根視窗，仍然會聚焦在最後聚焦的視窗上，此模式只有當滑鼠進入新的視窗時才會聚焦於該視窗，而非離開目前視窗時。<quote>click-to-focus</quote> 模式用滑鼠點擊來決定作用中的視窗，且該視窗會被置頂到所有其他視窗之前，即使滑鼠移到其他視窗，所有的鍵盤輸入仍會由該視窗所接收。</para>
+	  <para>通常較為人熟悉的聚焦政策叫做 <quote>click-to-focus</quote>，這個模式中，滑鼠點選到的視窗便會處於作用中 (Active) 的狀態。在 <quote>focus-follows-mouse</quote> 模式滑鼠指標所在的視窗便是作用中的視窗，只要把滑鼠移到其他視窗就可以改變作用中的視窗，若滑鼠移到根視窗 (Root Window)，則會聚焦在根視窗。在 <quote>sloppy-focus</quote> 模式，既使滑鼠移到根視窗，仍然會聚焦在最後聚焦的視窗上，此模式只有當滑鼠進入新的視窗時才會聚焦於該視窗，而非離開目前視窗時。<quote>click-to-focus</quote> 模式用滑鼠點擊來決定作用中的視窗，且該視窗會被置頂到所有其他視窗之前，即使滑鼠移到其他視窗，所有的鍵盤輸入仍會由該視窗所接收。</para>
 
 	  <para>不同的視窗管理程式支援不同的聚焦模式，全部都支援 click-to-focus 且其中大部份支援其他模式，請查看視窗管理程式的說明文件來了解可用的聚焦模式。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
-	<term>視窗元件(Widget)</term>
+	<term>視窗元件 (Widget)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>視窗元件指的是在所有在使用者介面上可被點選或操作的項目，這包括按鈕、核選方塊、單選按鈕、圖示及清單。 視窗元件工具包(Widget toolkit)是指用來建立圖型化應用程式的一系列的視窗元件。目前有數個有名的視窗元件工具包，包含 <application>KDE</application> 所使用的 Qt、<application>GNOME</application> 所使用的 GTK+。 因此應用程式會依其開發時所選用的視窗元件工具包而有不同的外觀。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x-install">
     <title>安裝 <application>Xorg</application></title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">On FreeBSD, <application>Xorg</application> can be installed
-      as a package or port.</para>
+    <para>在 FreeBSD，<application>Xorg</application> 可透過套件或 Port 來安裝。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">To build and install from the Ports Collection:</para>
+    <para>要從 Port 套件集編譯與安裝:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/x11/xorg</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">The binary package can be installed more quickly but with
-      fewer options for customization:</para>
+    <para>使用 Binary 套件安裝快速，但可用的自訂選項較少:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install xorg</userinput></screen>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Either of these installations results in the complete
-      <application>Xorg</application> system being installed.  This
-      is the best option for most users.</para>
+    <para>兩種安裝方式皆可完整安裝 <application>Xorg</application> 系統。此方式較建議大多數使用者。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">A smaller version of the X system suitable for experienced
-      users is available in <package>x11/xorg-minimal</package>.  Most
-      of the documents, libraries, and applications will not be
-      installed.  Some applications require these additional
-      components to function.</para>
+    <para>較精簡版本的 X 系統適合給有經驗的使用者使用，可至 <package>x11/xorg-minimal</package> 取得。這個版本就不會安裝大多數的文件、函數庫以及應用程式，而部份應用程式會需要這些額外的元件才能運作。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x-config">
     <title><application>Xorg</application> 設定</title>
 
     <info>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Warren</firstname>
 	  <surname>Block</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Originally contributed by</contrib>
       </author>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Xorg</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><application>Xorg</application></primary></indexterm>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-quick-start">
       <title>快速開始</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> supports most common
-	video cards, keyboards, and pointing devices.  These devices
-	are automatically detected and do not require any manual
-	configuration.</para>
+      <para><application>Xorg</application> 支援大多數常見的顯示卡、鍵盤以及指標裝置，<application>Xorg</application> 會自動偵測這些裝置，並不需要手動設定。</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">If <application>Xorg</application> has been used on
-	    this computer before, move or remove any existing
-	    configuration files:</para>
+	  <para>若 <application>Xorg</application> 曾經在電腦使用過，可先將現有的設定檔重新命名或移除:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv /etc/X11/xorg.conf ~/xorg.conf.etc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv /usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf ~/xorg.conf.localetc</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Add the user who will run
-	    <application>Xorg</application> to the
-	    <literal>video</literal> or
-	    <literal>wheel</literal> group to enable 3D acceleration
-	    when available.  To add user
-	    <replaceable>jru</replaceable> to whichever group is
-	    available:</para>
+	  <para>加入要執行 <application>Xorg</application> 的使用者到 <literal>video</literal> 或 <literal>wheel</literal> 群組，以便在可用時能開啟 3D 加速。要加入使用者 <replaceable>jru</replaceable> 到任一個可用的群組:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod video -m <replaceable>jru</replaceable> || pw groupmod wheel -m <replaceable>jru</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>TWM</acronym> window manager is included
-	    by default.  It is started when
-	    <application>Xorg</application> starts:</para>
+	  <para>預設內含 <acronym>TWM</acronym> 視窗管理程式，啟動 <application>Xorg</application> 時便會啟動該視窗管理程式:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>startx</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">On some older versions of FreeBSD, the system console
-	    must be set to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> before switching back to the
-	    text console will work properly.  See
-	    <xref linkend="x-config-kms"/>.</para>
+	  <para>在部份較舊版的 FreeBSD，在切換回文字 Console 前系統 Console 必須設為 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 才可正常運作，請參考 <xref linkend="x-config-kms"/>。</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-user-group">
-      <title>用來加速影像處理的使用者群組</title>
+      <title>可加速影像處理的使用者群組</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Access to <filename>/dev/dri</filename> is needed to allow
-	3D acceleration on video cards.  It is usually simplest to add
-	the user who will be running X to either the
-	<literal>video</literal> or <literal>wheel</literal> group.
-	Here, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to add user
-	<replaceable>slurms</replaceable> to the
-	<literal>video</literal> group, or to the
-	<literal>wheel</literal> group if there is no
-	<literal>video</literal> group:</para>
+      <para>要存取 <filename>/dev/dri</filename> 需要允許顯示卡的 3D 加速功能，這通常只需要將要執行 X 的使用者加入 <literal>video</literal> 或 <literal>wheel</literal> 群組。此處使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來將使用者 <replaceable>slurms</replaceable> 加入 <literal>video</literal> 群組，若沒有 <literal>video</literal> 則會加入 <literal>wheel</literal> 群組:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod video -m <replaceable>slurms</replaceable> || pw groupmod wheel -m <replaceable>slurms</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-kms">
       <title>核心模式設定 (Kernel Mode Setting, <acronym>KMS</acronym>)</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When the computer switches from displaying the console to
-	a higher screen resolution for X, it must set the video
-	output <emphasis>mode</emphasis>.  Recent versions of
-	<acronym>Xorg</acronym> use a system inside the kernel to do
-	these mode changes more efficiently.  Older versions of FreeBSD
-	use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which is not aware of the
-	<acronym>KMS</acronym> system.  The end result is that after
-	closing X, the system console is blank, even though it is
-	still working.  The newer <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> console avoids this
-	problem.</para>
+      <para>當電腦顯示從 Console 切換到高螢幕解析度供 X 使用時，必須設定影像輸出<emphasis>模式</emphasis>。最近版本的 <acronym>Xorg</acronym> 使用了核心內部的系統來讓切換模式更有效率。較舊版的 FreeBSD 使用的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 並不知到 <acronym>KMS</acronym> 系統的存在，這會導致關閉 X 之後即始仍在運作但系統 Console 卻呈現空白。較新版的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> Console 可避免這個問題。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Add this line to <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>
-	to enable <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
+      <para>加入此行到 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 來開啟 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">kern.vty=vt</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-files">
       <title>設定檔</title>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="x-config-files-directory">
 	<title>目錄</title>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> looks in several
-	  directories for configuration files.
-	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/</filename> is the recommended
-	  directory for these files on FreeBSD.  Using this directory
-	  helps keep application files separate from operating system
-	  files.</para>
+	<para><application>Xorg</application> 會查看數個目錄來尋找設定檔，在 FreeBSD 較建議使用 <filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/</filename> 來存放這些設定檔，使用這個目錄可以幫助將應用程式檔案與作業系統檔案分離。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Storing configuration files in the legacy
-	  <filename>/etc/X11/</filename> still works.  However, this
-	  mixes application files with the base FreeBSD files and is not
-	  recommended.</para>
+	<para>儲存設定檔在傳統的 <filename>/etc/X11/</filename> 仍可運作，但並不建議將應用程式檔案與基礎 FreeBSD 檔案混合在一起存放。</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="x-config-files-single-or-multi">
 	<title>單檔或多檔</title>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">It is easier to use multiple files that each configure a
-	  specific setting than the traditional single
-	  <filename>xorg.conf</filename>.  These files are stored in
-	  the <filename>xorg.conf.d/</filename> subdirectory of the
-	  main configuration file directory.  The full path is
-	  typically
-	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/</filename>.</para>
+	<para>使用多檔，每一個檔案只設定一個指定項目會較傳統使用單一 <filename>xorg.conf</filename> 設定來的簡單。這些檔案會存放在主設定檔目錄下的 <filename>xorg.conf.d/</filename> 子目錄，完整路徑通常為 <filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/</filename>。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Examples of these files are shown later in this
-	  section.</para>
+	<para>於本節稍後會有這些檔案的範例。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">The traditional single <filename>xorg.conf</filename>
-	  still works, but is neither as clear nor as flexible as
-	  multiple files in the <filename>xorg.conf.d/</filename>
-	  subdirectory.</para>
+	<para>傳統單一 <filename>xorg.conf</filename> 的方式仍可運作，但比起在 <filename>xorg.conf.d/</filename> 子目錄中的多檔設定方式較不明瞭且沒有彈性。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-video-cards">
       <title>顯示卡</title>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-video-cards-intel">
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">3D acceleration is supported on most <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark>
-	      graphics up to Ivy Bridge (HD Graphics 2500, 4000, and
-	      P4000), including Iron Lake (HD Graphics) and
-	      Sandy Bridge (HD Graphics 2000).</para>
+	    <para>3D 加速在大多數 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 顯示晶片都有支援，最新到 Ivy Bridge (HD Graphics 2500, 4000, 及 P4000) 包含 Iron Lake (HD Graphics) 與 Sandy Bridge (HD Graphics 2000)。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Driver name: <literal>intel</literal></para>
+	    <para>驅動程式名稱: <literal>intel</literal></para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">For reference, see <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_graphics_processing_units"/>.</para>
+	    <para>參考文獻請至 <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_graphics_processing_units"/>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-video-cards-radeon">
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> Radeon</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">2D and 3D acceleration is supported on Radeon
-	      cards up to and including the HD6000 series.</para>
+	    <para>Radeon 顯示卡支援 2D 及 3D 加速，最新到 HD6000 系列。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Driver name: <literal>radeon</literal></para>
+	    <para>驅動程式名稱: <literal>radeon</literal></para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">For reference, see <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_graphics_processing_units"/>.</para>
+	    <para>參考文獻請至 <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_graphics_processing_units"/>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-video-cards-nvidia">
 	  <term xml:lang="en">NVIDIA</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Several NVIDIA drivers are available in the
-	      <filename>x11</filename> category of the Ports
-	      Collection.  Install the driver that matches the video
-	      card.</para>
+	    <para>有數個 NVIDIA 驅動程式可於 Port 套件集中的 <filename>x11</filename> 分類取得，請安裝其中與顯示卡相符的驅動程式。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">For reference, see <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units"/>.</para>
+	    <para>參考文獻請至 <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units"/>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-video-cards-hybrid">
-	  <term xml:lang="en">Hybrid Combination Graphics</term>
+	  <term>混合組合繪圖晶片</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Some notebook computers add additional graphics
-	      processing units to those built into the chipset or
-	      processor.  <emphasis>Optimus</emphasis> combines
-	      <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> and NVIDIA hardware.
-	      <emphasis>Switchable Graphics</emphasis> or
-	      <emphasis>Hybrid Graphics</emphasis> are a combination
-	      of an <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> or <trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> processor and an <trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> Radeon
-	      <acronym>GPU</acronym>.</para>
+	    <para>部份筆記型電腦加入了額外繪圖處理單元到那些內建晶片組或處理。<emphasis>Optimus</emphasis> 結合了 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 及 NVIDIA 的硬體，<emphasis>Switchable Graphics</emphasis> 或 <emphasis>Hybrid Graphics</emphasis> 則是結合了 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 或 <trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> 處理器與 <trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> Radeon <acronym>GPU</acronym>。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Implementations of these hybrid graphics systems
-	      vary, and <application>Xorg</application> on FreeBSD is
-	      not able to drive all versions of them.</para>
+	    <para>這些混合繪圖系統的實作方式均不同，FreeBSD 的 <application>Xorg</application> 尚無法驅動所有的混合繪圖系統版本。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Some computers provide a <acronym>BIOS</acronym>
-	      option to disable one of the graphics adapters or select
-	      a <emphasis>discrete</emphasis> mode which can be used
-	      with one of the standard video card drivers.  For
-	      example, it is sometimes possible to disable the NVIDIA
-	      <acronym>GPU</acronym> in an Optimus system.  The
-	      <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> video can then be used with an <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark>
-	      driver.</para>
+	    <para>部份電腦提供了 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 的選項可以關閉其中一個繪圖介面卡或選擇 <emphasis>discrete</emphasis> 模式，可用使用其中一種標準顯示卡驅動程式來驅動。例如，有時關閉 Optimus 系統中的 NVIDIA <acronym>GPU</acronym> 是可能讓 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 顯示晶片可用 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 驅動程式驅動。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>BIOS</acronym> settings depend on the model
-	      of computer.  In some situations, both
-	      <acronym>GPU</acronym>s can be left enabled, but
-	      creating a configuration file that only uses the main
-	      <acronym>GPU</acronym> in the <literal>Device</literal>
-	      section is enough to make such a system
-	      functional.</para>
+	    <para><acronym>BIOS</acronym> 設定會依電腦的型號有所不同，在某些情況下，可以同時開啟兩個 <acronym>GPU</acronym>，而在建立的設定檔中的 <literal>Device</literal> 節只使用主要的 <acronym>GPU</acronym> 便能讓系統運作。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-video-cards-other">
-	  <term xml:lang="en">Other Video Cards</term>
+	  <term>其他顯示卡</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Drivers for some less-common video cards can be
-	      found in the <filename>x11-drivers</filename> directory
-	      of the Ports Collection.</para>
+	    <para>較不常見的顯示卡驅動程式可在 Port 套件集的 <filename>x11-drivers</filename> 目錄找到。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Cards that are not supported by a specific driver
-	      might still be usable with the
-	      <package>x11-drivers/xf86-video-vesa</package> driver.
-	      This driver is installed by <package>x11/xorg</package>.
-	      It can also be installed manually as
-	      <package>x11-drivers/xf86-video-vesa</package>.
-	      <application>Xorg</application> attempts to use this
-	      driver when a specific driver is not found for the video
-	      card.</para>
+	    <para>若沒有特定的驅動程式可以支援顯示卡，仍可能可用 <package>x11-drivers/xf86-video-vesa</package> 驅動程式來驅動。該驅動程式可使用 <package>x11/xorg</package> 安裝，也可使用 <package>x11-drivers/xf86-video-vesa</package> 手動安裝。當沒有指定驅動程式時 <application>Xorg</application> 會嘗試使用這個驅動程式來驅動顯示卡。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en"><package>x11-drivers/xf86-video-scfb</package> is a
-	      similar nonspecialized video driver that works on many
-	      <acronym>UEFI</acronym> and <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark> computers.</para>
+	    <para><package>x11-drivers/xf86-video-scfb</package> 也是不特定顯示卡的驅動程式，可在許多 <acronym>UEFI</acronym> 及 <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark> 的電腦上運作。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-video-cards-file">
-	  <term xml:lang="en">Setting the Video Driver in a File</term>
+	  <term>在檔案中設定影像驅動程式</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">To set the <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> driver in a configuration
-	      file:</para>
+	    <para>要在設定檔設定使用 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 驅動程式:</para>
 
 	    <example xml:id="x-config-video-cards-file-intel">
 	      <title>在單檔中選擇 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 影像驅動程式</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/driver-intel.conf</filename></para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Device"
 	Identifier "Card0"
 	Driver     "intel"
 	# BusID    "PCI:1:0:0"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
-	      <para xml:lang="en">If more than one video card is present, the
-		<literal>BusID</literal> identifier can be uncommented
-		and set to select the desired card.  A list of video
-		card bus <acronym>ID</acronym>s can be displayed with
-		<command>pciconf -lv | grep -B3
-		  display</command>.</para>
+	      <para>若有多張顯示卡，可取消註解 <literal>BusID</literal> identifier 然後設定為想要的顯示卡，顯示卡的 Bus <acronym>ID</acronym> 清單可以使用 <command>pciconf -lv | grep -B3 display</command> 取得。</para>
 	    </example>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">To set the Radeon driver in a configuration
-	      file:</para>
+	    <para>要在設定檔設定使用 Radeon 驅動程式:</para>
 
 	    <example xml:id="x-config-video-cards-file-radeon">
 	      <title>在單檔中選擇 Radeon 影像驅動程式</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/driver-radeon.conf</filename></para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Device"
 	Identifier "Card0"
 	Driver     "radeon"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	    </example>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">To set the <acronym>VESA</acronym> driver in a
-	      configuration file:</para>
+	    <para>要在設定檔設定使用 <acronym>VESA</acronym> 驅動程式:</para>
 
 	    <example xml:id="x-config-video-cards-file-vesa">
 	      <title>在單檔中選擇 <acronym>VESA</acronym> 影像驅動程式</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/driver-vesa.conf</filename></para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Device"
 	Identifier "Card0"
 	Driver     "vesa"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	    </example>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">To set the <literal>scfb</literal> driver for use
-	      with a <acronym>UEFI</acronym> or <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark> computer:</para>
+	    <para>要設定 <acronym>UEFI</acronym> 或 <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark> 電腦使用 <literal>scfb</literal> 驅動程式:</para>
 
 	    <example xml:id="x-config-video-cards-file-scfb">
 	      <title>在單檔中選擇 <literal>scfb</literal> 影像驅動程式</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/driver-scfb.conf</filename></para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Device"
 	Identifier "Card0"
 	Driver     "scfb"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	    </example>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-monitors">
       <title>顯示器</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Almost all monitors support the Extended Display
-	Identification Data standard (<acronym>EDID</acronym>).
-	<application>Xorg</application> uses <acronym>EDID</acronym>
-	to communicate with the monitor and detect the supported
-	resolutions and refresh rates.  Then it selects the most
-	appropriate combination of settings to use with that
-	monitor.</para>
+      <para>幾乎所有顯示器都支援延伸顯示辨識資料標準 (Extended Display Identification Data, <acronym>EDID</acronym>)，<application>Xorg</application> 會使用 <acronym>EDID</acronym> 與顯示器通訊並偵測支援的解析度與更新頻率，然後選擇最適合的設定組合使用該顯示器。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Other resolutions supported by the monitor can be
-	chosen by setting the desired resolution in configuration
-	files, or after the X server has been started with
-	<citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para>其他顯示器支援的解析度可透過在設定檔中設定想要的解析度來選擇，或者在 X 伺服器啟動之後使用 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-monitors-xrandr">
-	  <term xml:lang="en">Using <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></term>
+	  <term>使用 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Run <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> without any parameters to see a
-	      list of video outputs and detected monitor modes:</para>
+	    <para>執行 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 不加任何參數可檢查影像輸出及已偵測到的顯示器模式清單:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xrandr</userinput>
 Screen 0: minimum 320 x 200, current 3000 x 1920, maximum 8192 x 8192
 DVI-0 connected primary 1920x1200+1080+0 (normal left inverted right x axis y axis) 495mm x 310mm
    1920x1200     59.95*+
    1600x1200     60.00
    1280x1024     85.02    75.02    60.02
    1280x960      60.00
    1152x864      75.00
    1024x768      85.00    75.08    70.07    60.00
    832x624       74.55
    800x600       75.00    60.32
    640x480       75.00    60.00
    720x400       70.08
 DisplayPort-0 disconnected (normal left inverted right x axis y axis)
 HDMI-0 disconnected (normal left inverted right x axis y axis)</screen>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">This shows that the <literal>DVI-0</literal> output
-	      is being used to display a screen resolution of
-	      1920x1200 pixels at a refresh rate of about 60 Hz.
-	      Monitors are not attached to the
-	      <literal>DisplayPort-0</literal> and
-	      <literal>HDMI-0</literal> connectors.</para>
+	    <para>這個結果顯示 <literal>DVI-0</literal> 輸出被用來顯示解析度為 1920x1200 像素於更新頻率約 60 Hz 的畫面，未有顯示器連接到 <literal>DisplayPort-0</literal> 與 <literal>HDMI-0</literal> 接頭。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Any of the other display modes can be selected with
-	      <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  For example, to switch to 1280x1024 at
-	      60 Hz:</para>
+	    <para>可使用 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來選擇任何其他的顯示模式。例如要切換為 1280x1024 於 60 Hz:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xrandr --mode 1280x1024 --rate 60</userinput></screen>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">A common task is using the external video output on
-	      a notebook computer for a video projector.</para>
+	    <para>在筆記型電腦使用外部顯示輸出到投影機是常見的作業。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">The type and quantity of output connectors varies
-	      between devices, and the name given to each output
-	      varies from driver to driver.  What one driver calls
-	      <literal>HDMI-1</literal>, another might call
-	      <literal>HDMI1</literal>.  So the first step is to run
-	      <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to list all the available
-	      outputs:</para>
+	    <para>不同裝置間輸出接頭的類型與數量也不同，給每個輸出的名稱在不同驅動程式間也不同。在某些驅動程式稱為 <literal>HDMI-1</literal> 的輸出在其他驅動程式則可能稱為 <literal>HDMI1</literal>。因此第一個步驟是執行 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 列出所有可用的輸出:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xrandr</userinput>
 Screen 0: minimum 320 x 200, current 1366 x 768, maximum 8192 x 8192
 LVDS1 connected 1366x768+0+0 (normal left inverted right x axis y axis) 344mm x 193mm
    1366x768      60.04*+
    1024x768      60.00
    800x600       60.32    56.25
    640x480       59.94
 VGA1 connected (normal left inverted right x axis y axis)
    1280x1024     60.02 +  75.02
    1280x960      60.00
    1152x864      75.00
    1024x768      75.08    70.07    60.00
    832x624       74.55
    800x600       72.19    75.00    60.32    56.25
    640x480       75.00    72.81    66.67    60.00
    720x400       70.08
 HDMI1 disconnected (normal left inverted right x axis y axis)
 DP1 disconnected (normal left inverted right x axis y axis)</screen>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Four outputs were found: the built-in panel
-	      <literal>LVDS1</literal>, and external
-	      <literal>VGA1</literal>, <literal>HDMI1</literal>, and
-	      <literal>DP1</literal> connectors.</para>
+	    <para>已找到四個輸出: 內建面板的 <literal>LVDS1</literal>，外接的 <literal>VGA1</literal>, <literal>HDMI1</literal> 以及 <literal>DP1</literal> 接頭。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">The projector has been connected to the
-	      <literal>VGA1</literal> output.  <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is now
-	      used to set that output to the native resolution of the
-	      projector and add the additional space to the right side
-	      of the desktop:</para>
+	    <para>投影機已連接至 <literal>VGA1</literal> 輸出，現在使用 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來設定該輸出到投影機 (原始解析度) 並加入額外的空間到桌面的右側:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xrandr --output VGA1 --auto --right-of LVDS1</userinput></screen>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>--auto</literal> chooses the resolution and
-	      refresh rate detected by <acronym>EDID</acronym>.  If
-	      the resolution is not correctly detected, a fixed value
-	      can be given with <literal>--mode</literal> instead of
-	      the <literal>--auto</literal> statement.  For example,
-	      most projectors can be used with a 1024x768 resolution,
-	      which is set with
-	      <literal>--mode 1024x768</literal>.</para>
+	    <para><literal>--auto</literal> 會選擇使用 <acronym>EDID</acronym> 偵測到的解析度與更新頻率。若未正確偵測解析度，可替換 <literal>--auto</literal> 為 <literal>--mode</literal> 然後給予固定值。例如大部份的投影機可使用 1024x768 解析度為，則可設定 <literal>--mode 1024x768</literal>。</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is often run from
-	      <filename>.xinitrc</filename> to set the appropriate
-	      mode when X starts.</para>
+	    <para><citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xrandr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 通常會在 <filename>.xinitrc</filename> 執行以在 X 啟動時設定適合的模式。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="x-config-monitors-files">
-	  <term xml:lang="en">Setting Monitor Resolution in a File</term>
+	  <term>在檔案中設定螢幕解析度</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">To set a screen resolution of 1024x768 in a
-	      configuration file:</para>
+	    <para>在設定檔設定螢幕解析度為 1024x768:</para>
 
 	    <example>
 	      <title>在單檔中設定螢幕解析度</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/screen-resolution.conf</filename></para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Screen"
 	Identifier "Screen0"
 	Device     "Card0"
 	SubSection "Display"
 	Modes      "1024x768"
 	EndSubSection
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	    </example>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">The few monitors that do not have
-	      <acronym>EDID</acronym> can be configured by setting
-	      <literal>HorizSync</literal> and
-	      <literal>VertRefresh</literal> to the range of
-	      frequencies supported by the monitor.</para>
+	    <para>少數顯示器沒有 <acronym>EDID</acronym>，可設定 <literal>HorizSync</literal> 及 <literal>VertRefresh</literal> 為顯示器支援的頻率範圍。</para>
 
 	    <example>
 	      <title>手動設定顯示器頻率</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/monitor0-freq.conf</filename></para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Monitor"
 	Identifier   "Monitor0"
 	HorizSync    30-83   # kHz
 	VertRefresh  50-76   # Hz
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	    </example>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-input">
       <title>輸入裝置</title>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="x-config-input-keyboard">
 	<title>鍵盤</title>
 
 	<variablelist>
 	  <varlistentry xml:id="x-config-input-keyboard-layout">
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Keyboard Layout</term>
+	    <term>鍵盤配置</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The standardized location of keys on a keyboard
-		is called a <emphasis>layout</emphasis>.  Layouts and
-		other adjustable parameters are listed in
-		<citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xkeyboard-config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+	      <para>鍵盤上標準按鍵的位置稱做 <emphasis>配置 (Layout)</emphasis>。配置與其他可調整的參數列於 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xkeyboard-config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
-	      <para xml:lang="en">A United States layout is the default.  To select
-		an alternate layout, set the
-		<literal>XkbLayout</literal> and
-		<literal>XkbVariant</literal> options in an
-		<literal>InputClass</literal>.  This will be applied
-		to all input devices that match the class.</para>
+	      <para>預設為 United States 配置，要選擇其他的配置可在 <literal>InputClass</literal> 設定 <literal>XkbLayout</literal> 與 <literal>XkbVariant</literal> 選項。這會套用所有符合該類別的輸入裝置。</para>
 
-	      <para xml:lang="en">This example selects a French keyboard layout with
-		the <literal>oss</literal> variant.</para>
+	      <para>這個例子選擇 French 鍵盤配置使用 <literal>oss</literal> 變體。</para>
 
 	      <example>
 		<title>設定鍵盤配置</title>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/keyboard-fr-oss.conf</filename></para>
 
 		<programlisting xml:lang="en">Section	"InputClass"
 	Identifier	"KeyboardDefaults"
 	Driver		"keyboard"
 	MatchIsKeyboard	"on"
 	Option		"XkbLayout" "fr"
 	Option		"XkbVariant" "oss"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	      </example>
 
 	      <example>
 		<title>設定多個鍵盤配置</title>
 
-		<para xml:lang="en">Set United States, Spanish, and Ukrainian
-		  keyboard layouts.  Cycle through these layouts by
-		  pressing
-		  <keycombo action="simul">
-		    <keycap>Alt</keycap>
-		    <keycap>Shift</keycap>
-		  </keycombo>.  <package>x11/xxkb</package> or
-		  <package>x11/sbxkb</package> can be used for
-		  improved layout switching control and
-		  current layout indicators.</para>
+		<para>設定 United States, Spanish 與 Ukrainian 鍵盤配置，並可按 <keycombo action="simul"> <keycap>Alt</keycap> <keycap>Shift</keycap> </keycombo> 來切換這些配置。可使用 <package>x11/xxkb</package> 或 <package>x11/sbxkb</package> 來加強配置切換控制與目前配置的指示。</para>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/kbd-layout-multi.conf</filename></para>
 
 		<programlisting xml:lang="en">Section	"InputClass"
 	Identifier	"All Keyboards"
 	MatchIsKeyboard	"yes"
 	Option		"XkbLayout" "us, es, ua"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	      </example>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry xml:id="x-config-input-keyboard-zap">
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Closing <application>Xorg</application> From the
-	    Keyboard</term>
+	    <term>從鍵盤關閉 <application>Xorg</application></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">X can be closed with a combination of keys.
-		By default, that key combination is not set because it
-		conflicts with keyboard commands for some
-		applications.  Enabling this option requires changes
-		to the keyboard <literal>InputDevice</literal>
-		section:</para>
+	      <para>X 可以使用組合鍵來關閉，預設並未設定組合鍵，因為該組合鍵與部份應用程式的鍵盤指令衝突。要開啟這個選項需要更改鍵盤 <literal>InputDevice</literal> 節:</para>
 
 	      <example>
 		<title>開啟鍵盤離開 X 功能</title>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/keyboard-zap.conf</filename></para>
 
 		<programlisting xml:lang="en">Section	"InputClass"
 	Identifier	"KeyboardDefaults"
 	Driver		"keyboard"
 	MatchIsKeyboard	"on"
 	Option		"XkbOptions" "terminate:ctrl_alt_bksp"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	      </example>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 	</variablelist>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="x11-input-mice">
 	<title>滑鼠與指標裝置</title>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Many mouse parameters can be adjusted with configuration
-	  options.  See <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>mousedrv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a full list.</para>
+	<para>有許多滑鼠參數可使用設定選項來調整，請參考 <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>mousedrv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得完整清單。</para>
 
 	<variablelist>
 	  <varlistentry xml:id="x11-input-mice-buttons">
-	    <term xml:lang="en">Mouse Buttons</term>
+	    <term>滑鼠按鍵</term>
 
 	    <listitem>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">The number of buttons on a mouse can be set in the
-		mouse <literal>InputDevice</literal> section of
-		<filename>xorg.conf</filename>.  To set the number of
-		buttons to 7:</para>
+	      <para>滑鼠的按鍵數可在 <filename>xorg.conf</filename> 的滑鼠 <literal>InputDevice</literal> 節設定，例如要設定按鍵數為 7:</para>
 
 	      <example>
-		<title>設定滑鼠按鍵編號</title>
+		<title>設定滑鼠按鍵數</title>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/mouse0-buttons.conf</filename></para>
 
 		<programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "InputDevice"
 	Identifier  "Mouse0"
 	Option      "Buttons" "7"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 	      </example>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 	</variablelist>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-config-manual-configuration">
       <title>手動設定</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In some cases, <application>Xorg</application>
-	autoconfiguration does not work with particular hardware, or a
-	different configuration is desired.  For these cases, a custom
-	configuration file can be created.</para>
+      <para>在某些情況 <application>Xorg</application> 的自動設定無法在特定硬體上運作，或需要使用不同的設定。針對這些情況會建立自訂的設定檔。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A configuration file can be generated by
-	<application>Xorg</application> based on the detected
-	hardware.  This file is often a useful starting point for
-	custom configurations.</para>
+      <para>設定檔可由 <application>Xorg</application> 根據偵測到的硬體產生，這個檔案對一開始自訂設定很有幫助。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Generating an <filename>xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>產生 <filename>xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>Xorg -configure</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The configuration file is saved to
-	<filename>/root/xorg.conf.new</filename>.  Make any changes
-	desired, then test that file with:</para>
+      <para>設定檔會儲存至 <filename>/root/xorg.conf.new</filename>，做任何需要的更改，然後使用以下指令測試該檔案:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>Xorg -config /root/xorg.conf.new</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After the new configuration has been adjusted and tested,
-	it can be split into smaller files in the normal location,
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/</filename>.</para>
+      <para>在新設定檔調整與測試過後，便可分開成較小的檔案放置到正常的位置 <filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf.d/</filename>。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x-fonts">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	  <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>在 <application>Xorg</application> 使用字型</title>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="type1">
       <title>Type1 字型</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The default fonts that ship with
-	<application>Xorg</application> are less than ideal for
-	typical desktop publishing applications.  Large presentation
-	fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking, and small
-	fonts are almost completely unintelligible.  However, there
-	are several free, high quality Type1 (<trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>) fonts
-	available which can be readily used with
-	<application>Xorg</application>.  For instance, the URW font
-	collection (<package>x11-fonts/urwfonts</package>) includes
-	high quality versions of standard type1 fonts (<trademark class="registered">Times Roman</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Helvetica</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Palatino</trademark> and others).  The
-	Freefonts collection (<package>x11-fonts/freefonts</package>)
-	includes many more fonts, but most of them are intended for
-	use in graphics software such as the
-	<application>Gimp</application>, and are not complete enough
-	to serve as screen fonts.  In addition,
-	<application>Xorg</application> can be configured to use
-	<trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> fonts with a minimum of effort.  For more details
-	on this, see the <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>X</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual page or <xref linkend="truetype"/>.</para>
+      <para>由於 <application>Xorg</application> 內建的預設字型用在典型的桌面出版應用程式並不是很理想，大字型會呈現鋸齒狀邊緣，看起來很不專業，小字型幾乎完全看不清楚。不過，這裡有幾個免費高品質的 Type1 (<trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>) 字型可用，且能容易的在 <application>Xorg</application> 使用。例如，URW 字型集 (<trademark class="registered">Times Roman</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Helvetica</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Palatino</trademark> 及其他)。 Freefont 字型集 (<package>x11-fonts/freefonts</package>) 包含了更多的字型，但其中大部分是給圖形軟體如 GIMP 所使用的字型，並不能完全作為螢幕字型使用。此外，<application>Xorg</application> 可以簡單的設定使用 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型。更多有關本主題的詳細資訊，請參考 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>X</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊或 <xref linkend="truetype"/>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To install the above Type1 font collections from the Ports
-	Collection, run the following commands:</para>
+      <para>要從 Port 套件集安裝上述的 Type1 字型集可執行以下指令:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">And likewise with the freefont or other collections.  To
-	have the X server detect these fonts, add an appropriate line
-	to the X server configuration file
-	(<filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>), which reads:</para>
+      <para>同樣的安裝方式也適用 Freefont 或其他字型集。要讓 X 伺服器偵測到這些新安裝的字型，可加入適當的設定到 X 伺服器設定檔 (<filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>)，內容為:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">FontPath "/usr/local/share/fonts/urwfonts/"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, at the command line in the X session
-	run:</para>
+      <para>或者在 X session 的指令列執行:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xset fp+ /usr/local/share/fonts/urwfonts</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xset fp rehash</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">This will work but will be lost when the X session is
-	closed, unless it is added to the startup file
-	(<filename>~/.xinitrc</filename> for a normal
-	<command>startx</command> session, or
-	<filename>~/.xsession</filename> when logging in through a
-	graphical login manager like <application>XDM</application>).
-	A third way is to use the new
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf</filename> as
-	demonstrated in <xref linkend="antialias"/>.</para>
+      <para>這樣便可，但在 X session 關閉時將會失效，除非將該設定加入啟動檔 (一般的 <command>startx</command> session 可在 <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename> 設定，若透過圖型化登入管理程式如 <application>XDM</application> 登入時則在 <filename>~/.xsession</filename> 設定)。第三種方式是使用新 <filename>/usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf</filename>，如 <xref linkend="antialias"/> 的示範。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="truetype">
       <title><trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>TrueType Fonts</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>fonts</primary>
 	<secondary>TrueType</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> has built in support for
-	rendering <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> fonts.  There are two different modules
-	that can enable this functionality.  The freetype module is
-	used in this example because it is more consistent with the
-	other font rendering back-ends.  To enable the freetype module
-	just add the following line to the <literal>"Module"</literal>
-	section of <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.</para>
+      <para><application>Xorg</application> 內建支援繪製 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型，目前有兩個模組可以支援這項功能。在本例中使用 freetype 模組，由於此模組與其他字型繪製後端較為一致。要開啟 freetype 模組只需要將下行加入到 <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> 中的 <literal>"Module"</literal> section。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Load  "freetype"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Now make a directory for the <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> fonts (for
-	example, <filename>/usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType</filename>)
-	and copy all of the <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> fonts into this directory.
-	Keep in mind that <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> fonts cannot be directly taken
-	from an <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark>; they must be in
-	<trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> format for use by
-	<application>Xorg</application>.  Once the files have been
-	copied into this directory, use
-	<application>mkfontdir</application> to create a
-	<filename>fonts.dir</filename>, so that the X font renderer
-	knows that these new files have been installed.
-	<command>mkfontdir</command> can be installed as a
-	package:</para>
+      <para>現在要建立一個儲存 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型的目錄 (例如，<filename>/usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType</filename>) 然後複製所有 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型到這個目錄。要注意 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型並無法直接取自 <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark>，<application>Xorg</application> 使用的字型必須為 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 的格式。檔案複製到讓目錄之後，使用 <application>mkfontdir</application> 來建立 <filename>fonts.dir</filename> 來讓 X 字型繪製程式知道安裝了新的檔案。<command>mkfontdir</command> 可用套件的方式安裝:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install mkfontdir</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Then create an index of X font files in a
-	directory:</para>
+      <para>然後在目錄中建立 X 字型檔的索引:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkfontdir</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Now add the <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> directory to the font path.  This
-	is just the same as described in <xref linkend="type1"/>:</para>
+      <para>接著加入 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 目錄到字型路徑。這個動作與 <xref linkend="type1"/> 中所介紹的方式相同:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xset fp+ /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xset fp rehash</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">or add a <literal>FontPath</literal> line to
-	<filename>xorg.conf</filename>.</para>
+      <para>或直接加入 <literal>FontPath</literal> 一行到 <filename>xorg.conf</filename>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Now <application>Gimp</application>,
-	<application>Apache OpenOffice</application>, and all of the
-	other X applications should now recognize the installed
-	<trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> fonts.  Extremely small fonts (as with text in a
-	high resolution display on a web page) and extremely large
-	fonts (within <application><trademark>StarOffice</trademark></application>) will
-	look much better now.</para>
+      <para>現在 <application>Gimp</application>, <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 以及其他 X 應用程式應可以辨識到已安裝的 <trademark class="registered">TrueType</trademark> 字型。極小的字型 (以高解析度在網頁中顯示的文字) 與極大的字型 (在 <application><trademark>StarOffice</trademark></application> 中) 現在會看起來比較像樣了。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="antialias">
       <!--
       <sect2info>
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author>
 	    <firstname>Joe Marcus</firstname>
 	    <surname>Clarke</surname>
 	    <contrib>Updated in May 2003 by</contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </sect2info>
       -->
       <title>反鋸齒字型</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>anti-aliased fonts</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>fonts</primary>
 	<secondary>anti-aliased</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">All fonts in <application>Xorg</application> that are
-	found in <filename>/usr/local/share/fonts/</filename> and
-	<filename>~/.fonts/</filename> are automatically made
-	available for anti-aliasing to Xft-aware applications.  Most
-	recent applications are Xft-aware, including
-	<application>KDE</application>,
-	<application>GNOME</application>, and
-	<application>Firefox</application>.</para>
+      <para>所有可在 <filename>/usr/local/share/fonts/</filename> 及 <filename>~/.fonts/</filename> 找到的 <application>Xorg</application> 字型均可在  Xft-aware 的應用程式使用反鋸齒的效果。大多最近的應用程式均為 Xft-aware 的，包括 <application>KDE</application>, <application>GNOME</application> 以及 <application>Firefox</application>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">In order to control which fonts are anti-aliased, or to
-	configure anti-aliasing properties, create (or edit, if it
-	already exists) the file
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf</filename>.  Several
-	advanced features of the Xft font system can be tuned using
-	this file; this section describes only some simple
-	possibilities.  For more details, please see
-	<citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>fonts-conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para>要控制那一些字型要做反鋸齒或設定反鋸齒的屬性，需建立 <filename>/usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf</filename> 檔案 (若檔案存在則編輯)。在這個檔案中可以調整 Xft 字型系統的數項進階功能，本章節僅介紹部份簡單的項目，要取得進一步資訊，可參考 <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>fonts-conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>XML</primary></indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">This file must be in XML format.  Pay careful attention to
-	case, and make sure all tags are properly closed.  The file
-	begins with the usual XML header followed by a DOCTYPE
-	definition, and then the <literal>&lt;fontconfig&gt;</literal>
-	tag:</para>
+      <para>這個檔案必須使用 XML 格式，小心文字大小寫，且要確定所有標籤均有正常結尾。檔案的開頭使用常見的 XML 檔首，接著為 DOCTYPE 定義，然後是 <literal>&lt;fontconfig&gt;</literal> 標籤:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;?xml version="1.0"?&gt;
       &lt;!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd"&gt;
       &lt;fontconfig&gt;</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">As previously stated, all fonts in
-	<filename>/usr/local/share/fonts/</filename> as well as
-	<filename>~/.fonts/</filename> are already made available to
-	Xft-aware applications.  If you wish to add another directory
-	outside of these two directory trees, add a line similar to
-	the following to
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>如同前面所提到的，所有在 <filename>/usr/local/share/fonts/</filename> 與 <filename>~/.fonts/</filename> 的字型均已在 Xft-aware 的應用程式做反鋸齒效果，若您想要加入除了上兩者以外的目錄，可加入下行設定到 <filename>/usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;dir&gt;/path/to/my/fonts&lt;/dir&gt;</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After adding new fonts, and especially new font
-	directories, you should run the following command to rebuild
-	the font caches:</para>
+      <para>加入新字型及額外的新字型目錄之後，您應執行以下指令來重新建立字型快取:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>fc-cache -f</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Anti-aliasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes
-	very small text more readable and removes
-	<quote>staircases</quote> from large text, but can cause
-	eyestrain if applied to normal text.  To exclude font sizes
-	smaller than 14 point from anti-aliasing, include these
-	lines:</para>
+      <para>反鋸齒效果會讓文字的邊緣變模糊，這會讓非常小的文字更能閱讀且去除大型文字的 <quote>鋸齒</quote>，但套用在一般的文字可能會造成眼睛的疲勞。要排除小於 14 點的字型大小使用反鋸齒效果，可加入這些行:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">        &lt;match target="font"&gt;
 	    &lt;test name="size" compare="less"&gt;
 		&lt;double&gt;14&lt;/double&gt;
 	    &lt;/test&gt;
 	    &lt;edit name="antialias" mode="assign"&gt;
 		&lt;bool&gt;false&lt;/bool&gt;
 	    &lt;/edit&gt;
 	&lt;/match&gt;
 	&lt;match target="font"&gt;
 	    &lt;test name="pixelsize" compare="less" qual="any"&gt;
 		&lt;double&gt;14&lt;/double&gt;
 	    &lt;/test&gt;
 	    &lt;edit mode="assign" name="antialias"&gt;
 		&lt;bool&gt;false&lt;/bool&gt;
 	    &lt;/edit&gt;
 	&lt;/match&gt;</programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>fonts</primary>
 	<secondary>spacing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Spacing for some monospaced fonts may also be
-	inappropriate with anti-aliasing.  This seems to be an issue
-	with <application>KDE</application>, in particular.  One
-	possible fix for this is to force the spacing for such fonts
-	to be 100. Add the following lines:</para>
+      <para>反鋸齒所產生的間距對於部份等寬字型並不適合，尤其是在使用 <application>KDE</application> 時會發生問題。可能的修正方式是強制字型的間距為 100，可加入以下行:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">       &lt;match target="pattern" name="family"&gt;
 	   &lt;test qual="any" name="family"&gt;
 	       &lt;string&gt;fixed&lt;/string&gt;
 	   &lt;/test&gt;
 	   &lt;edit name="family" mode="assign"&gt;
 	       &lt;string&gt;mono&lt;/string&gt;
 	   &lt;/edit&gt;
 	&lt;/match&gt;
 	&lt;match target="pattern" name="family"&gt;
 	    &lt;test qual="any" name="family"&gt;
 		&lt;string&gt;console&lt;/string&gt;
 	    &lt;/test&gt;
 	    &lt;edit name="family" mode="assign"&gt;
 		&lt;string&gt;mono&lt;/string&gt;
 	    &lt;/edit&gt;
 	&lt;/match&gt;</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">(this aliases the other common names for fixed fonts as
-	<literal>"mono"</literal>), and then add:</para>
+      <para>(這會設定等寬字型的其他常用名稱為 <literal>"mono"</literal>)，然後加入:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">         &lt;match target="pattern" name="family"&gt;
 	     &lt;test qual="any" name="family"&gt;
 		 &lt;string&gt;mono&lt;/string&gt;
 	     &lt;/test&gt;
 	     &lt;edit name="spacing" mode="assign"&gt;
 		 &lt;int&gt;100&lt;/int&gt;
 	     &lt;/edit&gt;
 	 &lt;/match&gt;      </programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Certain fonts, such as Helvetica, may have a problem when
-	anti-aliased.  Usually this manifests itself as a font that
-	seems cut in half vertically.  At worst, it may cause
-	applications to crash.  To avoid this, consider adding the
-	following to <filename>local.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>部份字型，如 Helvetica，在使用反鋸齒時可能會發生問題，通常會呈現像垂直切成兩半的字型，最差還可能會導致應用程式當掉。要避免這個問題，可考慮加入以下設定到 <filename>local.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">         &lt;match target="pattern" name="family"&gt;
 	     &lt;test qual="any" name="family"&gt;
 		 &lt;string&gt;Helvetica&lt;/string&gt;
 	     &lt;/test&gt;
 	     &lt;edit name="family" mode="assign"&gt;
 		 &lt;string&gt;sans-serif&lt;/string&gt;
 	     &lt;/edit&gt;
 	 &lt;/match&gt;        </programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Once you have finished editing
-	<filename>local.conf</filename> make sure you end the file
-	with the <literal>&lt;/fontconfig&gt;</literal> tag.  Not
-	doing this will cause your changes to be ignored.</para>
+      <para>編輯 <filename>local.conf</filename> 完之後，請確認有使用 <literal>&lt;/fontconfig&gt;</literal> 標籤結尾，若沒使用會讓您的更改直接被忽略。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Finally, users can add their own settings via their
-	personal <filename>.fonts.conf</filename> files.  To do this,
-	each user should simply create a
-	<filename>~/.fonts.conf</filename>.  This file must also be in
-	XML format.</para>
+      <para>最後，使用者可以透過個人的 <filename>.fonts.conf</filename> 檔案來加入自己的設定。要加入個人設定，每位使用者只需簡單的建立 <filename>~/.fonts.conf</filename>，這個檔案也同樣需要為 XML 格式。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>LCD screen</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Fonts</primary>
 	<secondary>LCD screen</secondary></indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">One last point: with an LCD screen, sub-pixel sampling may
-	be desired.  This basically treats the (horizontally
-	separated) red, green and blue components separately to
-	improve the horizontal resolution; the results can be
-	dramatic.  To enable this, add the line somewhere in
-	<filename>local.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>最後一點: 若有使用 LCD 螢幕，可能會想要使用子像素取樣 (Sub-pixel sampling)，這基本上會分開處理 (水平分隔)  紅、綠、藍色彩組成來提高垂直解析度，結果可能是無法預料的。要開啟這個功能，加入下行到 <filename>local.conf</filename> 的任一處:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;match target="font"&gt;
 	     &lt;test qual="all" name="rgba"&gt;
 		 &lt;const&gt;unknown&lt;/const&gt;
 	     &lt;/test&gt;
 	     &lt;edit name="rgba" mode="assign"&gt;
 		 &lt;const&gt;rgb&lt;/const&gt;
 	     &lt;/edit&gt;
 	 &lt;/match&gt;</programlisting>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Depending on the sort of display,
-	  <literal>rgb</literal> may need to be changed to
-	  <literal>bgr</literal>, <literal>vrgb</literal> or
-	  <literal>vbgr</literal>: experiment and see which works
-	  best.</para>
+	<para>依據不同的顯示器類型，<literal>rgb</literal> 可能會需要更改為 <literal>bgr</literal>, <literal>vrgb</literal> 或 <literal>vbgr</literal>: 可實驗看看然後看那一個效果最好。</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x-xdm">
     <info>
       <title>X 顯示管理程式</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Seth</firstname>
 	    <surname>Kingsley</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>X Display Manager</primary></indexterm>
-    <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> provides an X Display
-      Manager, <application>XDM</application>, which can be used for
-      login session management.  <application>XDM</application>
-      provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server
-      to connect to and for entering authorization information such as
-      a login and password combination.</para>
+    <para><application>Xorg</application> 提供了 X 顯示管理程式 (X Display Manager, <application>XDM</application>)，可用來做登入階段的管理。<application>XDM</application> 提供了一個圖型化的介面來選擇要連結的顯示伺服器以及輸入認証資訊 (登入與密碼)。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to configure the X Display
-      Manager on FreeBSD.  Some desktop environments provide their own
-      graphical login manager.  Refer to <xref linkend="x11-wm-gnome"/> for instructions on how to configure
-      the GNOME Display Manager and <xref linkend="x11-wm-kde"/> for
-      instructions on how to configure the KDE Display Manager.</para>
+    <para>本節將示範如何設定 FreeBSD 的 X 顯示管理程式。部份桌面環境會提供自己的圖型化登入管理程式，請參考 <xref linkend="x11-wm-gnome"/> 取得如何設定 GNOME 顯示管理程式 (GNOME Display Manager) 的操作方式以及 <xref linkend="x11-wm-kde"/> 取得如何設定 KDE 顯示管理程式 (KDE Display Manager) 的操作方式。</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <application>XDM</application></title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To install <application>XDM</application>, use the
-	<package>x11/xdm</package> package or port.  Once installed,
-	<application>XDM</application> can be configured to run when
-	the  machine boots up by editing this entry in
-	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>:</para>
+      <para>要安裝 <application>XDM</application> 可使用 <package>x11/xdm</package> 套件或 Port。安裝完成之後，可設定 <application>XDM</application> 在開機時執行，只需編輯 <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> 中的此項目:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ttyv8   "/usr/local/bin/xdm -nodaemon"  xterm   off secure</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Change the <literal>off</literal> to <literal>on</literal>
-	and save the edit.  The <literal>ttyv8</literal> in this entry
-	indicates that <application>XDM</application> will run on the
-	ninth virtual terminal.</para>
+      <para>更改關 (<literal>off</literal>) 為開 (<literal>on</literal>) 然後儲存編輯。在此項目中的 <literal>ttyv8</literal> 代表 <application>XDM</application> 會在第 9 個虛擬終端機執行。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <application>XDM</application> configuration directory
-	is located in <filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm</filename>.
-	This directory contains several files used to change the
-	behavior and appearance of <application>XDM</application>, as
-	well as a few scripts and programs used to set up the desktop
-	when <application>XDM</application> is running.  <xref linkend="xdm-config-files"/> summarizes the function of each
-	of these files.  The exact syntax and usage of these files is
-	described in <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para><application>XDM</application> 的設定目錄位於 <filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm</filename>。此目錄中包含數個可用來更改 <application>XDM</application> 行為與外觀的檔案以及在 <application>XDM</application> 執行時用來設定桌面的一些  Script 及程式，<xref linkend="xdm-config-files"/> 摘要了每個檔案的功能。這些檔案正確的語法與用法在 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 有說明。</para>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="xdm-config-files">
 	<title>XDM 設定檔</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>檔案</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>Xaccess</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">The protocol for connecting to
-		<application>XDM</application> is called the X Display
-		Manager Connection Protocol (<acronym>XDMCP</acronym>)
-		This file is a client authorization ruleset for
-		controlling <acronym>XDMCP</acronym> connections from
-		remote machines.  By default, this file does not allow
-		any remote clients to connect.</entry>
+	      <entry>連線到 <application>XDM</application> 所需的通訊協定稱做 X 顯示管理程式連線通訊協定  (X Display Manager Connection Protocol, <acronym>XDMCP</acronym>)，此檔案為客戶端認証規則，用來控制來自遠端機器的 <acronym>XDMCP</acronym> 連線。預設此檔案並不允許任何遠端的客戶端連線。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>Xresources</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">This file controls the look and feel of the
-		<application>XDM</application> display chooser and
-		login screens.  The default configuration is a simple
-		rectangular login window with the hostname of the
-		machine displayed at the top in a large font and
-		<quote>Login:</quote> and <quote>Password:</quote>
-		prompts below.  The format of this file is identical
-		to the app-defaults file described in the
-		<application>Xorg</application>
-		documentation.</entry>
+	      <entry>此檔案控制 <application>XDM</application> 顯示選擇器及登入畫面的外觀。預設的設定簡單的矩形登入視窗，上方用較大的字型顯示機器的主機名稱，並在下方顯示 <quote>Login:</quote> 與 <quote>Password:</quote> 提示。此檔案的格式與 <application>Xorg</application> 說明文件中說明的 app-defaults 檔相同。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>Xservers</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">The list of local and remote displays the chooser
-		should provide as login choices.</entry>
+	      <entry>登入選擇時在選擇器上要提供的本地及遠端顯示清單。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>Xsession</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Default session script for logins which is run by
-		<application>XDM</application> after a user has logged
-		in.  Normally each user will have a customized session
-		script in <filename>~/.xsession</filename> that
-		overrides this script</entry>
+	      <entry>預設的登入階段 Script，使用者登入之後由 <application>XDM</application> 執行。一般每一位使用者都會有自訂的階段 Script 在 <filename>~/.xsession</filename> 來覆蓋此 Script 的設定。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>Xsetup_</filename>*</entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Script to automatically launch applications
-		before displaying the chooser or login interfaces.
-		There is a script for each display being used, named
-		<filename>Xsetup_*</filename>, where
-		<literal>*</literal> is the local display number.
-		Typically these scripts run one or two programs in the
-		background such as
-		<command>xconsole</command>.</entry>
+	      <entry>用來在顯示選擇器與登入介面之前自動執行應用程式的 Script。每一個顯示各有一個 Script，名稱為 <filename>Xsetup_*</filename>，其中 <literal>*</literal> 為本地顯示編號。正常情況這些 Script 會在背景執行一兩個程式，例如 <command>xconsole</command>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>xdm-config</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Global configuration for all displays running
-		on this machine.</entry>
+	      <entry>用來設定所有在此機器上執行的顯示的全域設定檔。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>xdm-errors</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">Contains errors generated by the server program.
-		If a display that <application>XDM</application> is
-		trying to start hangs, look at this file for error
-		messages.  These messages are also written to the
-		user's <filename>~/.xsession-errors</filename> on a
-		per-session basis.</entry>
+	      <entry>內含由伺服器程式產生的錯誤訊息，若 <application>XDM</application> 嘗試啟動的顯示沒有回應，可查看此檔案來取得錯誤訊息。以登入階段為基礎，這些訊息也同樣會寫入至使用者的 <filename>~/.xsession-errors</filename>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>xdm-pid</filename></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en">The running process <acronym>ID</acronym> of
-		<application>XDM</application>.</entry>
+	      <entry><application>XDM</application> 的執行程序 <acronym>ID</acronym>。</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定遠端存取</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">By default, only users on the same system can login using
-	<application>XDM</application>.  To enable users on other
-	systems to connect to the display server, edit the access
-	control rules and enable the connection listener.</para>
+      <para>預設只有同系統的使用者可以使用 <application>XDM</application> 登入。要開啟讓其他系統的使用者可連線到顯示伺服器，需編輯存取控制規則及開啟連線傾聽程式。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To configure <application>XDM</application> to listen for
-	any remote connection, comment out the
-	<literal>DisplayManager.requestPort</literal> line in
-	<filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/xdm-config</filename> by
-	putting a <literal>!</literal> in front of it:</para>
+      <para>要設定 <application>XDM</application> 傾聽作何遠端的連線，在 <filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/xdm-config</filename> 中的 <literal>DisplayManager.requestPort</literal> 行前加上 <literal>!</literal> 來註解該行:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests
 ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm
 DisplayManager.requestPort:     0</screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Save the edits and restart <application>XDM</application>.
-	To restrict remote access, look at the example entries in
-	<filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/Xaccess</filename> and refer
-	to <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for further information.</para>
+      <para>儲存編輯並重新啟動 <application>XDM</application>，要限制遠端存取，請看 <filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/Xaccess</filename> 中的範例項目，並參考 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得進一步資訊。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x11-wm">
     <info>
       <title>桌面環境</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Valentino</firstname>
 	    <surname>Vaschetto</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	   <!-- in June 2001 -->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to install three popular desktop
-      environments on a FreeBSD system.  A desktop environment can range
-      from a simple window manager to a complete suite of desktop
-      applications.  Over a hundred desktop environments are available
-      in the <filename>x11-wm</filename> category of the Ports
-      Collection.</para>
+    <para>本節將介紹如何在 FreeBSD 系統安裝三種熱門的桌面環境。一套桌面環境的範圍可從簡單的視窗管理程式到完整的桌面應用程式集。有上百套的桌面環境可在 Port 套件集的 <filename>x11-wm</filename> 分類取得。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x11-wm-gnome">
       <title xml:lang="en">GNOME</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>GNOME</primary></indexterm>
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>GNOME</application> is a user-friendly
-	desktop environment.  It includes a panel for starting
-	applications and displaying status, a desktop, a set of tools
-	and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy
-	for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each
-	other.  More information regarding
-	<application>GNOME</application> on FreeBSD can be found at <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/gnome">http://www.FreeBSD.org/gnome</link>.
-	That web site contains additional documentation about
-	installing, configuring, and managing
-	<application>GNOME</application> on FreeBSD.</para>
+      <para><application>GNOME</application> 是一個擁有友善使用者介面的的桌面環境，它包括用於啟動應用程式和顯示狀態的面板、一系列工具與應用程序及一套可讓應用程式更容易進行合作、相互一致的協定。更多有關 FreeBSD <application>GNOME</application> 的訊息可在<link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/gnome">http://www.FreeBSD.org/gnome</link> 取得，該網站包含了有關在 FreeBSD 安裝、設定和管理 <application>GNOME</application> 的額外文件。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">This desktop environment can be installed from a
-	package:</para>
+      <para>這套桌面環境可以從套件安裝:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install gnome3</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To instead build <application>GNOME</application> from
-	ports, use the following command.
-	<application>GNOME</application> is a large application and
-	will take some time to compile, even on a fast
-	computer.</para>
+      <para>也可使用以下指令從 Port 編譯 <application>GNOME</application>，<application>GNOME</application> 是一套大型的應用程式，即使在速度較快的電腦上，也會需要花費一些時間編譯。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome3</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>GNOME</application>
-	requires <filename>/proc</filename> to be mounted.  Add this
-	line to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to mount this file
-	system automatically during system startup:</para>
+      <para><application>GNOME</application> 需要掛載 <filename>/proc</filename>。加入下行到 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 讓系統啟動時會自動掛載這個檔案系統。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">proc           /proc       procfs  rw  0   0</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>GNOME</application> uses
-	<application>D-Bus</application> and
-	<application>HAL</application> for a message bus and hardware
-	abstraction.  These applications are automatically installed
-	as dependencies of <application>GNOME</application>.  Enable
-	them in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> so they will be
-	started when the system boots:</para>
+      <para><application>GNOME</application> 使用了 <application>D-Bus</application> 以及 <application>HAL</application> 的 Message bus 與 Hardware abstraction。這兩個應用程式會隨著 <application>GNOME</application> 的相依一併自動安裝，但需要在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 開啟，這樣在系統開機時才會啟動:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">dbus_enable="YES"
 hald_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After installation,
-	configure <application>Xorg</application> to start
-	<application>GNOME</application>.  The easiest way to do this
-	is to enable the GNOME Display Manager,
-	<application>GDM</application>, which is installed as part of
-	the <application>GNOME</application> package or port.  It can
-	be enabled by adding this line to
-	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>安裝完之後，需設定讓 <application>Xorg</application> 啟動 <application>GNOME</application>。最簡單的方法是開啟 GNOME Display Manager, <application>GDM</application>，該程式已做為 <application>GNOME</application> 套件或 Port 的一部份安裝了，可加入下行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 來開啟:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gdm_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">It is often desirable to also start all
-	<application>GNOME</application> services.  To achieve this,
-	add a second line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>通常也會需要啟動所有的 <application>GNOME</application> 服務，可加入下行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gnome_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>GDM</application> will start
-	automatically when the system boots.</para>
+      <para><application>GDM</application> 則會在系統開機時自動啟動。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A second method for starting
-	<application>GNOME</application> is to type
-	<command>startx</command> from the command-line after
-	configuring <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>.  If this file
-	already exists, replace the line that starts the current
-	window manager with one that starts
-	<filename>/usr/local/bin/gnome-session</filename>.  If this
-	file does not exist, create it with this command:</para>
+      <para>第二種啟動 <application>GNOME</application> 的方法是在設定完 <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename> 後在指令列輸入 <command>startx</command>。若這個檔案已經存在，替換啟動目前視窗管理程式的那一行，改為啟動 <filename>/usr/local/bin/gnome-session</filename>。若檔案不存在，則使用以下指令建立一個:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "exec /usr/local/bin/gnome-session" &gt; ~/.xinitrc</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A third method is to use <application>XDM</application> as
-	the display manager.  In this case, create an executable
-	<filename>~/.xsession</filename>:</para>
+      <para>第三種方法是使用 <application>XDM</application> 做為顯示管理程式，在這個方法需要建立一個可執行的 <filename>~/.xsession</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "#!/bin/sh" &gt; ~/.xsession</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "exec /usr/local/bin/gnome-session" &gt;&gt; ~/.xsession</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod +x ~/.xsession</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x11-wm-kde">
       <title xml:lang="en">KDE</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>KDE</primary></indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>KDE</application> is another easy-to-use
-	desktop environment.  This desktop provides a suite of
-	applications with a consistent look and feel, a standardized
-	menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes,
-	internationalization, and a centralized, dialog-driven desktop
-	configuration.  More information on
-	<application>KDE</application> can be found at <link xlink:href="http://www.kde.org/">http://www.kde.org/</link>.
-	For FreeBSD-specific information, consult <link xlink:href="http://freebsd.kde.org/">http://freebsd.kde.org</link>.</para>
+      <para><application>KDE</application> 是另一套易於使用的桌面環境。這個桌面環境提供了一致外觀的應用程式、標準化的選單和工具列、組合鍵、配色方案、國際化與集中、對話框導向的桌面設定。更多有關 <application>KDE</application> 可在 <link xlink:href="http://www.kde.org/">http://www.kde.org/</link> 取得。要取得 FreeBSD 特定的資訊，則可參考 <link xlink:href="http://freebsd.kde.org/">http://freebsd.kde.org</link>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To install the <application>KDE</application> package,
-	type:</para>
+      <para>要安裝 <application>KDE</application> 套件，請輸入:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install x11/kde4</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To instead build the <application>KDE</application> port,
-	use the following command.  Installing the port will provide a
-	menu for selecting which components to install.
-	<application>KDE</application> is a large application and will
-	take some time to compile, even on a fast computer.</para>
+      <para>或者要使用 <application>KDE</application> Port 編譯，可使用以下指令，採用 Port 方式安裝會有選單可以選擇要安裝的元件。<application>KDE</application> 是一個大型的應用程式，即使在較快的電腦上仍需要花費一段時間來編譯。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/x11/kde4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>KDE</primary>
 	<secondary>display manager</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>KDE</application> requires
-	<filename>/proc</filename> to be mounted.  Add this line to
-	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to mount this file system
-	automatically during system startup:</para>
+      <para><application>KDE</application> 需要掛載 <filename>/proc</filename>。加入下行到 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 讓系統啟動時會自動掛載這個檔案系統:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">proc           /proc       procfs  rw  0   0</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>KDE</application> uses
-	<application>D-Bus</application> and
-	<application>HAL</application> for a message bus and hardware
-	abstraction.  These applications are automatically installed
-	as dependencies of <application>KDE</application>.  Enable
-	them in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> so they will be
-	started when the system boots:</para>
+      <para><application>KDE</application> 使用了 <application>D-Bus</application> 以及 <application>HAL</application> 的 Message bus 與 Hardware abstraction。這兩個應用程式會隨著 <application>KDE</application> 的相依一併自動安裝，但需要在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 開啟，這樣在系統開機時才會啟動:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">dbus_enable="YES"
 hald_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The installation of <application>KDE</application>
-	includes the KDE Display Manager,
-	<application>KDM</application>.  To enable this display
-	manager, add this line to
-	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para><application>KDE</application> 的安裝包含了 KDE Display Manager, <application>KDM</application>，要開啟這個顯示管理程式，需加入下行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">kdm4_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A second method for launching
-	<application>KDE</application> is to type
-	<command>startx</command> from the command line.  For this to
-	work, the following line is needed in
-	<filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>:</para>
+      <para>第二種執行 <application>KDE</application> 的方法是在在指令列輸入 <command>startx</command>。要採用這個方式，需要加入下行到 <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">exec /usr/local/bin/startkde</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A third method for starting <application>KDE</application>
-	is through <application>XDM</application>.  To do so, create
-	an executable <filename>~/.xsession</filename> as
-	follows:</para>
+      <para>第三種啟動 <application>KDE</application> 的方式是透過 <application>XDM</application>，要使用這個方法需要建立一個可執行的 <filename>~/.xsession</filename> 如下:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "#!/bin/sh" &gt; ~/.xsession</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "exec /usr/local/bin/startkde" &gt;&gt; ~/.xsession</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod +x ~/.xsession</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Once <application>KDE</application> is started, refer to
-	its built-in help system for more information on how to use
-	its various menus and applications.</para>
+      <para>啟動 <application>KDE</application> 之後，請參考內建的說明系統來取得更多有關如何使用各種選單及應用程式的資訊。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x11-wm-xfce">
       <title xml:lang="en">Xfce</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xfce</application> is a desktop environment
-	based on the GTK+ toolkit used by
-	<application>GNOME</application>.  However, it is more
-	lightweight and provides a simple, efficient, easy-to-use
-	desktop.  It is fully configurable, has a main panel with
-	menus, applets, and application launchers, provides a file
-	manager and sound manager, and is themeable.  Since it is
-	fast, light, and efficient, it is ideal for older or slower
-	machines with memory limitations.  More information on
-	<application>Xfce</application> can be found at <link xlink:href="http://www.xfce.org/">http://www.xfce.org</link>.</para>
+      <para><application>Xfce</application> 是以 <application>GNOME</application> 使用的 GTK +工具包做為基礎所開發的桌面環境，但是它更輕巧且提供了一種簡單、高效、易於使用的桌面。它可完全自訂設定、附有選單、Applet 及應用程式啟動器的主面板、提供檔案管理程式和音效管理程式並且可設定主題。由於它是快速、輕巧、高效的桌面環境，因此它非常適合有記憶體限制的較舊或較慢機器。更多有關 <application>Xfce</application> 的資訊可至 <link xlink:href="http://www.xfce.org/">http://www.xfce.org</link> 取得。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To install the <application>Xfce</application>
-	package:</para>
+      <para>要安裝 <application>Xfce</application> 套件:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install xfce</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, to build the port:</para>
+      <para>或者使用 Port 編譯:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Unlike <application>GNOME</application> or
-	<application>KDE</application>,
-	<application>Xfce</application> does not provide its own login
-	manager.  In order to start <application>Xfce</application>
-	from the command line by typing <command>startx</command>,
-	first add its entry to <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>:</para>
+      <para>不像 <application>GNOME</application> 或 <application>KDE</application>，<application>Xfce</application> 並沒有自己的登入管理程式，要由指令列啟動 <application>Xfce</application> 需輸入 <command>startx</command>，在這之前需先加入其項目到 <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "exec /usr/local/bin/startxfce4 --with-ck-launch" &gt; ~/.xinitrc</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">An alternate method is to use
-	<application>XDM</application>.  To configure this method,
-	create an executable <filename>~/.xsession</filename>:</para>
+      <para>另一種方式是使用 <application>XDM</application>，要設定這個方式需建立一個可執行的 <filename>~/.xsession</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "#!/bin/sh" &gt; ~/.xsession</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>echo "exec /usr/local/bin/startxfce4 --with-ck-launch" &gt;&gt; ~/.xsession</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod +x ~/.xsession</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x-compiz-fusion">
     <title>安裝 Compiz Fusion</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">One way to make using a desktop
-      computer more pleasant is with nice 3D effects.</para>
+    <para>要令使用桌面電腦更令人愉快的方法是用炫麗的 3D 效果。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Installing the <application>Compiz Fusion</application>
-      package is easy, but configuring it requires a few steps that
-      are not described in the port's documentation.</para>
+    <para>安裝 <application>Compiz Fusion</application> 套件非常簡單，但設定該套件需要一些未在 Port 說明文件中說明的步驟。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="x-compiz-video-card">
       <title>設定 FreeBSD nVidia 驅動程式</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Desktop effects can cause quite a load on the graphics
-	card.  For an nVidia-based graphics card, the proprietary
-	driver is required for good performance.  Users of other
-	graphics cards can skip this section and continue with the
-	<filename>xorg.conf</filename> configuration.</para>
+      <para>桌面特效需要使用相當程度的顯示卡，對於以 nVidia 為基礎的顯示卡，需要使用專用的驅動程序來取得較佳的性能。其他顯示卡的使用可以跳過這一節，並繼續 <filename>xorg.conf</filename> 設定。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To determine which nVidia driver is needed see the <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/x.html#idp59950544">FAQ question
-	  on the subject</link>.</para>
+      <para>要知道需要那一種 nVidia 驅動程式可以查看 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/x.html#idp59950544">FAQ 中與此主題相關的問題</link>。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Having determined the correct driver to use for your card,
-	installation is as simple as installing any other
-	package.</para>
+      <para>知道您的顯示卡要使用那種驅動程式才是正確的之後，接下來的安裝程序跟安裝其他套件一樣簡單。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">For example, to install the latest driver:</para>
+      <para>例如，要安裝最新的驅動程式:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install x11/nvidia-driver</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The driver will create a kernel module, which needs to be
-	loaded at system startup.  Add the following line to
-	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>驅動程式會建立一個需要在系統啟動時載入的核心模組，加入下行到 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">nvidia_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">To immediately load the kernel module into the running
-	  kernel by issuing a command like <command>kldload
-	    nvidia</command>, however it has been noted that the some
-	  versions of <application>Xorg</application> will not
-	  function properly if the driver is not loaded at boot time.
-	  After editing <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>, a
-	  reboot is recommended.</para>
+	<para>要立即載入核心模組到執行中的核心可以下 <command>kldload nvidia</command> 指令，但是需要注意，若不是在開機時載入，某些 <application>Xorg</application> 版本會無法正常運作。因此編輯完 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 之後建議要重新開機。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">With the kernel module loaded, you normally only need to
-	change a single line in <filename>xorg.conf</filename>
-	to enable the proprietary driver:</para>
+      <para>核心模組載入之後，您只需要更改 <filename>xorg.conf</filename> 的其中一行來開啟專用的驅動程式:</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Find the following line in
-	<filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>找到 <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> 中的下行:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Driver      "nv"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">and change it to:</para>
+      <para>然後更改該行為:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Driver      "nvidia"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Start the GUI as usual, and you should be greeted by the
-	nVidia splash.  Everything should work as usual.</para>
+      <para>如往常般啟動 GUI，您應該會看到 nVidia 的啟動畫面，其他東西應如往常般運作。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="xorg-configuration">
       <title>設定 xorg.conf 來啟動桌面特效</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To enable <application>Compiz Fusion</application>,
-	<filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> needs to be
-	modified:</para>
+      <para>要開啟 <application>Compiz Fusion</application> 需要修改 <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Add the following section to enable composite
-	effects:</para>
+      <para>加入以下 Section 來開啟合成特效:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Extensions"
     Option         "Composite" "Enable"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Locate the <quote>Screen</quote> section which should look
-	similar to the one below:</para>
+      <para>找到 <quote>Screen</quote> section，長的應該如下所示:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Screen"
     Identifier     "Screen0"
     Device         "Card0"
     Monitor        "Monitor0"
     ...</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">and add the following two lines (after
-	<quote>Monitor</quote> will do):</para>
+      <para>然後加入以下兩行 (在<quote>Monitor</quote> 之後):</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">DefaultDepth    24
 Option         "AddARGBGLXVisuals" "True"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Locate the <quote>Subsection</quote> that refers to the
-	screen resolution that you wish to use.  For example, if you
-	wish to use 1280x1024, locate the section that follows.  If
-	the desired resolution does not appear in any subsection, you
-	may add the relevant entry by hand:</para>
+      <para>找到您欲使用的螢幕解析度所在的 <quote>Subsection</quote>，例如，您想要使用 1280x1024，則找到如下所示的 Section。若想要使用的解析度不在任何 Subsection 之中，您可以手動加入對應的項目:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">SubSection     "Display"
     Viewport    0 0
     Modes      "1280x1024"
 EndSubSection</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A color depth of 24 bits is needed for desktop
-	composition, change the above subsection to:</para>
+      <para>桌面合成需要 24 bit 的色彩深度，更改上述 Subsection 為:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">SubSection     "Display"
     Viewport    0 0
     Depth       24
     Modes      "1280x1024"
 EndSubSection</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Finally, confirm that the <quote>glx</quote> and
-	<quote>extmod</quote> modules are loaded in the
-	<quote>Module</quote> section:</para>
+      <para>最後確認在 <quote>Module</quote> section 中已經載入 <quote>glx</quote> 與 <quote>extmod</quote> 模組:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Module"
     Load           "extmod"
     Load           "glx"
     ...</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The preceding can be done automatically with
-	<package>x11/nvidia-xconfig</package> by running (as
-	root):</para>
+      <para>前面所述的動作可以執行 <package>x11/nvidia-xconfig</package> 來自動完成 (使用 root) :</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>nvidia-xconfig --add-argb-glx-visuals</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>nvidia-xconfig --composite</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>nvidia-xconfig --depth=24</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="compiz-fusion">
       <title>安裝與設定 Compiz Fusion</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Installing <application>Compiz Fusion</application>
-	is as simple as any other package:</para>
+      <para>安裝 <application>Compiz Fusion</application> 如同安裝其他套件一樣簡單:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install x11-wm/compiz-fusion</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">When the installation is finished, start your graphic
-	desktop and at a terminal, enter the following commands (as a
-	normal user):</para>
+      <para>安裝完成之後，開啟您的圖型化桌面，然後在終端機的畫面輸入以下指令 (使用一般使用者):</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>compiz --replace --sm-disable --ignore-desktop-hints ccp &amp;</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>emerald --replace &amp;</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Your screen will flicker for a few seconds, as your window
-	manager (e.g. <application>Metacity</application> if you are
-	using <application>GNOME</application>) is replaced by
-	<application>Compiz Fusion</application>.
-	<application>Emerald</application> takes care of the window
-	decorations (i.e. close, minimize, maximize buttons, title
-	bars and so on).</para>
+      <para>由於您的視窗管理程式 (例如: <application>Metacity</application>，若您使用 <application>GNOME</application>) 會被替換成 <application>Compiz Fusion</application>，您的螢幕會閃爍幾秒。而 <application>Emerald</application> 會處理視窗的裝飾  (例如: 關閉、最小化、最大化按鈕、標題列及其他相關)。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">You may convert this to a trivial script and have it run
-	at startup automatically (e.g. by adding to
-	<quote>Sessions</quote> in a <application>GNOME</application>
-	desktop):</para>
+      <para>您或許可以將這些指令改寫成較小的 Script 然後在啟動時自動執行 (加到 <application>GNOME</application> 桌面的 <quote>Sessions</quote> 中):</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#! /bin/sh
 compiz --replace --sm-disable --ignore-desktop-hints ccp &amp;
 emerald --replace &amp;</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Save this in your home directory as, for example,
-	<filename>start-compiz</filename> and make it
-	executable:</para>
+      <para>儲存這個 Script 到您的家目錄所在位置，例如 <filename>start-compiz</filename>，然後讓該檔案可以執行:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod +x ~/start-compiz</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Then use the GUI to add it to <guimenuitem>Startup
-	  Programs</guimenuitem> (located in
-	<guimenuitem>System</guimenuitem>,
-	<guimenuitem>Preferences</guimenuitem>,
-	<guimenuitem>Sessions</guimenuitem> on a
-	<application>GNOME</application> desktop).</para>
+      <para>接著使用 GUI  將該檔案加入啟動程式 <guimenuitem>Startup Programs</guimenuitem> (位於 <application>GNOME</application> 桌面的系統 <guimenuitem>System</guimenuitem>, 偏好設定 <guimenuitem>Preferences</guimenuitem>, 工作階段 <guimenuitem>Sessions</guimenuitem>)。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">To actually select all the desired effects and their
-	settings, execute (again as a normal user) the
-	<application>Compiz Config Settings Manager</application>:</para>
+      <para>要選擇所想使用的特效與相關設定，可執行 (一樣使用一般使用者) Compiz Config 設定管理程式 <application>Compiz Config Settings Manager</application>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ccsm</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">In <application>GNOME</application>, this can also be
-	  found in the <guimenuitem>System</guimenuitem>,
-	  <guimenuitem>Preferences</guimenuitem> menu.</para>
+	<para>在 <application>GNOME</application> 中，也可在系統 <guimenuitem>System</guimenuitem>, 偏好設定 <guimenuitem>Preferences</guimenuitem> 選單中找到。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If you have selected <quote>gconf support</quote> during
-	the build, you will also be able to view these settings using
-	<command>gconf-editor</command> under
-	<literal>apps/compiz</literal>.</para>
+      <para>若您在編譯時選擇了 <quote>gconf support</quote>，您便可使用 <command>gconf-editor</command> 在 <literal>apps/compiz</literal> 下查看設定。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="x11-understanding">
 
     <title>疑難排解</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">If the mouse does not work, you will need to first configure
-      it before proceeding.
-      In recent <application>Xorg</application>
-      versions, the <literal>InputDevice</literal> sections in
-      <filename>xorg.conf</filename> are ignored in favor of the
-      autodetected devices.  To restore the old behavior, add the
-      following line to the <literal>ServerLayout</literal> or
-      <literal>ServerFlags</literal> section of this file:</para>
+    <para>若滑鼠無法使用，您將需要做第一次設定方可繼續。在最近的 <application>Xorg</application> 版本，使用自動偵測裝置會忽略在 <filename>xorg.conf</filename> 中的 <literal>InputDevice</literal> section。要採用舊的方式，需在此檔案加入下行到 <literal>ServerLayout</literal> 或 <literal>ServerFlags</literal> section:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Option "AutoAddDevices" "false"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Input devices may then be configured as in previous
-	versions, along with any other options needed (e.g., keyboard
-	layout switching).</para>
+      <para>輸入裝置便可如先前版本一樣設定，連同其他所需的選項 (如: 切換鍵盤配置)。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">As previously explained the
-	  <application>hald</application> daemon will, by default,
-	  automatically detect your keyboard.  There are chances that
-	  your keyboard layout or model will not be correct, desktop
-	  environments like <application>GNOME</application>,
-	  <application>KDE</application> or
-	  <application>Xfce</application> provide tools to configure
-	  the keyboard.  However, it is possible to set the keyboard
-	  properties directly either with the help of the
-	  <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>setxkbmap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility or with a
-	  <application>hald</application>'s configuration rule.</para>
+	<para>如同前面有說明過，<application>hald</application> Daemon 預設會自動偵測您的鍵盤，因此您的鍵盤配置或型號可能不正確，桌面環境如 <application>GNOME</application>, <application>KDE</application> 或 <application>Xfce</application> 會提供設定鍵盤的工具。即使如此，還是有可能透過 <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>setxkbmap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具或 <application>hald</application> 的設定規則的協助來直接設定鍵盤屬性。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">For example if, one wants to use a PC 102 keys keyboard
-	  coming with a french layout, we have to create a keyboard
-	  configuration file for <application>hald</application>
-	  called <filename>x11-input.fdi</filename> and saved in the
-	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/hal/fdi/policy</filename>
-	  directory.  This file should contain the following
-	  lines:</para>
+	<para>舉例來說，若有人想要使用 PC 102 鍵的鍵盤，採用法語 (French) 配置，我們便需要建立一個給 <application>hald</application> 的鍵盤設定檔，名稱為 <filename>x11-input.fdi</filename>，然後儲存到 <filename>/usr/local/etc/hal/fdi/policy</filename> 目錄。這個檔案中應要有以下幾行:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?&gt;
 &lt;deviceinfo version="0.2"&gt;
   &lt;device&gt;
     &lt;match key="info.capabilities" contains="input.keyboard"&gt;
 	  &lt;merge key="input.x11_options.XkbModel" type="string"&gt;pc102&lt;/merge&gt;
 	  &lt;merge key="input.x11_options.XkbLayout" type="string"&gt;fr&lt;/merge&gt;
     &lt;/match&gt;
   &lt;/device&gt;
 &lt;/deviceinfo&gt;</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">If this file already exists, just copy and add to your
-	  file the lines regarding the keyboard configuration.</para>
+	<para>若這個檔案已經存在，只需要複製並貼上您的檔案中有關鍵盤設定的那幾行。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">You will have to reboot your machine to force
-	  <application>hald</application> to read this file.</para>
+	<para>您會需要重新啟動您的機器來讓 <application>hald</application> 讀取這個檔案。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">It is possible to do the same configuration from an X
-	  terminal or a script with this command line:</para>
+	<para>也是可以從 X 終端機或 Script 下指令來做同樣的設定:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>setxkbmap -model pc102 -layout fr</userinput></screen>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/share/X11/xkb/rules/base.lst</filename>
-	  lists the various keyboard, layouts and options
-	  available.</para>
+	<para><filename>/usr/local/share/X11/xkb/rules/base.lst</filename> 中列出了各種可用的鍵盤、配置與設定。</para>
       </note>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><application>Xorg</application>
 	  tuning</primary></indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>xorg.conf.new</filename> configuration file
-	may now be tuned to taste.  Open the file in a text editor
-	such as <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>emacs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  If the monitor is an
-	older or unusual model that does not support autodetection of
-	sync frequencies, those settings can be added to
-	<filename>xorg.conf.new</filename> under the
-	<literal>"Monitor"</literal> section:</para>
+      <para>現在可以開始調整 <filename>xorg.conf.new</filename> 設定檔，在文字編輯器如 <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>emacs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 或 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ee</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 開啟該設定檔。若顯示器是不支援自動偵測同步頻率 (Sync frequency) 的舊或特殊的型號，同步頻率的設定可以手動加到 <filename>xorg.conf.new</filename> 的 <literal>"Monitor"</literal> section:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Monitor"
 	Identifier   "Monitor0"
 	VendorName   "Monitor Vendor"
 	ModelName    "Monitor Model"
 	HorizSync    30-107
 	VertRefresh  48-120
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Most monitors support sync frequency autodetection, making
-	manual entry of these values unnecessary.  For the few
-	monitors that do not support autodetection, avoid potential
-	damage by only entering values provided by the
-	manufacturer.</para>
+      <para>多數顯示器都支援自動偵測同步頻率，並不需要手動設定這些數值。對於那些不支援自動偵測的顯示器，請輸入由製造商提供的數值來避免損壞顯示器。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">X allows DPMS (Energy Star) features to be used with
-	capable monitors.  The <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xset</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> program controls the
-	time-outs and can force standby, suspend, or off modes.  If
-	you wish to enable DPMS features for your monitor, you must
-	add the following line to the monitor section:</para>
+      <para>X 允許在支援的顯示器使用 DPMS (Energy Star) 功能，<citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xset</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 程式可以控制逾時並可強制待機 (Standby)、暫停 (Suspend) 或關閉 (Off) 模式。若您想要為您的顯示器開啟 DPMS 功能，您需要加入下行到顯示器 (Monitor) 的 Section:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Option       "DPMS"</programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>xorg.conf</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">While the <filename>xorg.conf.new</filename> configuration
-	file is still open in an editor, select the default resolution
-	and color depth desired.  This is defined in the
-	<literal>"Screen"</literal> section:</para>
+      <para>在編輯器還未關閉 <filename>xorg.conf.new</filename> 設定檔前，選擇想要使用的預設解析度及色彩深度。這些項目可在 <literal>"Screen"</literal> section 定義:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Screen"
 	Identifier "Screen0"
 	Device     "Card0"
 	Monitor    "Monitor0"
 	DefaultDepth 24
 	SubSection "Display"
 		Viewport  0 0
 		Depth     24
 		Modes     "1024x768"
 	EndSubSection
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>DefaultDepth</literal> keyword describes the
-	color depth to run at by default.  This can be overridden with
-	the <option>-depth</option> command line switch to
-	<citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>Xorg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The <literal>Modes</literal> keyword describes
-	the resolution to run at for the given color depth.  Note that
-	only VESA standard modes are supported as defined by the
-	target system's graphics hardware.  In the example above, the
-	default color depth is twenty-four bits per pixel.  At this
-	color depth, the accepted resolution is 1024 by 768
-	pixels.</para>
+      <para><literal>DefaultDepth</literal> 關鍵字代表預設執行要使用的色彩深度，這個設定可以被 <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>Xorg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的指令列參數 <option>-depth</option> 覆蓋。<literal>Modes</literal> 關鍵字代表執行要使用的解析度，注意，只有 VESA 標準模式才支援目標系統的繪圖硬體來定義解析度。在上述的例子中，預設使用的色彩深度為每像素 24 bit，這個色彩深度可用的解析度為 1024 x 768 像素。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Finally, write the configuration file and test it using
-	the test mode given above.</para>
+      <para>最後，儲存設定檔並使用測試模式來測試上述的設定。</para>
 
       <note>
-	<para xml:lang="en">One of the tools available to assist you during
-	  troubleshooting process are the
-	  <application>Xorg</application> log files, which contain
-	  information on each device that the
-	  <application>Xorg</application> server attaches to.
-	  <application>Xorg</application> log file names are in the
-	  format of <filename>/var/log/Xorg.0.log</filename>.  The
-	  exact name of the log can vary from
-	  <filename>Xorg.0.log</filename> to
-	  <filename>Xorg.8.log</filename> and so forth.</para>
+	<para>有一個工具可以協助您診斷問題，那就是 <application>Xorg</application> 記錄檔。該記錄檔中記錄了 <application>Xorg</application> 連接的每個裝置的資訊。<application>Xorg</application> 記錄檔名稱的格式為 <filename>/var/log/Xorg.0.log</filename>，確切的記錄檔名會可能從 <filename>Xorg.0.log</filename> 到 <filename>Xorg.8.log</filename> 以此類推。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If all is well, the configuration file needs to be
-	installed in a common location where <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>Xorg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> can find it.
-	This is typically <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> or
-	<filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.</para>
+      <para>若一且運作正常，設定檔需要安裝到 <citerefentry vendor="xorg"><refentrytitle>Xorg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 會尋找的常用設定檔位置，通常是 <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> 或 <filename>/usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp xorg.conf.new /etc/X11/xorg.conf</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The <application>Xorg</application> configuration
-	process is now complete.  <application>Xorg</application>
-	may be now started with the <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>startx</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility.  The
-	<application>Xorg</application> server may also be started
-	with the use of <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+      <para>現在已經完成了 <application>Xorg</application> 的設定程序。<application>Xorg</application> 現在可以使用 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>startx</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具啟動。<application>Xorg</application> 伺服器也可以使用 <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>xdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來啟動。</para>
 
       <sect2>
 	<title>設定 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> <literal>i810</literal> 繪圖晶片組</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>Intel i810 graphic chipset</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Configuration with <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> i810 integrated chipsets
-	  requires the <filename>agpgart</filename> AGP programming
-	  interface for <application>Xorg</application> to drive the
-	  card.  See the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>agp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver manual page for more
-	  information.</para>
+	<para>要設定 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> i810 整合晶片組需要使用 <filename>agpgart</filename> AGP 程式介面來控制 <application>Xorg</application> 驅動該顯示卡。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>agp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式操作手冊來取得更多詳細資訊。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">This will allow configuration of the hardware as any
-	  other graphics board.  Note on systems without the
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>agp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver compiled in the kernel, trying to load
-	  the module with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will not work.  This driver
-	  has to be in the kernel at boot time through being compiled
-	  in or using <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
+	<para>這也可讓您可以設定任何其他繪圖卡的硬體。注意，在未編譯 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>agp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 到核心的系統，並無法使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來載入該模組，因此驅動程式必須在開機時便在核心啟動，所以需要透過編譯或使用 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 來載入。</para>
       </sect2>
 
       <sect2>
 	<title>加入寬螢幕平板顯示器到設定檔</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>widescreen flatpanel configuration</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">This section assumes a bit of advanced configuration
-	  knowledge.  If attempts to use the standard configuration
-	  tools above have not resulted in a working configuration,
-	  there is information enough in the log files to be of use in
-	  getting the setup working.  Use of a text editor will be
-	  necessary.</para>
+	<para>此章節會需要有一些進階的設定知識，若嘗試使用上述的標準設定工具仍無法產生可運作的設定，在記錄檔中應有足夠的資訊可運用來讓顯示卡運作。在此會需要使用文字編輯器。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Current widescreen (WSXGA, WSXGA+, WUXGA, WXGA, WXGA+,
-	  et.al.) formats support 16:10 and 10:9 formats or aspect
-	  ratios that can be problematic.  Examples of some common
-	  screen resolutions for 16:10 aspect ratios are:</para>
+	<para>目前使用寬螢幕 (WSXGA, WSXGA+, WUXGA, WXGA, WXGA+, et.al.) 格式支援的 16:10 及 10:9 格式或其他的寬高比可會有問題。例如一些 16:10 寬高比常見的螢幕解析度:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">2560x1600</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">1920x1200</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">1680x1050</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">1440x900</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">1280x800</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">At some point, it will be as easy as adding one of these
-	  resolutions as a possible <literal>Mode</literal> in the
-	  <literal>Section "Screen"</literal> as such:</para>
+	<para>在某些時候，可以簡單的將這些要使用的解析度以 <literal>Mode</literal>  加入到  Section "Screen":</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Screen"
 Identifier "Screen0"
 Device     "Card0"
 Monitor    "Monitor0"
 DefaultDepth 24
 SubSection "Display"
 	Viewport  0 0
 	Depth     24
 	Modes     "1680x1050"
 EndSubSection
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> is smart enough to
-	  pull the resolution information from the widescreen via
-	  I2C/DDC information so it knows what the monitor can handle
-	  as far as frequencies and resolutions.</para>
+	<para><application>Xorg</application> 能夠從寬螢幕設定取得解析度資訊 (透過 I2C/DDC)，因此能夠知道螢幕能處理的頻率及解析度。</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">If those <literal>ModeLines</literal> do not exist in
-	  the drivers, one might need to give
-	  <application>Xorg</application> a little hint.  Using
-	  <filename>/var/log/Xorg.0.log</filename> one can extract
-	  enough information to manually create a
-	  <literal>ModeLine</literal> that will work.  Simply look for
-	  information resembling this:</para>
+	<para>若驅動程式中不存在那些螢幕能處理的 <literal>ModeLines</literal>，則需要給 <application>Xorg</application> 一點提示。透過 <filename>/var/log/Xorg.0.log</filename> 可以取得足夠的資訊來手動建立可運作的 <literal>ModeLine</literal>。只需要在記錄檔中找到類似以下的訊息:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">(II) MGA(0): Supported additional Video Mode:
 (II) MGA(0): clock: 146.2 MHz   Image Size:  433 x 271 mm
 (II) MGA(0): h_active: 1680  h_sync: 1784  h_sync_end 1960 h_blank_end 2240 h_border: 0
 (II) MGA(0): v_active: 1050  v_sync: 1053  v_sync_end 1059 v_blanking: 1089 v_border: 0
 (II) MGA(0): Ranges: V min: 48  V max: 85 Hz, H min: 30  H max: 94 kHz, PixClock max 170 MHz</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">This information is called EDID information.  Creating a
-	  <literal>ModeLine</literal> from this is just a matter of
-	  putting the numbers in the correct order:</para>
+	<para>這些資訊稱作 EDID 資訊，使用 EDIT 資訊建立 <literal>ModeLine</literal> 只需要將數據使用正確的順序放入:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ModeLine &lt;name&gt; &lt;clock&gt; &lt;4 horiz. timings&gt; &lt;4 vert. timings&gt;</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">So that the <literal>ModeLine</literal> in
-	  <literal>Section "Monitor"</literal> for this example would
-	  look like this:</para>
+	<para>將資訊放入之後，本例中 <literal>Section "Monitor"</literal> 中的 <literal>ModeLine</literal> 會看起來像這樣:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Monitor"
 Identifier      "Monitor1"
 VendorName      "Bigname"
 ModelName       "BestModel"
 ModeLine        "1680x1050" 146.2 1680 1784 1960 2240 1050 1053 1059 1089
 Option          "DPMS"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Now having completed these simple editing steps, X
-	  should start on your new widescreen monitor.</para>
+	<para>便完成編輯的步驟，接著需要在您的寬螢幕顯示器啟動 X。</para>
       </sect2>
 
       <sect2 xml:id="compiz-troubleshooting">
 	<title>Compiz Fusion 疑難排解</title>
 
 	<qandaset>
 	  <qandaentry>
 	    <question xml:id="no-decorations">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">I have installed
-		<application>Compiz Fusion</application>, and
-		after running the commands you mention, my windows are
-		left without title bars and buttons.  What is
-		wrong?</para>
+	      <para>我已經安裝了 <application>Compiz Fusion</application>，但在執行了您所提到的指令後，我的視窗的標題列與按鈕便消失了。是那裡有問題?</para>
 	    </question>
 
 	    <answer>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">You are probably missing a setting in
-		<filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.  Review this
-		file carefully and check especially the
-		<literal>DefaultDepth</literal> and
-		<literal>AddARGBGLXVisuals</literal>
-		directives.</para>
+	      <para>您可能忘記在 <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> 中的設定。請重新檢查這個檔案，特別是 <literal>DefaultDepth</literal> 及 <literal>AddARGBGLXVisuals</literal> 指令項。</para>
 	    </answer>
 	  </qandaentry>
 
 	  <qandaentry>
 	    <question xml:id="xorg-crash">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">When I run the command to start
-		<application>Compiz Fusion</application>, the X
-		server crashes and I am back at the console.  What is
-		wrong?</para>
+	      <para>當我執行指令來啟動 <application>Compiz Fusion</application>，X 伺服器便當掉了，然後我又返回 Console。是那裡有問題?</para>
 	    </question>
 
 	    <answer>
-	      <para xml:lang="en">If you check
-		<filename>/var/log/Xorg.0.log</filename>, you
-		will probably find error messages during the X
-		startup.  The most common would be:</para>
+	      <para>若您檢查 <filename>/var/log/Xorg.0.log</filename>，您可能可以找到當 X 啟動時所發生的錯誤訊息。最常發生的錯誤會是:</para>
 
 	      <screen xml:lang="en">(EE) NVIDIA(0):     Failed to initialize the GLX module; please check in your X
 (EE) NVIDIA(0):     log file that the GLX module has been loaded in your X
 (EE) NVIDIA(0):     server, and that the module is the NVIDIA GLX module.  If
 (EE) NVIDIA(0):     you continue to encounter problems, Please try
 (EE) NVIDIA(0):     reinstalling the NVIDIA driver.</screen>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">This is usually the case when you upgrade
-	      <application>Xorg</application>.  You will need to
-	      reinstall the <package>x11/nvidia-driver</package>
-	      package so glx is built again.</para>
+	    <para>會發生這個情形通常是因為您升級了 <application>Xorg</application>，您需要重新安裝 <package>x11/nvidia-driver</package> 套件來重新編譯 glx。</para>
 	  </answer>
 	</qandaentry>
       </qandaset>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
   </part>
 
   <part xml:id="common-tasks">
     <title>一般作業</title>
 
     <partintro>
       <para>既然基礎的部分已經提過了，接下來的這個部分將會討論一些常會用到的 FreeBSD 的特色，這些章節包括：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>介紹給您常見且實用的桌面應用軟體：瀏覽器、辦工工具、文件閱覽程式等。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>介紹給您眾多 FreeBSD 上可用的多媒體工具。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>解釋如何編譯量身訂做的 FreeBSD 核心以增加額外系統功能的流程。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>詳細描述列印系統，包含桌上型印表機及網路印表機的設定。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>展示給您看如何在您的 FreeBSD 系統中執行 Linux 應用軟體。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>這些章節中有些需要您預先閱讀些相關文件，在各章節開頭的概要內會提及。</para>
     </partintro>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="desktop">
   <!--
   <chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Christophe</firstname>
 	<surname>Juniet</surname>
 	<contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
 
   <title>桌面應用程式</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="desktop-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
-    <para>隨著 FreeBSD 優越的效能及穩定性越來越熱門，它同時適合作為每日使用的桌面系統。FreeBSD 套件或 Ports 有超過 24,000 個可用的應用程式，可以簡單的建立一個自訂的桌面環境來執行各種不同的桌面應用程式。本章將示範如何安裝數個桌面應用程式，包含網頁瀏覽器、辦工軟體、文件閱覽程式以及財務軟體。</para>
+    <para>隨著 FreeBSD 優越的效能及穩定性越來越熱門，它同時適合作為每日使用的桌面系統。FreeBSD 套件或 Port 有超過 24,000 個可用的應用程式，可以簡單的建立一個自訂的桌面環境來執行各種不同的桌面應用程式。本章將示範如何安裝數個桌面應用程式，包含網頁瀏覽器、辦工軟體、文件閱覽程式以及財務軟體。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>比起重頭設定，更偏好安裝預先編譯好桌面環境的 FreeBSD 版本的使用者可參考 <link xlink:href="http://www.pcbsd.org/">pcbsd.org 網站</link></para>
     </note>
 
     <para>在閱讀這章之前，你必須了解如何：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>使用套件或 Port 安裝其他軟體如 <xref linkend="ports"/> 所敘述。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>安狀 X 與視窗管理程式如 <xref linkend="x11"/> 所敘述。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>要取得有關如何設定多媒體環境的資訊，請參考 <xref linkend="multimedia"/>。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="desktop-browsers">
     <title>瀏覽器</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>browsers</primary>
       <secondary>web</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>在 FreeBSD 中並未預先安裝好網頁瀏覽器。 但在 Ports 套件集中的 <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/www.html">www</link> 分類中有許多瀏覽器可以採 Binary 套件安裝或自 Ports 套件集編譯的方式安裝。</para>
+    <para>在 FreeBSD 中並未預先安裝好網頁瀏覽器。 但在 Port 套件集中的 <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/www.html">www</link> 分類中有許多瀏覽器可以採 Binary 套件安裝或自 Port 套件集編譯的方式安裝。</para>
 
     <para><application>KDE</application> 和 <application>GNOME</application> 桌面環境都有提供自有的 HTML 瀏覽器。請參考 <xref linkend="x11-wm"/> 來了解更多有關如何設定完整桌面環境的資訊。</para>
 
     <para>有一些輕量化的瀏覽器可使用，包含 <package>www/dillo2</package>, <package>www/links</package> 以及 <package>www/w3m</package>。</para>
 
-    <para>本章節將示範如何安裝下列常見的網頁瀏覽器並說明該應用程式是否需要用到大量資源、花費大量時間自 Ports 編譯或何主要的相依套件。</para>
+    <para>本章節將示範如何安裝下列常見的網頁瀏覽器並說明該應用程式是否需要用到大量資源、花費大量時間自 Port 編譯或何主要的相依套件。</para>
 
     <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="4">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>應用程式名稱</entry>
 	    <entry>所需資源</entry>
-	    <entry>自 Ports 安裝時間</entry>
+	    <entry>自 Port 安裝時間</entry>
 	    <entry>說明</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Firefox</application></entry>
 	    <entry>中</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry>有 FreeBSD 、 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 及在地化版本</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Opera</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>有 FreeBSD 、 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 版本</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Konqueror</application></entry>
 	    <entry>中</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry>需要 <application>KDE</application> 程式庫</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Chromium</application></entry>
 	    <entry>中</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry>需要 <application>Gtk+</application> 程式庫</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Firefox</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Firefox</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>Firefox</application> 是一套已完整植到 FreeBSD 的開放源始碼瀏覽器，它具備符合 HTML 標準的顯示引擎、頁籤瀏覽、彈出視窗封鎖、擴充套件、強化安全性及其他更多功能。<application>Firefox</application> 的基礎使用了 <application>Mozilla</application> 的程式庫。</para>
 
       <para>要安裝最新釋出版本的 <application>Firefox</application> 套件可輸入：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install firefox</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要安裝延長支援發佈 (Extended Support Release, ESR) 版本的 <application>Firefox</application>，可使用：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install firefox-esr</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>在地化的版本可在 <package>www/firefox-i18n</package> 及 <package>www/firefox-esr-i18n</package> 取得。</para>
 
-      <para>使用 Ports 套件地可以用原始碼編譯成您想要的 <application>Firefox</application> 版本。此範例編譯 <package>www/firefox</package>，其中 <literal>firefox</literal> 可替換為 ESR 或在地化版本來安裝。</para>
+      <para>使用 Port 套件地可以用原始碼編譯成您想要的 <application>Firefox</application> 版本。此範例編譯 <package>www/firefox</package>，其中 <literal>firefox</literal> 可替換為 ESR 或在地化版本來安裝。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/firefox</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
     <sect3 xml:id="moz-java-plugin">
       <title>Firefox 與 <trademark>Java</trademark> 附加元件</title>
 
       <para>安裝 <application>Firefox</application> 並不包含 <trademark>Java</trademark> 支援，雖然如此 <package>java/icedtea-web</package> 提供了免費的網頁瀏覽器附加元件來執行 Java applet，此附加元件可以用 Binary  套件安裝或者自 Port 編譯：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/java/icedtea-web</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>編譯 Port 時使用預設設定選項。</para>
 
       <para>安裝完成時，啟動 <application>firefox</application>，在網址列輸入 <literal>about:plugins</literal> 並按 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 鍵。 會出現一個頁面列出已安裝的附加元件。 <application><trademark>Java</trademark></application> 附加元件應該會列在其中。</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the browser is unable to find the plugin, each user
 	will have to run the following command and relaunch the
 	browser:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ln -s /usr/local/lib/IcedTeaPlugin.so \
   $HOME/.mozilla/plugins/</userinput></screen>
     </sect3>
 
     <sect3 xml:id="moz-flash-plugin">
 
       <title>Firefox 與 <trademark class="registered">Adobe</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> 附加元件</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Flash</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 並沒有原生的 <trademark class="registered">Adobe</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> 附加原件。雖然如此，仍可以使用軟體包裝程式來執行 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 版本 的附加元件。該包裝程式也提供其他瀏覽器附加元件的支援，如 <trademark class="registered">RealPlayer</trademark>。</para>
 
       <para>要安裝並開啟此附加元件，可執行以下步驟：</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para>自 Port 安裝 <package role="port">www/nspluginwrapper</package> ，受到授權條款的限制，該套件無 Binary 版本。此 Port 需安裝 <package>emulators/linux_base-c6</package>。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>自 Port 安裝 <package role="port">www/linux-c6-flashplugin11</package> ，受到授權條款的限制，該套件無 Binary 版本。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>第一次使用附加元件前，每位使用者需要先執行：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>nspluginwrapper -v -a -i</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>當附加元件 Port 完成更新並且重新安裝後，每位使用者需要執行：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>nspluginwrapper -v -a -u</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>開啟瀏覽器並在網址列輸入 <literal>about:plugins</literal> 並按 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 鍵，目前可用的附加元件清單中應會顯示該附加元件。</para>
 	</step>
 
       </procedure>
     </sect3>
 
     <sect3 xml:id="moz-swfdec-flash-plugin">
       <title>Firefox 與 Swfdec <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> 附加元件</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Swfdec</application> is a decoder and
 	renderer for <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> animations.
 	<application>Swfdec-Mozilla</application> is a plugin for
 	<application>Firefox</application> browsers that uses the
 	Swfdec library for playing SWF files.</para>
 
       <para>要安裝套件可：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install swfdec-plugin</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the package is not available, compile and install it
 	from the Ports Collection:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/swfdec-plugin</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Restart the browser to activate this plugin.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Opera</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Opera</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>Opera</application> 是個具備完整功能、符合標準且輕量、執行速度快的瀏覽器。 它同時也具備了內建的郵件、新聞閱讀器、IRC 客戶端、RSS/Atom 來源閱讀器等。 可用的版本有兩種原生的 FreeBSD 版本及 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 模擬模式下執行的版本。</para>
 
       <para>以下指令可安裝 FreeBSD Binary 套件版本的 Opera，替換 <literal>opera</literal> 為 <literal>linux-opera</literal> 則可改安裝 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 版本。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install opera</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>或者，可安裝 Ports 套件集中的版本，以下範例會編譯原生的版本。</para>
+      <para>或者，可安裝 Port 套件集中的版本，以下範例會編譯原生的版本。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/opera</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要安裝 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 則替換 <literal>opera</literal> 為 <literal>linux-opera</literal>。</para>
 
       <para>要安裝 <trademark class="registered">Adobe</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> 附加元件，需先編譯 <package role="port">www/linux-c6-flashplugin11</package> Port，因受到授權條款限制無法事先做為 Binary 套件。然後安裝 <package role="port">www/opera-linuxplugins</package>。以下範例示範編譯 Port 中的這兩個應用程式。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/linux-c6-flashplugin11</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/opera-linuxplugins</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>安裝完成後，開啟瀏覽器檢查附加元件是否存在，在網址列輸入 <literal>opera:plugins</literal> 並按下 <keycap>Enter</keycap> 鍵，便會有清單顯示目前可用的附加元件。</para>
 
       <para>若要安裝 <application><trademark>Java</trademark></application> 附加元件請依照 <xref linkend="moz-java-plugin"/> 中的指示。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Konqueror</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Konqueror</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>Konqueror</application> 不只是個網頁瀏覽器， 它同時也是檔案管理器和多媒體瀏覽器。它包含在 <package>x11/kde4-baseapps</package> 套件或 Port 中。</para>
 
       <para><application>Konqueror</application> 使用支援 WebKit 以及它自有的 KTHML。WebKit  是一套被許多現代瀏覽器所使用的繪圖引擎，包含 Chromium。要在 FreeBSD 的 <application>Konqueror</application> 使用 WebKit 需安裝 <package>www/kwebkitpart</package> 套件或 Port。此範例示範使用 Port 編譯：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/kwebkitpart</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要啟動 <application>Konqueror</application> 中的 WebKit 點選 <quote>Settings</quote>、<quote>Configure Konqueror</quote>。在 <quote>General</quote> 設定頁面內點選 <quote>Default web browser engine</quote> 旁的下拉示選單並變更 <quote>KHTML</quote> 為 <quote>WebKit</quote>。</para>
 
       <para><application>Konqueror</application> 也支援 <application><trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark></application>，<quote>如何</quote>在 <application>Konqueror</application> 上安裝 <application><trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark></application> 的說明可參考 <uri xlink:href="http://freebsd.kde.org/howtos/konqueror-flash.php">http://freebsd.kde.org/howtos/konqueror-flash.php</uri>。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Chromium</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Chromium</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Chromium</application> is an open source
 	browser project that aims to build a safer, faster, and more
 	stable web browsing experience.
 	<application>Chromium</application> features tabbed browsing,
 	popup blocking, extensions, and much more.
 	<application>Chromium</application> is the open source project
 	upon which the Google Chrome web browser is based.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Chromium</application> can be installed as a
 	package by typing:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install chromium</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, <application>Chromium</application> can be
 	compiled from source using the Ports Collection:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/www/chromium</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The executable for <application>Chromium</application>
 	  is <filename>/usr/local/bin/chrome</filename>, not
 	  <filename>/usr/local/bin/chromium</filename>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="chromium-java-plugin">
 	<title>Chromium 與 <trademark>Java</trademark> 附加元件</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The installation of
 	  <application>Chromium</application> does not include <trademark>Java</trademark>
 	  support.  To install <trademark>Java</trademark> plugin support, follow the
 	  instructions in <xref linkend="moz-java-plugin"/>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once <trademark>Java</trademark> support is installed, start
 	  <application>Chromium</application> and enter
 	  <literal>about:plugins</literal> in the address bar.
 	  IcedTea-Web should be listed as one of the installed
 	  plugins.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If <application>Chromium</application> does not display
 	  the IcedTea-Web plugin, run the following commands and
 	  restart the web browser:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir -p /usr/local/share/chromium/plugins
 <prompt>#</prompt> ln -s /usr/local/lib/IcedTeaPlugin.so \
   /usr/local/share/chromium/plugins/</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="chromium-flash-plugin">
 	<title>Chromium 與 <trademark class="registered">Adobe</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> 附加元件</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Configuring <application>Chromium</application> and
 	  <trademark class="registered">Adobe</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Flash</trademark> is similar to the instructions in
 	  <xref linkend="moz-flash-plugin"/>.  No additional
 	  configuration should be necessary, since
 	  <application>Chromium</application> is able to use some
 	  plugins from other browsers.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="desktop-productivity">
     <title>辦工工具</title>
 
     <para>當開始進行辦公，新的使用者通常會去找好用的辦公室軟體或是好上手的文件處理程式。 雖然有些 <link linkend="x11-wm">桌面環境</link> 像是 <application>KDE</application> 已經提供了辦公軟體組合的套件，FreeBSD 預設未提供任何辦工工具。 不論是否有安裝視窗管理程式，FreeBSD 可安裝多套辦公軟體以及圖型化文件處理程式。</para>
 
-    <para>本章節元範如何安裝以下熱門的辦工軟體以及說明該應用程式所需的資源、自 Ports 編譯的時間或者是否有其他主要相依套件。</para>
+    <para>本章節元範如何安裝以下熱門的辦工軟體以及說明該應用程式所需的資源、自 Port 編譯的時間或者是否有其他主要相依套件。</para>
 
     <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="4">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>應用程式名稱</entry>
 	    <entry>所需資源</entry>
-	    <entry>自 Ports 安裝時間</entry>
+	    <entry>自 Port 安裝時間</entry>
 	    <entry>主要相依套件</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Calligra</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>KDE</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>AbiWord</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry><application>Gtk+</application> 或 <application>GNOME</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>The Gimp</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Gtk+</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Apache
 		OpenOffice</application></entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry>非常多</entry>
 	    <entry><application><trademark>JDK</trademark></application> 及 <application>Mozilla</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>LibreOffice</application></entry>
 	    <entry>有點多</entry>
 	    <entry>非常多</entry>
 	    <entry><application>Gtk+</application> 或 <application>KDE</application>/ <application>GNOME</application> 或 <application><trademark>JDK</trademark></application></entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Calligra</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Calligra</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>office suite</primary>
 	<secondary><application>Calligra</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The KDE desktop environment includes
 	an office suite which can be installed separately from
 	<application>KDE</application>.
 	<application>Calligra</application> includes standard
 	components that can be found in other office suites.
 	<application>Words</application> is the word processor,
 	<application>Sheets</application> is the spreadsheet program,
 	<application>Stage</application> manages slide presentations,
 	and <application>Karbon</application> is used to draw
 	graphical documents.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <package>editors/calligra</package> can be
 	installed as a package or a port.  To install the
 	package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install calligra</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection
 	instead:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/editors/calligra</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">AbiWord</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>AbiWord</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>AbiWord</application> 是一個免費的文件處理軟體，外觀和感覺都近似於 <application><trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> Word</application>。 它非常快速，包含了許多功能而且非常容易上手。</para>
 
-      <para><application>AbiWord</application> 可以輸入或輸出許多檔案格式， 包括一些有專利的格式，例如 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <filename>.rtf</filename> 格式。</para>
+      <para><application>AbiWord</application> 可以輸入或輸出許多檔案格式， 包括一些有專用的格式，例如 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <filename>.rtf</filename> 格式。</para>
 
       <para>要安裝 <application>AbiWord</application> Binary 套件，可使用下列指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install abiword</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有 Binary 套件版本，也可以從 Ports 套件集中編譯安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有 Binary 套件版本，也可以從 Port 套件集中編譯安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/editors/abiword</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>The GIMP</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>The GIMP</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>對於影像的編輯及修改來說，<application>The GIMP</application> 是非常精緻的影像處理軟體。 它可以當作簡單的繪圖軟體或是高品質的相片處理軟體。 它支援為數眾多的外掛程式及指令稿 (script-fu) 介面。 <application>The GIMP</application> 可以讀寫許多檔案格式。 它也支援掃描器和手寫板。</para>
 
       <para>要安裝套件可：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install gimp</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>或使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>或使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/graphics/gimp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para> 在 Ports 套件集的 graphics 分類 (<link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/graphics.html">freebsd.org/ports/graphics.html</link>) 下也包含了許多 <application>GIMP</application> 相關的附加元件，說明檔及使用手冊。</para>
+      <para> 在 Port 套件集的 graphics 分類 (<link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/graphics.html">freebsd.org/ports/graphics.html</link>) 下也包含了許多 <application>GIMP</application> 相關的附加元件，說明檔及使用手冊。</para>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Apache OpenOffice</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>
 	  <application>Apache OpenOffice</application>
 	</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>office suite</primary>
 	<secondary>
 	  <application>Apache OpenOffice</application>
 	</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 是開放原始碼的辦工室軟體，由 Apache Software Foundation's Incubator 底下的團隊所開發。 它包含了所有完整的辦公軟體組合： 文字處理器、試算表、簡報軟體還有繪圖軟體。 除了它的使用者介面非常類似其他的辦公軟體， 他還能夠輸入和輸出許多熱門的檔案格式。 它也包含了不同語言的使用者介面、拼字檢查和字典。</para>
 
       <para><application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 的文字處理器使用原生的 XML 檔案格式來增加移植性及彈性。 試算表程式支援巨集 (Macro) 功能而且能夠使用外來的資料庫介面。 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 已經十分穩定， 並且能夠在 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>, <trademark>Solaris</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>, FreeBSD 及 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 等作業系統上面執行。 想知道更多關於 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 的資訊可以在 <link xlink:href="http://openoffice.org/">openoffice.org</link> 網頁上查詢。在 FreeBSD 特定的資訊可參考 <link xlink:href="http://porting.openoffice.org/freebsd/">porting.openoffice.org/freebsd/</link>。</para>
 
       <para>要安裝 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install apache-openoffice</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>當套件安裝完成之後，只要輸入下面的指令就能執行 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>openoffice-<replaceable>X.Y.Z</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>其中 <replaceable>X.Y.Z</replaceable> 是已安裝的 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 的版本編號。第一次執行 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application> 會詢問一些問題且會在使用者的家目錄建立一個 <filename>.openoffice.org</filename> 資料夾。</para>
 
       <para>若無法由套件取得想要的 <application>Apache OpenOffice</application>，仍可選擇從 Port 編譯。 不過必須注意：編譯的過程會需要大量的磁碟空間與時間：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/editors/openoffice-4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para>如果想要編譯在地化的版本，將前面的指令替換成為：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make LOCALIZED_LANG=<replaceable>your_language</replaceable> install clean</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>替換 <replaceable>your_language</replaceable> 為正確的語言 ISO 編碼。支援的語言編碼清單在 <filename>files/Makefile.localized</filename>，位於該 Port 的目錄。</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">LibreOffice</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>LibreOffice</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>office suite</primary>
 	<secondary><application>LibreOffice</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>LibreOffice</application> is a free software
 	office suite developed by <link xlink:href="http://www.documentfoundation.org/">documentfoundation.org</link>.
 	It is compatible with other major office suites and available
 	on a variety of platforms.  It is a rebranded fork of
 	<application>Apache OpenOffice</application> and includes
 	applications found in a complete office productivity suite:
 	a word processor, spreadsheet, presentation manager, drawing
 	program, database management program, and a tool for creating
 	and editing mathematical formulæ.  It is available in
 	a number of different languages and internationalization has
 	been extended to interfaces, spell checkers, and
 	dictionaries.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The word processor of
 	<application>LibreOffice</application> uses a native XML file
 	format for increased portability and flexibility.  The
 	spreadsheet program features a macro language which can be
 	interfaced with external databases.
 	<application>LibreOffice</application> is stable and runs
 	natively on <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>, FreeBSD, and <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X.
 	More information about <application>LibreOffice</application>
 	can be found at <link xlink:href="http://www.libreoffice.org/">libreoffice.org</link>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To install the English version of the
 	<application>LibreOffice</application> package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install libreoffice</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The editors category (<link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/editors.html">freebsd.org/ports/editors.html</link>)
 	of the Ports Collection contains several localizations for
 	<application>LibreOffice</application>.  When installing a
 	localized package, replace <literal>libreoffice</literal>
 	with the name of the localized package.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the package is installed, type the following command
 	to run <application>LibreOffice</application>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>libreoffice</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">During the first launch, some questions will be asked
 	and a <filename>.libreoffice</filename> folder will be created
 	in the user's home directory.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the desired <application>LibreOffice</application>
 	package is not available, compiling the port is still an
 	option.  However, this requires a lot of disk space and a
 	fairly long time to compile.  This example compiles the
 	English version:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/editors/libreoffice</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">To build a localized version,
 	  <command>cd</command> into the port directory of
 	  the desired language.  Supported languages can be found
 	  in the editors category (<link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/editors.html">freebsd.org/ports/editors.html</link>)
 	  of the Ports Collection.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="desktop-viewers">
     <title>文件閱覽程式</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Some new document formats have gained popularity since
       the advent of <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> and the viewers they require may not be
       available in the base system.  This section demonstrates how to
       install the following document viewers:</para>
 
     <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="4">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>應用程式名稱</entry>
 	    <entry>所需資源</entry>
-	    <entry>自 Ports 安裝時間</entry>
+	    <entry>自 Port 安裝時間</entry>
 	    <entry>主要相依套件</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Xpdf</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>FreeType</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>gv</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Xaw3d</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry><application>Geeqie</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry><application>Gtk+</application> 或 <application>GNOME</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>ePDFView</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Gtk+</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Okular</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>KDE</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Xpdf</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Xpdf</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>PDF</primary>
 	<secondary>viewing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>如果你想要一個小型的 FreeBSD PDF 閱覽軟體， <application>Xpdf</application> 是個輕量級而且有效率的閱覽器。 它只需要非常少的資源而且十分穩定。 它只使用標準的 X 字型且不需要額外的工具包(Toolkit)。</para>
 
       <para>安裝 <application>Xpdf</application> 套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install xpdf</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/graphics/xpdf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>完成安裝後，執行 <command>xpdf</command> 並使用滑鼠右鍵開啟選單。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en"><application>gv</application></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>gv</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>PDF</primary>
 	<secondary>viewing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>PostScript</primary>
 	<secondary>viewing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>gv</application> 是 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 和 PDF 的閱覽器。 它建構於 <application>ghostview</application> 的基礎上，不過因為使用 <application>Xaw3d</application> 視窗元件工具包，所以外觀看起來比較漂亮。 <application>gv</application> 有許多可設定的功能，比如說紙張方向、紙張大小、縮放比例、和反鋸齒(Anti-aliasing)等。 而且幾乎所有的使用都可以從鍵盤或滑鼠來完成。</para>
 
       <para>安裝 <application>gv</application> 套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install gv</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/print/gv</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Geeqie</title>
 
       <indexterm><primary><application>Geeqie</application></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para><application>Geeqie</application> 是由已經停止維護的 <application>GQView</application> 專案所衍伸出來的分支，並致力開發新功能並整合已有的修補。<application>Geeqie</application> 是一套影像管理軟體，支援單鍵閱覽檔案、啟動外部編輯器、縮圖預覽等功能。 它也有幻燈片模式及一些基本的檔案操作的功能，能輕鬆的管理大量影像並找出重複的檔案。 <application>Geeqie</application> 也支援使用全螢幕閱覽以及國際化。</para>
 
       <para>安裝 <application>Geeqie</application> 套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install geeqie</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/graphics/geeqie</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">ePDFView</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>ePDFView</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>PDF</primary>
 	<secondary>viewing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>ePDFView</application> is a lightweight
 	<acronym>PDF</acronym> document viewer that only uses the
 	<application>Gtk+</application> and
 	<application>Poppler</application> libraries.  It is currently
 	under development, but already opens most
 	<acronym>PDF</acronym> files (even encrypted), save copies of
 	documents, and has support for printing using
 	<application>CUPS</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To install <application>ePDFView</application> as a
 	package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install epdfview</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/graphics/epdfview</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Okular</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Okular</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>PDF</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>viewing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Okular</application> is a universal document
 	viewer based on <application>KPDF</application> for
 	<application>KDE</application>.  It can open many document
 	formats, including <acronym>PDF</acronym>, <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>, DjVu,
 	<acronym>CHM</acronym>, <acronym>XPS</acronym>, and
 	ePub.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To install <application>Okular</application> as a
 	package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install okular</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/graphics/okular</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="desktop-finance">
     <title>財務</title>
 
     <para>如果有任何理由你想要在你的 FreeBSD 桌面環境上管理你的個人財務， 這裡有一些功能強大、使用簡單的應用程式可供安裝。 這些財務管理軟體之中有些是相容於流行的 <application>Quicken</application> 或 <application>Excel</application> 文件。</para>
 
     <para>這節涵蓋了下面這些軟體：</para>
 
     <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="4">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>應用程式名稱</entry>
 	    <entry>所需資源</entry>
-	    <entry>自 Ports 安裝時間</entry>
+	    <entry>自 Port 安裝時間</entry>
 	    <entry>主要相依套件</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>GnuCash</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>GNOME</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Gnumeric</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>GNOME</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>KMyMoney</application></entry>
 	    <entry>少</entry>
 	    <entry>多</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>KDE</application></entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">GnuCash</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>GnuCash</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><application>GnuCash</application> 是 <application>GNOME</application> 團隊努力成果中的一部分， <application>GNOME</application> 團隊主要提供親切而強大的桌面應用程式給終端使用者。使用 <application>GnuCash</application> 可以持續追蹤記錄收入與花費、銀行帳戶以及股票證券等。 它的特性是介面直覺但功能仍非常專業。</para>
 
       <para><application>GnuCash</application> 提供了智慧的計數器、多階層帳戶系統以及快速鍵及自動完成功能。 它也能分開單一的報表至數個詳細的部份。 <application>GnuCash</application> 也能夠匯入及合併 <application>Quicken</application> QIF 檔案。 它也能處理大部分國際的日期及通用貨幣之格式。</para>
 
       <para>安裝 <application>GnuCash</application> 套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install gnucash</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/finance/gnucash</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">Gnumeric</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>Gnumeric</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm><primary>試算表</primary> <secondary><application>Gnumeric</application></secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para><application>Gnumeric</application> 是 <application>GNOME</application> 社群所開發的試算表程式。 它的特點是擁有能夠根據儲存格格式 「猜出」使用者的輸入來自動補齊的系統。 它也能夠匯入許多熱門的檔案格式，像是 <application>Excel</application>, <application>Lotus 1-2-3</application> 以及 <application>Quattro Pro</application>。 它有大量內建的函數而且能夠使用常用的儲存格格式，像是：數字、貨幣、日期、時間及其他格式等。</para>
 
       <para>安裝 <application>Gnumeric</application> 套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install gnumeric</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/math/gnumeric</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">KMyMoney</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><application>KMyMoney</application></primary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm><primary>試算表</primary> <secondary><application>KMyMoney</application></secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>KMyMoney</application> is a personal finance
 	application created by the <application>KDE</application>
 	community.  <application>KMyMoney</application> aims to
 	provide the important features found in commercial personal
 	finance manager applications.  It also highlights ease-of-use
 	and proper double-entry accounting among its features.
 	<application>KMyMoney</application> imports from standard
 	<application>Quicken</application> QIF files, tracks
 	investments, handles multiple currencies, and provides a
 	wealth of reports.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To install <application>KMyMoney</application> as a
 	package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install kmymoney-kde4</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Ports 套件集安裝：</para>
+      <para>若沒有可用的套件版本，可使用 Port 套件集安裝：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/finance/kmymoney-kde4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="multimedia">
 
   <info>
     <title>多媒體</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Ross</firstname>
 	  <surname>Lippert</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Edited by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="multimedia-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
-    <para>FreeBSD 廣泛地支援各種音效卡， 讓您可以享受來自電腦上的高傳真音質(Hi-Fi)， 此外還包括了錄製和播放 MPEG Audio Layer 3 (<acronym>MP3</acronym>)、 Waveform Audio File (<acronym>WAV</acronym>)、Ogg Vorbis 以及其他許多種格式聲音的能力。同時 FreeBSD Ports 套件集也包含了許多可讓您可以錄音、編修音效以及控制 MIDI 配備的應用程式。</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 廣泛地支援各種音效卡， 讓您可以享受來自電腦上的高傳真音質(Hi-Fi)， 此外還包括了錄製和播放 MPEG Audio Layer 3 (<acronym>MP3</acronym>)、 Waveform Audio File (<acronym>WAV</acronym>)、Ogg Vorbis 以及其他許多種格式聲音的能力。同時 FreeBSD Port 套件集也包含了許多可讓您可以錄音、編修音效以及控制 MIDI 配備的應用程式。</para>
 
-    <para> FreeBSD 也能播放一般的視訊檔和 <acronym>DVD</acronym>。 FreeBSD Ports 套件集中含有可編碼、轉換以及播放格種影像媒體的應用程式。</para>
+    <para> FreeBSD 也能播放一般的視訊檔和 <acronym>DVD</acronym>。 FreeBSD Port 套件集中含有可編碼、轉換以及播放格種影像媒體的應用程式。</para>
 
     <para>本章會說明如何設定 FreeBSD 上的音效卡、影像播放器、電視卡及掃描器。同時會說明有那些應用程式可以使用這些裝置。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>設定 FreeBSD 上的音效卡。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>音效設定疑難排解。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>播放、錄製 MP3 及其他聲音檔案格式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 系統播放影像的準備工具。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>播放 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 的 <filename>.mpg</filename> 及 <filename>.avi</filename> 檔。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>擷取(Rip) <acronym>CD</acronym> 和 <acronym>DVD</acronym>的內容至檔案。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>設定電視卡。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>在 FreeBSD 安裝 MythTV 。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>設定影像掃描機。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem><para>知道如何安裝應用程式如 <xref linkend="ports"/> 所敘述。</para></listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="sound-setup">
     <info>
       <title>設定音效卡</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Moses</firstname>
 	    <surname>Moore</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib> <!-- in November 2000-->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Enhanced by </contrib> <!--in September 2004-->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>PCI</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>sound cards</primary></indexterm>
     <para>開始設定之前，必須先知道你的音效卡型號、晶片為何。 FreeBSD 支援許多種音效卡，請檢查支援的音效硬體表 <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/10.3R/hardware.html">Hardware Notes</link>，以確認你的音效卡是否支援以及如何在 FreeBSD 上驅動。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>kernel</primary>
       <secondary>configuration</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>要使用音效裝置，必須要載入正確的驅動程式才行。最簡單方式就是以 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來載入核心模組。以下範例示範載入 Intel 規格內建的音效晶片驅動程式。</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload snd_hda</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>要開機時自動載入驅動程式，需將驅動程式加到 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 檔，以此驅動程式為例：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">snd_hda_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para>其他可用的音效卡模組清單列於 <filename>/boot/defaults/loader.conf</filename>。當不確認要使用何種驅動程式時，可載入 <filename>snd_driver</filename> 模組：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload snd_driver</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>它是 metadriver 會載入所有最通用的音效驅動程式並且用來加速尋找正確的驅動程式。也可以把 metadriver 加入 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 檔來載入所有音效驅動程式。</para>
 
     <para>要知道載入 <filename>snd_driver</filename> metadriver 後使用了那個音效卡驅動程式，請輸入 <command>cat /dev/sndstat</command>。</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定自訂核心支援音效</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section is for users who prefer to statically compile
 	in support for the sound card in a custom kernel.  For more
 	information about recompiling a kernel, refer to <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using a custom kernel to provide sound support, make
 	sure that the audio framework driver exists in the custom
 	kernel configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device sound</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, add support for the sound card.  To continue the
 	example of the built-in audio chipset based on the Intel
 	specification from the previous section, use the following
 	line in the custom kernel configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device snd_hda</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Be sure to read the manual page of the driver for the
 	device name to use for the driver.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Non-PnP ISA sound cards may require the IRQ and I/O port
 	settings of the card to be added to
 	<filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>.  During the boot
 	process, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> reads this file and passes the
 	settings to the kernel.  For example, an old Creative
 	<trademark class="registered">SoundBlaster</trademark> 16 ISA non-PnP card will use the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>snd_sbc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver in conjunction with
 	<literal>snd_sb16</literal>.  For this card, the following
 	lines must be added to the kernel configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device snd_sbc
 device snd_sb16</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the card uses the <literal>0x220</literal> I/O port and
 	IRQ <literal>5</literal>, these lines must also be added to
 	<filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hint.sbc.0.at="isa"
 hint.sbc.0.port="0x220"
 hint.sbc.0.irq="5"
 hint.sbc.0.drq="1"
 hint.sbc.0.flags="0x15"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The syntax used in <filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>
 	is described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sound</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and the manual page for the
 	driver of the sound card.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The settings shown above are the defaults.  In some
 	cases, the IRQ or other settings may need to be changed to
 	match the card.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>snd_sbc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information
 	about this card.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="sound-testing">
       <title>測試音效</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After loading the required module or rebooting into the
 	custom kernel, the sound card should be detected.  To confirm,
 	run <command>dmesg | grep pcm</command>.  This example is
 	from a system with a built-in Conexant CX20590 chipset:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">pcm0: &lt;NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)&gt; at nid 5 on hdaa0
 pcm1: &lt;NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)&gt; at nid 6 on hdaa0
 pcm2: &lt;Conexant CX20590 (Analog 2.0+HP/2.0)&gt; at nid 31,25 and 35,27 on hdaa1</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The status of the sound card may also be checked using
 	this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat /dev/sndstat</userinput>
 FreeBSD Audio Driver (newpcm: 64bit 2009061500/amd64)
 Installed devices:
 pcm0: &lt;NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)&gt; (play)
 pcm1: &lt;NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)&gt; (play)
 pcm2: &lt;Conexant CX20590 (Analog 2.0+HP/2.0)&gt; (play/rec) default</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output will vary depending upon the sound card.  If no
 	<filename>pcm</filename> devices are listed, double-check
 	that the correct device driver was loaded or compiled into the
 	kernel.  The next section lists some common problems and their
 	solutions.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If all goes well, the sound card should now work in FreeBSD.
 	If the <acronym>CD</acronym> or <acronym>DVD</acronym> drive
 	is properly connected to the sound card, one can insert an
 	audio <acronym>CD</acronym> in the drive and play it with
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cdcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0 play 1</userinput></screen>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Audio <acronym>CD</acronym>s have specialized encodings
 	  which means that they should not be mounted using
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Various applications, such as
 	<package>audio/workman</package>, provide a friendlier
 	interface.  The <package>audio/mpg123</package> port can be
 	installed to listen to MP3 audio files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Another quick way to test the card is to send data to
 	<filename>/dev/dsp</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cat <replaceable>filename</replaceable> &gt; /dev/dsp</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where
 	<filename><replaceable>filename</replaceable></filename> can
 	be any type of file.  This command should produce some noise,
 	confirming that the sound card is working.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <filename>/dev/dsp*</filename> device nodes will
 	  be created automatically as needed.  When not in use, they
 	  do not exist and will not appear in the output of
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="troubleshooting">
       <title>疑難排解音效</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>device nodes</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>I/O port</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>IRQ</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DSP</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="multimedia-sound-common-error-messages"/>
 	lists some common error messages and their solutions:</para>
 
       <table xml:id="multimedia-sound-common-error-messages" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>常見錯誤訊息</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>錯誤</entry>
 	      <entry>解決方式</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><errorname>sb_dspwr(XX) timed
 		  out</errorname></entry>
 	      <entry><para xml:lang="en">The I/O port is not set
 		correctly.</para></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><errorname>bad irq XX</errorname></entry>
 	      <entry><para xml:lang="en">The IRQ is set incorrectly.  Make sure
 		that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the
 		same.</para></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><errorname>xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of
 		  memory</errorname></entry>
 	      <entry><para xml:lang="en">There is not enough available memory to
 		use the device.</para></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><errorname>xxx: can't open
 		  /dev/dsp!</errorname></entry>
 	      <entry><para xml:lang="en">Type <command>fstat | grep
 		  dsp</command> to check if another application is
 		holding the device open.  Noteworthy troublemakers are
 		<application>esound</application> and
 		<application>KDE</application>'s sound
 		support.</para></entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Modern graphics cards often come with their own sound
 	driver for use with <acronym>HDMI</acronym>.  This sound
 	device is sometimes enumerated before the sound card meaning
 	that the sound card will not be used as the default playback
 	device.  To check if this is the case, run
 	<application>dmesg</application> and look for
 	<literal>pcm</literal>.  The output looks something like
 	this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">...
 hdac0: HDA Driver Revision: 20100226_0142
 hdac1: HDA Driver Revision: 20100226_0142
 hdac0: HDA Codec #0: NVidia (Unknown)
 hdac0: HDA Codec #1: NVidia (Unknown)
 hdac0: HDA Codec #2: NVidia (Unknown)
 hdac0: HDA Codec #3: NVidia (Unknown)
 pcm0: &lt;HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort&gt; at cad 0 nid 1 on hdac0
 pcm1: &lt;HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort&gt; at cad 1 nid 1 on hdac0
 pcm2: &lt;HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort&gt; at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac0
 pcm3: &lt;HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort&gt; at cad 3 nid 1 on hdac0
 hdac1: HDA Codec #2: Realtek ALC889
 pcm4: &lt;HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #0 Analog&gt; at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
 pcm5: &lt;HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #1 Analog&gt; at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
 pcm6: &lt;HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #2 Digital&gt; at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
 pcm7: &lt;HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #3 Digital&gt; at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1
 ...</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the graphics card
 	(<literal>NVidia</literal>) has been enumerated before the
 	sound card (<literal>Realtek ALC889</literal>).  To use the
 	sound card as the default playback device, change
 	<varname>hw.snd.default_unit</varname> to the unit that should
 	be used for playback:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl hw.snd.default_unit=<replaceable>n</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where <literal>n</literal> is the number of the sound
 	device to use.  In this example, it should be
 	<literal>4</literal>.  Make this change permanent by adding
 	the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hw.snd.default_unit=<replaceable>4</replaceable></programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="sound-multiple-sources">
       <info>
 	<title>使用多個音效來源</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Munish</firstname>
 	      <surname>Chopra</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is often desirable to have multiple sources of sound
 	that are able to play simultaneously.  FreeBSD uses
 	<quote>Virtual Sound Channels</quote> to multiplex the sound
 	card's playback by mixing sound in the kernel.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Three <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> knobs are available for configuring
 	virtual channels:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl dev.pcm.0.play.vchans=4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl dev.pcm.0.rec.vchans=4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example allocates four virtual channels, which is a
 	practical number for everyday use.  Both
 	<varname>dev.pcm.0.play.vchans=4</varname> and
 	<varname>dev.pcm.0.rec.vchans=4</varname> are configurable
 	after a device has been attached and represent the number of
 	virtual channels <filename>pcm0</filename> has for playback
 	and recording.  Since the <filename>pcm</filename> module can
 	be loaded independently of the hardware drivers,
 	<varname>hw.snd.maxautovchans</varname> indicates how many
 	virtual channels will be given to an audio device when it is
 	attached.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pcm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The number of virtual channels for a device cannot be
 	  changed while it is in use.  First, close any programs using
 	  the device, such as music players or sound daemons.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The correct <filename>pcm</filename> device will
 	automatically be allocated transparently to a program that
 	requests <filename>/dev/dsp0</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <info>
 	<title>設定混音器頻道的預設值</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Josef</firstname>
 	      <surname>El-Rayes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default values for the different mixer channels are
 	hardcoded in the source code of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pcm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver.  While
 	sound card mixer levels can be changed using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mixer</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or
 	third-party applications and daemons, this is not a permanent
 	solution.  To instead set default mixer values at the driver
 	level, define the appropriate values in
 	<filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>, as seen in this
 	example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hint.pcm.0.vol="50"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will set the volume channel to a default value of
 	<literal>50</literal> when the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pcm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module is
 	loaded.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="sound-mp3">
     <info>
       <title>MP3 音樂</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Chern</firstname>
 	    <surname>Lee</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib> <!--in Sept 2001-->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes some <acronym>MP3</acronym>
       players available for FreeBSD, how to rip audio
       <acronym>CD</acronym> tracks, and how to encode and decode
       <acronym>MP3</acronym>s.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mp3-players">
       <title>MP3 播放器</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A popular graphical <acronym>MP3</acronym> player is
 	<application>XMMS</application>.  It supports
 	<application>Winamp</application> skins and additional
 	plugins.  The interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic
 	equalizer, and more.  Those familiar with
 	<application>Winamp</application> will find
 	<application>XMMS</application> simple to use.  On FreeBSD,
 	<application>XMMS</application> can be installed from the
 	<package>multimedia/xmms</package> port or package.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <package>audio/mpg123</package> package or port
 	provides an alternative, command-line <acronym>MP3</acronym>
 	player.  Once installed, specify the <acronym>MP3</acronym>
 	file to play on the command line.  If the system has multiple
 	audio devices, the sound device can also be specifed:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mpg123 <replaceable>-a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3</replaceable></userinput>
 High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layers 1, 2 and 3
         version 1.18.1; written and copyright by Michael Hipp and others
         free software (LGPL) without any warranty but with best wishes
 
 Playing MPEG stream from Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 ...
 MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Additional <acronym>MP3</acronym> players are available in
 	the FreeBSD Ports Collection.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="rip-cd">
       <title>擷取 <acronym>CD</acronym> 音軌</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Before encoding a <acronym>CD</acronym> or
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> track to <acronym>MP3</acronym>, the
 	audio data on the <acronym>CD</acronym> must be ripped to the
 	hard drive.  This is done by copying the raw
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> Digital Audio (<acronym>CDDA</acronym>)
 	data to <acronym>WAV</acronym> files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <command>cdda2wav</command> tool, which is installed
 	with the <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> suite, can be
 	used to rip audio information from
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>s.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">With the audio <acronym>CD</acronym> in the drive, the
 	following command can be issued as
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> to rip an
 	entire <acronym>CD</acronym> into individual, per track,
 	<acronym>WAV</acronym> files:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cdda2wav -D <replaceable>0,1,0</replaceable> -B</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the
 	<option>-D <replaceable>0,1,0</replaceable></option> indicates
 	the <acronym>SCSI</acronym> device <filename>0,1,0</filename>
 	containing the <acronym>CD</acronym> to rip.  Use
 	<command>cdrecord -scanbus</command> to determine the correct
 	device parameters for the system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To rip individual tracks, use <option>-t</option> to
 	specify the track:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cdda2wav -D <replaceable>0,1,0</replaceable> -t 7</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To rip a range of tracks, such as track one to seven,
 	specify a range:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cdda2wav -D <replaceable>0,1,0</replaceable> -t 1+7</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To rip from an <acronym>ATAPI</acronym>
 	(<acronym>IDE</acronym>) <acronym>CDROM</acronym> drive,
 	specify the device name in place of the
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> unit numbers.  For example, to rip
 	track 7 from an IDE drive:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cdda2wav -D <replaceable>/dev/acd0 -t 7</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternately, <command>dd</command> can be used to extract
 	audio tracks on <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> drives, as described
 	in <xref linkend="duplicating-audiocds"/>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mp3-encoding">
       <title>MP3 編碼與解碼</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Lame</application> is a popular
 	<acronym>MP3</acronym> encoder which can be installed from the
 	<package>audio/lame</package> port.  Due to patent issues, a
 	package is not available.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following command will convert the ripped
 	<acronym>WAV</acronym> file
 	<filename><replaceable>audio01.wav</replaceable></filename> to
 	<filename><replaceable>audio01.mp3</replaceable></filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lame -h -b <replaceable>128</replaceable> --tt "<replaceable>Foo Song Title</replaceable>" --ta "<replaceable>FooBar Artist</replaceable>" --tl "<replaceable>FooBar Album</replaceable>" \
 --ty "<replaceable>2014</replaceable>" --tc "<replaceable>Ripped and encoded by Foo</replaceable>" --tg "<replaceable>Genre</replaceable>" <replaceable>audio01.wav audio01.mp3</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The specified 128 kbits is a standard
 	<acronym>MP3</acronym> bitrate while the 160 and 192 bitrates
 	provide higher quality.  The higher the bitrate, the larger
 	the size of the resulting <acronym>MP3</acronym>.  The
 	<option>-h</option> turns on the
 	<quote>higher quality but a little slower</quote>
 	mode.  The options beginning with <option>--t</option>
 	indicate <acronym>ID3</acronym> tags, which usually contain
 	song information, to be embedded within the
 	<acronym>MP3</acronym> file.  Additional encoding options can
 	be found in the <application>lame</application> manual
 	page.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to burn an audio <acronym>CD</acronym> from
 	<acronym>MP3</acronym>s, they must first be converted to a
 	non-compressed file format.  <application>XMMS</application>
 	can be used to convert to the <acronym>WAV</acronym> format,
 	while <application>mpg123</application> can be used to convert
 	to the raw Pulse-Code Modulation (<acronym>PCM</acronym>)
 	audio data format.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To convert <filename>audio01.mp3</filename> using
 	<application>mpg123</application>, specify the name of the
 	<acronym>PCM</acronym> file:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mpg123 -s <replaceable>audio01.mp3</replaceable> &gt; <replaceable>audio01.pcm</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To use <application>XMMS</application> to convert a
 	<acronym>MP3</acronym> to <acronym>WAV</acronym> format, use
 	these steps:</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Converting to <acronym>WAV</acronym> Format in
 	  <application>XMMS</application></title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Launch <application>XMMS</application>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Right-click the window to bring up the
 	    <application>XMMS</application> menu.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Select <literal>Preferences</literal> under
 	    <literal>Options</literal>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Change the Output Plugin to <quote>Disk Writer
 	      Plugin</quote>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Press <literal>Configure</literal>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enter or browse to a directory to write the
 	    uncompressed files to.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Load the <acronym>MP3</acronym> file into
 	    <application>XMMS</application> as usual, with volume at
 	    100% and EQ settings turned off.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Press <literal>Play</literal>.  The
 	    <application>XMMS</application> will appear as if it is
 	    playing the <acronym>MP3</acronym>, but no music will be
 	    heard.  It is actually playing the <acronym>MP3</acronym>
 	    to a file.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When finished, be sure to set the default Output
 	    Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to
 	    <acronym>MP3</acronym>s again.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Both the <acronym>WAV</acronym> and <acronym>PCM</acronym>
 	formats can be used with <application>cdrecord</application>.
 	When using <acronym>WAV</acronym> files, there will be a small
 	tick sound at the beginning of each track.  This sound is the
 	header of the <acronym>WAV</acronym> file.  The
 	<package>audio/sox</package> port or package can be used to
 	remove the header:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 <replaceable>track.wav track.raw</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <xref linkend="creating-cds"/> for more
 	information on using a <acronym>CD</acronym> burner in
 	FreeBSD.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="video-playback">
     <info>
       <title>影片播放</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Ross</firstname>
 	    <surname>Lippert</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib> <!--in June 2002-->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before configuring video playback, determine the model and
       chipset of the video card.  While
       <application>Xorg</application> supports a wide variety of
       video cards, not all provide good playback performance.  To
       obtain a list of extensions supported by the
       <application>Xorg</application> server using the card, run
       <command>xdpyinfo</command> while
       <application>Xorg</application> is running.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is a good idea to have a short MPEG test file for
       evaluating various players and options.  Since some
       <acronym>DVD</acronym> applications look for
       <acronym>DVD</acronym> media in <filename>/dev/dvd</filename> by
       default, or have this device name hardcoded in them, it might be
       useful to make a symbolic link to the proper device:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -sf /dev/cd0 /dev/dvd</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Due to the nature of <citerefentry vendor="current"><refentrytitle>devfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, manually created links
       will not persist after a system reboot.  In order to recreate
       the symbolic link automatically when the system boots, add the
       following line to <filename>/etc/devfs.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">link cd0 dvd</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DVD</acronym> decryption invokes certain functions
       that require write permission to the <acronym>DVD</acronym>
       device.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To enhance the shared memory
       <application>Xorg</application> interface, it is recommended
       to increase the values of these <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
       variables:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864
 kern.ipc.shmall=32768</programlisting>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="video-interface">
       <title>偵測影像處理能力</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>XVideo</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>SDL</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DGA</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are several possible ways to display video under
 	<application>Xorg</application> and what works is largely
 	hardware dependent.  Each method described below will have
 	varying quality across different hardware.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Common video interfaces include:</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application>: normal output using
 	    shared memory.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">XVideo: an extension to the
 	    <application>Xorg</application> interface which
 	    allows video to be directly displayed in drawable objects
 	    through a special acceleration.  This extension provides
 	    good quality playback even on low-end machines.  The next
 	    section describes how to determine if this extension is
 	    running.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>SDL</acronym>: the Simple Directmedia Layer
 	    is a porting layer for many operating systems, allowing
 	    cross-platform applications to be developed which make
 	    efficient use of sound and graphics.
 	    <acronym>SDL</acronym> provides a low-level abstraction to
 	    the hardware which can sometimes be more efficient than
 	    the <application>Xorg</application> interface.  On FreeBSD,
 	    <acronym>SDL</acronym> can be installed using the
 	    <package>devel/sdl20</package> package or port.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DGA</acronym>: the Direct Graphics Access is
 	    an <application>Xorg</application> extension which
 	    allows a program to bypass the
 	    <application>Xorg</application> server and directly
 	    alter the framebuffer.  Because it relies on a low level
 	    memory mapping, programs using it must be run as
 	    <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  The
 	    <acronym>DGA</acronym> extension can be tested and
 	    benchmarked using <citerefentry vendor="xfree86"><refentrytitle>dga</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  When
 	    <command>dga</command> is running, it changes the colors
 	    of the display whenever a key is pressed.  To quit, press
 	    <keycap>q</keycap>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">SVGAlib: a low level console graphics layer.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="video-interface-xvideo">
 	<title xml:lang="en">XVideo</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To check whether this extension is running, use
 	  <command>xvinfo</command>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xvinfo</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">XVideo is supported for the card if the result is
 	  similar to:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">X-Video Extension version 2.2
   screen #0
   Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine"
     number of ports: 1
     port base: 43
     operations supported: PutImage
     supported visuals:
       depth 16, visualID 0x22
       depth 16, visualID 0x23
     number of attributes: 5
       "XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215)
               client settable attribute
               client gettable attribute (current value is 2110)
       "XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127)
               client settable attribute
               client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
       "XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255)
               client settable attribute
               client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
       "XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255)
               client settable attribute
               client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
       "XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180)
               client settable attribute
               client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
     maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024
     Number of image formats: 7
       id: 0x32595559 (YUY2)
         guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
         bits per pixel: 16
         number of planes: 1
         type: YUV (packed)
       id: 0x32315659 (YV12)
         guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
         bits per pixel: 12
         number of planes: 3
         type: YUV (planar)
       id: 0x30323449 (I420)
         guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
         bits per pixel: 12
         number of planes: 3
         type: YUV (planar)
       id: 0x36315652 (RV16)
         guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
         bits per pixel: 16
         number of planes: 1
         type: RGB (packed)
         depth: 0
         red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00
       id: 0x35315652 (RV15)
         guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
         bits per pixel: 16
         number of planes: 1
         type: RGB (packed)
         depth: 0
         red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800
       id: 0x31313259 (Y211)
         guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
         bits per pixel: 6
         number of planes: 3
         type: YUV (packed)
       id: 0x0
         guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
         bits per pixel: 0
         number of planes: 0
         type: RGB (packed)
         depth: 1
         red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The formats listed, such as YUV2 and YUV12, are not
 	  present with every implementation of XVideo and their
 	  absence may hinder some players.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the result instead looks like:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">X-Video Extension version 2.2
 screen #0
 no adaptors present</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">XVideo is probably not supported for the card.  This
 	  means that it will be more difficult for the display to meet
 	  the computational demands of rendering video, depending on
 	  the video card and processor.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="video-ports">
-      <title>可處理影像的 Ports 與套件</title>
+      <title>可處理影像的 Port 與套件</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>video ports</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>video packages</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section introduces some of the software available
 	from the FreeBSD Ports Collection which can be used for video
 	playback.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="video-mplayer">
 	<title><application>MPlayer</application> 與 <application>MEncoder</application></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>MPlayer</application> is a command-line
 	  video player with an optional graphical interface which aims
 	  to provide speed and flexibility.  Other graphical
 	  front-ends to <application>MPlayer</application> are
 	  available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection.</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MPlayer</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>MPlayer</application> can be installed
 	  using the <package>multimedia/mplayer</package> package or
 	  port.  Several compile options are available and a variety
 	  of hardware checks occur during the build process.  For
 	  these reasons, some users prefer to build the port rather
 	  than install the package.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When compiling the port, the menu options should be
 	  reviewed to determine the type of support to compile into
 	  the port.  If an option is not selected,
 	  <application>MPlayer</application> will not be able to
 	  display that type of video format.  Use the arrow keys and
 	  spacebar to select the required formats.  When finished,
 	  press <keycap>Enter</keycap> to continue the port compile
 	  and installation.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">By default, the package or port will build the
 	  <command>mplayer</command> command line utility and the
 	  <command>gmplayer</command> graphical utility.  To encode
 	  videos, compile the <package>multimedia/mencoder</package>
 	  port.  Due to licensing restrictions, a package is not
 	  available for <application>MEncoder</application>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The first time <application>MPlayer</application> is
 	  run, it will create <filename>~/.mplayer</filename> in the
 	  user's home directory.  This subdirectory contains default
 	  versions of the user-specific configuration files.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This section describes only a few common uses.  Refer to
 	  mplayer(1) for a complete description of its numerous
 	  options.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To play the file
 	  <filename><replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></filename>,
 	  specify the video interfaces with <option>-vo</option>, as
 	  seen in the following examples:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -vo xv <replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -vo sdl <replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -vo x11 <replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -vo dga <replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' <replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is worth trying all of these options, as their
 	  relative performance depends on many factors and will vary
 	  significantly with hardware.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To play a <acronym>DVD</acronym>, replace
 	  <filename><replaceable>testfile.avi</replaceable></filename>
 	  with <option>dvd://<replaceable>N</replaceable> -dvd-device
 	   <replaceable>DEVICE</replaceable></option>, where
 	  <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the title number to play and
 	  <replaceable>DEVICE</replaceable> is the device node for the
 	  <acronym>DVD</acronym>.  For example, to play title 3 from
 	  <filename>/dev/dvd</filename>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -vo xv dvd://3 -dvd-device /dev/dvd</userinput></screen>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The default <acronym>DVD</acronym> device can be
 	    defined during the build of the
 	    <application>MPlayer</application> port by including the
 	    <varname>WITH_DVD_DEVICE=/path/to/desired/device</varname>
 	    option.  By default, the device is
 	    <filename>/dev/cd0</filename>.  More details can be found
 	    in the port's
 	    <filename>Makefile.options</filename>.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To stop, pause, advance, and so on, use a keybinding.
 	  To see the list of keybindings, run <command>mplayer
 	    -h</command> or read mplayer(1).</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Additional playback options include <option>-fs
 	    -zoom</option>, which engages fullscreen mode, and
 	  <option>-framedrop</option>, which helps performance.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Each user can add commonly used options to their
 	  <filename>~/.mplayer/config</filename> like so:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">vo=xv
 fs=yes
 zoom=yes</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><command>mplayer</command> can be used to rip a
 	  <acronym>DVD</acronym> title to a <filename>.vob</filename>.
 	  To dump the second title from a
 	  <acronym>DVD</acronym>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob dvd://2 -dvd-device /dev/dvd</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The output file, <filename>out.vob</filename>, will be
 	  in <acronym>MPEG</acronym> format.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Anyone wishing to obtain a high level of expertise with
 	  <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> video should consult <link xlink:href="http://www.mplayerhq.hu/DOCS/">mplayerhq.hu/DOCS</link>
 	  as it is technically informative.  This documentation should
 	  be considered as required reading before submitting any bug
 	  reports.</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>mencoder</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Before using <command>mencoder</command>, it is a good
 	  idea to become familiar with the options described at <link xlink:href="http://www.mplayerhq.hu/DOCS/HTML/en/mencoder.html">mplayerhq.hu/DOCS/HTML/en/mencoder.html</link>.
 	  There are innumerable ways to improve quality, lower
 	  bitrate, and change formats, and some of these options may
 	  make the difference between good or bad performance.
 	  Improper combinations of command line options can yield
 	  output files that are unplayable even by
 	  <command>mplayer</command>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Here is an example of a simple copy:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mencoder <replaceable>input.avi</replaceable> -oac copy -ovc copy -o <replaceable>output.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To rip to a file, use <option>-dumpfile</option> with
 	  <command>mplayer</command>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To convert
 	  <filename><replaceable>input.avi</replaceable></filename> to
 	  the MPEG4 codec with MPEG3 audio encoding, first install the
 	  <package>audio/lame</package> port.  Due to licensing
 	  restrictions, a package is not available.  Once installed,
 	  type:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mencoder <replaceable>input.avi</replaceable> -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \
 	 -ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o <replaceable>output.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This will produce output playable by applications such
 	  as <command>mplayer</command> and
 	  <command>xine</command>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><filename><replaceable>input.avi</replaceable></filename>
 	  can be replaced with <option>dvd://1 -dvd-device
 	    /dev/dvd</option> and run as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> to re-encode a
 	  <acronym>DVD</acronym> title directly.  Since it may take a
 	  few tries to get the desired result, it is recommended to
 	  instead dump the title to a file and to work on the
 	  file.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="video-xine">
 	<title><application>xine</application> 影像播放器</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>xine</application> is a video player with a
 	  reusable base library and a modular executable which can be
 	  extended with plugins.  It can be installed using the
 	  <package>multimedia/xine</package> package or port.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In practice, <application>xine</application> requires
 	  either a fast CPU with a fast video card, or support for the
 	  XVideo extension.  The <application>xine</application> video
 	  player performs best on XVideo interfaces.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">By default, the <application>xine</application> player
 	  starts a graphical user interface.  The menus can then be
 	  used to open a specific file.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, <application>xine</application> may be
 	  invoked from the command line by specifying the name of the
 	  file to play:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>xine -g -p <replaceable>mymovie.avi</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.xine-project.org/faq">
 	    xine-project.org/faq</link> for more information and
 	  troubleshooting tips.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="video-ports-transcode">
 	<title><application>Transcode</application> 工具</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>Transcode</application> provides a suite of
 	  tools for re-encoding video and audio files.
 	  <application>Transcode</application> can be used to merge
 	  video files or repair broken files using command line tools
 	  with stdin/stdout stream interfaces.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <application>Transcode</application> can be
 	  installed using the <package>multimedia/transcode</package>
 	  package or port.  Many users prefer to compile the port as
 	  it provides a menu of compile options for specifying the
 	  support and codecs to compile in.  If an option is not
 	  selected, <application>Transcode</application> will not be
 	  able to encode that format.  Use the arrow keys and spacebar
 	  to select the required formats.  When finished, press
 	  <keycap>Enter</keycap> to continue the port compile and
 	  installation.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example demonstrates how to convert a DivX file
 	  into a PAL MPEG-1 file (PAL VCD):</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>transcode -i <replaceable>input.avi</replaceable> -V --export_prof vcd-pal -o output_vcd</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mplex -f 1 -o <replaceable>output_vcd.mpg output_vcd.m1v output_vcd.mpa</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The resulting <acronym>MPEG</acronym> file,
 	  <filename><replaceable>output_vcd.mpg</replaceable></filename>,
 	  is ready to be played with
 	  <application>MPlayer</application>.  The file can be burned
 	  on a <acronym>CD</acronym> media to create a video
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym> using a utility such as
 	  <package>multimedia/vcdimager</package> or
 	  <package>sysutils/cdrdao</package>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In addition to the manual page for
 	  <command>transcode</command>, refer to  <link xlink:href="http://www.transcoding.org/cgi-bin/transcode">transcoding.org/cgi-bin/transcode</link>
 	  for further information and examples.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="tvcard">
     <info>
       <title>電視卡</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Josef</firstname>
 	    <surname>El-Rayes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Original contribution by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Enhanced and adapted by </contrib> <!-- in January 2004-->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>TV cards</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>電視卡(TV card)可以讓您用電腦來看無線、有線電視節目。許多卡都是透過 <acronym>RCA</acronym> 或 S-video 輸入端子來接收視訊，而且有些卡還可接收 <acronym>FM</acronym> 廣播的功能。</para>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 可透過 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bktr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式，來支援 PCI 介面的電視卡，只要這些卡使用的是 Brooktree Bt848/849/878/879 或 Conexant CN-878/Fusion 878a 視訊擷取晶片。此外，要再確認哪些卡上所附的選台功能是否有支援，可以參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bktr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 說明，以查看所支援的硬體清單。</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>載入驅動程式</title>
 
       <para>要用電視卡的話，就要載入 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bktr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式，這個可以透過在 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 檔加上下面這一行就可以了：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">bktr_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para>或者可以將電視卡支援靜態編譯到自訂的核心當中，若要這麼做則可在自訂核心設定檔加入以下行：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device	 bktr
 device	iicbus
 device	iicbb
 device	smbus</programlisting>
 
       <para>之所以要加上這些額外的驅動程式，是因為卡的各組成部分都是透過 I2C 匯流排而相互連接的。接下來，請編譯、安裝新的核心 。</para>
 
       <para>要測試調諧器 (Tuner) 是否被正確的偵測，請先重新啟動系統。電視卡應該會出現在開機訊息檔中，如同此範例：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">bktr0: &lt;BrookTree 848A&gt; mem 0xd7000000-0xd7000fff irq 10 at device 10.0 on pci0
 iicbb0: &lt;I2C bit-banging driver&gt; on bti2c0
 iicbus0: &lt;Philips I2C bus&gt; on iicbb0 master-only
 iicbus1: &lt;Philips I2C bus&gt; on iicbb0 master-only
 smbus0: &lt;System Management Bus&gt; on bti2c0
 bktr0: Pinnacle/Miro TV, Philips SECAM tuner.</programlisting>
 
       <para>該訊息會依硬體不同而有所不同。若必要，可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 系統偵測的參數或者自訂核心設定選項。例如要強制使用 Philips SECAM 調諧器則可加入下列行至自訂核心設定檔：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options OVERRIDE_TUNER=6</programlisting>
 
       <para>或使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl hw.bt848.tuner=6</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bktr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 查看 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 可用的參數說明及核心選項。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>好用的應用程式</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To use the TV card, install one of the following
 	applications:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><package>multimedia/fxtv</package>
 	    provides TV-in-a-window and image/audio/video capture
 	    capabilities.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><package>multimedia/xawtv</package>
 	    is another TV application with similar features.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><package>audio/xmradio</package>
 	    provides an application for using the FM radio tuner of a
 	    TV card.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More applications are available in the FreeBSD Ports
 	Collection.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If any problems are encountered with the TV card, check
 	that the video capture chip and the tuner are supported by
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>bktr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and that the right configuration options were
 	used.  For more support or to ask questions about supported TV
 	cards, refer to the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-multimedia">freebsd-multimedia</link> mailing list.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mythtv">
     <title xml:lang="en">MythTV</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">MythTV is a popular, open source Personal Video Recorder
       (<acronym>PVR</acronym>) application.  This section demonstrates
       how to install and setup MythTV on FreeBSD.  Refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.mythtv.org/wiki/">mythtv.org/wiki</link>
       for more information on how to use MythTV.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">MythTV requires a frontend and a backend.  These components
       can either be installed on the same system or on different
       machines.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The frontend can be installed on FreeBSD using the
       <package>multimedia/mythtv-frontend</package> package or port.
       <application>Xorg</application> must also be installed and
       configured as described in <xref linkend="x11"/>.  Ideally, this
       system has a video card that supports X-Video Motion
       Compensation (<acronym>XvMC</acronym>) and, optionally, a Linux
       Infrared Remote Control (<acronym>LIRC</acronym>)-compatible
       remote.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To install both the backend and the frontend on FreeBSD, use
       the <package>multimedia/mythtv</package> package or port.  A
       <trademark>MySQL</trademark> database server is also required and should
       automatically be installed as a dependency.  Optionally, this
       system should have a tuner card and sufficient storage to hold
       recorded data.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>硬體</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">MythTV uses Video for Linux (<acronym>V4L</acronym>) to
 	access video input devices such as encoders and tuners.  In
 	FreeBSD, MythTV works best with <acronym>USB</acronym> DVB-S/C/T
 	cards as they are well supported by the
 	<package>multimedia/webcamd</package> package or port which
 	provides a <acronym>V4L</acronym> userland application.  Any
 	Digital Video Broadcasting (<acronym>DVB</acronym>) card
 	supported by <application>webcamd</application> should work
 	with MythTV.  A list of known working cards can be found at
 	<link xlink:href="http://wiki.freebsd.org/WebcamCompat">wiki.freebsd.org/WebcamCompat</link>.
 	Drivers are also available for Hauppauge cards in the
 	<package>multimedia/pvr250</package> and
 	<package>multimedia/pvrxxx</package> ports, but they provide a
 	non-standard driver interface that does not work with versions
 	of MythTV greater than 0.23.  Due to licensing restrictions,
 	no packages are available and these two ports must be
 	compiled.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <link xlink:href="http://wiki.freebsd.org/HTPC">wiki.freebsd.org/HTPC</link>
 	page contains a list of all available <acronym>DVB</acronym>
 	drivers.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 MythTV 後端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To install MythTV using the port:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mythtv</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once installed, set up the MythTV database:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mysql -uroot -p &lt; /usr/local/share/mythtv/database/mc.sql</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, configure the backend:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mythtv-setup</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Finally, start the backend:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo 'mythbackend_enable="YES"' &gt;&gt; /etc/rc.conf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service mythbackend start</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="scanners">
     <info>
       <title>影像掃描器</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib> <!-- in August 2004-->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>image scanners</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, access to image scanners is provided by
       <application>SANE</application> (Scanner Access Now Easy), which
       is available in the FreeBSD Ports Collection.
       <application>SANE</application> will also use some FreeBSD device
       drivers to provide access to the scanner hardware.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD supports both <acronym>SCSI</acronym> and
       <acronym>USB</acronym> scanners.  Depending upon the scanner
       interface, different device drivers are required.  Be sure the
       scanner is supported by <application>SANE</application> prior
       to performing any configuration.  Refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html">
       http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html</link>
       for more information about supported scanners.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter describes how to determine if the scanner has
       been detected by FreeBSD.  It then provides an overview of how to
       configure and use <application>SANE</application> on a FreeBSD
       system.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="scanners-kernel-usb">
       <title>檢查掃描器</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel includes the
 	device drivers needed to support <acronym>USB</acronym>
 	scanners.  Users with a custom kernel should ensure that the
 	following lines are present in the custom kernel configuration
 	file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device usb
 device uhci
 device ohci
 device ehci</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To determine if the <acronym>USB</acronym> scanner is
 	detected, plug it in and use <command>dmesg</command> to
 	determine whether the scanner appears in the system message
 	buffer.  If it does, it should display a message similar to
 	this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ugen0.2: &lt;EPSON&gt; at usbus0</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, an <trademark class="registered">EPSON
   Perfection</trademark> 1650
 	<acronym>USB</acronym> scanner was detected on
 	<filename>/dev/ugen0.2</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the scanner uses a <acronym>SCSI</acronym> interface,
 	it is important to know which <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
 	controller board it will use.  Depending upon the
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> chipset, a custom kernel configuration
 	file may be needed.  The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel
 	supports the most common <acronym>SCSI</acronym> controllers.
 	Refer to <filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES</filename> to
 	determine the correct line to add to a custom kernel
 	configuration file.  In addition to the
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> adapter driver, the following lines
 	are needed in a custom kernel configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device scbus
 device pass</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Verify that the device is displayed in the system message
 	buffer:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">pass2 at aic0 bus 0 target 2 lun 0
 pass2: &lt;AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10&gt; Fixed Scanner SCSI-2 device
 pass2: 3.300MB/s transfers</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the scanner was not powered-on at system boot, it is
 	still possible to manually force detection by performing a
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> bus scan with
 	<command>camcontrol</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>camcontrol rescan all</userinput>
 Re-scan of bus 0 was successful
 Re-scan of bus 1 was successful
 Re-scan of bus 2 was successful
 Re-scan of bus 3 was successful</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The scanner should now appear in the
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> devices list:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>camcontrol devlist</userinput>
 &lt;IBM DDRS-34560 S97B&gt;              at scbus0 target 5 lun 0 (pass0,da0)
 &lt;IBM DDRS-34560 S97B&gt;              at scbus0 target 6 lun 0 (pass1,da1)
 &lt;AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10&gt;           at scbus1 target 2 lun 0 (pass3)
 &lt;PHILIPS CDD3610 CD-R/RW 1.00&gt;     at scbus2 target 0 lun 0 (pass2,cd0)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>scsi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>camcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	details about <acronym>SCSI</acronym> devices on FreeBSD.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><application>SANE</application> 設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>SANE</application> system is split in two
 	parts: the backends
 	(<package>graphics/sane-backends</package>) and the frontends
 	(<package>graphics/sane-frontends</package> or
 	<package>graphics/xsane</package>).  The backends provide
 	access to the scanner.  Refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html">http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html</link>
 	to determine which backend supports the scanner.  The
 	frontends provide the graphical scanning interface.
 	<package>graphics/sane-frontends</package> installs
 	<application>xscanimage</application> while
 	<package>graphics/xsane</package> installs
 	<application>xsane</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After installing the
 	<package>graphics/sane-backends</package> port or package, use
 	<command>sane-find-scanner</command> to check the scanner
 	detection by the <application>SANE</application>
 	system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sane-find-scanner -q</userinput>
 found SCSI scanner "AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10" at /dev/pass3</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output should show the interface type of the scanner
 	and the device node used to attach the scanner to the system.
 	The vendor and the product model may or may not appear.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>USB</acronym> scanners require firmware to
 	  be loaded.  Refer to sane-find-scanner(1) and sane(7) for
 	  details.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, check if the scanner will be identified by a
 	scanning frontend.  The <application>SANE</application>
 	backends include <command>scanimage</command> which can be
 	used to list the devices and perform an image acquisition.
 	Use <option>-L</option> to list the scanner devices.  The
 	first example is for a <acronym>SCSI</acronym> scanner and the
 	second is for a <acronym>USB</acronym> scanner:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>scanimage -L</userinput>
 device `snapscan:/dev/pass3' is a AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 flatbed scanner
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>scanimage -L</userinput>
 device 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scanner</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this second example,
 	<literal>'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2'</literal> is
 	the backend name (<literal>epson2</literal>) and
 	<literal>/dev/ugen0.2</literal> is the device node used by the
 	scanner.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <command>scanimage</command> is unable to identify the
 	scanner, this message will appear:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>scanimage -L</userinput>
 
 No scanners were identified. If you were expecting something different,
 check that the scanner is plugged in, turned on and detected by the
 sane-find-scanner tool (if appropriate). Please read the documentation
 which came with this software (README, FAQ, manpages).</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If this happens, edit the backend configuration file in
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/sane.d/</filename> and define the
 	scanner device used.  For example, if the undetected scanner
 	model is an <trademark class="registered">EPSON
   Perfection</trademark> 1650 and it uses the
 	<literal>epson2</literal> backend, edit
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/sane.d/epson2.conf</filename>.  When
 	editing, add a line specifying the interface and the device
 	node used.  In this case, add the following line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">usb /dev/ugen0.2</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Save the edits and verify that the scanner is identified
 	with the right backend name and the device node:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>scanimage -L</userinput>
 device 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scanner</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once <command>scanimage -L</command> sees the scanner, the
 	configuration is complete and the scanner is now ready to
 	use.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While <command>scanimage</command> can be used to perform
 	an image acquisition from the command line, it is often
 	preferable to use a graphical interface to perform image
 	scanning.  The <package>graphics/sane-frontends</package>
 	package or port installs a simple but efficient graphical
 	interface, <application>xscanimage</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternately, <application>xsane</application>, which is
 	installed with the <package>graphics/xsane</package> package
 	or port, is another popular graphical scanning frontend.  It
 	offers advanced features such as various scanning modes, color
 	correction, and batch scans.  Both of these applications are
 	usable as a <application>GIMP</application> plugin.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>掃描器權限</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to have access to the scanner, a user needs read
 	and write permissions to the device node used by the scanner.
 	In the previous example, the <acronym>USB</acronym> scanner
 	uses the device node <filename>/dev/ugen0.2</filename> which
 	is really a symlink to the real device node
 	<filename>/dev/usb/0.2.0</filename>.  The symlink and the
 	device node are owned, respectively, by the <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> and <systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem> groups.  While
 	adding the user to these groups will allow access to the
 	scanner, it is considered insecure to add a user to
 	<systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem>.  A better
 	solution is to create a group and make the scanner device
 	accessible to members of this group.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example creates a group called <systemitem class="groupname"><replaceable>usb</replaceable></systemitem>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupadd usb</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, make the <filename>/dev/ugen0.2</filename> symlink
 	and the <filename>/dev/usb/0.2.0</filename> device node
 	accessible to the <systemitem class="groupname">usb</systemitem> group with write
 	permissions of <literal>0660</literal> or
 	<literal>0664</literal> by adding the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/devfs.rules</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">[system=5]
 add path ugen0.2 mode 0660 group usb
 add path usb/0.2.0 mode 0666 group usb</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Finally, add the users to <systemitem class="groupname"><replaceable>usb</replaceable></systemitem>
 	in order to allow access to the scanner:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod usb -m <replaceable>joe</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more details refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="kernelconfig">
 <!--<chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	<surname>Mock</surname>
 	<contrib>Updated and restructured in Mar 2000 by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Jake</firstname>
 	<surname>Hamby</surname>
 	<contrib>Originally contributed 6 Oct 1995 by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
 
   <title>設定 FreeBSD 核心</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kernelconfig-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>kernel</primary>
       <secondary>building a custom kernel</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>核心 (Kernel) 是 FreeBSD 作業系統最重要的部份之一。它負責記憶體管理、安全控管、網路、硬碟存取等等。 儘管目前 FreeBSD 大多可以用動態設定， 但有時仍需要設定並編譯自訂的核心。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>何時需要編譯自訂核心。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何取得硬體資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何量身訂做核心設定檔。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用核心設定檔來建立並編譯新的核心。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何安裝新的核心。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>發生錯誤時如何排除問題。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>所有在本章所列出的指令均應以 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 來執行。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kernelconfig-custom-kernel">
     <title>為何要編譯自訂的核心?</title>
 
     <para>早期的 FreeBSD 的核心 (Kernel) 被戲稱為 “巨石”。因為當時的核心是一個非常大的程式，且只支援固定的硬體裝置，如果您想改變核心的設定，就必須編譯一個新核心並重新開機，才能使用。</para>
 
     <para>現在，大多數在 FreeBSD 核心的功能已採用模組 (Module) 的方式包裝，可以依據需求動態在核心載入或卸載。 這使得核心能夠快速採用新硬體環境的新功能，就叫做模組化核心 (Modular Kernel)。</para>
 
     <para>儘管如此，還是有一些功能因使用到靜態的核心設定須要編譯，因為這些功能與核心緊密結合，無法將做成可動態載入的模組。且部份強調安全性的環境會盡量避免載入與卸載核心模組，且只要將需要的功能靜態的編譯到核心當中。</para>
 
     <para>編譯自訂的核心幾乎是每位進階的 BSD 使用者所必須經歷的過程。儘管這項工作可能比較耗時，但在 FreeBSD 的使用上會有許多好處。 跟必須支援大多數各式硬體的 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心相比的話， 自訂的核心可以更『體貼』，只支援『自己硬體』的部分就好。 自訂核心有許多項優點，如︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>加速開機，因為自訂的核心只需要偵測您系統上存在的硬體，所以讓啟動所花的過程更流暢快速。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>減少記憶體使用，自訂的核心通常會比 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心使用更少的記憶體，這很重要，因為核心必須一直存放在實體記憶體內，會讓其他應用程式無法使用。因此，自訂核心對於記憶體較小的系統來說，發揮很大的作用。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>支援額外的硬體，自訂的核心可以增加一些 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心沒有提供的硬體支援。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before building a custom kernel, consider the reason for
       doing so.  If there is a need for specific hardware support,
       it may already exist as a module.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Kernel modules exist in <filename>/boot/kernel</filename>
       and may be dynamically loaded into the running kernel using
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Most kernel drivers have a loadable module and
       manual page.  For example, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ath</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> wireless Ethernet
       driver has the following information in its manual page:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">Alternatively, to load the driver as a module at boot time, place the
 following line in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>:
 
     if_ath_load="YES"</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Adding <literal>if_ath_load="YES"</literal> to
       <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> will load this module
       dynamically at boot time.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In some cases, there is no associated module in
       <filename>/boot/kernel</filename>.  This is mostly true for
       certain subsystems.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kernelconfig-devices">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>偵測系統硬體</title>
 
     <para>在編輯核心設定檔之前，建議先調查清楚機器各項硬體資訊。在雙作業系統的環境，也可透過其他作業系統來了解目前機器上的硬體資訊。 舉例來說，<trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> 的 <application>裝置管理員</application> (Device Manager) 內會有目前已安裝的硬體資訊。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>某些版本的 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 會有<application>系統</application> (System) 圖示可用來進入 <application>裝置管理員</application>。</para>
     </note>
 
     <para>若 FreeBSD 是唯一安裝的作業系統，則可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dmesg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來查看開時時系統偵測到的硬體資訊 。FreeBSD 上大多硬體驅動程式都有操作手冊會列出支援的硬體。例如，以下幾行是說 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>psm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式偵測到了一隻滑鼠：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">psm0: &lt;PS/2 Mouse&gt; irq 12 on atkbdc0
 psm0: [GIANT-LOCKED]
 psm0: [ITHREAD]
 psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0</screen>
 
     <para>因為該硬體存在，此驅動程式便不應該從自訂核心設定檔中移除。</para>
 
     <para>若 <command>dmesg</command> 輸出的結果未顯示開機偵測硬體的部份，則可改閱讀 <filename>/var/run/dmesg.boot</filename> 檔案的內容。</para>
 
     <para>另外，也可以透過 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pciconf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具可用來查詢硬體資訊，該工具會列出更詳細的硬體資訊如：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>pciconf -lv</userinput>
 ath0@pci0:3:0:0:        class=0x020000 card=0x058a1014 chip=0x1014168c rev=0x01 hdr=0x00
     vendor     = 'Atheros Communications Inc.'
     device     = 'AR5212 Atheros AR5212 802.11abg wireless'
     class      = network
     subclass   = ethernet</screen>
 
     <para>以上輸出資訊說明 <filename>ath</filename> 驅動程式已經找到一個無線乙太網路裝置。</para>
 
     <para>在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>man</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 指令加上 <option>-k</option> 參數，可提供有用的資訊，例如，列出有包含指定關鍵字的手冊頁面清單：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>man -k <replaceable>Atheros</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">ath(4)                   - Atheros IEEE 802.11 wireless network driver
 ath_hal(4)               - Atheros Hardware Access Layer (HAL)</programlisting>
 
     <para>準備好硬體清單之後，參考該清單來確認已安裝的硬體驅動程式在編輯自訂核心設定時沒有被移除。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kernelconfig-config">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Joel</firstname>
 	  <surname>Dahl</surname>
 	  <contrib>Updated by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>設定檔</title>
 
     <para>為了要建立自訂核心設定檔並編譯自訂核心，必須先安裝完整的 FreeBSD 原始碼樹。</para>
 
     <para>若 <filename>/usr/src/</filename> 目錄不存在或者是空的，代表尚未安裝。原始碼可以使用 <application>Subversion</application> 並依據 <xref linkend="svn"/> 中的操作說明來安裝。</para>
 
     <para>完成原始碼完成後，需檢查 <filename>/usr/src/sys</filename> 內的檔案。該目錄內包含數個子目錄，這些子目錄中包了支援的硬體架構 (Architecture) 如下：<filename>amd64</filename>, <filename>i386</filename>, <filename>ia64</filename>, <filename>pc98</filename>, <filename>powerpc</filename> 以及 <filename>sparc64</filename>。在指定架構目錄中的內容只對該架構有效，其餘部份的程式碼與硬體架構無關，可通用所有平台。每個支援的硬體架構中會有 <filename>conf</filename> 子目錄，裡面含有供該架構使用的 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心設定檔。</para>
 
     <para>請不要直接對 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 檔案做編輯。複製該檔案為另一個名稱，並對複製出來的檔案做編輯，習慣上檔名會全部使用大寫字元。當維護多台安裝不同的硬體的 FreeBSD 機器時，將檔名後方加上機器的主機名稱 (Host name) 是個不錯的方法。以下範例使用 <literal>amd64</literal> 架構的 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 設定檔建立了一個複本名稱為 <filename>MYKERNEL</filename>：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/sys/<replaceable>amd64</replaceable>/conf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp GENERIC <replaceable>MYKERNEL</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para>現在可以使用任何 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 文字編輯器來自訂 <filename><replaceable>MYKERNEL</replaceable></filename>。預設的編輯器為 <application>vi</application>，在 FreeBSD 也內建一個易於初學者使用的編輯器叫做 <application>ee</application>。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>kernel</primary>
       <secondary>NOTES</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NOTES</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>kernel</primary>
       <secondary>configuration file</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>核心設定檔的格式很簡單，每一行會含有代表裝置 (Device) 或子系統 (Subsystem) 的關鍵字、參數以及簡短的說明。任何在 <literal>#</literal> 符號之後的文字會被當做註解並且略過。要移除核心對某個裝置或子系統的支援，僅需要在代表該裝置或子系統的行前加上 <literal>#</literal> 符號。請不要在您還不了解用途的行前加上或移除 <literal>#</literal> 符號。</para>
 
     <warning>
       <para>移除對裝置或選項的支援很容易會造成核心損壞。例如，若從核心設定檔 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ata</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式，那麼使用 <acronym>ATA</acronym> 磁碟驅動程式的系統便會無法開機。因此當您不確定時，請在核心保留該項目的支援。</para>
     </warning>
 
     <para>除了在設定檔中提供的簡短說明之外，尚有其他的說明在 <filename>NOTES</filename> 檔案中，可在與該架構 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 相同的目錄底下找到。要查看所有架構通用的選項，請參考 <filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES</filename>。</para>
 
     <tip>
       <para>當完成自訂的核心設定檔，請備份到 <filename>/usr/src</filename> 位置之外。</para>
 
       <para>或者，將核心設定檔放在其他地方，然後建立一個符號連結 (Symbolic link) 至該檔案：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/sys/amd64/conf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /root/kernels</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL</userinput></screen>
     </tip>
 
     <para>設定檔中可以使用 <literal>include</literal> 指令 (Directive)。該指令可以引用其他設定檔到目前的設定檔，這讓只需根據現有檔案設定做些微調整時更簡單。若只有少量的額外選項或驅動程式需要設定，該指令可引用 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 並設定額外增加的選項，如範例所示：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">include GENERIC
 ident MYKERNEL
 
 options         IPFIREWALL
 options         DUMMYNET
 options         IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT
 options         IPDIVERT</programlisting>
 
     <para>使用此方法，設定檔只含有與 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心不同的部份。當升級有新功能加入 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 時，也可一併引用，除非特別使用 <literal>nooptions</literal> 或 <literal>nodevice</literal> 選項來排除設定。更詳細的設定檔指令及其說明可在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 找到。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>要產生含有所有可用選項的設定檔，可以 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 執行以下指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf &amp;&amp; make LINT</userinput></screen>
     </note>
 
 <!--
     <indexterm>
       <primary>kernel options</primary>
       <secondary>ident</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
 This is outdated and specific to one architecture.
 
     <programlisting>ident          GENERIC</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is the identification of the kernel.  Change
       this to the new kernel name, such as
       <literal><replaceable>MYKERNEL</replaceable></literal>.
       The value in the <literal>ident</literal> string will
       print when the kernel boots.</para>
 
     <programlisting>makeoptions     DEBUG=-g          # Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option enables debugging information when passed to
       &man.gcc.1;.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          SCHED_ULE         # ULE scheduler</programlisting>
 
     <para>The default system scheduler for &os;.  Keep this.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          INET              # InterNETworking</programlisting>
 
     <para>Networking support.  This is mandatory as most programs
       require at least loopback networking.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          INET6             # IPv6 communications protocols</programlisting>
 
     <para>This enables the IPv6 communication protocols.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          FFS               # Berkeley Fast Filesystem</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is the basic hard drive file system.  Leave it in if
       the system boots from the hard disk.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          SOFTUPDATES       # Enable FFS Soft Updates support</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option enables Soft Updates in the kernel which helps
       to speed up write access on the disks.  Even when this
       functionality is provided by the kernel, it must be turned on
       for specific disks.  Review the output of &man.mount.8; to
       determine if Soft Updates is enabled.  If the
       <literal>soft-updates</literal> option is not in the output, it
       can be activated using &man.tunefs.8; for existing file systems
       or &man.newfs.8; for new file systems.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          UFS_ACL           # Support for access control lists</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option enables kernel support for access control lists
       (<acronym>ACL</acronym>s).  This relies on the use of extended
       attributes and <acronym>UFS2</acronym>, and the feature is
       described in detail in <xref linkend="fs-acl"/>.
       <acronym>ACL</acronym>s are enabled by default and should not be
       disabled in the kernel if they have been used previously on a
       file system, as this will remove the ACLs, changing the way
       files are protected in unpredictable ways.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          UFS_DIRHASH       # Improve performance on big directories</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option includes functionality to speed up disk
       operations on large directories, at the expense of using
       additional memory.  Keep this for a large server or interactive
       workstation, and remove it from smaller systems where memory is
       at a premium and disk access speed is less important, such as a
       firewall.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          MD_ROOT           # MD is a potential root device</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option enables support for a memory backed virtual disk
       used as a root device.</para>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>kernel options</primary>
       <secondary>NFS</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm>
       <primary>kernel options</primary>
       <secondary>NFS_ROOT</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <programlisting>options          NFSCLIENT         # Network Filesystem Client
 options          NFSSERVER         # Network Filesystem Server
 options          NFS_ROOT          # NFS usable as /, requires NFSCLIENT</programlisting>
 
     <para>The network file system (<acronym>NFS</acronym>).  These
       lines can be commented unless the system needs to mount
       partitions from a <acronym>NFS</acronym> file server over
       TCP/IP.</para>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>kernel options</primary>
       <secondary>MSDOSFS</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <programlisting>options          MSDOSFS           # MSDOS Filesystem</programlisting>
 
     <para>The &ms-dos; file system.  Unless the system needs to mount
       a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, comment this
       out.  It will be automatically loaded the first time a DOS
       partition is mounted.  The <package>emulators/mtools</package>
       package allows access to DOS floppies without having to mount
       and unmount them and does not require
       <literal>MSDOSFS</literal>.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          CD9660            # ISO 9660 Filesystem</programlisting>
 
     <para>The ISO 9660 file system for CDROMs.  Comment it out if the
       system does not have a CDROM drive or only mounts data CDs
       occasionally since it will be dynamically loaded the first
       time a data CD is mounted.  Audio CDs do not need this file
       system.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          PROCFS            # Process filesystem (requires PSEUDOFS)</programlisting>
 
     <para>The process file system.  This is a <quote>pretend</quote>
       file system mounted on <filename>/proc</filename> which allows
       some programs to provide more information on what processes are
       running.  Use of <literal>PROCFS</literal> is not required under
       most circumstances, as most debugging and monitoring tools have
       been adapted to run without <literal>PROCFS</literal>.  The
       default installation will not mount this file system by
       default.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          PSEUDOFS          # Pseudo-filesystem framework</programlisting>
 
     <para>Kernels making use of <literal>PROCFS</literal> must
       also include support for <literal>PSEUDOFS</literal>.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          GEOM_PART_GPT     # GUID Partition Tables.</programlisting>
 
     <para>Adds support for <link
 	xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table">GUID
 	Partition Tables</link> (<acronym>GPT</acronym>).  GPT
       provides the ability to have a large number of partitions per
       disk, 128 in the standard configuration.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          COMPAT_43         # Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!]</programlisting>
 
     <para>Compatibility with 4.3BSD.  Leave this in as some programs
       will act strangely if this is commented out.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          COMPAT_FREEBSD4   # Compatible with &os;4</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option is required to support applications compiled on
       older versions of &os; that use older system call interfaces.
       It is recommended that this option be used on all &i386; systems
       that may run older applications.  Platforms that gained support
       after &os;&nbsp;4.X, such as ia64 and &sparc64;, do not require
       this option.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          COMPAT_FREEBSD5   # Compatible with &os;5</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option is required to support applications compiled on
       &os;&nbsp;5.X versions that use &os;&nbsp;5.X system call
       interfaces.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          COMPAT_FREEBSD6   # Compatible with &os;6</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option is required to support applications compiled on
       &os;&nbsp;6.X versions that use &os;&nbsp;6.X system call
       interfaces.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          COMPAT_FREEBSD7   # Compatible with &os;7</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option is required on &os;&nbsp;8 and above to support
       applications compiled on &os;&nbsp;7.X versions that use
       &os;&nbsp;7.X system call interfaces.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          SCSI_DELAY=5000  # Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI</programlisting>
 
     <para>This causes the kernel to pause for 5 seconds before probing
       each <acronym>SCSI</acronym> device in the system.  If
       <acronym>SCSI</acronym> drives are not recognized, increase the
       number.  If the system does not have any <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
       drives, this value can be ignored or decreased to speed up
       booting.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          KTRACE            # ktrace(1) support</programlisting>
 
     <para>This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in
       debugging.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          SYSVSHM           # SYSV-style shared memory</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option provides for System&nbsp;V shared memory.  The
       most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many
       graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of
       for extra speed.  If <application>Xorg</application> is
       installed, include this.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          SYSVMSG           # SYSV-style message queues</programlisting>
 
     <para>Support for System&nbsp;V messages.  This option only adds
       a few hundred bytes to the kernel.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          SYSVSEM           # SYSV-style semaphores</programlisting>
 
     <para>Support for System&nbsp;V semaphores.  Less commonly used,
       but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>Using <option>-p</option> with &man.ipcs.1; will list any
 	processes using each of these System&nbsp;V facilities.</para>
     </note>
 
     <programlisting>options 	     _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING # POSIX P1003_1B real-time extensions</programlisting>
 
     <para>Real-time extensions added in the 1993 &posix;.  Certain
       applications in the Ports Collection use these.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options          KBD_INSTALL_CDEV  # install a CDEV entry in /dev</programlisting>
 
     <para>This option is required to allow the creation of keyboard
       device nodes in <filename>/dev</filename>.</para>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>kernel options</primary>
       <secondary>SMP</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <programlisting>device          apic               # I/O APIC</programlisting>
 
     <para>This device enables the use of the I/O APIC for interrupt
       delivery.  It can be used in both uni-processor and SMP kernels,
       but is required for SMP kernels.  Add <literal>options
 	SMP</literal> to include support for multiple
       processors.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>This device exists only on the &i386; architecture and
 	this configuration line should not be used on other
 	architectures.</para>
     </note>
 
     <programlisting>device          eisa</programlisting>
 
     <para>Include this for systems with an EISA motherboard.  This
       enables auto-detection and configuration support for all devices
       on the EISA bus.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          pci</programlisting>
 
     <para>Include this for systems with a PCI motherboard.  This
       enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI
       to ISA bus.</para>
 
     <programlisting># Floppy drives
 device          fdc</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is the floppy drive controller.</para>
 
     <programlisting># ATA and ATAPI devices
 device          ata</programlisting>
 
     <para>This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices.  Only
       one <literal>device ata</literal> line is needed for the kernel
       to detect all PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          atadisk                 # ATA disk drives</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is needed along with <literal>device ata</literal> for
       ATA disk drives.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          ataraid                 # ATA RAID drives</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is needed along with <literal>device ata</literal>
       for ATA RAID drives.</para>
 
     <programlisting><anchor xml:id="kernelconfig-atapi"/>
 device          atapicd                 # ATAPI CDROM drives</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is needed along with <literal>device ata</literal>
       for ATAPI CDROM drives.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          atapifd                 # ATAPI floppy drives</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is needed along with <literal>device ata</literal> for
       ATAPI floppy drives.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          atapist                 # ATAPI tape drives</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is needed along with <literal>device ata</literal> for
       ATAPI tape drives.</para>
 
     <programlisting>options         ATA_STATIC_ID           # Static device numbering</programlisting>
 
     <para>This makes the controller number static.  Without this, the
       device numbers are dynamically allocated.</para>
 
     <programlisting># SCSI Controllers
 device          ahb        # EISA AHA1742 family
 device          ahc        # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices
 options         AHC_REG_PRETTY_PRINT    # Print register bitfields in debug
                                         # output.  Adds ~128k to driver.
 device          ahd        # AHA39320/29320 and onboard AIC79xx devices
 options         AHD_REG_PRETTY_PRINT    # Print register bitfields in debug
                                         # output.  Adds ~215k to driver.
 device          amd        # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T))
 device          isp        # Qlogic family
 #device         ispfw      # Firmware for QLogic HBAs- normally a module
 device          mpt        # LSI-Logic MPT-Fusion
 #device         ncr        # NCR/Symbios Logic
 device          sym        # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets + those of `ncr')
 device          trm        # Tekram DC395U/UW/F DC315U adapters
 
 device          adv        # Advansys SCSI adapters
 device          adw        # Advansys wide SCSI adapters
 device          aha        # Adaptec 154x SCSI adapters
 device          aic        # Adaptec 15[012]x SCSI adapters, AIC-6[23]60.
 device          bt         # Buslogic/Mylex MultiMaster SCSI adapters
 
 device          ncv        # NCR 53C500
 device          nsp        # Workbit Ninja SCSI-3
 device          stg        # TMC 18C30/18C50</programlisting>
 
     <para>In this section, comment out any SCSI controllers not on
       the system.  For an IDE only system, these lines can be removed.
       The <literal>*_REG_PRETTY_PRINT</literal> lines are
       debugging options for their respective drivers.</para>
 
     <programlisting># SCSI peripherals
 device          scbus      # SCSI bus (required for SCSI)
 device          ch         # SCSI media changers
 device          da         # Direct Access (disks)
 device          sa         # Sequential Access (tape etc)
 device          cd         # CD
 device          pass       # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access)
 device          ses        # SCSI Environmental Services (and SAF-TE)</programlisting>
 
     <para>Comment out any SCSI peripherals not on the system.  If
       the system only has IDE hardware, these lines can be removed
       completely.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>The USB &man.umass.4; driver and a few other drivers use
 	the SCSI subsystem even though they are not real SCSI devices.
 	Do not remove SCSI support if any such drivers are included in
 	the kernel configuration.</para>
     </note>
 
     <programlisting># RAID controllers interfaced to the SCSI subsystem
 device          amr        # AMI MegaRAID
 device          arcmsr     # Areca SATA II RAID
 device          asr        # DPT SmartRAID V, VI and Adaptec SCSI RAID
 device          ciss       # Compaq Smart RAID 5*
 device          dpt        # DPT Smartcache III, IV - See NOTES for options
 device          hptmv      # Highpoint RocketRAID 182x
 device          hptrr      # Highpoint RocketRAID 17xx, 22xx, 23xx, 25xx
 device          iir        # Intel Integrated RAID
 device          ips        # IBM (Adaptec) ServeRAID
 device          mly        # Mylex AcceleRAID/eXtremeRAID
 device          twa        # 3ware 9000 series PATA/SATA RAID
 
 # RAID controllers
 device          aac        # Adaptec FSA RAID
 device          aacp       # SCSI passthrough for aac (requires CAM)
 device          ida        # Compaq Smart RAID
 device          mfi        # LSI MegaRAID SAS
 device          mlx        # Mylex DAC960 family
 device          pst        # Promise Supertrak SX6000
 device          twe        # 3ware ATA RAID</programlisting>
 
     <para>Supported RAID controllers.  If the system does not have any
       of these, comment them out or remove them.</para>
 
     <programlisting># atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse
 device          atkbdc     # AT keyboard controller</programlisting>
 
     <para>The <literal>atkbdc</literal> keyboard controller provides
       I/O services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing
       devices.  This controller is required by &man.atkbd.4; and
       &man.psm.4;.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          atkbd      # AT keyboard</programlisting>
 
     <para>The &man.atkbd.4; driver, together with the &man.atkbdc.4;
       controller, provides access to the AT 84 keyboard or the AT
       enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT keyboard
       controller.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          psm        # PS/2 mouse</programlisting>
 
     <para>Use this device if the mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse
       port.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          kbdmux        # keyboard multiplexer</programlisting>
 
     <para>Basic support for keyboard multiplexing.  If the system
       does not use more than one keyboard, this line can be safely
       removed.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          vga        # VGA video card driver</programlisting>
 
     <para>The &man.vga.4; video card driver.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          splash     # Splash screen and screen saver support</programlisting>
 
     <para>Required by the boot splash screen and screen savers.</para>
 
     <programlisting># syscons is the default console driver, resembling a SCO console
 device          sc</programlisting>
 
     <para>&man.sc.4; is the default console driver and resembles a SCO
       console.  Since most full-screen programs access the console
       through a terminal database library like
       <filename>termcap</filename>, it should not matter whether
       this or <literal>vt</literal>, the
       <literal>VT220</literal> compatible console driver, is used.
       When a user logs in, the <envar>TERM</envar> variable can be set
       to <literal>scoansi</literal> if full-screen programs have
       trouble running under this console.</para>
 
     <programlisting># Enable this for the pcvt (VT220 compatible) console driver
 #device          vt
 #options         XSERVER          # support for X server on a vt console
 #options         FAT_CURSOR       # start with block cursor</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward
       compatible to VT100/102.  It works well on some laptops which
       have hardware incompatibilities with <literal>sc</literal>.
       Users may need to set <envar>TERM</envar> to
       <literal>vt100</literal> or <literal>vt220</literal> after
       login.  This driver is useful when connecting to a large number
       of different machines over the network, where
       <filename>termcap</filename> or <filename>terminfo</filename>
       entries for the <literal>sc</literal> device are not
       available as <literal>vt100</literal> should be available
       on virtually any platform.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          agp</programlisting>
 
     <para>Include this if the system has an AGP card.  This will
       enable support for AGP and AGP GART for boards which have these
       features.</para>
 
     <programlisting># Add suspend/resume support for the i8254.
 device           pmtimer</programlisting>
 
     <para>Timer device driver for power management events, such as
       APM and ACPI.</para>
 
     <programlisting># PCCARD (PCMCIA) support
 # PCMCIA and cardbus bridge support
 device          cbb               # cardbus (yenta) bridge
 device          pccard            # PC Card (16-bit) bus
 device          cardbus           # CardBus (32-bit) bus</programlisting>
 
     <para>PCMCIA support.  Keep this on laptop systems.</para>
 
     <programlisting># Serial (COM) ports
 device          sio               # 8250, 16[45]50 based serial ports</programlisting>
 
     <para>These are the serial ports referred to as
       <filename>COM</filename> ports in &windows;.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>If the system has an internal modem on
 	<filename>COM4</filename> and a serial port at
 	<filename>COM2</filename>, change the IRQ of the modem to
 	2.  For a multiport serial card, refer to &man.sio.4; for more
 	information on the proper values to add to
 	<filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>.  Some video cards,
 	notably those based on S3 chips, use I/O addresses in the
 	form of <literal>0x*2e8</literal>.  Since many cheap serial
 	cards do not fully decode the 16-bit I/O address space, they
 	clash with these cards, making the
 	<filename>COM4</filename> port practically
 	unavailable.</para>
 
       <para>Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ and the
 	default IRQs for <filename>COM3</filename> and
 	<filename>COM4</filename> cannot be used.  The exception
 	is multiport cards where shared interrupts are
 	supported.</para>
     </note>
 
     <programlisting># Parallel port
 device          ppc</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is the ISA bus parallel port interface.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          ppbus      # Parallel port bus (required)</programlisting>
 
     <para>Provides support for the parallel port bus.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          lpt        # Printer</programlisting>
 
     <para>Adds support for parallel port printers.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>All three of the above are required to enable parallel
 	printer support.</para>
     </note>
 
     <programlisting>device          ppi        # Parallel port interface device</programlisting>
 
     <para>The general-purpose I/O (<quote>geek port</quote>) +
       IEEE1284 I/O.</para>
 
     <programlisting>#device         vpo        # Requires scbus and da</programlisting>
 
     <indexterm><primary>zip drive</primary></indexterm>
     <para>This is for an Iomega Zip drive.  It requires
       <literal>scbus</literal> and <literal>da</literal> support.
       Best performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode.</para>
 
     <programlisting>#device         puc</programlisting>
 
     <para>Uncomment this device if the system has a
       <quote>dumb</quote> serial or parallel PCI card that is
       supported by the &man.puc.4; glue driver.</para>
 
     <programlisting># PCI Ethernet NICs.
 device          de         # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (<quote>Tulip</quote>)
 device          em         # Intel PRO/1000 adapter Gigabit Ethernet Card
 device          ixgb       # Intel PRO/10GbE Ethernet Card
 device          txp        # 3Com 3cR990 (<quote>Typhoon</quote>)
 device          vx         # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (<quote>Vortex</quote>)</programlisting>
 
     <para>Various PCI network card drivers.  Comment out or remove
       any of these which are not present in the system.</para>
 
     <programlisting># PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code.
 # NOTE: Be sure to keep the 'device miibus' line in order to use these NICs!
 device          miibus     # MII bus support</programlisting>
 
     <para>MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 Ethernet
       NICs, namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or
       implement transceiver control interfaces that operate like an
       MII.  Adding <literal>device miibus</literal> to the kernel
       config pulls in support for the generic miibus API and all of
       the PHY drivers, including a generic one for PHYs that are not
       specifically handled by an individual driver.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          bce        # Broadcom BCM5706/BCM5708 Gigabit Ethernet
 device          bfe        # Broadcom BCM440x 10/100 Ethernet
 device          bge        # Broadcom BCM570xx Gigabit Ethernet
 device          dc         # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes
 device          fxp        # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558)
 device          lge        # Level 1 LXT1001 gigabit ethernet
 device          msk        # Marvell/SysKonnect Yukon II Gigabit Ethernet
 device          nge        # NatSemi DP83820 gigabit ethernet
 device          nve        # nVidia nForce MCP on-board Ethernet Networking
 device          pcn        # AMD Am79C97x PCI 10/100 (precedence over 'lnc')
 device          re         # RealTek 8139C+/8169/8169S/8110S
 device          rl         # RealTek 8129/8139
 device          sf         # Adaptec AIC-6915 (<quote>Starfire</quote>)
 device          sis        # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016
 device          sk         # SysKonnect SK-984x &amp; SK-982x gigabit Ethernet
 device          ste        # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX)
 device          stge       # Sundance/Tamarack TC9021 gigabit Ethernet
 device          ti         # Alteon Networks Tigon I/II gigabit Ethernet
 device          tl         # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN
 device          tx         # SMC EtherPower II (83c170 <quote>EPIC</quote>)
 device          vge        # VIA VT612x gigabit ethernet
 device          vr         # VIA Rhine, Rhine II
 device          wb         # Winbond W89C840F
 device          xl         # 3Com 3c90x (<quote>Boomerang</quote>, <quote>Cyclone</quote>)</programlisting>
 
     <para>Drivers that use the MII bus controller code.</para>
 
     <programlisting># ISA Ethernet NICs.  pccard NICs included.
 device          cs         # Crystal Semiconductor CS89x0 NIC
 # 'device ed' requires 'device miibus'
 device          ed         # NE[12]000, SMC Ultra, 3c503, DS8390 cards
 device          ex         # Intel EtherExpress Pro/10 and Pro/10+
 device          ep         # Etherlink III based cards
 device          fe         # Fujitsu MB8696x based cards
 device          ie         # EtherExpress 8/16, 3C507, StarLAN 10 etc.
 device          lnc        # NE2100, NE32-VL Lance Ethernet cards
 device          sn         # SMC's 9000 series of Ethernet chips
 device          xe         # Xircom pccard Ethernet
 
 # ISA devices that use the old ISA shims
 #device         le</programlisting>
 
     <para>ISA Ethernet drivers.  See
       <filename>/usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/NOTES</filename>
       for details of which cards are supported by which driver.</para>
 
     <programlisting># Wireless NIC cards
 device          wlan            # 802.11 support</programlisting>
 
     <para>Generic 802.11 support.  This line is required for wireless
       networking.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          wlan_wep        # 802.11 WEP support
 device          wlan_ccmp       # 802.11 CCMP support
 device          wlan_tkip       # 802.11 TKIP support</programlisting>
 
     <para>Crypto support for 802.11 devices.  These lines are needed
       on systems which use encryption and 802.11i security
       protocols.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device          an         # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs.
 device          ath             # Atheros pci/cardbus NIC's
 device          ath_hal         # Atheros HAL (Hardware Access Layer)
 device          ath_rate_sample # SampleRate tx rate control for ath
 device          awi        # BayStack 660 and others
 device          ral        # Ralink Technology RT2500 wireless NICs.
 device          wi         # WaveLAN/Intersil/Symbol 802.11 wireless NICs.
 #device         wl         # Older non 802.11 Wavelan wireless NIC.</programlisting>
 
     <para>Support for various wireless cards.</para>
 
     <programlisting># Pseudo devices
 device   loop          # Network loopback</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP.  This is
       <emphasis>mandatory</emphasis>.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   random        # Entropy device</programlisting>
 
     <para>Cryptographically secure random number generator.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   ether         # Ethernet support</programlisting>
 
     <para><literal>ether</literal> is only needed if the system has
       an Ethernet card.  It includes generic Ethernet protocol
       code.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   sl            # Kernel SLIP</programlisting>
 
     <para><literal>sl</literal> provides SLIP support.  This has been
       almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up,
       better suited for modem-to-modem connection, and more
       powerful.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   ppp           # Kernel PPP</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections.
       There is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland
       application that uses <literal>tun</literal> and offers more
       flexibility and features such as demand dialing.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   tun           # Packet tunnel.</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is used by the userland PPP software.  See the <link
 	linkend="userppp">PPP</link> section of the Handbook for more
       information.</para>
 
     <programlisting><anchor xml:id="kernelconfig-ptys"/>
 device   pty           # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc)</programlisting>
 
     <para>This is a <quote>pseudo-terminal</quote> or simulated
       login port.  It is used by incoming <command>telnet</command>
       and <command>rlogin</command> sessions,
       <application>xterm</application>, and some other applications
       such as <application>Emacs</application>.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   md            # Memory <quote>disks</quote></programlisting>
 
     <para>Memory disk pseudo-devices.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   gif           # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling</programlisting>
 
     <para>This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6
       tunneling, IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6
       tunneling.  The <literal>gif</literal> device is
       <quote>auto-cloning</quote>, and will create device nodes as
       needed.</para>
 
     <programlisting>device   faith         # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation)</programlisting>
 
     <para>This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and
       diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon.</para>
 
     <programlisting># The `bpf' device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter.
 # Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this!
 # Note that 'bpf' is required for DHCP.
 device   bpf           # Berkeley packet filter</programlisting>
 
     <para>The Berkeley Packet Filter pseudo-device allows network
       interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every
       packet on a broadcast network such as an Ethernet network.
       These packets can be captured to disk and or examined using
       &man.tcpdump.1;.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>The &man.bpf.4; device is also used by &man.dhclient.8;.
 	If DHCP is used, leave this uncommented.</para>
     </note>
 
     <programlisting># USB support
 device          uhci          # UHCI PCI-&gt;USB interface
 device          ohci          # OHCI PCI-&gt;USB interface
 device          ehci          # EHCI PCI-&gt;USB interface (USB 2.0)
 device          usb           # USB Bus (required)
 #device         udbp          # USB Double Bulk Pipe devices
 device          ugen          # Generic
 device          uhid          # <quote>Human Interface Devices</quote>
 device          ukbd          # Keyboard
 device          ulpt          # Printer
 device          umass         # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da
 device          ums           # Mouse
 device          ural          # Ralink Technology RT2500USB wireless NICs
 device          urio          # Diamond Rio 500 MP3 player
 device          uscanner      # Scanners
 # USB Ethernet, requires mii
 device          aue           # ADMtek USB Ethernet
 device          axe           # ASIX Electronics USB Ethernet
 device          cdce          # Generic USB over Ethernet
 device          cue           # CATC USB Ethernet
 device          kue           # Kawasaki LSI USB Ethernet
 device          rue           # RealTek RTL8150 USB Ethernet</programlisting>
 
     <para>Support for various USB devices.</para>
 
     <programlisting># FireWire support
 device          firewire      # FireWire bus code
 device          sbp           # SCSI over FireWire (Requires scbus and da)
 device          fwe           # Ethernet over FireWire (non-standard!)</programlisting>
 
     <para>Support for various Firewire devices.</para>
 
     <para>For more information and additional devices supported by
       &os;, see
       <filename>/usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/NOTES</filename>.</para>
       -->
 
   <!--
   This section refers to ancient hardware.
     <sect2>
       <title>Large Memory Configurations
 	(<acronym>PAE</acronym>)</title>
 
       <indexterm>
 	<primary>Physical Address Extensions
 	    (<acronym>PAE</acronym>)</primary>
 	  <secondary>large memory</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>Large memory configuration machines require access to
 	more than the 4 gigabyte limit on User+Kernel Virtual
 	Address (<acronym>KVA</acronym>) space.  Due to this
 	limitation, Intel added support for 36-bit physical address
 	space access in the &pentium; Pro and later line of
 	CPUs.</para>
 
       <para>The Physical Address Extension (<acronym>PAE</acronym>)
 	capability of the &intel; &pentium; Pro and later CPUs allows
 	memory configurations of up to 64 gigabytes.  &os; provides
 	support for this capability via the <option>PAE</option>
 	kernel configuration option, available in all current release
 	versions of &os;.  Due to the limitations of the Intel memory
 	architecture, no distinction is made for memory above or below
 	4 gigabytes.  Memory allocated above 4 gigabytes is simply
 	added to the pool of available memory.</para>
 
       <para>To enable <acronym>PAE</acronym> support in the kernel,
 	add the following line to the kernel configuration
 	file:</para>
 
       <programlisting>options		    PAE</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para>The <acronym>PAE</acronym> support in &os; is only
 	    available for &intel; IA-32 processors.  It should also be
 	    noted that the <acronym>PAE</acronym> support in &os; has
 	    not received wide testing, and should be considered beta
 	    quality compared to other stable features of &os;.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para><acronym>PAE</acronym> support in &os; has a few
 	  limitations:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>A process is not able to access more than 4
 	      gigabytes of virtual memory space.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>Device drivers that do not use the &man.bus.dma.9;
 	      interface will cause data corruption in a
 	      <acronym>PAE</acronym> enabled kernel and are not
 	      recommended for use.  For this reason, a
 	      <filename>PAE</filename> kernel configuration file is
 	      provided in &os; which excludes all drivers not known to
 	      work in a <acronym>PAE</acronym> enabled kernel.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>Some system tunables determine memory resource usage
 	      by the amount of available physical memory.  Such
 	      tunables can unnecessarily over-allocate due to the
 	      large memory nature of a <acronym>PAE</acronym> system.
 	      One such example is the
 	      <varname>kern.maxvnodes</varname> sysctl, which controls
 	      the maximum number of vnodes allowed in the kernel.  It
 	      is advised to adjust this and other such tunables to a
 	      reasonable value.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>It might be necessary to increase the kernel virtual
 	      address (<acronym>KVA</acronym>) space or to reduce the
 	      amount of specific kernel resource that is heavily used
 	      in order to avoid <acronym>KVA</acronym> exhaustion.
 	      The <option>KVA_PAGES</option> kernel option can be used
 	      for increasing the <acronym>KVA</acronym> space.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para>For performance and stability concerns, it is advised to
 	  consult &man.tuning.7;.  &man.pae.4; contains up-to-date
 	  information on &os;'s <acronym>PAE</acronym> support.</para>
       </sect2>
 -->
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kernelconfig-building">
     <title>編譯與安裝自訂核心</title>
 
     <para>完成自訂設定檔的編輯並儲存之後，便可依據以下步驟編譯核心的原始碼：</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <title>編譯核心</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>kernel</primary>
 	<secondary>building / installing</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <step>
 	<para>切換至此目錄：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>指定自訂核心設定檔的名稱來編譯新的核心：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make buildkernel KERNCONF=<replaceable>MYKERNEL</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>安裝使用指定核心設定檔所編譯的新核心。此指令將會複製新核心到 <filename>/boot/kernel/kernel</filename> 並將舊核心備份到 <filename>/boot/kernel.old/kernel</filename>：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installkernel KERNCONF=<replaceable>MYKERNEL</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>關機並重新開機載入新的核心，若發生錯誤請參考 <xref linkend="kernelconfig-noboot"/>。</para>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <para>預設在自訂核心編譯完成後，所有核心模組也同被重新編譯。要快速更新核心或只編譯自訂的模組，需在開始編譯之前先編輯 <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>。</para>
 
     <para>例如，使用以下變數可指定要編譯的模組清單來替代預設編譯所有模組的設定：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">MODULES_OVERRIDE = linux acpi</programlisting>
 
     <para>或者，可使用以下變數來從編譯程序中排除要編譯的模組：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">WITHOUT_MODULES = linux acpi sound</programlisting>
 
     <para>尚有其他可用的變數，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>make.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得詳細資訊。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/boot/kernel.old</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kernelconfig-trouble">
     <title>如果發生錯誤</title>
 
     <para>當編譯自訂核心時可能發生以下四種類型的問題：</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term><command>config</command> 失敗</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>若 <command>config</command> 失敗，會列出不正確的行號。使用以下訊息為例子，需要與 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 或 <filename>NOTES</filename> 比對來確認第 17 行輸入的內容正確：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en">config: line 17: syntax error</screen>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term><command>make</command> 失敗</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>若 <command>make</command> 失敗，通常是因為核心設定檔未提供足夠的資訊讓 <command>config</command> 找到問題。請仔細檢查設定檔，若仍不清楚問題，請寄發電子郵件給 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-questions">FreeBSD general questions mailing list</link> 並附上核心設定檔。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="kernelconfig-noboot">
 	<term>無法使用核心開機</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>若新核心無法開機或無法辨識裝置並不要恐慌！幸好，FreeBSD 有良好的機制可以從不相容的核心復原。只需要在 FreeBSD 開機載入程式 (Boot loader) 選擇要用來開機的核心便可，當系統開機選單出現時選擇 <quote>Escape to a loader prompt</quote> 選項，並在指令提示後輸入 <command>boot <replaceable>kernel.old</replaceable></command> 或替換為任何其他已經知道可以正常開機的核心名稱。</para>
 
 	  <para>使用好的核心開機之後，檢查設定檔並嘗試再編譯一次。<filename>/var/log/messages</filename> 是有用的資源，它在每次成功開機時會記錄核心訊息。同樣的，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dmesg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 也會印出自本次開機後的核心訊息。</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>在排除核心問題時，請確定留有 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 的複本，或者其他已知可以運作的核心，並使用不同的名稱來確保下次編譯時不會被刪除，這很重要，因此每當新的核心被安裝之後，<filename>kernel.old</filename> 都會被最後安裝的核心覆寫，有可能會無法開機。盡快，透過重新命名將可運作的核心目錄移動到目前運作的核心目錄。</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv /boot/kernel <replaceable>/boot/kernel.bad</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv /boot/<replaceable>kernel.good</replaceable> /boot/kernel</userinput></screen>
 	  </note>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term>核心可運作，但 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 無法運作</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>若核心版本與系統工具所編譯的版本不同，例如，有一個核心使用 -CURRENT 的原始碼編譯並安裝在 -RELEASE 的系統上，許多系統狀態指令如 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ps</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vmstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 將會無法運作。要修正此問題，請使用與核心相同版本的原始碼樹 (Source tree) <link linkend="makeworld">重新編譯並安裝 World</link>。使用與作業系統其他部份版本不同的核心永遠不會是個好主意。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
     The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
     $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="printing">
 
   <info>
     <title>列印</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Warren</firstname>
 	  <surname>Block</surname>
 	</personname><contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
-  <para xml:lang="en">Putting information on paper is a vital function, despite many
-    attempts to eliminate it.  Printing has two basic components.  The
-    data must be delivered to the printer, and must be in a form that
-    the printer can understand.</para>
+  <para>儘管很多人試圖淘汰列印功能，但列印資訊到紙上仍是一個重要的功能。列印由兩個基本元件組成，包含了資料傳送到印表機的方式以及印表機可以理解的資料形式。</para>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="printing-quick-start">
     <title>快速開始</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Basic printing can be set up quickly.  The printer must be
-      capable of printing plain <acronym>ASCII</acronym> text.  For
-      printing to other types of files, see
-      <xref linkend="printing-lpd-filters"/>.</para>
+    <para>基本的列印功能可以快速設定完成，列印機必須能夠列印純 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 文字。若要列印其他類型的檔案，請參考 <xref linkend="printing-lpd-filters"/>。</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <step>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Create a directory to store files while they are being
-	  printed:</para>
+	<para>建立一個目錄來儲存要被列印的檔案:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/lp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/lp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/lp</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
-	<para xml:lang="en">As <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>,
-	  create <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> with these
-	  contents:</para>
+	<para>以 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 建立 <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> 內容如下:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">lp:\
 	<replaceable>:lp=/dev/unlpt0:\</replaceable>  <co xml:id="printing-qs-co-printcap"/>
 	:sh:\
 	:mx#0:\
 	:sd=/var/spool/lpd/lp:\
 	:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:</programlisting>
 
 	<calloutlist>
 	  <callout arearefs="printing-qs-co-printcap">
-	    <para xml:lang="en">This line is for a printer connected to a
-	      <acronym>USB</acronym> port.</para>
+	    <para>此行是針對連接到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠的印表機:</para>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">For a printer connected to a parallel or
-	      <quote>printer</quote> port, use:</para>
+	    <para>連接到並列或 <quote>印表器 (Printer)</quote> 埠的印表機要使用:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=/dev/lpt0:\</programlisting>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">For a printer connected directly to a network,
-	      use:</para>
+	    <para>直接連接到網路的印表機要使用:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=:rm=<replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable>:rp=raw:\</programlisting>
 
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Replace
-	      <replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable> with the
-	      <acronym>DNS</acronym> host name of the network
-	      printer.</para>
+	    <para>替換 <replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable> 為網路印表機的 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 主機名稱。</para>
 	  </callout>
 	</calloutlist>
       </step>
 
       <step>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Enable <command>lpd</command> by editing
-	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, adding this line:</para>
+	<para>編輯 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 加入下行來開啟 <command>lpd</command>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">lpd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Start the service:</para>
+	<para>啟動服務:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service lpd start</userinput>
 Starting lpd.</screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Print a test:</para>
+	<para>測試列印:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>printf "1. This printer can print.\n2. This is the second line.\n" | lpr</userinput></screen>
 
 	<tip>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">If both lines do not start at the left border, but
-	    <quote>stairstep</quote> instead, see
-	    <xref linkend="printing-lpd-filters-stairstep"/>.</para>
+	  <para>若列印的兩行未從左邊界開始，而是呈現 <quote>階梯狀 (Stairstep)</quote>，請參考 <xref linkend="printing-lpd-filters-stairstep"/>。</para>
 	</tip>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Text files can now be printed with
-	  <command>lpr</command>.  Give the filename on the command
-	  line, or pipe output directly into
-	  <command>lpr</command>.</para>
+	<para>現在可以使用 <command>lpr</command> 來列印文字檔，只要在指令列給序檔案名稱，或者將輸出使用管線符號 (Pipe) 傳送給 <command>lpr</command>。</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpr textfile.txt</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls -lh | lpr</userinput></screen>
       </step>
     </procedure>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="printing-connections">
     <title>印表機連線</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Printers are connected to computer systems in a variety of
-      ways.  Small desktop printers are usually connected directly to
-      a computer's <acronym>USB</acronym> port.  Older printers are
-      connected to a parallel or <quote>printer</quote> port.  Some
-      printers are directly connected to a network, making it easy for
-      multiple computers to share them.  A few printers use a rare
-      serial port connection.</para>
+    <para>印表機有許多方式可以連接到電腦，小型的桌面印表機會直接連接到電腦的 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠，舊式的印表機會連接到並列 (Parallel) 或 <quote>印表機 (Printer)</quote> 埠，而有一部份印表機則是直接連接網路，讓印表機能夠給多台電腦共享使用，還有少部分印表機則是連接到較罕見的序列 (Serial) 埠。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD can communicate with all of these types of
-      printers.</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 可以與這些類型的印表機溝通。</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry xml:id="printing-connections-usb">
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>USB</acronym></term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>USB</acronym> printers can be connected to
-	    any available <acronym>USB</acronym> port on the
-	    computer.</para>
+	  <para><acronym>USB</acronym> 印表機可以連接到電腦上任何可用的 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">When FreeBSD detects a <acronym>USB</acronym> printer,
-	    two device entries are created:
-	    <filename>/dev/ulpt0</filename> and
-	    <filename>/dev/unlpt0</filename>.  Data sent to either
-	    device will be relayed to the printer.  After each print
-	    job, <filename>ulpt0</filename> resets the
-	    <acronym>USB</acronym> port.  Resetting the port can cause
-	    problems with some printers, so the
-	    <filename>unlpt0</filename> device is usually used
-	    instead.  <filename>unlpt0</filename> does not reset the
-	    USB port at all.</para>
+	  <para>當 FreeBSD 偵測到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 印表機，會建立兩個裝置項目: <filename>/dev/ulpt0</filename> 以及 <filename>/dev/unlpt0</filename>，傳送到兩者任一裝置的資料都會被轉發到印表機。在每個列印工作完成後 <filename>ulpt0</filename> 便會重設 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠，重設 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠可能會在部份印表機造成問題，因此通常可以改使用 <filename>unlpt0</filename>  裝置。<filename>unlpt0</filename> 不會重設 USB 埠。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="printing-connections-parallel">
-	<term xml:lang="en">Parallel (<acronym>IEEE</acronym>-1284)</term>
+	<term>並列 (<acronym>IEEE</acronym>-1284)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The parallel port device is
-	    <filename>/dev/lpt0</filename>.  This device appears
-	    whether a printer is attached or not, it is not
-	    autodetected.</para>
+	  <para>並列埠裝置使用 <filename>/dev/lpt0</filename>，此裝置不論印表機是否連接上都會存在，它並不會自動偵測。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Vendors have largely moved away from these
-	    <quote>legacy</quote> ports, and many computers no longer
-	    have them.  Adapters can be used to connect a parallel
-	    printer to a <acronym>USB</acronym> port.  With such an
-	    adapter, the printer can be treated as if it were actually
-	    a <acronym>USB</acronym> printer.  Devices called
-	    <emphasis>print servers</emphasis> can also be used to
-	    connect parallel printers directly to a network.</para>
+	  <para>供應商已不再採用這種 <quote>舊式</quote> 連接埠，且有許多電腦甚至已沒有這種連接埠。可以用轉接器來連接並列印表機到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠，有了轉接器，並列印表機可以被當作 <acronym>USB</acronym> 印表機使用。有另一種稱作 <emphasis>列印伺服器 (Print server)</emphasis> 的裝置也可用來連接並列印表機到網路。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="printing-connections-serial">
-	<term xml:lang="en">Serial (RS-232)</term>
+	<term>序列 (RS-232)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Serial ports are another legacy port, rarely used for
-	    printers except in certain niche applications.  Cables,
-	    connectors, and required wiring vary widely.</para>
+	  <para>序列埠也是另一種舊式連接埠，已很少用在印表機上，除了某些特殊的應用外，纜線、接頭與需要的佈線方式依需求變化性很大。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">For serial ports built into a motherboard, the serial
-	    device name is <filename>/dev/cuau0</filename> or
-	    <filename>/dev/cuau1</filename>.  Serial
-	    <acronym>USB</acronym> adapters can also be used, and
-	    these will appear as
-	    <filename>/dev/cuaU<replaceable>0</replaceable></filename>.</para>
+	  <para>內建在主機板的序列埠的序列裝置名稱為 <filename>/dev/cuau0</filename> 或 <filename>/dev/cuau1</filename>。也有序列 <acronym>USB</acronym> 轉接器可使用，而裝置的的名稱則會是 <filename>/dev/cuaU<replaceable>0</replaceable></filename>。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Several communication parameters must be known to
-	    communicate with a serial printer.  The most important are
-	    <emphasis>baud rate</emphasis> or <acronym>BPS</acronym>
-	    (Bits Per Second) and <emphasis>parity</emphasis>.  Values
-	    vary, but typical serial printers use a baud rate of 9600
-	    and no parity.</para>
+	  <para>要與序列印表機通訊必須知道數個通訊參數，其中最重要的是 <emphasis>傳輸速率 (Baud rate)</emphasis> 或 <acronym>BPS</acronym> (Bits Per Second) 以及 <emphasis>同位檢查 (Parity)</emphasis>。數值有數種，但一般序列印表機會使用 的傳輸速率是 9600 且無同位檢查。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="printing-connections-network">
-	<term xml:lang="en">Network</term>
+	<term>網路</term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Network printers are connected directly to the local
-	    computer network.</para>
+	  <para>網路印表機可直接連接到區域網路。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DNS</acronym> hostname of the printer
-	    must be known.  If the printer is assigned a dynamic
-	    address by <acronym>DHCP</acronym>, <acronym>DNS</acronym>
-	    should be dynamically updated so that the host name always
-	    has the correct <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  Network
-	    printers are often given static <acronym>IP</acronym>
-	    addresses to avoid this problem.</para>
+	  <para>若印表機透過 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 分配動態位址，則必須要知道 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 主機名稱，<acronym>DNS</acronym> 應動態更新來讓主機名稱能夠對應到正確的 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址。指定網路印表機一個靜態的 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址可避免這個問題。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Most network printers understand print jobs sent with
-	    the <acronym>LPD</acronym> protocol.  A print queue name
-	    can also be specified.  Some printers process data
-	    differently depending on which queue is used.  For
-	    example, a <literal>raw</literal> queue prints the data
-	    unchanged, while the <literal>text</literal> queue adds
-	    carriage returns to plain text.</para>
+	  <para>大多數網路印表機可以認得使用 <acronym>LPD</acronym> 通訊協定所送出的列印工作，列印佇列 (Print queue) 的名稱也會在這時指定。部份印表機會依據使用的佇列來決定處理資料的方式，例如 <literal>raw</literal> 佇列會列印原始資料，而 <literal>text</literal> 佇列則會在純文字上增加換行符號 (Carriage return)。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Many network printers can also print data sent
-	    directly to port 9100.</para>
+	  <para>大部份網路印表機也可列印直接傳送到埠號 9100 的資料。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-connections-summary">
       <title>摘要</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Wired network connections are usually the easiest to
-	set up and give the fastest printing.  For direct connection
-	to the computer, <acronym>USB</acronym> is preferred for speed
-	and simplicity.  Parallel connections work but have
-	limitations on cable length and speed.  Serial connections are
-	more difficult to configure.  Cable wiring differs between
-	models, and communication parameters like baud rate and parity
-	bits must add to the complexity.  Fortunately, serial printers
-	are rare.</para>
+      <para>有線網路連線通常是安裝最簡單的方式，且可以提供快速的列印。若要直接連接到電腦，較建議使用 <acronym>USB</acronym>，由於較快速、簡單。並列連線仍然可以使用，但有纜線長度與速度上的限制。而序列連線則比較難設定，不同型號的纜線佈線方式不同，且通訊參數如傳輸速率及同位檢查增加了複雜性，所幸序列印表機並不多。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="printing-pdls">
     <title>常見的頁面描述語言</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Data sent to a printer must be in a language that the
-      printer can understand.  These languages are called Page
-      Description Languages, or <acronym>PDL</acronym>s.</para>
+    <para>傳送給印表機的資料必須使用印表機能夠理解的語言，這些語言稱為頁面描述語言 (Page Description Languages) 或 <acronym>PDL</acronym>。</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry xml:id="print-pdls-ascii">
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>ASCII</acronym></term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Plain <acronym>ASCII</acronym> text is the simplest
-	    way to send data to a printer.  Characters correspond one
-	    to one with what will be printed: an <literal>A</literal>
-	    in the data prints an <literal>A</literal> on the page.
-	    Very little formatting is available.  There is no way to
-	    select a font or proportional spacing.  The forced
-	    simplicity of plain <acronym>ASCII</acronym> means that
-	    text can be printed straight from the computer with little
-	    or no encoding or translation.  The printed output
-	    corresponds directly with what was sent.</para>
+	  <para>純 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 文字是傳送資料到印表機最簡單的方式，一個字元對應一個要列印的文字: 資料中的 <literal>A</literal> 會列印一個 <literal>A</literal> 在頁面。可以使用的格式非常少，沒有辦法選擇字型或者比例間距。強迫使用簡單的純 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 為的是讓文字可以直接從電腦列印只需一點或甚至不需要編碼或轉譯，列印的結果可直接對應傳送的內容。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Some inexpensive printers cannot print plain
-	    <acronym>ASCII</acronym> text.  This makes them more
-	    difficult to set up, but it is usually still
-	    possible.</para>
+	  <para>部份便宜印表機無法列印純 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 文字，這讓這些印表機較難設定。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="print-pdls-postscript">
 	<term xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark></term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> is almost the opposite of
-	    <acronym>ASCII</acronym>.  Rather than simple text, a
-	    <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> program is a set of instructions that draw
-	    the final document.  Different fonts and graphics can be
-	    used.  However, this power comes at a price.  The program
-	    that draws the page must be written.  Usually this program
-	    is generated by application software, so the process is
-	    invisible to the user.</para>
+	  <para><trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 與 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 幾乎相反，與簡單的文字不同，<trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 程式語言有一套指令可以繪出最終所要的文件，可以使用不同的字型與圖形，但是，這樣強大的功能是有代價的，繪製頁面需要搛寫程式語言，通常這個程式語言會由應用程式產生，所以使用者是看不到的。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Inexpensive printers sometimes leave out <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>
-	    compatibility as a cost-saving measure.</para>
+	  <para>便宜的印表機有時會移除 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>  的相容性來節省成本。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="print-pdls-pcl">
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>PCL</acronym> (Printer Command Language)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>PCL</acronym> is an extension of
-	    <acronym>ASCII</acronym>, adding escape sequences for
-	    formatting, font selection, and printing graphics.  Many
-	    printers provide <acronym>PCL5</acronym> support.  Some
-	    support the newer <acronym>PCL6</acronym> or
-	    <acronym>PCLXL</acronym>.  These later versions are
-	    supersets of <acronym>PCL5</acronym> and can provide
-	    faster printing.</para>
+	  <para><acronym>PCL</acronym> 由 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 延伸而來，加入了跳脫序列 (Escape sequence) 來標示格式、選擇字型以及列印圖型。大部份印表機都支援 <acronym>PCL5</acronym>，少數支援較新的 <acronym>PCL6</acronym> 或 <acronym>PCLXL</acronym>，這些後來的版本是 <acronym>PCL5</acronym> 的超集合 (Superset)，並可以提供更快的列印速度。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry xml:id="print-pdls-host-based">
-	<term xml:lang="en">Host-Based</term>
+	<term>以主機為基礎 (Host-Based)</term>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Manufacturers can reduce the cost of a printer by
-	    giving it a simple processor and very little memory.
-	    These printers are not capable of printing plain text.
-	    Instead, bitmaps of text and graphics are drawn by a
-	    driver on the host computer and then sent to the printer.
-	    These are called <emphasis>host-based</emphasis>
-	    printers.</para>
+	  <para>製造商可能會使用簡單的處理器和較小的記憶體來降低印表機的成本，這些印表機無法列印純文字，相反的，文字與圖形會先在機器上的驅動程式畫完後傳送到印表機。這些稱為<emphasis>以主機為基礎 (Host-based)</emphasis> 的印表機。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Communication between the driver and a host-based
-	    printer is often through proprietary or undocumented
-	    protocols, making them functional only on the most common
-	    operating systems.</para>
+	  <para>驅動程式與以主機為基礎的印表機通訊通常會透過專用或無文件的通訊協定，這讓這些印表機只能在最常用的作業系統上運作。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="print-pdls-table">
       <title>轉換 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 至其他 <acronym>PDL</acronym></title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Many applications from the Ports Collection and FreeBSD
-	utilities produce <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> output.  This table shows
-	the utilities available to convert that into other common
-	<acronym>PDL</acronym>s:</para>
+      <para>Port 套件集與 FreeBSD 工具集有許多可以處理 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 輸出的應用程式，此表整理出了可轉換 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 成其他常用 <acronym>PDL</acronym> 的工具：</para>
 
       <table xml:id="print-pdls-ps-to-other-tbl" frame="none">
 	<title>輸出 <acronym>PDL</acronym> 格式</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="3" align="left">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
-	      <entry align="left" xml:lang="en">Output
-		<acronym>PDL</acronym></entry>
-	      <entry align="left" xml:lang="en">Generated By</entry>
+	      <entry align="left">輸出 <acronym>PDL</acronym></entry>
+	      <entry align="left">產生由</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>PCL</acronym> or
-		<acronym>PCL5</acronym></entry>
+	      <entry><acronym>PCL</acronym> 或 <acronym>PCL5</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package role="port">print/ghostscript9</package></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>-sDEVICE=ljet4</literal> for monochrome,
-		<literal>-sDEVICE=cljet5</literal> for color</entry>
+	      <entry>單色使用 <literal>-sDEVICE=ljet4</literal>、彩色使用 <literal>-sDEVICE=cljet5</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>PCLXL</acronym> or
-		<acronym>PCL6</acronym></entry>
+	      <entry><acronym>PCLXL</acronym> 或 <acronym>PCL6</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package role="port">print/ghostscript9</package></entry>
-	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>-sDEVICE=pxlmono</literal> for
-		monochrome, <literal>-sDEVICE=pxlcolor</literal> for
-		color</entry>
+	      <entry>單色使用 <literal>-sDEVICE=pxlmono</literal>、彩色使用 <literal>-sDEVICE=pxlcolor</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>ESC/P2</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package role="port">print/ghostscript9</package></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>-sDEVICE=uniprint</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>XQX</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package role="port">print/foo2zjs</package></entry>
 	      <entry/>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="print-pdls-summary">
       <title>摘要</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">For the easiest printing, choose a printer that supports
-	<trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>.  Printers that support <acronym>PCL</acronym>
-	are the next preferred.  With
-	<package role="port">print/ghostscript</package>, these
-	printers can be used as if they understood <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>
-	natively.  Printers that support <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> or
-	<acronym>PCL</acronym> directly almost always support direct
-	printing of plain <acronym>ASCII</acronym> text files
-	also.</para>
+      <para>要最簡單可以列印，可選擇支援 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 的印表機。其次則為支援 <acronym>PCL</acronym> 的印表機，有了 <package role="port">print/ghostscript</package> 這些印表機也可像原生支援 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 的印表機一般使用。有直接支援 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 或 <acronym>PCL</acronym> 的印表機通常也會直接支援純 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 文字檔案。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Line-based printers like typical inkjets usually do not
-	support <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> or <acronym>PCL</acronym>.  They often
-	can print plain <acronym>ASCII</acronym> text files.
-	<package role="port">print/ghostscript</package> supports the
-	<acronym>PDL</acronym>s used by some of these printers.
-	However, printing an entire graphic-based page on these
-	printers is often very slow due to the large amount of data to
-	be transferred and printed.</para>
+      <para>行列式印表機如同典型的噴墨式印表機通常不支援 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 或 <acronym>PCL</acronym>，這種印表機通常可以列印純 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 文字檔案。<package role="port">print/ghostscript</package> 支援部份這種印表機使用的 <acronym>PDL</acronym>，不過要在這種印表機上列印完全以圖型為基礎的頁面通常會非常緩慢，由於需要傳送大量的資料並列印。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Host-based printers are often more difficult to set up.
-	Some cannot be used at all because of proprietary
-	<acronym>PDL</acronym>s.  Avoid these printers when
-	possible.</para>
+      <para>以主機為基礎的印表機通常較難設定，有些會因為用了專用的 <acronym>PDL</acronym> 而無法使用，盡可能避免使用這類的印表機。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Descriptions of many <acronym>PDL</acronym>s can be found
-	at <link xlink:href="http://www.undocprint.org/formats/page_description_languages"/>.
-	The particular <acronym>PDL</acronym> used by various models
-	of printers can be found at <link xlink:href="http://www.openprinting.org/printers"/>.</para>
+      <para>有關各種 <acronym>PDL</acronym> 的介紹可至 <link xlink:href="http://www.undocprint.org/formats/page_description_languages"/>。各種型號印表機所使用的特定 <acronym>PDL</acronym> 可至 <link xlink:href="http://www.openprinting.org/printers"/> 查詢。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="printing-direct">
     <title>直接列印</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">For occasional printing, files can be sent directly to a
-      printer device without any setup.  For example, a file called
-      <filename>sample.txt</filename> can be sent to a
-      <acronym>USB</acronym> printer:</para>
+    <para>對於偶爾列印，檔案可以直接傳送到印表機裝置，無需做任何設定。例如，要傳送一個名稱為 <filename>sample.txt</filename> 的檔案到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 印表機:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp sample.txt /dev/unlpt0</userinput></screen>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Direct printing to network printers depends on the
-      abilities of the printer, but most accept print jobs on port
-      9100, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>nc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be used with them.  To print the
-      same file to a printer with the <acronym>DNS</acronym>
-      hostname of <replaceable>netlaser</replaceable>:</para>
+    <para>要直接使用網路印表機列印需看該印表機支援的功能，但大多數會接受埠號 9100 的列印作業，可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>nc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來完成。要使用 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 主機名稱為 <replaceable>netlaser</replaceable> 的印表機列印與上述相同的檔案可:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>nc <replaceable>netlaser</replaceable> 9100 &lt; sample.txt</userinput></screen>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="printing-lpd">
     <title><acronym>LPD</acronym> (行列式印表機 Daemon)</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Printing a file in the background is called
-      <emphasis>spooling</emphasis>.  A spooler allows the user to
-      continue with other programs on the computer without waiting for
-      the printer to slowly complete the print job.</para>
+    <para>在背景列印一個檔案稱作 <emphasis>Spooling</emphasis>，緩衝程式 (Spooler) 讓使用者能夠繼續執行電腦的其他程式而不需要等候印表機緩慢的完成列印工作。</para>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD includes a spooler called <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Print jobs are
-      submitted with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
+    <para>FreeBSD 內含的緩衝程式 (Spooler) 稱作 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>，而列印工作會使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來提交。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-setup">
       <title>初始設定</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">A directory for storing print jobs is created, ownership
-	is set, and the permissions are set to prevent other users
-	from viewing the contents of those files:</para>
+      <para>建立要用來儲存列印工作的目錄、設定擁有關係以及權限來避免其他使用者可以檢視這些檔案的內容:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/lp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/lp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/lp</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Printers are defined in
-	<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.  An entry for each printer
-	includes details like a name, the port where it is attached,
-	and various other settings.  Create
-	<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> with these contents:</para>
+      <para>印表機會定義在 <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>，每台印表機項目所包含的詳細資料有名稱、連接的接頭以及各種其他設定。建立 <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> 使用以下內容:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">lp:\				<co xml:id="printing-lpd-co-name"/>
 	:lp=/dev/unlpt0:\	<co xml:id="printing-lpd-co-device"/>
 	:sh:\			<co xml:id="printing-lpd-co-header"/>
 	:mx#0:\			<co xml:id="printing-lpd-co-mx"/>
 	:sd=/var/spool/lpd/lp:\	<co xml:id="printing-lpd-co-sd"/>
 	:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:	<co xml:id="printing-lpd-co-lf"/></programlisting>
 
       <calloutlist>
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-co-name">
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The name of this printer.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> sends print
-	    jobs to the <literal>lp</literal> printer unless another
-	    printer is specified with <option>-P</option>, so the
-	    default printer should be named
-	    <literal>lp</literal>.</para>
+	  <para>印表機的名稱。 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 會傳送列印工作到 <literal>lp</literal> 印表機，除非有使用 <option>-P</option> 來指定其他印表機，所以預的印表機名稱應使用 <literal>lp</literal>。</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-co-device">
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The device where the printer is connected.  Replace
-	    this line with the appropriate one for the connection type
-	    shown here.</para>
+	  <para>印表機所連接到裝置。替換此行為正確的連線類型，如此處所示。</para>
 
 	  <informaltable xml:id="printing-lpd-co-device-tbl">
 	    <tgroup cols="2">
 	      <thead>
 		<row>
-		  <entry xml:lang="en">Connection Type</entry>
-		  <entry xml:lang="en">Device Entry in
-		    <filename>/etc/printcap</filename></entry>
+		  <entry>連線類型</entry>
+		  <entry>在 <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> 的裝置項目</entry>
 		</row>
 	      </thead>
 
 	      <tbody>
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>USB</acronym></entry>
 		  <entry><programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=/dev/unlpt0:\</programlisting>
 
-		    <para xml:lang="en">This is the
-		      <emphasis>non-resetting</emphasis>
-		      <acronym>USB</acronym> printer device.  If
-		      problems are experienced, use
-		      <filename>ulpt0</filename> instead, which resets
-		      the <acronym>USB</acronym> port on each
-		      use.</para></entry>
+		    <para>此為<emphasis>不會重設</emphasis> <acronym>USB</acronym> 印表機的裝置，若使用上發生問題，請改使用 <filename>ulpt0</filename>，這個裝置會在每次使用後重設 <acronym>USB</acronym> 埠。</para></entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
-		  <entry xml:lang="en">Parallel</entry>
+		  <entry>並列</entry>
 		  <entry><programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=/dev/lpt0:\</programlisting></entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
-		  <entry xml:lang="en">Network</entry>
+		  <entry>網路</entry>
 
-		  <entry><para xml:lang="en">For a printer supporting the
-		    <acronym>LPD</acronym> protocol:</para>
+		  <entry><para>針對支援 <acronym>LPD</acronym> 通訊協定的印表機:</para>
 
 		    <programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=:rm=<replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable>:rp=raw:\</programlisting>
 
-		    <para xml:lang="en">For printers supporting port 9100
-		      printing:</para>
+		    <para>針對支援使用埠號 9100 列印的印表機:</para>
 
 		    <programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=9100@<replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable>:\</programlisting>
 
-		    <para xml:lang="en">For both types, replace
-		      <replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable>
-		      with the <acronym>DNS</acronym> host name of the
-		      network printer.</para></entry>
+		    <para>針對兩者皆支援的印表機，請替換 <replaceable>network-printer-name</replaceable> 為網路印表機的 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 主機名稱。</para></entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
-		  <entry xml:lang="en">Serial</entry>
+		  <entry>序列</entry>
 		  <entry><programlisting xml:lang="en">:lp=/dev/cuau0:br=9600:pa=none:\</programlisting>
 
-		    <para xml:lang="en">These values are for a typical serial
-		      printer connected to a motherboard serial port.
-		      The baud rate is 9600, and no parity is
-		      used.</para></entry>
+		    <para>這些是一般序列印表機連接到主機板序列埠會採用的數值，傳輸速率 (Baud rate) 是 9600 且無同位檢查 (No Parity)。</para></entry>
 		</row>
 	      </tbody>
 	    </tgroup>
 	  </informaltable>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-co-header">
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Suppress the printing of a header page at the start of
-	    a print job.</para>
+	  <para>在列印工作開始時不列印首頁。</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-co-mx">
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Do not limit the maximum size of a print job.</para>
+	  <para>不限制列印工作的最大尺寸。</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-co-sd">
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The path to the spooling directory for this printer.
-	    Each printer uses its own spooling directory.</para>
+	  <para>此印表機的緩衝 (Spooling) 目錄路徑，每台印表機會自己使用一個獨立的緩衝 (Spooling) 目錄。</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-co-lf">
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The log file where errors on this printer will be
-	    reported.</para>
+	  <para>記錄此印表機回報錯誤的記錄檔。</para>
 	</callout>
       </calloutlist>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">After creating <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>, use
-	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>chkprintcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to test it for errors:</para>
+      <para>在建立 <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> 之後，使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chkprintcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 測試印表機是否有錯誤:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chkprintcap</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Fix any reported problems before continuing.</para>
+      <para>在繼續之前修正任何回報的問題。</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Enable <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> in
-	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
+      <para>開啟 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 中的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">lpd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Start the service:</para>
+      <para>啟動服務:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service lpd start</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-lpr">
       <title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 列印</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Documents are sent to the printer with
 	<command>lpr</command>.  A file to be printed can be named on
 	the command line or piped into <command>lpr</command>.  These
 	two commands are equivalent, sending the contents of
 	<filename>doc.txt</filename> to the default printer:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpr doc.txt</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cat doc.txt | lpr</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Printers can be selected with <option>-P</option>.  To
 	print to a printer called
 	<replaceable>laser</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpr -Plaser doc.txt</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-filters">
       <title>過濾器</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The examples shown so far have sent the contents of a text
 	file directly to the printer.  As long as the printer
 	understands the content of those files, output will be printed
 	correctly.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some printers are not capable of printing plain text, and
 	the input file might not even be plain text.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Filters</emphasis> allow files to be
 	translated or processed.  The typical use is to translate one
 	type of input, like plain text, into a form that the printer
 	can understand, like <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> or <acronym>PCL</acronym>.
 	Filters can also be used to provide additional features, like
 	adding page numbers or highlighting source code to make it
 	easier to read.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The filters discussed here are
 	<emphasis>input filters</emphasis> or
 	<emphasis>text filters</emphasis>.  These filters convert the
 	incoming file into different forms.  Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to become
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> before
 	creating the files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Filters are specified in
 	<filename>/etc/printcap</filename> with the
 	<literal>if=</literal> identifier.  To use
 	<filename>/usr/local/libexec/lf2crlf</filename> as a filter,
 	modify <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">lp:\
 	:lp=/dev/unlpt0:\
 	:sh:\
 	:mx#0:\
 	:sd=/var/spool/lpd/lp:\
 	:if=/usr/local/libexec/lf2crlf:\   <co xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-co-if"/>
 	:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:</programlisting>
 
       <calloutlist>
 	<callout arearefs="printing-lpd-filters-co-if">
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>if=</literal> identifies the
 	    <emphasis>input filter</emphasis> that will be used on
 	    incoming text.</para>
 	</callout>
       </calloutlist>
 
       <tip xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-oneline">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The backslash <emphasis>line continuation</emphasis>
 	  characters at the end of the lines in
 	  <filename>printcap</filename> entries reveal that an entry
 	  for a printer is really just one long line with entries
 	  delimited by colon characters.  An earlier example can be
 	  rewritten as a single less-readable line:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">lp:lp=/dev/unlpt0:sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/lp:if=/usr/local/libexec/lf2crlf:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:</programlisting>
       </tip>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-stairstep">
 	<title>避免在純文字印表機階梯狀列印</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Typical FreeBSD text files contain only a single line feed
 	  character at the end of each line.  These lines will
 	  <quote>stairstep</quote> on a standard printer:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">A printed file looks
                     like the steps of a staircase
                                                  scattered by the wind</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A filter can convert the newline characters into
 	  carriage returns and newlines.  The carriage returns make
 	  the printer return to the left after each line.  Create
 	  <filename>/usr/local/libexec/lf2crlf</filename> with these
 	  contents:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 CR=$'\r'
 /usr/bin/sed -e "s/$/${CR}/g"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Set the permissions and make it executable:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/lf2crlf</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Modify <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> to use the
 	  new filter:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">:if=/usr/local/libexec/lf2crlf:\</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Test the filter by printing the same plain text file.
 	  The carriage returns will cause each line to start at the
 	  left side of the page.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-enscript">
 	<title>使用 <package>print/enscript</package> 在 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 印表機美化純文字內容</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>GNU</acronym>
 	  <application>Enscript</application> converts plain text
 	  files into nicely-formatted <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> for printing on
 	  <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> printers.  It adds page numbers, wraps long
 	  lines, and provides numerous other features to make printed
 	  text files easier to read.  Depending on the local paper
 	  size, install either
 	  <package role="port">print/enscript-letter</package> or
 	  <package role="port">print/enscript-a4</package> from the
 	  Ports Collection.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create <filename>/usr/local/libexec/enscript</filename>
 	  with these contents:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 /usr/local/bin/enscript -o -</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Set the permissions and make it executable:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/enscript</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Modify <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> to use the
 	  new filter:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">:if=/usr/local/libexec/enscript:\</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Test the filter by printing a plain text file.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-ps2pcl">
 	<title>列印 <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> 到 <acronym>PCL</acronym> 印表機</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Many programs produce <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> documents.
 	  However, inexpensive printers often only understand plain
 	  text or <acronym>PCL</acronym>.  This filter converts
 	  <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> files to <acronym>PCL</acronym> before sending
 	  them to the printer.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Install the Ghostscript <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> interpreter,
 	  <package role="port">print/ghostscript9</package>, from the
 	  Ports Collection.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create <filename>/usr/local/libexec/ps2pcl</filename>
 	  with these contents:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -q -sDEVICE=ljet4 -sOutputFile=- -</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Set the permissions and make it executable:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/ps2pcl</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> input sent to this script will be rendered
 	  and converted to <acronym>PCL</acronym> before being sent on
 	  to the printer.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Modify <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> to use this
 	  new input filter:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">:if=/usr/local/libexec/ps2pcl:\</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Test the filter by sending a small <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> program
 	  to it:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>printf "%%\!PS \n /Helvetica findfont 18 scalefont setfont \
 72 432 moveto (PostScript printing successful.) show showpage \004" | lpr</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-smart">
 	<title>智慧過濾器</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A filter that detects the type of input and
 	  automatically converts it to the correct format for the
 	  printer can be very convenient.  The first two characters of
 	  a <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> file are usually <literal>%!</literal>.  A
 	  filter can detect those two characters.  <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> files
 	  can be sent on to a <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> printer unchanged.  Text
 	  files can be converted to <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> with
 	  <application>Enscript</application> as shown earlier.
 	  Create <filename>/usr/local/libexec/psif</filename> with
 	  these contents:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 #
 #  psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer
 #
 IFS="" read -r first_line
 first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'`
 
 case "$first_two_chars" in
 %!)
     # %! : PostScript job, print it.
     echo "$first_line" &amp;&amp; cat &amp;&amp; exit 0
     exit 2
     ;;
 *)
     # otherwise, format with enscript
     ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/enscript -o - &amp;&amp; exit 0
     exit 2
     ;;
 esac</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Set the permissions and make it executable:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/psif</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Modify <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> to use this
 	  new input filter:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">:if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Test the filter by printing <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> and plain text
 	  files.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-filters-othersmart">
 	<title>其他智慧過濾器</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Writing a filter that detects many different types of
 	  input and formats them correctly is challenging.
 	  <package role="port">print/apsfilter</package> from the
 	  Ports Collection is a smart <quote>magic</quote> filter that
 	  detects dozens of file types and automatically converts them
 	  to the <acronym>PDL</acronym> understood by the printer.
 	  See <link xlink:href="http://www.apsfilter.org"/> for
 	  more details.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-queues">
       <title>多序列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The entries in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> are
 	really definitions of <emphasis>queues</emphasis>.  There can
 	be more than one queue for a single printer.  When combined
 	with filters, multiple queues provide users more control over
 	how their jobs are printed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As an example, consider a networked <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark> laser
 	printer in an office.  Most users want to print plain text,
 	but a few advanced users want to be able to print <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>
 	files directly.  Two entries can be created for the same
 	printer in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">textprinter:\
 	:lp=9100@officelaser:\
 	:sh:\
 	:mx#0:\
 	:sd=/var/spool/lpd/textprinter:\
 	:if=/usr/local/libexec/enscript:\
 	:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:
 
 psprinter:\
 	:lp=9100@officelaser:\
 	:sh:\
 	:mx#0:\
 	:sd=/var/spool/lpd/psprinter:\
 	:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Documents sent to <literal>textprinter</literal> will be
 	formatted by the
 	<filename>/usr/local/libexec/enscript</filename> filter shown
 	in an earlier example.  Advanced users can print <trademark class="registered">PostScript</trademark>
 	files on <literal>psprinter</literal>, where no filtering is
 	done.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This multiple queue technique can be used to provide
 	direct access to all kinds of printer features.  A printer
 	with a duplexer could use two queues, one for ordinary
 	single-sided printing, and one with a filter that sends the
 	command sequence to enable double-sided printing and then
 	sends the incoming file.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-monitor">
       <title>監視與控制列印</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Several utilities are available to monitor print jobs and
 	check and control printer operation.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-monitor-lpq">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> shows the status of a user's print
 	  jobs.  Print jobs from other users are not shown.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Show the current user's pending jobs on a single
 	  printer:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpq -P<replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 Rank   Owner      Job  Files                                 Total Size
 1st    jsmith     0    (standard input)                      12792 bytes</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Show the current user's pending jobs on all
 	  printers:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpq -a</userinput>
 lp:
 Rank   Owner      Job  Files                                 Total Size
 1st    jsmith     1    (standard input)                      27320 bytes
 
 laser:
 Rank   Owner      Job  Files                                 Total Size
 1st    jsmith     287  (standard input)                      22443 bytes</screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-monitor-lprm">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to remove print jobs.  Normal users
 	  are only allowed to remove their own jobs.
 	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> can remove
 	  any or all jobs.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Remove all pending jobs from a printer:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lprm -P<replaceable>lp</replaceable> -</userinput>
 dfA002smithy dequeued
 cfA002smithy dequeued
 dfA003smithy dequeued
 cfA003smithy dequeued
 dfA004smithy dequeued
 cfA004smithy dequeued</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Remove a single job from a
 	  printer.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to find the job number.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpq</userinput>
 Rank   Owner      Job  Files                                 Total Size
 1st    jsmith     5    (standard input)                      12188 bytes
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lprm -P<replaceable>lp</replaceable> <replaceable>5</replaceable></userinput>
 dfA005smithy dequeued
 cfA005smithy dequeued</screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-lpd-monitor-lpc">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to check and modify printer status.
 	  <literal>lpc</literal> is followed by a command and an
 	  optional printer name.  <literal>all</literal> can be used
 	  instead of a specific printer name, and the command will be
 	  applied to all printers.  Normal users can view status with
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Only
 	  <systemitem> class="username"&gt;root</systemitem> can use
 	  commands which modify printer status.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Show the status of all printers:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpc status all</userinput>
 lp:
 	queuing is enabled
 	printing is enabled
 	1 entry in spool area
 	printer idle
 laser:
 	queuing is enabled
 	printing is enabled
 	1 entry in spool area
 	waiting for laser to come up</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Prevent a printer from accepting new jobs, then begin
 	  accepting new jobs again:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc disable <replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 lp:
 	queuing disabled
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc enable <replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 lp:
 	queuing enabled</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Stop printing, but continue to accept new jobs.  Then
 	  begin printing again:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc stop <replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 lp:
 	printing disabled
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc start <replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 lp:
 	printing enabled
 	daemon started</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Restart a printer after some error condition:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc restart <replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 lp:
 	no daemon to abort
 	printing enabled
 	daemon restarted</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Turn the print queue off and disable printing, with a
 	  message to explain the problem to users:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc down <replaceable>lp</replaceable> Repair parts will arrive on Monday</userinput>
 lp:
 	printer and queuing disabled
 	status message is now: Repair parts will arrive on Monday</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Re-enable a printer that is down:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lpc up <replaceable>lp</replaceable></userinput>
 lp:
 	printing enabled
 	daemon started</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more commands and options.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-shared">
       <title>分享印表機</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Printers are often shared by multiple users in businesses
 	and schools.  Additional features are provided to make sharing
 	printers more convenient.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-shared-aliases">
 	<title>別名</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The printer name is set in the first line of the
 	  entry in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.  Additional
 	  names, or <emphasis>aliases</emphasis>, can be added after
 	  that name.  Aliases are separated from the name and each
 	  other by vertical bars:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">lp|<replaceable>repairsprinter</replaceable>|<replaceable>salesprinter</replaceable>:\</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Aliases can be used in place of the printer name.  For
 	  example, users in the Sales department print to their
 	  printer with</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpr -P<replaceable>salesprinter</replaceable> <replaceable>sales-report.txt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Users in the Repairs department print to
 	  <emphasis>their</emphasis> printer with</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>lpr -P<replaceable>repairsprinter</replaceable> <replaceable>repairs-report.txt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">All of the documents print on that single printer.  When
 	  the Sales department grows enough to need their own printer,
 	  the alias can be removed from the shared printer entry and
 	  used as the name of a new printer.  Users in both
 	  departments continue to use the same commands, but the Sales
 	  documents are sent to the new printer.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="printing-shared-headers">
 	<title>頁首</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It can be difficult for users to locate their documents
 	  in the stack of pages produced by a busy shared printer.
 	  <emphasis>Header pages</emphasis> were created to solve this
 	  problem.  A header page with the user name and document name
 	  is printed before each print job.  These pages are also
 	  sometimes called <emphasis>banner</emphasis> or
 	  <emphasis>separator</emphasis> pages.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Enabling header pages differs depending on whether the
 	  printer is connected directly to the computer with a
 	  <acronym>USB</acronym>, parallel, or serial cable, or
 	  is connected remotely over a network.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Header pages on directly-connected printers are enabled
 	  by removing the <literal>:sh:\</literal> (Suppress Header)
 	  line from the entry in <filename>/etc/printcap</filename>.
 	  These header pages only use line feed characters for new
 	  lines.  Some printers will need the
 	  <filename>/usr/share/examples/printing/hpif</filename>
 	  filter to prevent stairstepped text.  The filter configures
 	  <acronym>PCL</acronym> printers to print both carriage
 	  returns and line feeds when a line feed is received.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Header pages for network printers must be configured on
 	  the printer itself.  Header page entries in
 	  <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> are ignored.  Settings
 	  are usually available from the printer front panel or a
 	  configuration web page accessible with a web browser.</para>
       </sect3>
       <!-- conversion filters?,
 	restricting printer usage?, accounting? -->
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-lpd-references">
       <title>參考文獻</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Example files: <filename role="directory">/usr/share/examples/printing/</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <emphasis>4.3BSD Line Printer Spooler
 	  Manual</emphasis>,
 	<filename>/usr/share/doc/smm/07.lpd/paper.ascii.gz</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Manual pages: <citerefentry><refentrytitle>printcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lprm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="printing-other">
     <title>其他列印系統</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Several other printing systems are available in
       addition to the built-in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  These systems
       offer support for other protocols or additional features.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-other-cups">
       <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>CUPS</acronym> (Common <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> Printing
 	System)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>CUPS</acronym> is a popular printing system
 	available on many operating systems.  Using
 	<acronym>CUPS</acronym> on FreeBSD is documented in a separate
 	article:<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/cups"/></para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-other-hplip">
       <title xml:lang="en">HPLIP</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Hewlett Packard provides a printing system that supports
 	many of their inkjet and laser printers.  The port is
 	<package role="port">print/hplip</package>.  The main web page
 	is at <link xlink:href="http://hplipopensource.com/hplip-web/index.html"/>.
 	The port handles all the installation details on FreeBSD.
 	Configuration information is shown at <link xlink:href="http://hplipopensource.com/hplip-web/install/manual/hp_setup.html"/>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="printing-other-lprng">
       <title xml:lang="en">LPRng</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>LPRng</application> was developed as an
 	enhanced alternative to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The port is
 	<package role="port">sysutils/LPRng</package>.  For details
 	and documentation, see
 	<link xlink:href="http://www.lprng.com/"/>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="linuxemu">
 
   <info>
     <title><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容性</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	  <surname>Mock</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Restructured and parts updated by </contrib>
       </author>
       <!-- 22 Mar 2000 -->
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Brian N.</firstname>
 	  <surname>Handy</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
       </author>
 
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Rich</firstname>
 	  <surname>Murphey</surname>
 	</personname>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="linuxemu-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Linux binary compatibility</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>Binary 相容性</primary> <secondary>Linux</secondary></indexterm>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 提供和 32 位元 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 的相容性，允許使用者在 FreeBSD 不需要修改就可以安裝和執行大部份 32 位元 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary。 曾經有報告指出，在某些情況下，32 位元 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 在 FreeBSD 的表現比在 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 好。</para>
 
     <para>然而，部份 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 作業系統的特色在 FreeBSD 並未支援。 例如，如果 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 過度使用 <trademark>i386</trademark> 特定的呼叫，像是啟動虛擬 8086 模式，將無法在 FreeBSD 執行。此外，64 位元 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 目前也尚未支援。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 系統啟用 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容模式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何安裝其他的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 共用程式庫。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 系統安裝 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 應用程式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>在 FreeBSD 中 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 相容性的實作細節。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>知道如何安裝 <link linkend="ports">其他的第三方軟體</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="linuxemu-lbc-install">
     <title>設定 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容性</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Ports Collection</primary></indexterm>
 
-    <para><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 程式庫預設並不會安裝，且並不會開啟 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容性。 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 程式庫可以手動安裝或是從 FreeBSD Ports 套件集安裝。</para>
+    <para><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 程式庫預設並不會安裝，且並不會開啟 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容性。 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 程式庫可以手動安裝或是從 FreeBSD Port 套件集安裝。</para>
 
     <para>在嘗試編譯 Port 前，要載入 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 核心模組，否則編譯會失敗：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload linux</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>確認模組已載入：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>kldstat</userinput>
       Id Refs Address    Size     Name
       1    2 0xc0100000 16bdb8   kernel
       7    1 0xc24db000 d000     linux.ko</screen>
 
     <para>在 FreeBSD 安裝基本的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>  程式庫和 Binary 最簡單的方式是安裝 <package>emulators/linux_base-c6</package> 套件或是 Port 。要安裝 Port：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>printf "compat.linux.osrelease=2.6.18\n" &gt;&gt; /etc/sysctl.conf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl compat.linux.osrelease=2.6.18</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install emulators/linux_base-c6</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>要在開機時開啟 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 相容性，可以加入這行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">linux_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>COMPAT_LINUX</secondary></indexterm>
 
     <para>想要靜態連結 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容性到自訂核心的使用者應加入 <literal>options COMPAT_LINUX</literal> 到自訂核心設定檔。 編譯並安裝新核心的方法，如 <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/> 所述。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="linuxemu-libs-manually">
       <title>手動安裝其他程式庫</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>shared libraries</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>若有 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 應用程式在設定 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相容性後出現缺少共用程式庫的情況，確認這個 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 需要哪個共用程式庫並手動安裝。</para>
 
       <para>在 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 系統，可使用 <command>ldd</command> 來找出應用程式需要哪個共用程式庫。 例如，檢查 <command>linuxdoom</command> 需要哪個共用程式庫，在有安裝 <application>Doom</application> 的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 系統執行這個指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ldd linuxdoom</userinput>
 libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) =&gt; /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) =&gt; /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) =&gt; /lib/libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>symbolic links</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>然後，複製所有 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 系統輸出結果中最後一欄的檔案到 FreeBSD 系統的 <filename>/compat/linux</filename>。 複製完後，建立符號連結 (Symbolic link) 至輸出結果第一欄的名稱。以這個例子會在 FreeBSD 系統產生以下檔案：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">/compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0
 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -&gt; libXt.so.3.1.0
 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0
 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -&gt; libX11.so.3.1.0
 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29
 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -&gt; libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
 
       <para>若 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 共用程式庫已經存在，並符合 <command>ldd</command> 輸出結果第一欄的主要修訂版號，則不需要複製該行最後一欄的檔案，使用既有的程式庫應可運作。若有較新的版本建議仍要複製共用程式庫，只要符號連結指向新版的程式庫，舊版便可移除。</para>
 
       <para>例如，以下程式庫已存在 FreeBSD 系統：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27
 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -&gt; libc.so.4.6.27</screen>
 
       <para>且 <command>ldd</command> 顯示 Binary 需要使用較新的版本：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -&gt; libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
 
       <para>雖然既有的程式庫只有在最後一碼過時一或兩個版本，程式應該仍可使用稍微舊的版本執行，雖然如此，保險起見還替換既有的 <filename>libc.so</filename> 為較新的版本：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29
 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -&gt; libc.so.4.6.29</screen>
 
       <para>一般來說，只有在安裝 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 程式到 FreeBSD 完的前幾次會需要查看 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary 相依的共用程式庫。之後系統便有足夠的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 共用程式庫能夠執行新安裝的 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary，便不再需要額外的動作。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>安裝 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> <acronym>ELF</acronym> Binary</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Linux</primary>
 	<secondary>ELF binaries</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para><acronym>ELF</acronym> Binary 有時候需要額外的步驟。當執行無商標 (Unbranded) 的 <acronym>ELF</acronym> Binary，會產生錯誤訊息：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>./my-linux-elf-binary</userinput>
 ELF binary type not known
 Abort</screen>
 
       <para>要協助 FreeBSD 核心區別是 FreeBSD <acronym>ELF</acronym> Binary 還是 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Binary，可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>brandelf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary</userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>GNU toolchain</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>由於 GNU 工具鏈會自動放置適當的商標資訊到 <acronym>ELF</acronym> Binary，通常不需要這個步驟。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>安裝以 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> <acronym>RPM</acronym> 為基礎的應用程式</title>
 
       <para>要安裝 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> <acronym>RPM</acronym> 為基礎的應用程式，需先安裝 <package>archivers/rpm4</package> 套件或 Port。安裝完成之後，<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 可以使用這個指令安裝 <filename>.rpm</filename>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /compat/linux</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rpm2cpio &lt; /path/to/linux.archive.rpm | cpio -id</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>如果需要， <command>brandelf</command> 已安裝的 <acronym>ELF</acronym> Binary。注意，這將會無法乾淨地解除安裝。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定主機名稱解析器</title>
 
       <para>如果 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 無法運作或出現這個錯誤：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+:
 "hosts" is an invalid keyword</screen>
 
       <para>將 <filename>/compat/linux/etc/host.conf</filename> 設定如下：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">order hosts, bind
 multi on</programlisting>
 
       <para>這指定先搜尋 <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>，其次為 <acronym>DNS</acronym>。 當 <filename>/compat/linux/etc/host.conf</filename> 不存在， <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 應用程式會使用 <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> 並會警告不相容的 FreeBSD 語法。如果名稱伺服器未設定使用 <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> 的話，則可移除 <literal>bind</literal>。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <?ignore While the installer works, the binaries do not.  As of Oct 2013,
   Linux emulation is 32-bit but the trial version of Mathematica is
   only available as 64-bit.  This section should be revisited if Linux
   emulation gets 64-bit binary support.
 
   <sect1 id="linuxemu-mathematica">
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Boris</firstname>
 	  <surname>Hollas</surname>
 	  <contrib>Updated for Mathematica 5.X by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
 
     <title>Installing &mathematica;</title>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>applications</primary>
       <secondary><application>Mathematica</application></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>This section describes the process of installing the &linux;
       version of <application>&mathematica; 9.X</application> onto a
       &os; system.  <application>&mathematica;</application> is a
       commercial, computational software program used in scientific,
       engineering, and mathematical fields.  A 30 day trial version is
       available for download from <ulink
 	url="http://www.wolfram.com/mathematica/">wolfram.com/mathematica</ulink>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Running the &mathematica; Installer</title>
 
       <para>Before installing &mathematica;, make sure that the
 	<filename role="package">textproc/linux-c6-aspell</filename>
 	package or port is installed and that the &man.linprocfs.5;
 	file system is mounted.</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl kern.fallback_elf_brand=3</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>&os; will now assume that unbranded ELF binaries use the
 	&linux; <acronym>ABI</acronym> which should allow the
 	installer to execute from the CDROM.</para>
 
       <para>The downloaded file will be saved to
 	<filename>/tmp/Mathematica_9.0.1_LINUX.sh</filename>.  Become
 	the superuser and run this installer file:</para>
 
       <programlisting>&prompt.root; <userinput>sh /tmp/Mathematica_9.0.1_LINUX.sh</userinput>
 Mathematica Secured 9.0.1 for LINUX Installer Archive
 
 Verifying archive integrity.
 Extracting installer. ...
                                Wolfram Mathematica 9 Installer
 Copyright (c) 1988-2013 Wolfram Research, Inc. All rights reserved.
 
 WARNING: Wolfram Mathematica is protected by copyright law and international treaties. Unauthorized
 reproduction or distribution may result in severe civil and criminal
 penalties and will be prosecuted to the maximum extent possible under law.
 
 Enter the installation directory, or press ENTER to select /usr/local/Wolfram/Mathematica/9.0:
 >
 Now installing...
 ***********************
 Installation complete.</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Running the &mathematica; Frontend over a Network</title>
 
       <para><application>&mathematica;</application> uses some special
 	fonts to display characters not present in any of the standard
 	font sets.  <application>Xorg</application> requires these
 	fonts to be installed locally.  This means that these fonts
 	need to be copied from the CDROM or from a host with
 	<application>&mathematica;</application> installed to the
 	local machine.  These fonts are normally stored in <filename
 	  >/cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts</filename>
 	on the CDROM, or <filename
 	  >/usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts</filename>
 	on the hard drive.  The actual fonts are in the subdirectories
 	<filename>Type1</filename> and
 	<filename>X</filename>.  There are several
 	ways to use them, as described below.</para>
 
       <para>The first way is to copy the fonts into one of the
 	existing font directories in <filename
 	  >/usr/local/lib/X11/fonts</filename> then
 	running &man.mkfontdir.1; within the directory containing the
 	new fonts.</para>
 
       <para>The second way to do this is to copy the directories to
 	<filename
 	  >/usr/local/lib/X11/fonts</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir X</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir MathType1</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cp X/* /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/X</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cp Type1/* /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/X</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mkfontdir</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd ../MathType1</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mkfontdir</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>Now add the new font directories to the font path:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>xset fp+ /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/X</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>xset fp+ /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>xset fp rehash</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>When using the <application>&xorg;</application> server,
 	these font directories can be loaded automatically by adding
 	them to <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>fonts</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para>If <filename
 	  >/usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/Type1</filename>
 	does not already exist, change the name of the <filename
 	  >MathType1</filename> directory in the
 	example above to <filename
 	  >Type1</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
   -->
 
   <!--
   As of October 2013, the trial version is only available in the
   Professional and Academic editions (not the Student or Personal
   editions) and requires a contact with a product specialist before
   the evaluation download link is made available.
   <sect1 id="linuxemu-maple">
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Aaron</firstname>
 	  <surname>Kaplan</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Robert</firstname>
 	  <surname>Getschmann</surname>
 	  <contrib>Thanks to </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     <title>Installing &maple;</title>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>applications</primary>
       <secondary><application>Maple</application></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para><application>&maple;</application> is a commercial
       mathematics program similar to
       <application>&mathematica;</application>.  This software must be
       purchased and licensed from <ulink
 	url="http://www.maplesoft.com/products/maple/">Maplesoft</ulink>.
       To install the &linux; version of this software on &os;, follow
       these steps.</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <step><para>Execute the <filename>INSTALL</filename> shell
 	script from the product distribution.  Choose the
 	<quote>RedHat</quote> option when prompted by the
 	installation program.  A typical installation directory
 	might be <filename
 	  >/usr/local/maple</filename>.</para></step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>Copy the license to
 	  <filename>/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat</filename>.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>Install the <application>FLEXlm</application> license
 	  manager by running the <filename>INSTALL_LIC</filename>
 	  install shell script that comes with
 	  <application>&maple;</application>.  Specify the primary
 	  hostname for the machine for the license server.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>Patch
 	  <filename>/usr/local/maple/bin/maple.system.type</filename>
 	  with the following:</para>
 
 
 	<programlisting>   ----- snip ------------------
 *** maple.system.type.orig      Sun Jul  8 16:35:33 2001
 -- - maple.system.type   Sun Jul  8 16:35:51 2001
 ***************
 *** 72,77 ****
 -- - 72,78 ----
           # the IBM RS/6000 AIX case
           MAPLE_BIN="bin.IBM_RISC_UNIX"
           ;;
 +     "FreeBSD"|\
       "Linux")
           # the Linux/x86 case
         # We have two Linux implementations, one for Red Hat and
    ----- snip end of patch -----</programlisting>
 
 	<para>Note that no whitespace should be present after
 	  <literal>"FreeBSD"|\</literal>.</para>
 
 	<para>This patch instructs <application>&maple;</application>
 	  to recognize &os; as a type of &linux; system.  The
 	  <filename>bin/maple</filename> shell script calls the
 	  <filename>bin/maple.system.type</filename> shell script
 	  which in turn calls <command>uname -a</command> to find out
 	  the operating system name.  Depending on the OS name it will
 	  find out which binaries to use.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>Start the license server.</para>
 
 	<para>The following script, installed as
 	  <filename>/usr/local/rtc/rc.d/lmgrd</filename> is a
 	  convenient way to start up <command>lmgrd</command>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>   ----- snip ------------
 
 #! /bin/sh
 PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin
 PATH=${PATH}:/usr/local/maple/bin:/usr/local/maple/FLEXlm/UNIX/LINUX
 export PATH
 
 LICENSE_FILE=/usr/local/maple/license/license.dat
 LOG=/var/log/lmgrd.log
 
 case "$1" in
 start)
 	lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} 2&gt;&gt; ${LOG} 1&gt;&amp;2
 	echo -n " lmgrd"
 	;;
 stop)
 	lmgrd -c ${LICENSE_FILE} -x lmdown 2&gt;&gt; ${LOG} 1&gt;&amp;2
 	;;
 *)
 	echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" 1&gt;&amp;2
 	exit 64
 	;;
 esac
 
 exit 0
    ----- snip ------------</programlisting>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>Test that <application>&maple;</application>
 	  starts:</para>
 
 	<screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>cd /usr/local/maple/bin</userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>./xmaple</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>Once everything is working, consider writing Maplesoft
 	  to let them know you would like a native &os;
 	  version!</para>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Common Pitfalls</title>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><command>lmgrd</command> is known to be picky about
 	    the license file and to dump core if there are any
 	    problems.  A correct license file should look like
 	    this:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>#
 =======================================================
 # License File for UNIX Installations ("Pointer File")
 # =======================================================
 SERVER chillig ANY
 #USE_SERVER
 VENDOR maplelmg
 
 FEATURE Maple maplelmg 2000.0831 permanent 1 XXXXXXXXXXXX \
          PLATFORMS=i86_r ISSUER="Waterloo Maple Inc." \
          ISSUED=11-may-2000 NOTICE=" Technische Universitat Wien" \
          SN=XXXXXXXXX</programlisting>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>In this example, the serial number and key were
 	      replaced with <literal>X</literal>.
 	      <hostid>chillig</hostid> is the hostname.</para>
 	  </note>
 
 	  <para>Editing the license file works as long as the
 	    <quote>FEATURE</quote> line is not edited.  That line is
 	    protected by the license key.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
   -->
   <!--
   As of October, 2013, the Linux version of Matlab is only available
   for 64-bit.
 
   <sect1 id="linuxemu-matlab">
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Dan</firstname>
 	  <surname>Pelleg</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
 
     <title>Installing &matlab;</title>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>applications</primary>
       <secondary><application>MATLAB</application></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>This document describes the process of installing the
       &linux; version of
       <application>&matlab; version 6.5</application> onto a &os;
       system.  It works quite well, with the exception of the
       <application>&java.virtual.machine;</application> which is
       described further in <xref linkend="matlab-jre"/>.</para>
 
     <para>The &linux; version of <application>&matlab;</application>
       can be purchased and licensed from <ulink
 	url="http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/">MathWorks</ulink>.
       Consider letting the company know that you would like a native
       &os; version of this software.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Installing &matlab;</title>
 
       <para>To install <application>&matlab;</application>:</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para>Become <username>root</username>, as recommended by
 	    the installation script.  Insert the installation CD and
 	    mount it.  To start the installation script type:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>/compat/linux/bin/sh /cdrom/install</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <tip>
 	    <para>The installer is graphical.  If it is not able to
 	      open a display, type <command>setenv HOME
 		~<replaceable>USER</replaceable></command>,
 	      where <replaceable>USER</replaceable> is the user who
 	      ran &man.su.1;.</para>
 	  </tip>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>
 	    When asked for the <application>&matlab;</application>
 	    root directory, type:
 	    <userinput>/compat/linux/usr/local/matlab</userinput>.</para>
 
 	  <tip>
 	    <para>For easier typing on the rest of the installation
 	      process, type this at the shell prompt: <command>set
 		MATLAB=/compat/linux/usr/local/matlab</command>.</para>
 	  </tip>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Edit the license file as instructed when obtaining
 	    the <application>&matlab;</application> license.</para>
 
 	  <tip>
 	    <para>This file can be prepared in advance using an
 	      editor, and copied to
 	      <filename>$MATLAB/license.dat</filename> before the
 	      installer asks to edit it.</para>
 	  </tip>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Complete the installation process.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para>At this point the <application>&matlab;</application>
 	installation is complete.  The following steps apply
 	<quote>glue</quote> to connect it to the &os; system.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>License Manager Startup</title>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para>Create symlinks for the license manager
 	    scripts:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s $MATLAB/etc/lmboot /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s $MATLAB/etc/lmdown /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Create a startup file named
 	    <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm</filename>.  The
 	    example below is a modified version of the distributed
 	    <filename>$MATLAB/etc/rc.lm.glnx86</filename>.  The
 	    changes are file locations and startup of the license
 	    manager under &linux; emulation.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>#!/bin/sh
 case "$1" in
   start)
         if [ -f /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW ]; then
               /compat/linux/bin/sh /usr/local/etc/lmboot_TMW -u <replaceable>username</replaceable> &amp;&amp; echo 'MATLAB_lmgrd'
         fi
         ;;
   stop)
 	if [ -f /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW ]; then
             /compat/linux/bin/sh /usr/local/etc/lmdown_TMW  &gt; /dev/null 2&gt;&amp;1
 	fi
         ;;
   *)
 	echo "Usage: $0 {start|stop}"
 	exit 1
 	;;
 esac
 
 exit 0</programlisting>
 
 	  <important>
 	    <para>The file must be made executable:</para>
 
 	    <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod +x /usr/local/etc/rc.d/flexlm</userinput></screen>
 
 	    <para>Replace <replaceable>username</replaceable> with the
 	      name of a valid user on the system which is not
 	      <username>root</username>.</para>
 	  </important>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Start the license manager with the command:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>service flexlm start</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 id="matlab-jre">
       <title>Linking the &java; Runtime Environment</title>
 
       <para>Change the <application>&java;</application> Runtime
 	Environment (<acronym>JRE</acronym>) link to one working under
 	&os;:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd $MATLAB/sys/java/jre/glnx86/</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>unlink jre; ln -s ./jre1.1.8 ./jre</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Creating a &matlab; Startup Script</title>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para>Place the following startup script in
 	    <filename
 	      >/usr/local/bin/matlab</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>#!/bin/sh
 /compat/linux/bin/sh /compat/linux/usr/local/matlab/bin/matlab "$@"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Then, type the command
 	    <command>chmod +x /usr/local/bin/matlab</command>.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <tip>
 	<para>Depending on the version of
 	  <filename role="package">emulators/linux_base</filename>,
 	  running this script may result in errors.  To avoid errors,
 	  edit
 	  <filename>/compat/linux/usr/local/matlab/bin/matlab</filename>,
 	  and change the line that says:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>if [ `expr "$lscmd" : '.*-&gt;.*'` -ne 0 ]; then</programlisting>
 
 	<para>to this line:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>if test -L $newbase; then</programlisting>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Creating a &matlab; Shutdown Script</title>
 
       <para>The following is needed to solve a problem with &matlab;
 	not exiting correctly.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para>Create
 	    <filename>$MATLAB/toolbox/local/finish.m</filename>
 	    containing the single line:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>! $MATLAB/bin/finish.sh</programlisting>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>The <literal>$MATLAB</literal> is literal.</para>
 	  </note>
 
 	  <tip>
 	    <para>The same directory contains
 	      <filename>finishsav.m</filename> and
 	      <filename>finishdlg.m</filename>, which allow the
 	      workspace to be saved before quitting.  If either file
 	      is used, insert the line above immediately after the
 	      <literal>save</literal> command.</para>
 	  </tip>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Create <filename>$MATLAB/bin/finish.sh</filename>
 	    which contains the following:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>#!/compat/linux/bin/sh
 (sleep 5; killall -1 matlab_helper) &amp;
 exit 0</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para>Make the file executable:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod +x $MATLAB/bin/finish.sh</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 id="matlab-using">
       <title>Using &matlab;</title>
 
       <para>At this point, <command>matlab</command> is ready for
 	use.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 id="linuxemu-oracle">
     While the Oracle website is unclear, the installation script is:
     You are attempting to install 64-bit Oracle on a 32-bit operating
     system.  This is not supported and will not work.
 
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Marcel</firstname>
 	  <surname>Moolenaar</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
 
     <title>Installing &oracle;</title>
 
     <indexterm>
       <primary>applications</primary>
       <secondary><application>Oracle</application></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>This document describes the process of installing
       <application>&oracle; 8.0.5</application> and
       <application>&oracle; 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition</application>
       for &linux; onto a &os; machine.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Installing the &linux; Environment</title>
 
       <para>Make sure <filename
 	  role='package'>emulators/linux_base</filename>
 	has been installed from the Ports Collection.</para>
 
       <para>To run the intelligent agent, install the Red Hat Tcl
 	package:  <filename>tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm</filename>.  The
 	general command for installing RPMs with the
 	<filename role='package'>archivers/rpm</filename> port
 	is:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm <replaceable>package</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>This command should not generate any errors.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Creating the &oracle; Environment</title>
 
       <para>Before installing <application>&oracle;</application>, set
 	up a proper environment.  This section only describes how to
 	install <application>&oracle;</application> for &linux; on
 	&os;, not what has been described in the
 	<application>&oracle;</application> installation guide.</para>
 
       <sect3 id="linuxemu-kernel-tuning">
 	<title>Kernel Tuning</title>
 
 	<indexterm>
 	  <primary>kernel tuning</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para>As described in the <application>&oracle;</application>
 	  installation guide, the maximum size of shared memory needs
 	  to be set.  Do not use <literal>SHMMAX</literal> under &os;
 	  as it is calculated from <literal>SHMMAXPGS</literal> and
 	  <literal>PGSIZE</literal>.  Therefore, define
 	  <literal>SHMMAXPGS</literal>.  All other options can be
 	  used as described in the guide.  For example:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>options SHMMAXPGS=10000
 options SHMMNI=100
 options SHMSEG=10
 options SEMMNS=200
 options SEMMNI=70
 options SEMMSL=61</programlisting>
 
 	<para>Set these options to suit the intended use of
 	  <application>&oracle;</application>.</para>
 
 	<para>Also, make sure the following options are in the
 	  kernel configuration file:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory
 options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores
 options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communication</programlisting>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 id="linuxemu-oracle-account">
 
 	<title>&oracle; Account</title>
 
 	<para>Create a user account to be used as the
 	  <username>oracle</username> account.  Add
 	  <literal>/compat/linux/bin/bash</literal> to
 	  <filename>/etc/shells</filename> and set the shell for
 	  the <username>oracle</username> account to
 	  <filename>/compat/linux/bin/bash</filename>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 id="linuxemu-environment">
 	<title>Environment</title>
 
 	<para>Besides the normal <application>&oracle;</application>
 	  variables, such as <envar>ORACLE_HOME</envar> and
 	  <envar>ORACLE_SID</envar> set the following
 	  environment variables:</para>
 
 	<informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	  <tgroup cols="2">
 	    <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	    <colspec colwidth="2*"/>
 	    <thead>
 	      <row>
 		<entry>Variable</entry>
 		<entry>Value</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </thead>
 
 	    <tbody>
 	      <row>
 		<entry><envar>LD_LIBRARY_PATH</envar></entry>
 		<entry><literal>$ORACLE_HOME/lib</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><envar>CLASSPATH</envar></entry>
 		<entry><literal>$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><envar>PATH</envar></entry>
 		<entry><literal>/compat/linux/bin
 		    /compat/linux/sbin
 		    /compat/linux/usr/bin
 		    /compat/linux/usr/sbin
 		    /bin
 		    /sbin
 		    /usr/bin
 		    /usr/sbin
 		    /usr/local/bin
 		    $ORACLE_HOME/bin</literal></entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
 
 	<para>It is advised to set all the environment variables in
 	  <filename>~/.profile</filename> as follows:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE
 ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME
 LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib
 export LD_LIBRARY_PATH
 ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID
 ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM
 CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip
 export CLASSPATH
 PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin
 PATH=$PATH:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin
 PATH=$PATH:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin
 export PATH</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Installing &oracle;</title>
 
       <para>Before starting the installer, create a directory named
 	<filename>/var/tmp/.oracle</filename> which
 	is owned by the <username>oracle</username> user.  The
 	installation of <application>&oracle;</application> should
 	work without any problems.  If errors are encountered, check
 	the <application>&oracle;</application> distribution and
 	configuration.  Once <application>&oracle;</application> is
 	installed, apply the patches described in the next two
 	subsections.</para>
 
       <para>A frequent error is that the TCP protocol adapter is not
 	installed correctly.  As a consequence, no TCP listeners can
 	be started.  The following actions help to solve this
 	problem:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>make -f ins_network.mk install</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>Do not forget to run <filename>root.sh</filename>
       again.</para>
 
     <sect3 id="linuxemu-patch-root">
       <title>Patching <filename>root.sh</filename></title>
 
       <para>When installing <application>&oracle;</application>,
 	some actions, which need to be performed as
 	<username>root</username>, are recorded in a shell script
 	called <filename>root.sh</filename>.  This script is
 	found in <filename>orainst</filename>.
 	Apply the following patch to <filename>root.sh</filename>
 	so that it can find the &os; location of
 	<command>chown</command>.  Alternatively, run the script
 	under a &linux; native shell.</para>
 
       <programlisting>*** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998
 --- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998
 ***************
 *** 31,37 ****
 # This is the default value for CHOWN
 # It will redefined later in this script for those ports
 # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h
 ! CHOWN=/bin/chown
 #
 # Define variables to be used in this script
  --- 31,37 ----
 # This is the default value for CHOWN
 # It will redefined later in this script for those ports
 # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h
 ! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown
 #
 # Define variables to be used in this script</programlisting>
 
       <para>If <application>&oracle;</application> is not installed
 	from CD, patch the source for <filename>root.sh</filename>.
 	It is called <filename>rthd.sh</filename> and is located in
 	<filename>orainst</filename> in the source
 	tree.</para>
     </sect3>
 
     <sect3 id="linuxemu-patch-tcl">
       <title>Patching <filename>genclntsh</filename></title>
 
       <para>The script <command>genclntsh</command> is used to create
 	a single shared client library when building the demos.  Apply
 	the following patch to comment out the definition of
 	<envar>PATH</envar>:</para>
 
       <programlisting>*** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998
 --- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998
 ***************
 *** 32,38 ****
 #
 # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands
 #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH
 ! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin export PATH
 #
 # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst
 --- 32,38 ----
 #
 # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands
 #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH
 ! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin: export PATH
 #
 # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Running &oracle;</title>
 
       <para>After following these instructions,
 	<application>&oracle;</application> should run as if it was
 	running on &linux;.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
   ?>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="linuxemu-advanced">
     <title>進階主題</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binary compatibility
       works and is based on an email written to <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-chat">FreeBSD chat mailing list</link> by
       Terry Lambert <email>tlambert@primenet.com</email> (Message ID:
       <literal>&lt;199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com&gt;</literal>).</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>execution class loader</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD has an abstraction called an
       <quote>execution class loader</quote>.  This is a wedge into the
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>execve</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> system call.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Historically, the <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> loader examined the magic number
       (generally the first 4 or 8 bytes of the file) to see if it was
       a binary known to the system, and if so, invoked the binary
       loader.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If it was not the binary type for the system, the
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>execve</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> call returned a failure, and the shell
       attempted to start executing it as shell commands.  The
       assumption was a default of
       <quote>whatever the current shell is</quote>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Later, a hack was made for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to examine the first
       two characters, and if they were <literal>:\n</literal>, it
       invoked the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>csh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> shell instead.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD has a list of loaders, instead of a single loader, with
       a fallback to the <literal>#!</literal> loader for running shell
       interpreters or shell scripts.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>ELF</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Solaris</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> <acronym>ABI</acronym> support, FreeBSD sees
       the magic number as an ELF binary.  The ELF loader looks for a
       specialized <emphasis>brand</emphasis>, which is a comment
       section in the ELF image, and which is not present on
       SVR4/<trademark>Solaris</trademark> ELF binaries.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binaries to function, they must be
       <emphasis>branded</emphasis> as type <literal>Linux</literal>
       using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>brandelf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>brandelf -t Linux file</userinput></screen>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>ELF</primary>
       <secondary>branding</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When the ELF loader sees the <literal>Linux</literal>
       brand, the loader replaces a pointer in the
       <literal>proc</literal> structure.  All system calls are indexed
       through this pointer.  In addition, the process is flagged for
       special handling of the trap vector for the signal trampoline
       code, and several other (minor) fix-ups that are handled by the
       <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> kernel module.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> system call vector contains, among other things,
       a list of <literal>sysent[]</literal> entries whose addresses
       reside in the kernel module.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When a system call is called by the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binary, the trap
       code dereferences the system call function pointer off the
       <literal>proc</literal> structure, and gets the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>, not the
       FreeBSD, system call entry points.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> mode dynamically <emphasis>reroots</emphasis>
       lookups.  This is, in effect, equivalent to the
       <option>union</option> option to file system mounts.  First, an
       attempt is made to lookup the file in
       <filename>/compat/linux/<replaceable>original-path</replaceable></filename>.
       If that fails, the lookup is done in
       <filename>/<replaceable>original-path</replaceable></filename>.
       This makes sure that binaries that require other binaries can
       run.  For example, the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> toolchain can all run under
       <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> <acronym>ABI</acronym> support.  It also means that the
       <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binaries can load and execute FreeBSD binaries, if there
       are no corresponding <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binaries present, and that a
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>uname</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command can be placed in the
       <filename>/compat/linux</filename> directory tree to ensure that
       the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binaries cannot tell they are not running on
       <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In effect, there is a <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> kernel in the FreeBSD kernel.
       The various underlying functions that implement all of the
       services provided by the kernel are identical to both the FreeBSD
       system call table entries, and the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> system call table
       entries: file system operations, virtual memory operations,
       signal delivery, and System V IPC.  The only difference is that
       FreeBSD binaries get the FreeBSD <emphasis>glue</emphasis> functions,
       and <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binaries get the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> <emphasis>glue</emphasis>
       functions.  The FreeBSD <emphasis>glue</emphasis> functions are
       statically linked into the kernel, and the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>
       <emphasis>glue</emphasis> functions can be statically linked, or
       they can be accessed via a kernel module.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Technically, this is not really emulation, it is an
       <acronym>ABI</acronym> implementation.  It is sometimes called
       <quote><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> emulation</quote> because the implementation was
       done at a time when there was no other word to describe what was
       going on.  Saying that FreeBSD ran <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> binaries was not true,
       since the code was not compiled in.</para>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
   </part>
 
   <part xml:id="system-administration">
     <title>系統管理</title>
 
     <partintro>
       <para>FreeBSD 使用手冊剩下的這些章節涵蓋了全方位的 FreeBSD 系統管理。 每個章節的開頭會先描述在該您讀完該章節後您會學到什麼，也會詳述在您在看這些資料時應該要有的一些背景知識。</para>
 
       <para>這些章節是讓您在需要查資料的時候翻閱用的。 您不需要依照特定的順序來讀，也不需要將這些章節全部過讀之後才開始用 FreeBSD。</para>
     </partintro>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="config-tuning">
 
   <info>
     <title>設定與調校</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Chern</firstname>
 	  <surname>Lee</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Mike</firstname>
 	  <surname>Smith</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Based on a tutorial written by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Matt</firstname>
 	  <surname>Dillon</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Also based on tuning(7) written by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="config-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>system configuration</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>system optimization</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>在 FreeBSD 使用過程中，相當重要的環節之一就是如何正確設定系統。 本章著重於介紹 FreeBSD 的設定流程，包括一些可以調整 FreeBSD 效能的參數設定。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para><filename>rc.conf</filename> 設定的基礎概念及 <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d</filename> 啟動 Script。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定並測試網路卡。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在網路裝置上設定虛擬主機。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用在 <filename>/etc</filename> 中的各種設定檔。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 變數調校 FreeBSD。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何調校磁碟效能及修改核心限制。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 及 FreeBSD 基礎 (<xref linkend="basics"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>熟悉核心設定與編譯的基礎 (<xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-starting-services">
     <info>
       <title>啟動服務</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>services</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Many users install third party software on FreeBSD from the
       Ports Collection and require the installed services to be
       started upon system initialization.  Services, such as
       <package>mail/postfix</package> or
       <package>www/apache22</package> are just two of the many
       software packages which may be started during system
       initialization.  This section explains the procedures available
       for starting third party software.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, most included services, such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, are
       started through the system start up scripts.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>延伸應用程式設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now that FreeBSD includes <filename>rc.d</filename>,
 	configuration of application startup is easier and provides
 	more features.  Using the key words discussed in
 	<xref linkend="configtuning-rcd"/>, applications can be set to
 	start after certain other services and extra flags can be
 	passed through <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> in place of
 	hard coded flags in the start up script.  A basic script may
 	look similar to the following:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 #
 # PROVIDE: utility
 # REQUIRE: DAEMON
 # KEYWORD: shutdown
 
 . /etc/rc.subr
 
 name=utility
 rcvar=utility_enable
 
 command="/usr/local/sbin/utility"
 
 load_rc_config $name
 
 #
 # DO NOT CHANGE THESE DEFAULT VALUES HERE
 # SET THEM IN THE /etc/rc.conf FILE
 #
 utility_enable=${utility_enable-"NO"}
 pidfile=${utility_pidfile-"/var/run/utility.pid"}
 
 run_rc_command "$1"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This script will ensure that the provided
 	<literal>utility</literal> will be started after the
 	<literal>DAEMON</literal> pseudo-service.  It also provides a
 	method for setting and tracking the process ID
 	(<acronym>PID</acronym>).</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This application could then have the following line placed
 	in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">utility_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This method allows for easier manipulation of command
 	line arguments, inclusion of the default functions provided
 	in <filename>/etc/rc.subr</filename>, compatibility with
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rcorder</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and provides for easier configuration via
 	<filename>rc.conf</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用服務來啟動其他服務</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other services can be started using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	Working with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and its configuration is
 	described in depth in
 	<xref linkend="network-inetd"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In some cases, it may make more sense to use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to start system services.  This approach
 	has a number of advantages as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> runs these
 	processes as the owner of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crontab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This allows
 	regular users to start and maintain their own
 	applications.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>@reboot</literal> feature of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	may be used in place of the time specification.  This causes
 	the job to run when <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is started, normally during
 	system initialization.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-cron">
     <info>
       <title>設定 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>cron</primary>
       <secondary>configuration</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">One of the most useful utilities in FreeBSD is
       <application>cron</application>.  This utility runs in the
       background and regularly checks
       <filename>/etc/crontab</filename> for tasks to execute and
       searches <filename>/var/cron/tabs</filename> for custom crontab
       files.  These files are used to schedule tasks which
       <application>cron</application> runs at the specified times.
       Each entry in a crontab defines a task to run and is known as a
       <firstterm>cron job</firstterm>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Two different types of configuration files are used: the
       system crontab, which should not be modified, and user crontabs,
       which can be created and edited as needed.  The format used by
       these files is documented in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crontab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The format of the
       system crontab, <filename>/etc/crontab</filename> includes a
       <literal>who</literal> column which does not exist in user
       crontabs.  In the system crontab,
       <application>cron</application> runs the command as the user
       specified in this column.  In a user crontab, all commands run
       as the user who created the crontab.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">User crontabs allow individual users to schedule their own
       tasks.  The <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user
       can also have a user <filename>crontab</filename> which can be
       used to schedule tasks that do not exist in the system
       <filename>crontab</filename>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Here is a sample entry from the system crontab,
       <filename>/etc/crontab</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en"># /etc/crontab - root's crontab for FreeBSD
 #
 # $FreeBSD$
 # <co xml:id="co-comments"/>
 SHELL=/bin/sh
 PATH=/etc:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin <co xml:id="co-env"/>
 #
 #minute	hour	mday	month	wday	who	command <co xml:id="co-field-descr"/>
 #
 */5	*	*	*	*	root	/usr/libexec/atrun <co xml:id="co-main"/></programlisting>
 
     <calloutlist>
       <callout arearefs="co-comments">
 	<para xml:lang="en">Lines that begin with the <literal>#</literal> character
 	  are comments.  A comment can be placed in the file as a
 	  reminder of what and why a desired action is performed.
 	  Comments cannot be on the same line as a command or else
 	  they will be interpreted as part of the command; they must
 	  be on a new line.  Blank lines are ignored.</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="co-env">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The equals (<literal>=</literal>) character is used to
 	  define any environment settings.  In this example, it is
 	  used to define the <envar>SHELL</envar> and
 	  <envar>PATH</envar>.  If the <envar>SHELL</envar> is
 	  omitted, <application>cron</application> will use the
 	  default Bourne shell.  If the <envar>PATH</envar> is
 	  omitted, the full path must be given to the command or
 	  script to run.</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="co-field-descr">
 	<para xml:lang="en">This line defines the seven fields used in a system
 	  crontab: <literal>minute</literal>, <literal>hour</literal>,
 	  <literal>mday</literal>, <literal>month</literal>,
 	  <literal>wday</literal>, <literal>who</literal>, and
 	  <literal>command</literal>.  The <literal>minute</literal>
 	  field is the time in minutes when the specified command will
 	  be run, the <literal>hour</literal> is the hour when the
 	  specified command will be run, the <literal>mday</literal>
 	  is the day of the month, <literal>month</literal> is the
 	  month, and <literal>wday</literal> is the day of the week.
 	  These fields must be numeric values, representing the
 	  twenty-four hour clock, or a <literal>*</literal>,
 	  representing all values for that field.  The
 	  <literal>who</literal> field only exists in the system
 	  crontab and specifies which user the command should be run
 	  as.  The last field is the command to be executed.</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="co-main">
 	<para xml:lang="en">This entry defines the values for this cron job.  The
 	  <literal>*/5</literal>, followed by several more
 	  <literal>*</literal> characters, specifies that
 	  <command>/usr/libexec/atrun</command> is invoked by
 	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> every five
 	  minutes of every hour, of every day and day of the week, of
 	  every month.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Commands can include any number of switches.  However,
 	  commands which extend to multiple lines need to be broken
 	  with the backslash <quote>\</quote> continuation
 	  character.</para>
       </callout>
     </calloutlist>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="configtuning-installcrontab">
       <title>建立使用者的 Crontab</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To create a user crontab, invoke
 	<command>crontab</command> in editor mode:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>crontab -e</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will open the user's crontab using the default text
 	editor.  The first time a user runs this command, it will open
 	an empty file.  Once a user creates a crontab, this command
 	will open that file for editing.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is useful to add these lines to the top of the crontab
 	file in order to set the environment variables and to remember
 	the meanings of the fields in the crontab:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">SHELL=/bin/sh
 PATH=/etc:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin
 # Order of crontab fields
 # minute	hour	mday	month	wday	command</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then add a line for each command or script to run,
 	specifying the time to run the command.  This example runs the
 	specified custom Bourne shell script every day at two in the
 	afternoon.  Since the path to the script is not specified in
 	<literal>PATH</literal>, the full path to the script is
 	given:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">0	14	*	*	*	/usr/home/dru/bin/mycustomscript.sh</programlisting>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Before using a custom script, make sure it is executable
 	  and test it with the limited set of environment variables
 	  set by cron.  To replicate the environment that would be
 	  used to run the above cron entry, use:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">env -i SHELL=/bin/sh PATH=/etc:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin HOME=/home/<replaceable>dru</replaceable> LOGNAME=<replaceable>dru</replaceable> <replaceable>/usr/home/dru/bin/mycustomscript.sh</replaceable></programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The environment set by cron is discussed in
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crontab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Checking that scripts operate correctly in
 	  a cron environment is especially important if they include
 	  any commands that delete files using wildcards.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When finished editing the crontab, save the file.  It
 	will automatically be installed and
 	<application>cron</application> will read the crontab and run
 	its cron jobs at their specified times.  To list the cron jobs
 	in a crontab, use this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>crontab -l</userinput>
 0	14	*	*	*	/usr/home/dru/bin/mycustomscript.sh</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To remove all of the cron jobs in a user crontab:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>crontab -r</userinput>
 remove crontab for dru? <userinput>y</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-rcd">
     <info>
       <title>管理 FreeBSD 中的服務</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD uses the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> system of startup scripts during
       system initialization and for managing services.  The scripts
       listed in <filename>/etc/rc.d</filename> provide basic services
       which can be controlled with the <option>start</option>,
       <option>stop</option>, and <option>restart</option> options to
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>service</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  For instance, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be restarted
       with the following command:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd restart</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This procedure can be used to start services on a running
       system.  Services will be started automatically at boot time
       as specified in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  For example, to enable
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> at system startup, add the following line to
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">natd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If a <option>natd_enable="NO"</option> line is already
       present, change the <literal>NO</literal> to
       <literal>YES</literal>.  The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> scripts will
       automatically load any dependent services during the next boot,
       as described below.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Since the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> system is primarily intended to start
       and stop services at system startup and shutdown time, the
       <option>start</option>, <option>stop</option> and
       <option>restart</option> options will only perform their action
       if the appropriate <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> variable
       is set.  For instance, <command>sshd restart</command> will
       only work if <varname>sshd_enable</varname> is set to
       <option>YES</option> in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.
       To <option>start</option>, <option>stop</option> or
       <option>restart</option> a service regardless of the settings
       in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, these commands should be
       prefixed with <quote>one</quote>.  For instance, to restart
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> regardless of the current
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> setting, execute the following
       command:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd onerestart</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To check if a service is enabled in
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, run the appropriate
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> script with <option>rcvar</option>.  This example
       checks to see if <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is enabled in
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd rcvar</userinput>
 # sshd
 #
 sshd_enable="YES"
 #   (default: "")</screen>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal># sshd</literal> line is output from the
 	above command, not a
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> console.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To determine whether or not a service is running, use
       <option>status</option>.  For instance, to verify that
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is running:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd status</userinput>
 sshd is running as pid 433.</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In some cases, it is also possible to
       <option>reload</option> a service.  This attempts to send a
       signal to an individual service, forcing the service to reload
       its configuration files.  In most cases, this means sending
       the service a <literal>SIGHUP</literal> signal.  Support for
       this feature is not included for every service.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> system is used for network services and it
       also contributes to most of the system initialization.  For
       instance, when the
       <filename>/etc/rc.d/bgfsck</filename> script is executed, it
       prints out the following message:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">Starting background file system checks in 60 seconds.</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This script is used for background file system checks,
       which occur only during system initialization.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Many system services depend on other services to function
       properly.  For example, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>yp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and other
       <acronym>RPC</acronym>-based services may fail to start until
       after the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rpcbind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> service has started.  To resolve this
       issue, information about dependencies and other meta-data is
       included in the comments at the top of each startup script.
       The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rcorder</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> program is used to parse these comments
       during system initialization to determine the order in which
       system services should be invoked to satisfy the
       dependencies.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following key word must be included in all startup
       scripts as it is required by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.subr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
       <quote>enable</quote> the startup script:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>PROVIDE</literal>: Specifies the services this
 	  file provides.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following key words may be included at the top of each
       startup script.  They are not strictly necessary, but are
       useful as hints to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rcorder</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>REQUIRE</literal>: Lists services which are
 	  required for this service.  The script containing this key
 	  word will run <emphasis>after</emphasis> the specified
 	  services.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>BEFORE</literal>: Lists services which depend
 	  on this service.  The script containing this key word will
 	  run <emphasis>before</emphasis> the specified
 	  services.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">By carefully setting these keywords for each startup script,
       an administrator has a fine-grained level of control of the
       startup order of the scripts, without the need for
       <quote>runlevels</quote> used by some <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> operating
       systems.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Additional information can be found in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.subr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Refer to <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/rc-scripting">this article</link>
       for instructions on how to create custom <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
       scripts.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="configtuning-core-configuration">
       <title>管理特定系統的設定</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>rc files</primary>
 	<secondary><filename>rc.conf</filename></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The principal location for system configuration
 	information is <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  This file
 	contains a wide range of configuration information and it is
 	read at system startup to configure the system.  It provides
 	the configuration information for the
 	<filename>rc*</filename> files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The entries in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> override
 	the default settings in
 	<filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename>.  The file
 	containing the default settings should not be edited.
 	Instead, all system-specific changes should be made to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A number of strategies may be applied in clustered
 	applications to separate site-wide configuration from
 	system-specific configuration in order to reduce
 	administration overhead.  The recommended approach is to place
 	system-specific configuration into
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf.local</filename>.  For example, these
 	entries in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> apply to all
 	systems:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">sshd_enable="YES"
 keyrate="fast"
 defaultrouter="10.1.1.254"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Whereas these entries in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf.local</filename> apply to this system
 	only:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="node1.example.org"
 ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1/8"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Distribute <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to every
 	system using an application such as
 	<application>rsync</application> or
 	<application>puppet</application>, while
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf.local</filename> remains
 	unique.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Upgrading the system will not overwrite
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, so system configuration
 	information will not be lost.</para>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Both <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf.local</filename>
 	  are parsed by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This allows system operators to
 	  create complex configuration scenarios.  Refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for further information on this
 	  topic.</para>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="config-network-setup">
     <info>
       <title>設定網路介面卡</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>network cards</primary>
       <secondary>configuration</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Adding and configuring a network interface card
       (<acronym>NIC</acronym>)  is a common task for any FreeBSD
       administrator.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>找到正確的驅動程式</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>network cards</primary>
 	<secondary>driver</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">First, determine the model of the <acronym>NIC</acronym>
 	and the chip it uses.  FreeBSD supports a wide variety of
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym>s.  Check the Hardware Compatibility
 	List for the FreeBSD release to see if the <acronym>NIC</acronym>
 	is supported.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <acronym>NIC</acronym> is supported, determine
 	the name of the FreeBSD driver for the <acronym>NIC</acronym>.
 	Refer to <filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES</filename> and
 	<filename>/usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/NOTES</filename>
 	for the list of <acronym>NIC</acronym> drivers with some
 	information about the supported chipsets.  When in doubt, read
 	the manual page of the driver as it will provide more
 	information about the supported hardware and any known
 	limitations of the driver.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The drivers for common <acronym>NIC</acronym>s are already
 	present in the <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel, meaning
 	the <acronym>NIC</acronym> should be probed during boot.  The
 	system's boot messages can be viewed by typing
 	<command>more /var/run/dmesg.boot</command> and using the
 	spacebar to scroll through the text.  In this example, two
 	Ethernet <acronym>NIC</acronym>s using the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver
 	are present on the system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">dc0: &lt;82c169 PNIC 10/100BaseTX&gt; port 0xa000-0xa0ff mem 0xd3800000-0xd38
 000ff irq 15 at device 11.0 on pci0
 miibus0: &lt;MII bus&gt; on dc0
 bmtphy0: &lt;BCM5201 10/100baseTX PHY&gt; PHY 1 on miibus0
 bmtphy0:  10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto
 dc0: Ethernet address: 00:a0:cc:da:da:da
 dc0: [ITHREAD]
 dc1: &lt;82c169 PNIC 10/100BaseTX&gt; port 0x9800-0x98ff mem 0xd3000000-0xd30
 000ff irq 11 at device 12.0 on pci0
 miibus1: &lt;MII bus&gt; on dc1
 bmtphy1: &lt;BCM5201 10/100baseTX PHY&gt; PHY 1 on miibus1
 bmtphy1:  10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto
 dc1: Ethernet address: 00:a0:cc:da:da:db
 dc1: [ITHREAD]</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the driver for the <acronym>NIC</acronym> is not
 	present in <filename>GENERIC</filename>, but a driver is
 	available, the driver will need to be loaded before the
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym> can be configured and used.  This may
 	be accomplished in one of two ways:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The easiest way is to load a kernel module for the
 	    <acronym>NIC</acronym> using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  To also
 	    automatically load the driver at boot time, add the
 	    appropriate line to
 	    <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  Not all
 	    <acronym>NIC</acronym> drivers are available as
 	    modules.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, statically compile support for the
 	    <acronym>NIC</acronym> into a custom kernel.  Refer to
 	    <filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES</filename>,
 	    <filename>/usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf/NOTES</filename>
 	    and the manual page of the driver to determine which line
 	    to add to the custom kernel configuration file.  For more
 	    information about recompiling the kernel, refer to <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.  If the <acronym>NIC</acronym>
 	    was detected at boot, the kernel does not need to be
 	    recompiled.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="config-network-ndis">
 	<title>使用 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> <acronym>NDIS</acronym> 驅動程式</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><acronym>NDIS</acronym></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>NDISulator</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> drivers</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark></primary>
 	  <secondary>device drivers</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><acronym>KLD</acronym> (kernel loadable
 	    object)</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 <!-- We should probably omit the expanded name, and add a <see> entry
 for it.  Whatever is done must also be done to the same indexterm in
 linuxemu/chapter.xml -->
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Unfortunately, there are still many vendors that do not
 	  provide schematics for their drivers to the open source
 	  community because they regard such information as trade
 	  secrets.  Consequently, the developers of FreeBSD and other
 	  operating systems are left with two choices: develop the
 	  drivers by a long and pain-staking process of reverse
 	  engineering or using the existing driver binaries available
 	  for <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> platforms.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides <quote>native</quote> support for the
 	  Network Driver Interface Specification
 	  (<acronym>NDIS</acronym>).  It includes <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndisgen</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  which can be used to convert a <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP driver into a
 	  format that can be used on FreeBSD.  Because the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndis</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  driver uses a <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP binary, it only runs on <trademark>i386</trademark>
 	  and amd64 systems.  <acronym>PCI</acronym>, CardBus,
 	  <acronym>PCMCIA</acronym>, and <acronym>USB</acronym>
 	  devices are supported.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndisgen</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, three things are needed:</para>
 
 	<orderedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD kernel sources.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP driver binary with a
 	      <filename>.SYS</filename> extension.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP driver configuration file with a
 	      <filename>.INF</filename> extension.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</orderedlist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Download the <filename>.SYS</filename> and
 	  <filename>.INF</filename> files for the specific
 	  <acronym>NIC</acronym>.  Generally, these can be found on
 	  the driver CD or at the vendor's website.  The following
 	  examples use <filename>W32DRIVER.SYS</filename> and
 	  <filename>W32DRIVER.INF</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The driver bit width must match the version of FreeBSD.
 	  For FreeBSD/i386, use a <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 32-bit driver.  For
 	  FreeBSD/amd64, a <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 64-bit driver is needed.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The next step is to compile the driver binary into a
 	  loadable kernel module.  As
 	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, use
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndisgen</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ndisgen <replaceable>/path/to/W32DRIVER.INF</replaceable> <replaceable>/path/to/W32DRIVER.SYS</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This command is interactive and prompts for any extra
 	  information it requires.  A new kernel module will be
 	  generated in the current directory.  Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  to load the new module:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload <replaceable>./W32DRIVER_SYS.ko</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In addition to the generated kernel module, the
 	  <filename>ndis.ko</filename> and
 	  <filename>if_ndis.ko</filename> modules must be loaded.
 	  This should happen automatically when any module that
 	  depends on <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndis</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> is loaded.  If not, load them
 	  manually, using the following commands:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload ndis</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload if_ndis</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The first command loads the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndis</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> miniport driver
 	  wrapper and the second loads the generated
 	  <acronym>NIC</acronym> driver.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Check <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dmesg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to see if there were any load
 	  errors.  If all went well, the output should be similar to
 	  the following:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">ndis0: &lt;Wireless-G PCI Adapter&gt; mem 0xf4100000-0xf4101fff irq 3 at device 8.0 on pci1
 ndis0: NDIS API version: 5.0
 ndis0: Ethernet address: 0a:b1:2c:d3:4e:f5
 ndis0: 11b rates: 1Mbps 2Mbps 5.5Mbps 11Mbps
 ndis0: 11g rates: 6Mbps 9Mbps 12Mbps 18Mbps 36Mbps 48Mbps 54Mbps</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">From here, <filename>ndis0</filename> can be
 	  configured like any other <acronym>NIC</acronym>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To configure the system to load the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ndis</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> modules
 	  at boot time, copy the generated module,
 	  <filename>W32DRIVER_SYS.ko</filename>, to
 	  <filename>/boot/modules</filename>.  Then, add the following
 	  line to <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">W32DRIVER_SYS_load="YES"</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定網路卡</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>network cards</primary>
 	<secondary>configuration</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the right driver is loaded for the
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym>, the card needs to be configured.  It
 	may have been configured at installation time by
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsdinstall</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To display the <acronym>NIC</acronym> configuration,
 	enter the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig</userinput>
 dc0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         options=80008&lt;VLAN_MTU,LINKSTATE&gt;
         ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:da
         inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.1.255
         media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX &lt;full-duplex&gt;)
         status: active
 dc1: flags=8802&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         options=80008&lt;VLAN_MTU,LINKSTATE&gt;
         ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:db
         inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
         media: Ethernet 10baseT/UTP
         status: no carrier
 lo0: flags=8049&lt;UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 16384
         options=3&lt;RXCSUM,TXCSUM&gt;
         inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x4
         inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128
         inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
         nd6 options=3&lt;PERFORMNUD,ACCEPT_RTADV&gt;</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the following devices were
 	displayed:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>dc0</filename>: The first Ethernet
 	    interface.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>dc1</filename>: The second Ethernet
 	    interface.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>lo0</filename>: The loopback
 	    device.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD uses the driver name followed by the order in which
 	the card is detected at boot to name the
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym>.  For example,
 	<filename>sis2</filename> is the third
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym> on the system using the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sis</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	driver.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, <filename>dc0</filename> is up and
 	running.  The key indicators are:</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>UP</literal> means that the card is
 	    configured and ready.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The card has an Internet (<literal>inet</literal>)
 	    address, <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.3</systemitem>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It has a valid subnet mask
 	    (<literal>netmask</literal>), where
 	    <systemitem class="netmask">0xffffff00</systemitem> is the
 	    same as <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.0</systemitem>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It has a valid broadcast address, <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.255</systemitem>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the card
 	    (<literal>ether</literal>) is <systemitem class="etheraddress">00:a0:cc:da:da:da</systemitem>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The physical media selection is on autoselection mode
 	    (<literal>media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX
 	      &lt;full-duplex&gt;)</literal>).  In this example,
 	    <filename>dc1</filename> is configured to run with
 	    <literal>10baseT/UTP</literal> media.  For more
 	    information on available media types for a driver, refer
 	    to its manual page.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The status of the link (<literal>status</literal>) is
 	    <literal>active</literal>, indicating that the carrier
 	    signal is detected.  For <filename>dc1</filename>, the
 	    <literal>status: no carrier</literal> status is normal
 	    when an Ethernet cable is not plugged into the
 	    card.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> output had shown something similar
 	to:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">dc0: flags=8843&lt;BROADCAST,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	options=80008&lt;VLAN_MTU,LINKSTATE&gt;
 	ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:da
 	media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX &lt;full-duplex&gt;)
 	status: active</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">it would indicate the card has not been configured.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The card must be configured as
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  The
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym> configuration can be performed from the
 	command line with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> but will not persist after
 	a reboot unless the configuration is also added to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  If a
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> server is present on the LAN,
 	just add this line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_dc0="DHCP"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replace <replaceable>dc0</replaceable> with the correct value
 	for the system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The line added, then, follow the instructions given in
 	<xref linkend="config-network-testing"/>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the network was configured during installation, some
 	  entries for the <acronym>NIC</acronym>(s) may be already
 	  present.  Double check <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>
 	  before adding any lines.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the case, there is no <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server,
 	the <acronym>NIC</acronym>(s) have to be configured manually.
 	Add a line for each <acronym>NIC</acronym> present on the
 	system, as seen in this example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_dc0="inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.0"
 ifconfig_dc1="inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 media 10baseT/UTP"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replace <filename>dc0</filename> and
 	<filename>dc1</filename> and the <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address information with the correct values for the system.
 	Refer to the man page for the driver, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more details about the allowed options and
 	the syntax of <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the network is not using <acronym>DNS</acronym>, edit
 	<filename>/etc/hosts</filename> to add the names and
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> addresses of the hosts on the
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym>, if they are not already there.  For
 	more information, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and to
 	<filename>/usr/share/examples/etc/hosts</filename>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If there is no <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server and
 	  access to the Internet is needed, manually configure the
 	  default gateway and the nameserver:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo 'defaultrouter="<replaceable>your_default_router</replaceable>"' &gt;&gt; /etc/rc.conf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo 'nameserver <replaceable>your_DNS_server</replaceable>' &gt;&gt; /etc/resolv.conf</userinput></screen>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="config-network-testing">
       <title>測試與疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the necessary changes to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> are saved, a reboot can be
 	used to test the network configuration and to verify that the
 	system restarts without any configuration errors.
 	Alternatively, apply the settings to the networking system
 	with this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif restart</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If a default gateway has been set in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, also issue this
 	  command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service routing restart</userinput></screen>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the networking system has been relaunched, test the
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym>s.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>測試乙太網路卡</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>network cards</primary>
 	  <secondary>testing</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To verify that an Ethernet card is configured correctly,
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> the interface itself, and then <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  another machine on the <acronym>LAN</acronym>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ping -c5 192.168.1.3</userinput>
 PING 192.168.1.3 (192.168.1.3): 56 data bytes
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.082 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.074 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.076 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.108 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.076 ms
 
 --- 192.168.1.3 ping statistics ---
 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
 round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 0.074/0.083/0.108/0.013 ms</screen>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ping -c5 192.168.1.2</userinput>
 PING 192.168.1.2 (192.168.1.2): 56 data bytes
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.726 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.766 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.700 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.747 ms
 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.704 ms
 
 --- 192.168.1.2 ping statistics ---
 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
 round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 0.700/0.729/0.766/0.025 ms</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To test network resolution, use the host name instead
 	  of the <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  If there is no
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> server on the network,
 	  <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> must first be
 	  configured.  To this purpose, edit
 	  <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> to add the names and
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses of the hosts on the
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym>, if they are not already there.  For
 	  more information, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and to
 	  <filename>/usr/share/examples/etc/hosts</filename>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>疑難排解</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>network cards</primary>
 	  <secondary>troubleshooting</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When troubleshooting hardware and software
 	  configurations, check the simple things first.  Is the
 	  network cable plugged in?  Are the network services properly
 	  configured?  Is the firewall configured correctly?  Is the
 	  <acronym>NIC</acronym> supported by FreeBSD?  Before sending
 	  a bug report, always check the Hardware Notes, update the
 	  version of FreeBSD to the latest STABLE version, check the
 	  mailing list archives, and search the Internet.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the card works, yet performance is poor, read
 	  through <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tuning</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Also, check the network
 	  configuration as incorrect network settings can cause slow
 	  connections.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some users experience one or two
 	  <errorname>device timeout</errorname> messages, which is
 	  normal for some cards.  If they continue, or are bothersome,
 	  determine if the device is conflicting with another device.
 	  Double check the cable connections.  Consider trying another
 	  card.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To resolve <errorname>watchdog timeout</errorname>
 	  errors,  first check the network cable.  Many cards
 	  require a <acronym>PCI</acronym> slot which supports bus
 	  mastering.  On some old motherboards, only one
 	  <acronym>PCI</acronym> slot allows it, usually slot 0.
 	  Check the <acronym>NIC</acronym> and the motherboard
 	  documentation to determine if that may be the
 	  problem.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><errorname>No route to host</errorname> messages occur
 	  if the system is unable to route a packet to the destination
 	  host.  This can happen if no default route is specified or
 	  if a cable is unplugged.  Check the output of
 	  <command>netstat -rn</command> and make sure there is a
 	  valid route to the host.  If there is not, read
 	  <xref linkend="network-routing"/>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><errorname>ping: sendto: Permission denied</errorname>
 	  error messages are often caused by a misconfigured firewall.
 	  If a firewall is enabled on FreeBSD but no rules have been
 	  defined, the default policy is to deny all traffic, even
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Refer to
 	  <xref linkend="firewalls"/> for more information.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Sometimes performance of the card is poor or below
 	  average.  In these cases, try setting the media
 	  selection mode from <literal>autoselect</literal> to the
 	  correct media selection.  While this works for most
 	  hardware, it may or may not resolve the issue.  Again,
 	  check all the network settings, and refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tuning</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-virtual-hosts">
     <title>虛擬主機</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>virtual hosts</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><acronym>IP</acronym>
 	aliases</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A common use of FreeBSD is virtual site hosting, where one
       server appears to the network as many servers.  This is achieved
       by assigning multiple network addresses to a single
       interface.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A given network interface has one <quote>real</quote>
       address, and may have any number of <quote>alias</quote>
       addresses.  These aliases are normally added by placing alias
       entries in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, as seen in this
       example:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Alias entries must start with
       <literal>alias<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> using a
       sequential number such as
       <literal>alias0</literal>, <literal>alias1</literal>,
       and so on.  The configuration process will stop at the first
       missing number.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The calculation of alias netmasks is important.  For a
       given interface, there must be one address which correctly
       represents the network's netmask.  Any other addresses which
       fall within this network must have a netmask of all
       <literal>1</literal>s, expressed as either
       <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.255</systemitem> or
       <systemitem class="netmask">0xffffffff</systemitem>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For example, consider the case where the
       <filename>fxp0</filename> interface is connected to two
       networks: <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.1.1.0</systemitem>
       with a netmask of
       <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.0</systemitem> and
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">202.0.75.16</systemitem> with a
       netmask of
       <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.240</systemitem>.  The
       system is to be configured to appear in the ranges
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.1.1.1</systemitem> through
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.1.1.5</systemitem> and
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">202.0.75.17</systemitem> through
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">202.0.75.20</systemitem>.  Only
       the first address in a given network range should have a real
       netmask.  All the rest
       (<systemitem class="ipaddress">10.1.1.2</systemitem> through
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.1.1.5</systemitem> and
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">202.0.75.18</systemitem> through
       <systemitem class="ipaddress">202.0.75.20</systemitem>) must be
       configured with a netmask of
       <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.255</systemitem>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> entries
       configure the adapter correctly for this scenario:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255"
 ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A simpler way to express this is with a space-separated list
       of <acronym>IP</acronym> address ranges.  The first address
       will be given the
       indicated subnet mask and the additional addresses will have a
       subnet mask of <literal>255.255.255.255</literal>.</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_fxp0_aliases="inet 10.1.1.1-5/24 inet 202.0.75.17-20/28"</programlisting>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-syslog">
     <info>
       <title>設定系統日誌</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Niclas</firstname>
 	    <surname>Zeising</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>system logging</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>syslog</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Generating and reading system logs is an important aspect of
       system administration.  The information in system logs can be
       used to detect hardware and software issues as well as
       application and system configuration errors.  This information
       also plays an important role in security auditing and incident
       response.  Most system daemons and applications will generate
       log entries.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides a system logger,
       <application>syslogd</application>, to manage logging.  By
       default, <application>syslogd</application> is started when the
       system boots.  This is controlled by the variable
       <literal>syslogd_enable</literal> in
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  There are numerous
       application arguments that can be set using
       <literal>syslogd_flags</literal> in
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
       more information on the available arguments.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to configure the FreeBSD system
       logger for both local and remote logging and how to perform log
       rotation and log management.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定本地日誌</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>syslog.conf</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The configuration file,
 	<filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>, controls what
 	<application>syslogd</application> does with log entries as
 	they are received.  There are several parameters to control
 	the handling of incoming events.  The
 	<firstterm>facility</firstterm> describes which subsystem
 	generated the message, such as the kernel or a daemon, and the
 	<firstterm>level</firstterm> describes the severity of the
 	event that occurred.  This makes it possible to configure if
 	and where a log message is logged, depending on the facility
 	and level.  It is also possible to take action depending on
 	the application that sent the message, and in the case of
 	remote logging, the hostname of the machine generating the
 	logging event.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This configuration file contains one line per action,
 	where the syntax for each line is a selector field followed by
 	an action field.  The syntax of the selector field is
 	<replaceable>facility.level</replaceable> which will match log
 	messages from <replaceable>facility</replaceable> at level
 	<replaceable>level</replaceable> or higher.  It is also
 	possible to add an optional comparison flag before the level
 	to specify more precisely what is logged.  Multiple selector
 	fields can be used for the same action, and are separated with
 	a semicolon (<literal>;</literal>).  Using
 	<literal>*</literal> will match everything.  The action field
 	denotes where to send the log message, such as to a file or
 	remote log host.  As an example, here is the default
 	<filename>syslog.conf</filename> from FreeBSD:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># $FreeBSD$
 #
 #       Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However,
 #       other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field
 #       separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you
 #       may want to use only tabs as field separators here.
 #       Consult the syslog.conf(5) manpage.
 *.err;kern.warning;auth.notice;mail.crit                /dev/console
 *.notice;authpriv.none;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err   /var/log/messages
 security.*                                      /var/log/security
 auth.info;authpriv.info                         /var/log/auth.log
 mail.info                                       /var/log/maillog
 lpr.info                                        /var/log/lpd-errs
 ftp.info                                        /var/log/xferlog
 cron.*                                          /var/log/cron
 !-devd
 *.=debug                                        /var/log/debug.log
 *.emerg                                         *
 # uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log
 #console.info                                   /var/log/console.log
 # uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log
 # touch /var/log/all.log and chmod it to mode 600 before it will work
 #*.*                                            /var/log/all.log
 # uncomment this to enable logging to a remote loghost named loghost
 #*.*                                            @loghost
 # uncomment these if you're running inn
 # news.crit                                     /var/log/news/news.crit
 # news.err                                      /var/log/news/news.err
 # news.notice                                   /var/log/news/news.notice
 # Uncomment this if you wish to see messages produced by devd
 # !devd
 # *.&gt;=info
 !ppp
 *.*                                             /var/log/ppp.log
 !*</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Line 8 matches all messages with a level of
 	    <literal>err</literal> or higher, as well as
 	    <literal>kern.warning</literal>,
 	    <literal>auth.notice</literal> and
 	    <literal>mail.crit</literal>, and sends these log messages
 	    to the console
 	    (<filename>/dev/console</filename>).</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Line 12 matches all messages from the
 	    <literal>mail</literal> facility at level
 	    <literal>info</literal> or above and logs the messages to
 	    <filename>/var/log/maillog</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Line 17 uses a comparison flag (<literal>=</literal>)
 	    to only match messages at level <literal>debug</literal>
 	    and logs them to
 	    <filename>/var/log/debug.log</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Line 33 is an example usage of a program
 	    specification.  This makes the rules following it only
 	    valid for the specified program.  In this case, only the
 	    messages generated by <application>ppp</application> are
 	    logged to <filename>/var/log/ppp.log</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The available levels, in order from most to least
 	critical are <literal>emerg</literal>,
 	<literal>alert</literal>, <literal>crit</literal>,
 	<literal>err</literal>, <literal>warning</literal>,
 	<literal>notice</literal>, <literal>info</literal>, and
 	<literal>debug</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The facilities, in no particular order, are
 	<literal>auth</literal>, <literal>authpriv</literal>,
 	<literal>console</literal>, <literal>cron</literal>,
 	<literal>daemon</literal>, <literal>ftp</literal>,
 	<literal>kern</literal>, <literal>lpr</literal>,
 	<literal>mail</literal>, <literal>mark</literal>,
 	<literal>news</literal>, <literal>security</literal>,
 	<literal>syslog</literal>, <literal>user</literal>,
 	<literal>uucp</literal>, and <literal>local0</literal> through
 	<literal>local7</literal>.  Be aware that other operating
 	systems might have different facilities.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To log everything of level <literal>notice</literal> and
 	higher to <filename>/var/log/daemon.log</filename>, add the
 	following entry:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">daemon.notice                                        /var/log/daemon.log</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more information about the different levels and
 	facilities, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslog</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	For more information about
 	<filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>, its syntax, and more
 	advanced usage examples, see <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslog.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>日誌管理與循環</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>newsyslog</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>newsyslog.conf</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>log rotation</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>log management</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Log files can grow quickly, taking up disk space and
 	making it more difficult to locate useful information.  Log
 	management attempts to mitigate this.  In FreeBSD,
 	<application>newsyslog</application> is used to manage log
 	files.  This built-in program periodically rotates and
 	compresses log files, and optionally creates missing log files
 	and signals programs when log files are moved.  The log files
 	may be generated by <application>syslogd</application> or by
 	any other program which generates log files.  While
 	<application>newsyslog</application> is normally run from
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, it is not a system daemon.  In the default
 	configuration, it runs every hour.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To know which actions to take,
 	<application>newsyslog</application> reads its configuration
 	file, <filename>/etc/newsyslog.conf</filename>.  This file
 	contains one line for each log file that
 	<application>newsyslog</application> manages.  Each line
 	states the file owner, permissions, when to rotate that file,
 	optional flags that affect log rotation, such as compression,
 	and programs to signal when the log is rotated.  Here is the
 	default configuration in FreeBSD:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># configuration file for newsyslog
 # $FreeBSD$
 #
 # Entries which do not specify the '/pid_file' field will cause the
 # syslogd process to be signalled when that log file is rotated.  This
 # action is only appropriate for log files which are written to by the
 # syslogd process (ie, files listed in /etc/syslog.conf).  If there
 # is no process which needs to be signalled when a given log file is
 # rotated, then the entry for that file should include the 'N' flag.
 #
 # The 'flags' field is one or more of the letters: BCDGJNUXZ or a '-'.
 #
 # Note: some sites will want to select more restrictive protections than the
 # defaults.  In particular, it may be desirable to switch many of the 644
 # entries to 640 or 600.  For example, some sites will consider the
 # contents of maillog, messages, and lpd-errs to be confidential.  In the
 # future, these defaults may change to more conservative ones.
 #
 # logfilename          [owner:group]    mode count size when  flags [/pid_file] [sig_num]
 /var/log/all.log                        600  7     *    @T00  J
 /var/log/amd.log                        644  7     100  *     J
 /var/log/auth.log                       600  7     100  @0101T JC
 /var/log/console.log                    600  5     100  *     J
 /var/log/cron                           600  3     100  *     JC
 /var/log/daily.log                      640  7     *    @T00  JN
 /var/log/debug.log                      600  7     100  *     JC
 /var/log/kerberos.log                   600  7     100  *     J
 /var/log/lpd-errs                       644  7     100  *     JC
 /var/log/maillog                        640  7     *    @T00  JC
 /var/log/messages                       644  5     100  @0101T JC
 /var/log/monthly.log                    640  12    *    $M1D0 JN
 /var/log/pflog                          600  3     100  *     JB    /var/run/pflogd.pid
 /var/log/ppp.log        root:network    640  3     100  *     JC
 /var/log/devd.log                       644  3     100  *     JC
 /var/log/security                       600  10    100  *     JC
 /var/log/sendmail.st                    640  10    *    168   B
 /var/log/utx.log                        644  3     *    @01T05 B
 /var/log/weekly.log                     640  5     1    $W6D0 JN
 /var/log/xferlog                        600  7     100  *     JC</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Each line starts with the name of the log to be rotated,
 	optionally followed by an owner and group for both rotated and
 	newly created files.  The <literal>mode</literal> field sets
 	the permissions on the log file and <literal>count</literal>
 	denotes how many rotated log files should be kept.  The
 	<literal>size</literal> and <literal>when</literal> fields
 	tell <application>newsyslog</application> when to rotate the
 	file.  A log file is rotated when either its size is larger
 	than the <literal>size</literal> field or when the time in the
 	<literal>when</literal> field has passed.  An asterisk
 	(<literal>*</literal>) means that this field is ignored.  The
 	<replaceable>flags</replaceable> field gives further
 	instructions, such as how to compress the rotated file or to
 	create the log file if it is missing.  The last two fields are
 	optional and specify the name of the Process ID
 	(<acronym>PID</acronym>) file of a process and a signal number
 	to send to that process when the file is rotated.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more information on all fields, valid flags, and how
 	to specify the rotation time, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>newsyslog.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	Since <application>newsyslog</application> is run from
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, it cannot rotate files more often than it is
 	scheduled to run from <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-syslogd">
       <info>
 	<title>設定遠端日誌</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Monitoring the log files of multiple hosts can become
 	unwieldy as the number of systems increases.  Configuring
 	centralized logging can reduce some of the administrative
 	burden of log file administration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, centralized log file aggregation, merging, and
 	rotation can be configured using
 	<application>syslogd</application> and
 	<application>newsyslog</application>.  This section
 	demonstrates an example configuration, where host
 	<systemitem>A</systemitem>, named <systemitem class="fqdomainname">logserv.example.com</systemitem>, will
 	collect logging information for the local network.  Host
 	<systemitem>B</systemitem>, named <systemitem class="fqdomainname">logclient.example.com</systemitem>,
 	will be configured to pass logging information to the logging
 	server.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>日誌伺服器設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A log server is a system that has been configured to
 	  accept logging information from other hosts.  Before
 	  configuring a log server, check the following:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If there is a firewall between the logging server
 	      and any logging clients, ensure that the firewall
 	      ruleset allows <acronym>UDP</acronym> port 514 for both
 	      the clients and the server.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The logging server and all client  machines must
 	      have forward and reverse entries in the local
 	      <acronym>DNS</acronym>.  If the network does not have a
 	      <acronym>DNS</acronym> server, create entries in each
 	      system's <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>.  Proper name
 	      resolution is required so that log entries are not
 	      rejected by the logging server.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">On the log server, edit
 	  <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> to specify the name of
 	  the client to receive log entries from, the logging facility
 	  to be used, and the name of the log to store the host's log
 	  entries.  This example adds the hostname of
 	  <systemitem>B</systemitem>, logs all facilities, and stores
 	  the log entries in
 	  <filename>/var/log/logclient.log</filename>.</para>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>日誌伺服器設定範例</title>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">+logclient.example.com
 *.*     /var/log/logclient.log</programlisting>
 	</example>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When adding multiple log clients, add a similar two-line
 	  entry for each client.  More information about the available
 	  facilities may be found in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslog.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Next, configure
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">syslogd_enable="YES"
 syslogd_flags="-a logclient.example.com -v -v"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The first entry starts
 	  <application>syslogd</application> at system boot.  The
 	  second entry allows log entries from the specified client.
 	  The <option>-v -v</option> increases the verbosity of logged
 	  messages.  This is useful for tweaking facilities as
 	  administrators are able to see what type of messages are
 	  being logged under each facility.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Multiple <option>-a</option> options may be specified to
 	  allow logging from multiple clients.  <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  addresses and whole netblocks may also be specified.  Refer
 	  to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a full list of possible
 	  options.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Finally, create the log file:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>touch /var/log/logclient.log</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">At this point, <application>syslogd</application> should
 	  be restarted and verified:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service syslogd restart</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pgrep syslog</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If a <acronym>PID</acronym> is returned, the server
 	  restarted successfully, and client configuration can begin.
 	  If the server did not restart, consult
 	  <filename>/var/log/messages</filename> for the error.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>日誌客戶端設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A logging client sends log entries to a logging server
 	  on the network.  The client also keeps a local copy of its
 	  own logs.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once a logging server has been configured, edit
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> on the logging
 	  client:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">syslogd_enable="YES"
 syslogd_flags="-s -v -v"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The first entry enables
 	  <application>syslogd</application> on boot up.  The second
 	  entry prevents logs from being accepted by this client from
 	  other hosts (<option>-s</option>) and increases the
 	  verbosity of logged messages.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Next, define the logging server in the client's
 	  <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>.  In this example, all
 	  logged facilities are sent to a remote system, denoted by
 	  the <literal>@</literal> symbol, with the specified
 	  hostname:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">*.*		@logserv.example.com</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">After saving the edit, restart
 	  <application>syslogd</application> for the changes to take
 	  effect:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service syslogd restart</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To test that log messages are being sent across the
 	  network, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>logger</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> on the client to send a message
 	  to <application>syslogd</application>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>logger "<replaceable>Test message from logclient</replaceable>"</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This message should now exist both in
 	  <filename>/var/log/messages</filename> on the client and
 	  <filename>/var/log/logclient.log</filename> on the log
 	  server.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>日誌伺服器除錯</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If no messages are being received on the log server, the
 	  cause is most likely a network connectivity issue, a
 	  hostname resolution issue, or a typo in a configuration
 	  file.  To isolate the cause, ensure that both the logging
 	  server and the logging client are able to
 	  <command>ping</command> each other using the hostname
 	  specified in their <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  If
 	  this fails, check the network cabling, the firewall ruleset,
 	  and the hostname entries in the <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	  server or <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> on both the
 	  logging server and clients.  Repeat until the
 	  <command>ping</command> is successful from both
 	  hosts.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the <command>ping</command> succeeds on both hosts
 	  but log messages are still not being received, temporarily
 	  increase logging verbosity to narrow down the configuration
 	  issue.  In the following example,
 	  <filename>/var/log/logclient.log</filename> on the logging
 	  server is empty and <filename>/var/log/messages</filename>
 	  on the logging client does not indicate a reason for the
 	  failure.  To increase debugging output, edit the
 	  <literal>syslogd_flags</literal> entry on the logging server
 	  and issue a restart:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">syslogd_flags="-d -a logclient.example.com -v -v"</programlisting>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service syslogd restart</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Debugging data similar to the following will flash on
 	  the console immediately after the restart:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">logmsg: pri 56, flags 4, from logserv.example.com, msg syslogd: restart
 syslogd: restarted
 logmsg: pri 6, flags 4, from logserv.example.com, msg syslogd: kernel boot file is /boot/kernel/kernel
 Logging to FILE /var/log/messages
 syslogd: kernel boot file is /boot/kernel/kernel
 cvthname(192.168.1.10)
 validate: dgram from IP 192.168.1.10, port 514, name logclient.example.com;
 rejected in rule 0 due to name mismatch.</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the log messages are being rejected due
 	  to a typo which results in a hostname mismatch.  The
 	  client's hostname should be <literal>logclient</literal>,
 	  not <literal>logclien</literal>.  Fix the typo, issue a
 	  restart, and verify the results:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service syslogd restart</userinput>
 logmsg: pri 56, flags 4, from logserv.example.com, msg syslogd: restart
 syslogd: restarted
 logmsg: pri 6, flags 4, from logserv.example.com, msg syslogd: kernel boot file is /boot/kernel/kernel
 syslogd: kernel boot file is /boot/kernel/kernel
 logmsg: pri 166, flags 17, from logserv.example.com,
 msg Dec 10 20:55:02 &lt;syslog.err&gt; logserv.example.com syslogd: exiting on signal 2
 cvthname(192.168.1.10)
 validate: dgram from IP 192.168.1.10, port 514, name logclient.example.com;
 accepted in rule 0.
 logmsg: pri 15, flags 0, from logclient.example.com, msg Dec 11 02:01:28 trhodes: Test message 2
 Logging to FILE /var/log/logclient.log
 Logging to FILE /var/log/messages</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">At this point, the messages are being properly received
 	  and placed in the correct file.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>安全注意事項</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">As with any network service, security requirements
 	  should be considered before implementing a logging server.
 	  Log files may contain sensitive data about services enabled
 	  on the local host, user accounts, and configuration data.
 	  Network data sent from the client to the server will not be
 	  encrypted or password protected.  If a need for encryption
 	  exists, consider using <package>security/stunnel</package>,
 	  which will transmit the logging data over an encrypted
 	  tunnel.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Local security is also an issue.  Log files are not
 	  encrypted during use or after log rotation.  Local users may
 	  access log files to gain additional insight into system
 	  configuration.  Setting proper permissions on log files is
 	  critical.  The built-in log rotator,
 	  <application>newsyslog</application>, supports setting
 	  permissions on newly created and rotated log files.  Setting
 	  log files to mode <literal>600</literal> should prevent
 	  unwanted access by local users.  Refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>newsyslog.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for additional information.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-configfiles">
     <title>設定檔</title>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><filename>/etc</filename> 配置</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are a number of directories in which configuration
 	information is kept.  These include:</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="2*"/>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Generic system-specific configuration
 		information.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/defaults</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Default versions of system configuration
 		files.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Extra <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendmail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> configuration and other
 		<acronym>MTA</acronym> configuration files.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/ppp</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Configuration for both user- and kernel-ppp
 		programs.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/namedb</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Default location for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>named</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> data.
 		Normally <filename>named.conf</filename> and zone
 		files are stored here.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Configuration files for installed applications.
 		May contain per-application subdirectories.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> scripts for installed
 		applications.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/db</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Automatically generated system-specific database
 		files, such as the package database and the
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>locate</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> database.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>主機名稱</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>hostname</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DNS</primary></indexterm>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><filename>resolv.conf</filename></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">How a FreeBSD system accesses the Internet Domain Name
 	  System (<acronym>DNS</acronym>) is controlled by
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>resolv.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The most common entries to
 	  <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> are:</para>
 
 	<informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	  <tgroup cols="2">
 	    <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	    <colspec colwidth="2*"/>
 
 	    <tbody>
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>nameserver</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The <acronym>IP</acronym> address of a name
 		  server the resolver should query.  The servers are
 		  queried in the order listed with a maximum of
 		  three.</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>search</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">Search list for hostname lookup.  This is
 		  normally determined by the domain of the local
 		  hostname.</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>domain</literal></entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The local domain name.</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A typical <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> looks
 	  like this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">search example.com
 nameserver 147.11.1.11
 nameserver 147.11.100.30</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Only one of the <literal>search</literal> and
 	    <literal>domain</literal> options should be used.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When using <acronym>DHCP</acronym>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  usually rewrites <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>
 	  with information received from the <acronym>DHCP</acronym>
 	  server.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/hosts</filename></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>hosts</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/hosts</filename> is a simple text
 	  database which works in conjunction with
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> and
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> to provide host name to
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address mappings.  Entries for local
 	  computers connected via a <acronym>LAN</acronym> can be
 	  added to this file for simplistic naming purposes instead
 	  of setting up a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>named</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> server.  Additionally,
 	  <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> can be used to provide a
 	  local record of Internet names, reducing the need to query
 	  external <acronym>DNS</acronym> servers for commonly
 	  accessed names.</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en"># $FreeBSD$
 #
 #
 # Host Database
 #
 # This file should contain the addresses and aliases for local hosts that
 # share this file.  Replace 'my.domain' below with the domainname of your
 # machine.
 #
 # In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may
 # not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order.
 #
 #
 ::1			localhost localhost.my.domain
 127.0.0.1		localhost localhost.my.domain
 #
 # Imaginary network.
 #10.0.0.2		myname.my.domain myname
 #10.0.0.3		myfriend.my.domain myfriend
 #
 # According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for
 # private nets which will never be connected to the Internet:
 #
 #	10.0.0.0	-   10.255.255.255
 #	172.16.0.0	-   172.31.255.255
 #	192.168.0.0	-   192.168.255.255
 #
 # In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need
 # real official assigned numbers.  Do not try to invent your own network
 # numbers but instead get one from your network provider (if any) or
 # from your regional registry (ARIN, APNIC, LACNIC, RIPE NCC, or AfriNIC.)
 #</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The format of <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> is as
 	  follows:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">[Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ...</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For example:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.example.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Consult <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-sysctl">
     <title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 調校</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>sysctl</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>tuning</primary>
       <secondary>with sysctl</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to make changes to a running FreeBSD
       system.  This includes many advanced options of the
       <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> stack and virtual memory system
       that can dramatically improve performance for an experienced
       system administrator.  Over five hundred system variables can
       be read and set using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">At its core, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> serves two functions: to read
       and to modify system settings.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To view all readable variables:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sysctl -a</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To read a particular variable, specify its name:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sysctl kern.maxproc</userinput>
 kern.maxproc: 1044</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To set a particular variable, use the
       <replaceable>variable</replaceable>=<replaceable>value</replaceable>
       syntax:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000</userinput>
 kern.maxfiles: 2088 -&gt; 5000</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Settings of sysctl variables are usually either strings,
       numbers, or booleans, where a boolean is <literal>1</literal>
       for yes or <literal>0</literal> for no.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To automatically set some variables each time the machine
       boots, add them to <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>.  For
       more information, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
       <xref linkend="configtuning-sysctlconf"/>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="configtuning-sysctlconf">
       <title xml:lang="en"><filename>sysctl.conf</filename></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>sysctl.conf</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>sysctl</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The configuration file for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	<filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>, looks much like
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Values are set in a
 	<literal>variable=value</literal> form.  The specified values
 	are set after the system goes into multi-user mode.  Not all
 	variables are settable in this mode.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For example, to turn off logging of fatal signal exits
 	and prevent users from seeing processes started by other
 	users, the following tunables can be set in
 	<filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g., sig 11)
 kern.logsigexit=0
 
 # Prevent users from seeing information about processes that
 # are being run under another UID.
 security.bsd.see_other_uids=0</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="sysctl-readonly">
       <info>
 	<title>唯讀 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In some cases it may be desirable to modify read-only
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> values, which will require a reboot of the
 	system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For instance, on some laptop models the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cardbus</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	device will not probe memory ranges and will fail with errors
 	similar to:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">cbb0: Could not map register memory
 device_probe_and_attach: cbb0 attach returned 12</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The fix requires the modification of a read-only
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> setting.  Add
 	<option>hw.pci.allow_unsupported_io_range=1</option> to
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> and reboot.  Now
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cardbus</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> should work properly.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-disk">
     <title>調校磁碟</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following section will discuss various tuning
       mechanisms and options which may be applied to disk
       devices.  In many cases, disks with mechanical parts,
       such as <acronym>SCSI</acronym> drives, will be the
       bottleneck driving down the overall system performance.  While
       a solution is to install a drive without mechanical parts,
       such as a solid state drive, mechanical drives are not
       going away anytime in the near future.  When tuning disks,
       it is advisable to utilize the features of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>iostat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
       command to test various changes to the system.  This
       command will allow the user to obtain valuable information
       on system <acronym>IO</acronym>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Sysctl 變數</title>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  variable
 	  may be set to either <literal>0</literal> (off) or
 	  <literal>1</literal> (on).  It is set to
 	  <literal>1</literal> by default.  This variable controls
 	  how directories are cached by the system.  Most directories
 	  are small, using just a single fragment (typically 1 K)
 	  in the file system and typically 512 bytes in the
 	  buffer cache.  With this variable turned off, the buffer
 	  cache will only cache a fixed number of directories, even
 	  if the system has a huge amount of memory.  When turned on,
 	  this <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> allows the buffer cache to use the
 	  <acronym>VM</acronym> page cache to cache the directories,
 	  making all the memory available for caching directories.
 	  However, the minimum in-core memory used to cache a
 	  directory is the physical page size (typically 4 K)
 	  rather than 512  bytes.  Keeping this option enabled
 	  is recommended if the system is running any services which
 	  manipulate large numbers of files.  Such services can
 	  include web caches, large mail systems, and news systems.
 	  Keeping this option on will generally not reduce
 	  performance, even with the wasted memory, but one should
 	  experiment to find out.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>vfs.write_behind</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>vfs.write_behind</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>vfs.write_behind</varname> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  variable
 	  defaults to <literal>1</literal> (on).  This tells the file
 	  system to issue media writes as full clusters are collected,
 	  which typically occurs when writing large sequential files.
 	  This avoids saturating the buffer cache with dirty buffers
 	  when it would not benefit I/O performance.  However, this
 	  may stall processes and under certain circumstances should
 	  be turned off.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>vfs.hirunningspace</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>vfs.hirunningspace</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>vfs.hirunningspace</varname> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  variable determines how much outstanding write I/O may be
 	  queued to disk controllers system-wide at any given
 	  instance.  The default is usually sufficient, but on
 	  machines with many disks, try bumping it up to four or five
 	  <emphasis>megabytes</emphasis>.  Setting too high a value
 	  which exceeds the buffer cache's write threshold can lead
 	  to bad clustering performance.  Do not set this value
 	  arbitrarily high as higher write values may add latency to
 	  reads occurring at the same time.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">There are various other buffer cache and
 	  <acronym>VM</acronym> page cache related <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  values.  Modifying these values is not recommended as the
 	  <acronym>VM</acronym> system does a good job of
 	  automatically tuning itself.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>vm.swap_idle_enabled</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>vm.swap_idle_enabled</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>vm.swap_idle_enabled</varname>
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable is useful in large multi-user
 	  systems with many active login users and lots of idle
 	  processes.  Such systems tend to generate continuous
 	  pressure on free memory reserves.  Turning this feature on
 	  and tweaking the swapout hysteresis (in idle seconds) via
 	  <varname>vm.swap_idle_threshold1</varname> and
 	  <varname>vm.swap_idle_threshold2</varname> depresses the
 	  priority of memory pages associated with idle processes more
 	  quickly then the normal pageout algorithm.  This gives a
 	  helping hand to the pageout daemon.  Only turn this option
 	  on if needed, because the tradeoff is essentially pre-page
 	  memory sooner rather than later which eats more swap and
 	  disk bandwidth.  In a small system this option will have a
 	  determinable effect, but in a large system that is already
 	  doing moderate paging, this option allows the
 	  <acronym>VM</acronym> system to stage whole processes into
 	  and out of memory easily.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>hw.ata.wc</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>hw.ata.wc</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Turning off <acronym>IDE</acronym> write caching reduces
 	  write bandwidth to <acronym>IDE</acronym> disks, but may
 	  sometimes be necessary due to data consistency issues
 	  introduced by hard drive vendors.  The problem is that
 	  some <acronym>IDE</acronym> drives lie about when a write
 	  completes.  With <acronym>IDE</acronym> write caching
 	  turned on, <acronym>IDE</acronym> hard drives write data
 	  to disk out of order and will sometimes delay writing some
 	  blocks indefinitely when under heavy disk load.  A crash or
 	  power failure may cause serious file system corruption.
 	  Check the default on the system by observing the
 	  <varname>hw.ata.wc</varname> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable.  If
 	  <acronym>IDE</acronym> write caching is turned off, one can
 	  set this read-only variable to
 	  <literal>1</literal> in
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> in order to enable
 	  it at boot time.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For more information, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ata</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><literal>SCSI_DELAY</literal>
 	  (<varname>kern.cam.scsi_delay</varname>)</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>kern.cam.scsi_delay</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary><literal>SCSI DELAY</literal></secondary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>SCSI_DELAY</literal> kernel configuration
 	  option may be used to reduce system boot times.  The
 	  defaults are fairly high and can be responsible for
 	  <literal>15</literal> seconds of delay in the boot process.
 	  Reducing it to <literal>5</literal> seconds usually works
 	  with modern drives.  The
 	  <varname>kern.cam.scsi_delay</varname> boot time tunable
 	  should be used.  The tunable and kernel configuration
 	  option accept values in terms of
 	  <emphasis>milliseconds</emphasis> and
 	  <emphasis>not</emphasis>
 	  <emphasis>seconds</emphasis>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="soft-updates">
       <title>軟更新</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Soft Updates</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To fine-tune a file system, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This
 	program has many different options.  To toggle Soft Updates
 	on and off, use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tunefs -n enable /filesystem</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tunefs -n disable /filesystem</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A file system cannot be modified with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> while
 	it is mounted.  A good time to enable Soft Updates is before
 	any partitions have been mounted, in single-user mode.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Soft Updates is recommended for <acronym>UFS</acronym>
 	file systems as it drastically improves meta-data performance,
 	mainly file creation and deletion, through the use of a memory
 	cache.  There are two downsides to Soft Updates to be aware
 	of.  First, Soft Updates guarantee file system consistency
 	in the case of a crash, but could easily be several seconds
 	or even a minute behind updating the physical disk.  If the
 	system crashes, unwritten data may be lost.  Secondly, Soft
 	Updates delay the freeing of file system blocks.  If the
 	root file system is almost full, performing a major update,
 	such as <command>make installworld</command>, can cause the
 	file system to run out of space and the update to fail.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>有關軟更新的更多詳細資訊</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>Soft Updates</primary>
 	  <secondary>details</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Meta-data updates are updates to non-content data like
 	  inodes or directories.  There are two traditional approaches
 	  to writing a file system's meta-data back to disk.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Historically, the default behavior was to write out
 	  meta-data updates synchronously.  If a directory changed,
 	  the system waited until the change was actually written to
 	  disk.  The file data buffers (file contents) were passed
 	  through the buffer cache and backed up to disk later on
 	  asynchronously.  The advantage of this implementation is
 	  that it operates safely.  If there is a failure during an
 	  update, meta-data is always in a consistent state.  A
 	  file is either created completely or not at all.  If the
 	  data blocks of a file did not find their way out of the
 	  buffer cache onto the disk by the time of the crash,
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> recognizes this and repairs the file system
 	  by setting the file length to <literal>0</literal>.
 	  Additionally, the implementation is clear and simple.  The
 	  disadvantage is that meta-data changes are slow.  For
 	  example, <command>rm -r</command> touches all the files in a
 	  directory sequentially, but each directory change will be
 	  written synchronously to the disk.  This includes updates to
 	  the directory itself, to the inode table, and possibly to
 	  indirect blocks allocated by the file.  Similar
 	  considerations apply for unrolling large hierarchies using
 	  <command>tar -x</command>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The second approach is to use asynchronous meta-data
 	  updates.  This is the default for a <acronym>UFS</acronym>
 	  file system mounted with <command>mount -o async</command>.
 	  Since all meta-data updates are also passed through the
 	  buffer cache, they will be intermixed with the updates of
 	  the file content data.  The advantage of this
 	  implementation is there is no need to wait until each
 	  meta-data update has been written to disk, so all operations
 	  which cause huge amounts of meta-data updates work much
 	  faster than in the synchronous case.  This implementation
 	  is still clear and simple, so there is a low risk for bugs
 	  creeping into the code.  The disadvantage is that there is
 	  no guarantee for a consistent state of the file system.
 	  If there is a failure during an operation that updated
 	  large amounts of meta-data, like a power failure or someone
 	  pressing the reset button, the file system will be left
 	  in an unpredictable state.  There is no opportunity to
 	  examine the state of the file system when the system comes
 	  up again as the data blocks of a file could already have
 	  been written to the disk while the updates of the inode
 	  table or the associated directory were not.  It is
 	  impossible to implement a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> which is able to
 	  clean up the resulting chaos because the necessary
 	  information is not available on the disk.  If the file
 	  system has been damaged beyond repair, the only choice
 	  is to reformat it and restore from backup.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The usual solution for this problem is to implement
 	  <emphasis>dirty region logging</emphasis>, which is also
 	  referred to as <emphasis>journaling</emphasis>.
 	  Meta-data updates are still written synchronously, but only
 	  into a small region of the disk.  Later on, they are moved
 	  to their proper location.  Because the logging area is a
 	  small, contiguous region on the disk, there are no long
 	  distances for the disk heads to move, even during heavy
 	  operations, so these operations are quicker than synchronous
 	  updates.  Additionally, the complexity of the implementation
 	  is limited, so the risk of bugs being present is low.  A
 	  disadvantage is that all meta-data is written twice, once
 	  into the logging region and once to the proper location, so
 	  performance <quote>pessimization</quote> might result.  On
 	  the other hand, in case of a crash, all pending meta-data
 	  operations can be either quickly rolled back or completed
 	  from the logging area after the system comes up again,
 	  resulting in a fast file system startup.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Kirk McKusick, the developer of Berkeley
 	  <acronym>FFS</acronym>, solved this problem with Soft
 	  Updates.  All pending meta-data updates are kept in memory
 	  and written out to disk in a sorted sequence
 	  (<quote>ordered meta-data updates</quote>).  This has the
 	  effect that, in case of heavy meta-data operations, later
 	  updates to an item <quote>catch</quote> the earlier ones
 	  which are still in memory and have not already been written
 	  to disk.  All operations are generally performed in memory
 	  before the update is written to disk and the data blocks are
 	  sorted according to their position so that they will not be
 	  on the disk ahead of their meta-data.  If the system
 	  crashes, an implicit <quote>log rewind</quote> causes all
 	  operations which were not written to the disk appear as if
 	  they never happened.  A consistent file system state is
 	  maintained that appears to be the one of 30 to 60 seconds
 	  earlier.  The algorithm used guarantees that all resources
 	  in use are marked as such in their blocks and inodes.
 	  After a crash, the only resource allocation error that
 	  occurs is that resources are marked as <quote>used</quote>
 	  which are actually <quote>free</quote>.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  recognizes this situation, and frees the resources that
 	  are no longer used.  It is safe to ignore the dirty state
 	  of the file system after a crash by forcibly mounting it
 	  with <command>mount -f</command>.  In order to free
 	  resources that may be unused, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> needs to be run
 	  at a later time.  This is the idea behind the
 	  <emphasis>background <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></emphasis>: at system
 	  startup time, only a <emphasis>snapshot</emphasis> of the
 	  file system is recorded and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is run afterwards.
 	  All file systems can then be mounted
 	  <quote>dirty</quote>, so the system startup proceeds in
 	  multi-user mode.  Then, background <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is
 	  scheduled for all file systems where this is required, to
 	  free resources that may be unused.  File systems that do
 	  not use Soft Updates still need the usual foreground
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The advantage is that meta-data operations are nearly
 	  as fast as asynchronous updates and are faster than
 	  <emphasis>logging</emphasis>, which has to write the
 	  meta-data twice.  The disadvantages are the complexity of
 	  the code, a higher memory consumption, and some
 	  idiosyncrasies.  After a crash, the state of the file
 	  system appears to be somewhat <quote>older</quote>.  In
 	  situations where the standard synchronous approach would
 	  have caused some zero-length files to remain after the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, these files do not exist at all with Soft
 	  Updates because neither the meta-data nor the file contents
 	  have been written to disk.  Disk space is not released until
 	  the updates have been written to disk, which may take place
 	  some time after running <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This may cause problems
 	  when installing large amounts of data on a file system
 	  that does not have enough free space to hold all the files
 	  twice.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="configtuning-kernel-limits">
     <title>調校核心限制</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>tuning</primary>
       <secondary>kernel limits</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="file-process-limits">
       <title>檔案/程序限制</title>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="kern-maxfiles">
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>kern.maxfiles</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>kern.maxfiles</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>kern.maxfiles</varname> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  variable can be raised or lowered based upon system
 	  requirements.  This variable indicates the maximum number
 	  of file descriptors on the system.  When the file descriptor
 	  table is full, <errorname>file: table is full</errorname>
 	  will show up repeatedly in the system message buffer, which
 	  can be viewed using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dmesg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file
 	  descriptor.  A large-scale production server may easily
 	  require many thousands of file descriptors, depending on the
 	  kind and number of services running concurrently.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In older FreeBSD releases, the default value of
 	  <varname>kern.maxfiles</varname> is derived from
 	  <option>maxusers</option> in the kernel configuration file.
 	  <varname>kern.maxfiles</varname> grows proportionally to the
 	  value of <option>maxusers</option>.  When compiling a custom
 	  kernel, consider setting this kernel configuration option
 	  according to the use of the system.  From this number, the
 	  kernel is given most of its pre-defined limits.  Even though
 	  a production machine may not have 256 concurrent users, the
 	  resources needed may be similar to a high-scale web
 	  server.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The read-only <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable
 	  <varname>kern.maxusers</varname> is automatically sized at
 	  boot based on the amount of memory available in the system,
 	  and may be determined at run-time by inspecting the value
 	  of <varname>kern.maxusers</varname>.  Some systems require
 	  larger or smaller values of
 	  <varname>kern.maxusers</varname> and values of
 	  <literal>64</literal>, <literal>128</literal>, and
 	  <literal>256</literal> are not uncommon.  Going above
 	  <literal>256</literal> is not recommended  unless a huge
 	  number of file descriptors is needed.  Many of the tunable
 	  values set to their defaults by
 	  <varname>kern.maxusers</varname> may be individually
 	  overridden at boot-time or run-time in
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  Refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	  <filename>/boot/defaults/loader.conf</filename> for more
 	  details and some hints.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In older releases, the system will auto-tune
 	  <literal>maxusers</literal> if it is set to
 	  <literal>0</literal>.
 	  <footnote><para xml:lang="en">The auto-tuning algorithm sets
 	      <literal>maxusers</literal> equal to the amount of
 	      memory in the system, with a minimum of
 	      <literal>32</literal>, and a maximum of
 	      <literal>384</literal>.</para></footnote>.  When
 	  setting this option, set <literal>maxusers</literal> to
 	  at least <literal>4</literal>, especially if the system
 	  runs <application>Xorg</application> or is used to
 	  compile software.  The most important table set by
 	  <literal>maxusers</literal> is the maximum number of
 	  processes, which is set to
 	  <literal>20 + 16 * maxusers</literal>.  If
 	  <literal>maxusers</literal> is set to <literal>1</literal>,
 	  there can only be
 	  <literal>36</literal> simultaneous processes, including
 	  the <literal>18</literal> or so that the system starts up
 	  at boot time and the <literal>15</literal> or so used by
 	  <application>Xorg</application>.  Even a simple task like
 	  reading a manual page will start up nine processes to
 	  filter, decompress, and view it.  Setting
 	  <literal>maxusers</literal> to <literal>64</literal> allows
 	  up to <literal>1044</literal> simultaneous processes, which
 	  should be enough for nearly all uses.  If, however, the
 	  <errortype>proc table full</errortype> error is displayed
 	  when trying to start another program, or a server is
 	  running with a large number of simultaneous users, increase
 	  the number and rebuild.</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>maxusers</literal> does
 	    <emphasis>not</emphasis> limit the number of users which
 	    can log into the machine.  It instead sets various table
 	    sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number
 	    of users on the system and how many processes each user
 	    will be running.</para>
 	</note>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>kern.ipc.soacceptqueue</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><varname>kern.ipc.soacceptqueue</varname></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>kern.ipc.soacceptqueue</varname>
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable limits the size of the listen queue
 	  for accepting new <literal>TCP</literal> connections.  The
 	  default value of <literal>128</literal> is typically too low
 	  for robust handling of new connections on a heavily loaded
 	  web server.  For such environments, it is recommended to
 	  increase this value to <literal>1024</literal> or higher.  A
 	  service such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendmail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, or
 	  <application>Apache</application> may itself limit the
 	  listen queue size, but will often have a directive in its
 	  configuration file to adjust the queue size.  Large listen
 	  queues do a better job of avoiding Denial of Service
 	  (<acronym>DoS</acronym>) attacks.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="nmbclusters">
       <title>網路限制</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>NMBCLUSTERS</literal> kernel configuration
 	option dictates the amount of network Mbufs available to the
 	system.  A heavily-trafficked server with a low number of
 	Mbufs will hinder performance.  Each cluster represents
 	approximately 2 K of memory, so a value of
 	<literal>1024</literal> represents <literal>2</literal>
 	megabytes of kernel memory reserved for network buffers.  A
 	simple calculation can be done to figure out how many are
 	needed.  A web server which maxes out at
 	<literal>1000</literal> simultaneous connections where each
 	connection uses a 6 K receive and 16 K send buffer,
 	requires approximately 32 MB worth of network buffers
 	to cover the web server.  A good rule of thumb is to multiply
 	by <literal>2</literal>, so
 	2x32 MB / 2 KB =
 	64 MB / 2 kB =
 	<literal>32768</literal>.  Values between
 	<literal>4096</literal> and <literal>32768</literal> are
 	recommended for machines with greater amounts of memory.
 	Never specify an arbitrarily high value for this parameter
 	as it could lead to a boot time crash.  To observe network
 	cluster usage, use <option>-m</option> with
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>netstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <varname>kern.ipc.nmbclusters</varname> loader tunable
 	should be used to tune this at boot time.  Only older versions
 	of FreeBSD will require the use of the
 	<literal>NMBCLUSTERS</literal> kernel <citerefentry><refentrytitle>config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	option.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For busy servers that make extensive use of the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendfile</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> system call, it may be necessary to increase
 	the number of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendfile</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> buffers via the
 	<literal>NSFBUFS</literal> kernel configuration option or by
 	setting its value in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>
 	(see <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details).  A common indicator that
 	this parameter needs to be adjusted is when processes are seen
 	in the <literal>sfbufa</literal> state.  The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	variable <varname>kern.ipc.nsfbufs</varname> is read-only.
 	This parameter nominally scales with
 	<varname>kern.maxusers</varname>, however it may be necessary
 	to tune accordingly.</para>
 
       <important>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Even though a socket has been marked as non-blocking,
 	  calling <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendfile</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> on the non-blocking socket may
 	  result in the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sendfile</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> call blocking until enough
 	  <literal>struct sf_buf</literal>'s are made
 	  available.</para>
       </important>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.*</varname></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>net.inet.ip.portrange.*</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.*</varname>
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variables control the port number ranges
 	  automatically bound to <literal>TCP</literal> and
 	  <literal>UDP</literal> sockets.  There are three ranges: a
 	  low range, a default range, and a high range.  Most network
 	  programs use the default range which is controlled by
 	  <varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.first</varname> and
 	  <varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.last</varname>, which default
 	  to <literal>1024</literal> and <literal>5000</literal>,
 	  respectively.  Bound port ranges are used for outgoing
 	  connections and it is possible to run the system out of
 	  ports under certain circumstances.  This most commonly
 	  occurs when running a heavily loaded web proxy.  The port
 	  range is not an issue when running a server which handles
 	  mainly incoming connections, such as a web server, or has
 	  a limited number of outgoing connections, such as a mail
 	  relay.  For situations where there is a shortage of ports,
 	  it is recommended to increase
 	  <varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.last</varname> modestly.  A
 	  value of <literal>10000</literal>, <literal>20000</literal>
 	  or <literal>30000</literal> may be reasonable.  Consider
 	  firewall effects when changing the port range.  Some
 	  firewalls may block large ranges of ports, usually
 	  low-numbered ports, and expect systems to use higher ranges
 	  of ports for outgoing connections.  For this reason, it
 	  is not recommended that the value of
 	  <varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.first</varname> be
 	  lowered.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title><literal>TCP</literal> 頻寬延遲乘積</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><literal>TCP</literal> Bandwidth Delay Product
 	      Limiting</primary>
 	  <secondary><varname>net.inet.tcp.inflight.enable</varname></secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>TCP</literal> bandwidth delay product limiting
 	  can be enabled by setting the
 	  <varname>net.inet.tcp.inflight.enable</varname>
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable to <literal>1</literal>.  This
 	  instructs the system to attempt to calculate the bandwidth
 	  delay product for each connection and limit the amount of
 	  data queued to the network to just the amount required to
 	  maintain optimum throughput.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This feature is useful when serving data over modems,
 	  Gigabit Ethernet, high speed <literal>WAN</literal> links,
 	  or any other link with a high bandwidth delay product,
 	  especially when also using window scaling or when a large
 	  send window has been configured.  When enabling this option,
 	  also set <varname>net.inet.tcp.inflight.debug</varname> to
 	  <literal>0</literal> to disable debugging.  For production
 	  use, setting <varname>net.inet.tcp.inflight.min</varname>
 	  to at least <literal>6144</literal> may be beneficial.
 	  Setting high minimums may effectively disable bandwidth
 	  limiting, depending on the link.  The limiting feature
 	  reduces the amount of data built up in intermediate route
 	  and switch packet queues and reduces the amount of data
 	  built up in the local host's interface queue.  With fewer
 	  queued packets, interactive connections, especially over
 	  slow modems, will operate with lower
 	  <emphasis>Round Trip Times</emphasis>.  This feature only
 	  effects server side data transmission such as uploading.
 	  It has no effect on data reception or downloading.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Adjusting <varname>net.inet.tcp.inflight.stab</varname>
 	  is <emphasis>not</emphasis> recommended.  This parameter
 	  defaults to <literal>20</literal>, representing 2 maximal
 	  packets added to the bandwidth delay product window
 	  calculation.  The additional window is required to stabilize
 	  the algorithm and improve responsiveness to changing
 	  conditions, but it can also result in higher <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  times over slow links, though still much lower than without
 	  the inflight algorithm.  In such cases, try reducing this
 	  parameter to <literal>15</literal>, <literal>10</literal>,
 	  or <literal>5</literal> and reducing
 	  <varname>net.inet.tcp.inflight.min</varname> to a value such
 	  as <literal>3500</literal> to get the desired effect.
 	  Reducing these parameters should be done as a last resort
 	  only.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>虛擬記憶體</title>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><varname>kern.maxvnodes</varname></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A vnode is the internal representation of a file or
 	  directory.  Increasing the number of vnodes available to
 	  the operating system reduces disk I/O.  Normally, this is
 	  handled by the operating system and does not need to be
 	  changed.  In some cases where disk I/O is a bottleneck and
 	  the system is running out of vnodes, this setting needs
 	  to be increased.  The amount of inactive and free
 	  <acronym>RAM</acronym> will need to be taken into
 	  account.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To see the current number of vnodes in use:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl vfs.numvnodes</userinput>
 vfs.numvnodes: 91349</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To see the maximum vnodes:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl kern.maxvnodes</userinput>
 kern.maxvnodes: 100000</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the current vnode usage is near the maximum, try
 	  increasing <varname>kern.maxvnodes</varname> by a value of
 	  <literal>1000</literal>.  Keep an eye on the number of
 	  <varname>vfs.numvnodes</varname>.  If it climbs up to the
 	  maximum again, <varname>kern.maxvnodes</varname> will need
 	  to be increased further.  Otherwise, a shift in memory
 	  usage as reported by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> should be visible and
 	  more memory should be active.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="adding-swap-space">
     <title>增加交換空間</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Sometimes a system requires more swap space.  This section
       describes two methods to increase swap space: adding swap to an
       existing partition or new hard drive, and creating a swap file
       on an existing partition.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For information on how to encrypt swap space, which options
       exist, and why it should be done, refer to <xref linkend="swap-encrypting"/>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="new-drive-swap">
       <title>使用新硬碟或既有分割區增加交換空間</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Adding a new hard drive for swap gives better performance
 	than using a partition on an existing drive.  Setting up
 	partitions and hard drives is explained in <xref linkend="disks-adding"/> while <xref linkend="configtuning-initial"/> discusses partition layouts
 	and swap partition size considerations.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <command>swapon</command> to add a swap partition to
 	the system.  For example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>swapon <replaceable>/dev/ada1s1b</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is possible to use any partition not currently
 	  mounted, even if it already contains data.  Using
 	  <command>swapon</command> on a partition that contains data
 	  will overwrite and destroy that data.  Make sure that the
 	  partition to be added as swap is really the intended
 	  partition before running <command>swapon</command>.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To automatically add this swap partition on boot, add an
 	entry to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"><replaceable>/dev/ada1s1b</replaceable>	none	swap	sw	0	0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for an explanation of the entries in
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  More information about
 	<command>swapon</command> can be found in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>swapon</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="create-swapfile">
       <title>建立交換檔</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These examples create a 64M swap file called
 	<filename>/usr/swap0</filename> instead of using a
 	partition.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Using swap files requires that the module needed by
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>md</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> has either been built into the kernel or has been
 	loaded before swap is enabled.  See
 	<xref linkend="kernelconfig"/> for information about building
 	a custom kernel.</para>
 
       <example xml:id="swapfile-10-and-later">
 	<title>建立交換檔於 FreeBSD 10.<replaceable>X</replaceable> 及以後版本</title>
 
 	<procedure>
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Create the swap file:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=<replaceable>/usr/swap0</replaceable> bs=1m count=<replaceable>64</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Set the proper permissions on the new file:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 0600 <replaceable>/usr/swap0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Inform the system about the swap file by adding a
 	      line to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">md99	none	swap	sw,file=/usr/swap0,late	0	0</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>md</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> device <filename>md99</filename> is
 	      used, leaving lower device numbers available for
 	      interactive use.</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Swap space will be added on system startup.  To add
 	      swap space immediately, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>swapon</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>swapon -aL</userinput></screen>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
       </example>
 
       <example xml:id="swapfile-9-and-earlier">
 	<title>建立交換檔於 FreeBSD 9.<replaceable>X</replaceable> 及先前版本</title>
 
 	<procedure>
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Create the swap file,
 	      <filename>/usr/swap0</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=<replaceable>/usr/swap0</replaceable> bs=1m count=<replaceable>64</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Set the proper permissions on
 	      <filename>/usr/swap0</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 0600 <replaceable>/usr/swap0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Enable the swap file in
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">swapfile="<replaceable>/usr/swap0</replaceable>"   # Set to name of swap file</programlisting>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Swap space will be added on system startup.  To
 	      enable the swap file immediately, specify a free memory
 	      device.  Refer to <xref linkend="disks-virtual"/> for
 	      more information about memory devices.</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -a -t vnode -f <replaceable>/usr/swap0</replaceable> -u <replaceable>0</replaceable> &amp;&amp; swapon /dev/md<replaceable>0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
       </example>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="acpi-overview">
     <info>
       <title>電源與資源管理</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Hiten</firstname>
 	    <surname>Pandya</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is important to utilize hardware resources in an
       efficient manner.  Power and resource management allows the
       operating system to monitor system limits and to possibly
       provide an alert if the system temperature increases
       unexpectedly.  An early specification for providing power
       management was the Advanced Power Management
       (<acronym>APM</acronym>) facility.  <acronym>APM</acronym>
       controls the power usage of a system based on its activity.
       However, it was difficult and inflexible for operating systems
       to manage the power usage and thermal properties of a system.
       The hardware was managed by the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> and the
       user had limited configurability and visibility into the power
       management settings.  The <acronym>APM</acronym>
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym> is supplied by the vendor and is
       specific to the hardware platform.  An <acronym>APM</acronym>
       driver in the operating system mediates access to the
       <acronym>APM</acronym> Software Interface, which allows
       management of power levels.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are four major problems in <acronym>APM</acronym>.
       First, power management is done by the vendor-specific
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym>, separate from the operating system.
       For example, the user can set idle-time values for a hard drive
       in the <acronym>APM</acronym> <acronym>BIOS</acronym> so that,
       when exceeded, the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> spins down the hard
       drive without the consent of the operating system.  Second, the
       <acronym>APM</acronym> logic is embedded in the
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym>, and it operates outside the scope of
       the operating system.  This means that users can only fix
       problems in the <acronym>APM</acronym>
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym> by flashing a new one into the
       <acronym>ROM</acronym>, which is a dangerous procedure with the
       potential to leave the system in an unrecoverable state if it
       fails.  Third, <acronym>APM</acronym> is a vendor-specific
       technology, meaning that there is a lot of duplication of
       efforts and bugs found in one vendor's <acronym>BIOS</acronym>
       may not be solved in others.  Lastly, the <acronym>APM</acronym>
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym> did not have enough room to implement a
       sophisticated power policy or one that can adapt well to the
       purpose of the machine.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The Plug and Play <acronym>BIOS</acronym>
       (<acronym>PNPBIOS</acronym>) was unreliable in many situations.
       <acronym>PNPBIOS</acronym> is 16-bit technology, so the
       operating system has to use 16-bit emulation in order to
       interface with <acronym>PNPBIOS</acronym> methods.  FreeBSD
       provides an <acronym>APM</acronym> driver as
       <acronym>APM</acronym> should still be used for systems
       manufactured at or before the year 2000.  The driver is
       documented in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>apm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>ACPI</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>APM</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The successor to <acronym>APM</acronym> is the Advanced
       Configuration and Power Interface (<acronym>ACPI</acronym>).
       <acronym>ACPI</acronym> is a standard written by an alliance of
       vendors to provide an interface for hardware resources and power
       management.  It is a key element in <emphasis>Operating
 	System-directed configuration and Power Management</emphasis>
       as it provides more control and flexibility to the operating
       system.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter demonstrates how to configure
       <acronym>ACPI</acronym> on FreeBSD.  It then offers some tips on
       how to debug <acronym>ACPI</acronym> and how to submit a problem
       report containing debugging information so that developers can
       diagnosis and fix <acronym>ACPI</acronym> issues.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="acpi-config">
       <title>設定 <acronym>ACPI</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver is loaded by default at
 	system boot and should <emphasis>not</emphasis> be compiled
 	into the kernel.  This driver cannot be unloaded after boot
 	because the system bus uses it for various hardware
 	interactions.  However, if the system is experiencing
 	problems, <acronym>ACPI</acronym> can be disabled altogether
 	by rebooting after setting
 	<literal>hint.acpi.0.disabled="1"</literal> in
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> or by setting this
 	variable at the loader prompt, as described in <xref linkend="boot-loader"/>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACPI</acronym> and <acronym>APM</acronym>
 	  cannot coexist and should be used separately.  The last one
 	  to load will terminate if the driver notices the other is
 	  running.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACPI</acronym> can be used to put the system into
 	a sleep mode with <command>acpiconf</command>, the
 	<option>-s</option> flag, and a number from
 	<literal>1</literal> to <literal>5</literal>.  Most users only
 	need <literal>1</literal> (quick suspend to
 	<acronym>RAM</acronym>) or <literal>3</literal> (suspend to
 	<acronym>RAM</acronym>).  Option <literal>5</literal> performs
 	a soft-off which is the same as running
 	<command>halt -p</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other options are available using
 	<command>sysctl</command>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	<citerefentry vendor="current"><refentrytitle>acpiconf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ACPI-comprob">
       <title>常見問題</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>ACPI</acronym></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACPI</acronym> is present in all modern computers
 	that conform to the ia32 (x86), ia64 (Itanium), and amd64
 	(<acronym>AMD</acronym>) architectures.  The full standard has
 	many features including <acronym>CPU</acronym> performance
 	management, power planes control, thermal zones, various
 	battery systems, embedded controllers, and bus enumeration.
 	Most systems implement less than the full standard.  For
 	instance, a desktop system usually only implements bus
 	enumeration while a laptop might have cooling and battery
 	management support as well.  Laptops also have suspend and
 	resume, with their own associated complexity.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>ACPI</acronym>-compliant system has various
 	components.  The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> and chipset vendors
 	provide various fixed tables, such as <acronym>FADT</acronym>,
 	in memory that specify things like the <acronym>APIC</acronym>
 	map (used for <acronym>SMP</acronym>), config registers, and
 	simple configuration values.  Additionally, a bytecode table,
 	the Differentiated System Description Table
 	<acronym>DSDT</acronym>, specifies a tree-like name space of
 	devices and methods.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>ACPI</acronym> driver must parse the fixed
 	tables, implement an interpreter for the bytecode, and modify
 	device drivers and the kernel to accept information from the
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> subsystem.  For FreeBSD, <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> has
 	provided an interpreter (<acronym>ACPI-CA</acronym>) that is
 	shared with <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> and NetBSD.  The path to the
 	<acronym>ACPI-CA</acronym> source code is
 	<filename>src/sys/contrib/dev/acpica</filename>.  The glue
 	code that allows <acronym>ACPI-CA</acronym> to work on FreeBSD is
 	in <filename>src/sys/dev/acpica/Osd</filename>.  Finally,
 	drivers that implement various <acronym>ACPI</acronym> devices
 	are found in <filename>src/sys/dev/acpica</filename>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ACPI</primary>
 	<secondary>problems</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For <acronym>ACPI</acronym> to work correctly, all the
 	parts have to work correctly.  Here are some common problems,
 	in order of frequency of appearance, and some possible
 	workarounds or fixes.  If a fix does not resolve the issue,
 	refer to <xref linkend="ACPI-submitdebug"/> for instructions
 	on how to submit a bug report.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>滑鼠問題</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In some cases, resuming from a suspend operation will
 	  cause the mouse to fail.  A known work around is to add
 	  <literal>hint.psm.0.flags="0x3000"</literal> to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>待機/喚醒</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACPI</acronym> has three suspend to
 	  <acronym>RAM</acronym> (<acronym>STR</acronym>) states,
 	  <literal>S1</literal>-<literal>S3</literal>, and one suspend
 	  to disk state (<acronym>STD</acronym>), called
 	  <literal>S4</literal>.  <acronym>STD</acronym> can be
 	  implemented in two separate ways.  The
 	  <literal>S4</literal><acronym>BIOS</acronym> is a
 	  <acronym>BIOS</acronym>-assisted suspend to disk and
 	  <literal>S4</literal><acronym>OS</acronym> is implemented
 	  entirely by the operating system.  The normal state the
 	  system is in when plugged in but not powered up is
 	  <quote>soft off</quote> (<literal>S5</literal>).</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use <command>sysctl hw.acpi</command> to check for the
 	  suspend-related items.  These example results are from a
 	  Thinkpad:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">hw.acpi.supported_sleep_state: S3 S4 S5
 hw.acpi.s4bios: 0</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use <command>acpiconf -s</command> to test
 	  <literal>S3</literal>, <literal>S4</literal>, and
 	  <literal>S5</literal>.  An <option>s4bios</option> of one
 	  (<literal>1</literal>) indicates
 	  <literal>S4</literal><acronym>BIOS</acronym> support instead
 	  of <literal>S4</literal> operating system support.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When testing suspend/resume, start with
 	  <literal>S1</literal>, if supported.  This state is most
 	  likely to work since it does not require much driver
 	  support.  No one has implemented <literal>S2</literal>,
 	  which is similar to <literal>S1</literal>.  Next, try
 	  <literal>S3</literal>.  This is the deepest
 	  <acronym>STR</acronym> state and requires a lot of driver
 	  support to properly reinitialize the hardware.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A common problem with suspend/resume is that many device
 	  drivers do not save, restore, or reinitialize their
 	  firmware, registers, or device memory properly.  As a first
 	  attempt at debugging the problem, try:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl debug.bootverbose=1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl debug.acpi.suspend_bounce=1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>acpiconf -s 3</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This test emulates the suspend/resume cycle of all
 	  device drivers without actually going into
 	  <literal>S3</literal> state.  In some cases, problems such
 	  as losing firmware state, device watchdog time out, and
 	  retrying forever, can be captured with this method.  Note
 	  that the system will not really enter <literal>S3</literal>
 	  state, which means devices may not lose power, and many
 	  will work fine even if suspend/resume methods are totally
 	  missing, unlike real <literal>S3</literal> state.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Harder cases require additional hardware, such as a
 	  serial port and cable for debugging through a serial
 	  console, a Firewire port and cable for using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dcons</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	  and kernel debugging skills.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To help isolate the problem, unload as many drivers as
 	  possible.  If it works, narrow down which driver is the
 	  problem by loading drivers until it fails again.  Typically,
 	  binary drivers like <filename>nvidia.ko</filename>, display
 	  drivers, and <acronym>USB</acronym> will have the most
 	  problems while Ethernet interfaces usually work fine.  If
 	  drivers can be properly loaded and unloaded, automate this
 	  by putting the appropriate commands in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.suspend</filename> and
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.resume</filename>.  Try setting
 	  <option>hw.acpi.reset_video</option> to <literal>1</literal>
 	  if the display is messed up after resume.  Try setting
 	  longer or shorter values for
 	  <option>hw.acpi.sleep_delay</option> to see if that
 	  helps.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Try loading a recent <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> distribution to see if
 	  suspend/resume works on the same hardware.  If it works on
 	  <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>, it is likely a FreeBSD driver problem.  Narrowing down
 	  which driver causes the problem will assist developers in
 	  fixing the problem.  Since the <acronym>ACPI</acronym>
 	  maintainers rarely maintain other drivers, such as sound
 	  or <acronym>ATA</acronym>, any driver problems should also
 	  be posted to the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">freebsd-current</link> list and mailed to the
 	  driver maintainer.  Advanced users can include debugging
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>printf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>s in a problematic driver to track down where
 	  in its resume function it hangs.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Finally, try disabling <acronym>ACPI</acronym> and
 	  enabling <acronym>APM</acronym> instead.  If suspend/resume
 	  works with <acronym>APM</acronym>, stick with
 	  <acronym>APM</acronym>, especially on older hardware
 	  (pre-2000).  It took vendors a while to get
 	  <acronym>ACPI</acronym> support correct and older hardware
 	  is more likely to have <acronym>BIOS</acronym> problems with
 	  <acronym>ACPI</acronym>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>系統無回應</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Most system hangs are a result of lost interrupts or an
 	  interrupt storm.  Chipsets may have problems based on boot,
 	  how the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> configures interrupts before
 	  correctness of the <acronym>APIC</acronym>
 	  (<acronym>MADT</acronym>) table, and routing of the System
 	  Control Interrupt (<acronym>SCI</acronym>).</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>interrupt storms</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Interrupt storms can be distinguished from lost
 	  interrupts by checking the output of
 	  <command>vmstat -i</command> and looking at the line that
 	  has <literal>acpi0</literal>.  If the counter is increasing
 	  at more than a couple per second, there is an interrupt
 	  storm.  If the system appears hung, try breaking to
 	  <acronym>DDB</acronym> (<keycombo action="simul">
 	    <keycap>CTRL</keycap>
 	    <keycap>ALT</keycap>
 	    <keycap>ESC</keycap>
 	  </keycombo> on console) and type
 	  <literal>show interrupts</literal>.</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>APIC</primary>
 	  <secondary>disabling</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When dealing with interrupt problems, try disabling
 	  <acronym>APIC</acronym> support with
 	  <literal>hint.apic.0.disabled="1"</literal> in
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>當機</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Panics are relatively rare for <acronym>ACPI</acronym>
 	  and are the top priority to be fixed.  The first step is to
 	  isolate the steps to reproduce the panic, if possible, and
 	  get a backtrace.  Follow the advice for enabling
 	  <literal>options DDB</literal> and setting up a serial
 	  console in <xref linkend="serialconsole-ddb"/> or setting
 	  up a dump partition.  To get a backtrace in
 	  <acronym>DDB</acronym>, use <literal>tr</literal>.  When
 	  handwriting the backtrace, get at least the last five and
 	  the top five lines in the trace.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then, try to isolate the problem by booting with
 	  <acronym>ACPI</acronym> disabled.  If that works, isolate
 	  the <acronym>ACPI</acronym> subsystem by using various
 	  values of <option>debug.acpi.disable</option>.  See
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for some examples.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>系統在待機或關機後仍開機</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">First, try setting
 	  <literal>hw.acpi.disable_on_poweroff="0"</literal> in
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  This keeps
 	  <acronym>ACPI</acronym> from disabling various events during
 	  the shutdown process.  Some systems need this value set to
 	  <literal>1</literal> (the default) for the same reason.
 	  This usually fixes the problem of a system powering up
 	  spontaneously after a suspend or poweroff.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="ACPI-aslanddump">
 	<title>BIOS 含有有問題的 Bytecode</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><acronym>ACPI</acronym></primary>
 	  <secondary><acronym>ASL</acronym></secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>BIOS</acronym> vendors provide incorrect
 	  or buggy bytecode.  This is usually manifested by kernel
 	  console messages like this:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">ACPI-1287: *** Error: Method execution failed [\\_SB_.PCI0.LPC0.FIGD._STA] \\
 (Node 0xc3f6d160), AE_NOT_FOUND</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Often, these problems may be resolved by updating the
 	  <acronym>BIOS</acronym> to the latest revision.  Most
 	  console messages are harmless, but if there are other
 	  problems, like the battery status is not working, these
 	  messages are a good place to start looking for
 	  problems.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>覆蓋預設的 <acronym>AML</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> bytecode, known as
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> Machine Language
 	(<acronym>AML</acronym>), is compiled from a source language
 	called <acronym>ACPI</acronym> Source Language
 	(<acronym>ASL</acronym>).  The <acronym>AML</acronym> is
 	found in the table known as the Differentiated System
 	Description Table (<acronym>DSDT</acronym>).</para>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>ACPI</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary><acronym>ASL</acronym></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The goal of FreeBSD is for everyone to have working
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> without any user intervention.
 	Workarounds are still being developed for common mistakes made
 	by <acronym>BIOS</acronym>  vendors.  The <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark>
 	interpreter (<filename>acpi.sys</filename> and
 	<filename>acpiec.sys</filename>) does not strictly check for
 	adherence to the standard, and thus many
 	<acronym>BIOS</acronym> vendors who only test
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> under <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> never fix their
 	<acronym>ASL</acronym>.  FreeBSD developers continue to identify
 	and document which non-standard behavior is allowed by
 	<trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark>'s interpreter and replicate it so that FreeBSD can
 	work without forcing users to fix the
 	<acronym>ASL</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To help identify buggy behavior and possibly fix it
 	manually, a copy can be made of the system's
 	<acronym>ASL</acronym>.  To copy the system's
 	<acronym>ASL</acronym> to a specified file name, use
 	<command>acpidump</command> with <option>-t</option>, to show
 	the contents of the fixed tables, and <option>-d</option>, to
 	disassemble the <acronym>AML</acronym>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>acpidump -td &gt; <replaceable>my.asl</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>AML</acronym> versions assume the user is
 	running <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>.  To override this, set
 	<literal>hw.acpi.osname=<replaceable>"Windows
 	  2009"</replaceable></literal> in
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>, using the most recent
 	<trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> version listed in the <acronym>ASL</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other workarounds may require <filename>my.asl</filename>
 	to be customized.  If this file is edited, compile the new
 	<acronym>ASL</acronym> using the following command.  Warnings
 	can usually be ignored, but errors are bugs that will usually
 	prevent <acronym>ACPI</acronym> from working correctly.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>iasl -f <replaceable>my.asl</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Including <option>-f</option> forces creation of the
 	<acronym>AML</acronym>, even if there are errors during
 	compilation.  Some errors, such as missing return statements,
 	are automatically worked around by the FreeBSD
 	interpreter.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default output filename for <command>iasl</command> is
 	<filename>DSDT.aml</filename>.  Load this file instead of the
 	<acronym>BIOS</acronym>'s buggy copy, which is still present
 	in flash memory, by editing
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> as follows:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">acpi_dsdt_load="YES"
 acpi_dsdt_name="/boot/DSDT.aml"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Be sure to copy <filename>DSDT.aml</filename> to
 	<filename>/boot</filename>, then reboot the system.  If this
 	fixes the problem, send a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>diff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> of the old and new
 	<acronym>ASL</acronym> to <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-acpi">freebsd-acpi</link> so that developers can
 	work around the buggy behavior in
 	<filename>acpica</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ACPI-submitdebug">
       <info>
 	<title>取得與回報除錯資訊</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Nate</firstname>
 	      <surname>Lawson</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Peter</firstname>
 	      <surname>Schultz</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>With contributions from </contrib>
 	  </author>
 
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ACPI</primary>
 	<secondary>problems</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ACPI</primary>
 	<secondary>debugging</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>ACPI</acronym> driver has a flexible
 	debugging facility.  A set of subsystems and the level of
 	verbosity can be specified.  The subsystems to debug are
 	specified as layers and are broken down into components
 	(<literal>ACPI_ALL_COMPONENTS</literal>) and
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> hardware support
 	(<literal>ACPI_ALL_DRIVERS</literal>).  The verbosity of
 	debugging output is specified as the level and ranges from
 	just report errors (<literal>ACPI_LV_ERROR</literal>) to
 	everything (<literal>ACPI_LV_VERBOSE</literal>).  The level is
 	a bitmask so multiple options can be set at once, separated by
 	spaces.  In practice, a serial console should be used to log
 	the output so it is not lost as the console message buffer
 	flushes.  A full list of the individual layers and levels is
 	found in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Debugging output is not enabled by default.  To enable it,
 	add <literal>options ACPI_DEBUG</literal> to the custom kernel
 	configuration file if <acronym>ACPI</acronym> is compiled into
 	the kernel.  Add <literal>ACPI_DEBUG=1</literal> to
 	<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> to enable it globally.  If
 	a module is used instead of a custom kernel, recompile just
 	the <filename>acpi.ko</filename> module as follows:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /sys/modules/acpi/acpi &amp;&amp; make clean &amp;&amp; make ACPI_DEBUG=1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Copy the compiled <filename>acpi.ko</filename> to
 	<filename>/boot/kernel</filename> and add the desired level
 	and layer to <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  The
 	entries in this example enable debug messages for all
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> components and hardware drivers and
 	output error messages at the least verbose level:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">debug.acpi.layer="ACPI_ALL_COMPONENTS ACPI_ALL_DRIVERS"
 debug.acpi.level="ACPI_LV_ERROR"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the required information is triggered by a specific
 	event, such as a suspend and then resume, do not modify
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  Instead, use
 	<command>sysctl</command> to specify the layer and level after
 	booting and preparing the system for the specific event.  The
 	variables which can be set using <command>sysctl</command> are
 	named the same as the tunables in
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>ACPI</primary>
 	<secondary>problems</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the debugging information is gathered, it can be sent
 	to <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-acpi">freebsd-acpi</link> so that it can be used by the FreeBSD
 	<acronym>ACPI</acronym> maintainers to identify the root cause
 	of the problem and to develop a solution.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Before submitting debugging information to this mailing
 	  list, ensure the latest <acronym>BIOS</acronym> version is
 	  installed and, if available, the embedded controller
 	  firmware version.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When submitting a problem report, include the following
 	information:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Description of the buggy behavior, including system
 	    type, model, and anything that causes the bug to appear.
 	    Note as accurately as possible when the bug began
 	    occurring if it is new.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The output of <command>dmesg</command> after running
 	    <command>boot -v</command>, including any error messages
 	    generated by the bug.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <command>dmesg</command> output from <command>boot
 	      -v</command> with <acronym>ACPI</acronym> disabled,
 	    if disabling <acronym>ACPI</acronym> helps to fix the
 	    problem.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Output from <command>sysctl hw.acpi</command>.  This
 	    lists which features the system offers.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>URL</acronym> to a pasted version of the
 	    system's <acronym>ASL</acronym>.  Do
 	    <emphasis>not</emphasis> send the <acronym>ASL</acronym>
 	    directly to the list as it can be very large.  Generate a
 	    copy of the <acronym>ASL</acronym> by running this
 	    command:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>acpidump -dt &gt; <replaceable>name</replaceable>-<replaceable>system</replaceable>.asl</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Substitute the login name for
 	    <replaceable>name</replaceable> and manufacturer/model for
 	    <replaceable>system</replaceable>.  For example, use
 	    <filename>njl-FooCo6000.asl</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Most FreeBSD developers watch the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">FreeBSD-CURRENT mailing list</link>, but one should
 	submit problems to <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-acpi">freebsd-acpi</link> to be sure it is seen.  Be
 	patient when waiting for a response.  If the bug is not
 	immediately apparent, submit a <acronym>PR</acronym> using
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  When entering a <acronym>PR</acronym>,
 	include the same information as requested above.  This helps
 	developers to track the problem and resolve it.  Do not send a
 	<acronym>PR</acronym> without emailing <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-acpi">freebsd-acpi</link> first as
 	it is likely that the problem has been reported before.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ACPI-References">
       <title>參考文獻</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More information about <acronym>ACPI</acronym> may be
 	found in the following locations:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD <acronym>ACPI</acronym> Mailing List Archives
 	    (<uri xlink:href="http://lists.freebsd.org/pipermail/freebsd-acpi/">http://lists.freebsd.org/pipermail/freebsd-acpi/</uri>)</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>ACPI</acronym> 2.0 Specification (<uri xlink:href="http://acpi.info/spec.htm">http://acpi.info/spec.htm</uri>)</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi_thermal</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpidump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>iasl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpidb</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="boot">
 
   <title>FreeBSD 開機程序</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="boot-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>booting</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>bootstrap</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para>從開啟電腦到載入作業系統的這段流程稱為<quote>開機程序</quote> (Bootstrap process) 或<quote>開機</quote> (booting)。FreeBSD 的開機程序提供大量的客製化彈性，包含可選擇安裝在同電腦的其他的作業系統、不同版本的作業系統或不同核心的作業系統的功能。</para>
 
     <para>本章會詳細說明可以設定的選項。示範如何自訂 FreeBSD 開機流程，包含其中所有會發生的事，直到啟動 FreeBSD 核心、偵測裝置及啟動 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。這些事會發生在開機訊息的文字顏色會從亮白變成灰色之間。</para>
 
     <para>在閱讀本章之後，您會了解：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 開機系統的元件以及它們如何互動。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 開機程式中各元件可使用的選項，用來控制開機程序。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定自訂的開機啟動畫面 (Splash screen)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>設定 Device Hints 的基礎。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何開機進入單人及多人模式以及如何正確關閉 FreeBSD 系統。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <note>
       <para>本章僅說明 FreeBSD 在 x86 及 amd64 系統上執行的開機流程。</para>
     </note>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="boot-introduction">
     <title>FreeBSD 開機程序</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Turning on a computer and starting the operating system
       poses an interesting dilemma.  By definition, the computer does
       not know how to do anything until the operating system is
       started.  This includes running programs from the disk.  If the
       computer can not run a program from the disk without the
       operating system, and the operating system programs are on the
       disk, how is the operating system started?</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This problem parallels one in the book <citetitle>The
 	Adventures of Baron Munchausen</citetitle>.  A character had
       fallen part way down a manhole, and pulled himself out by
       grabbing his bootstraps and lifting.  In the early days of
       computing, the term <firstterm>bootstrap</firstterm> was applied
       to the mechanism used to load the operating system.  It has
       since become shortened to <quote>booting</quote>.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><acronym>BIOS</acronym></primary></indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Basic Input/Output
 	System</primary><see><acronym>BIOS</acronym></see></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">On x86 hardware, the Basic Input/Output System
       (<acronym>BIOS</acronym>) is responsible for loading the
       operating system.  The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> looks on the hard
       disk for the Master Boot Record (<acronym>MBR</acronym>), which
       must be located in a specific place on the disk.  The
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym> has enough knowledge to load and run the
       <acronym>MBR</acronym>, and assumes that the
       <acronym>MBR</acronym> can then carry out the rest of the tasks
       involved in loading the operating system, possibly with the help
       of the <acronym>BIOS</acronym>.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides for booting from both the older
 	<acronym>MBR</acronym> standard, and the newer GUID Partition
 	Table (<acronym>GPT</acronym>).  <acronym>GPT</acronym>
 	partitioning is often found on computers with the Unified
 	Extensible Firmware Interface (<acronym>UEFI</acronym>).
 	However, FreeBSD can boot from <acronym>GPT</acronym> partitions
 	even on machines with only a legacy <acronym>BIOS</acronym>
 	with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gptboot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Work is under way to provide direct
 	<acronym>UEFI</acronym> booting.</para>
     </note>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Master Boot Record
 	(<acronym>MBR</acronym>)</primary></indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Boot Manager</primary></indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Boot Loader</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The code within the <acronym>MBR</acronym> is typically
       referred to as a <emphasis>boot manager</emphasis>, especially
       when it interacts with the user.  The boot manager usually has
       more code in the first track of the disk or within the file
       system.  Examples of boot managers include the standard FreeBSD
       boot manager <application>boot0</application>, also called
       <application>Boot Easy</application>, and
       <application>Grub</application>, which is used by many <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>
       distributions.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If only one operating system is installed, the
       <acronym>MBR</acronym> searches for the first bootable (active)
       slice on the disk, and then runs the code on that slice to load
       the remainder of the operating system.  When multiple operating
       systems are present, a different boot manager can be installed
       to display a list of operating systems so the user
       can select one to boot.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The remainder of the FreeBSD bootstrap system is divided into
       three stages.  The first stage knows just enough to get the
       computer into a specific state and run the second stage.  The
       second stage can do a little bit more, before running the third
       stage.  The third stage finishes the task of loading the
       operating system.  The work is split into three stages because
       the <acronym>MBR</acronym> puts limits on the size of the
       programs that can be run at stages one and two.  Chaining the
       tasks together allows FreeBSD to provide a more flexible
       loader.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>kernel</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The kernel is then started and begins to probe for devices
       and initialize them for use.  Once the kernel boot process is
       finished, the kernel passes control to the user process
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which makes sure the disks are in a usable state,
       starts the user-level resource configuration which mounts file
       systems, sets up network cards to communicate on the network,
       and starts the processes which have been configured to run at
       startup.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes these stages in more detail and
       demonstrates how to interact with the FreeBSD boot process.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="boot-boot0">
       <title>開機管理程式</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Boot Manager</primary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Master Boot Record
 	(<acronym>MBR</acronym>)</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The boot manager code in the <acronym>MBR</acronym> is
 	sometimes referred to as <emphasis>stage zero</emphasis> of
 	the boot process.  By default, FreeBSD uses the
 	<application>boot0</application> boot manager.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>MBR</acronym> installed by the FreeBSD installer
 	is based on <filename>/boot/boot0</filename>.  The size and
 	capability of <application>boot0</application> is restricted
 	to 446 bytes due to the slice table and
 	<literal>0x55AA</literal> identifier at the end of the
 	<acronym>MBR</acronym>.  If <application>boot0</application>
 	and multiple operating systems are installed, a message
 	similar to this example will be displayed at boot time:</para>
 
       <example xml:id="boot-boot0-example">
 	<title><filename>boot0</filename> 螢幕截圖</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">F1 Win
 F2 FreeBSD
 
 Default: F2</screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other operating systems will overwrite an existing
 	<acronym>MBR</acronym> if they are installed after FreeBSD.  If
 	this happens, or to replace the existing
 	<acronym>MBR</acronym> with the FreeBSD <acronym>MBR</acronym>,
 	use the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 <replaceable>device</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where <replaceable>device</replaceable> is the boot disk,
 	such as <filename>ad0</filename> for the first
 	<acronym>IDE</acronym> disk, <filename>ad2</filename> for the
 	first <acronym>IDE</acronym> disk on a second
 	<acronym>IDE</acronym> controller, or <filename>da0</filename>
 	for the first <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disk.  To create a
 	custom configuration of the <acronym>MBR</acronym>, refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>boot0cfg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="boot-boot1">
       <title>階段一與階段二</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Conceptually, the first and second stages are part of the
 	same program on the same area of the disk.  Because of space
 	constraints, they have been split into two, but are always
 	installed together.  They are copied from the combined
 	<filename>/boot/boot</filename> by the FreeBSD installer or
 	<command>bsdlabel</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These two stages are located outside file systems, in the
 	first track of the boot slice, starting with the first sector.
 	This is where <application>boot0</application>, or any other
 	boot manager, expects to find a program to run which will
 	continue the boot process.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first stage, <filename>boot1</filename>, is very
 	simple, since it can only be 512 bytes in size.  It knows just
 	enough about the FreeBSD <firstterm>bsdlabel</firstterm>, which
 	stores information about the slice, to find and execute
 	<filename>boot2</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Stage two, <filename>boot2</filename>, is slightly more
 	sophisticated, and understands the FreeBSD file system enough to
 	find files.  It can provide a simple interface to choose the
 	kernel or loader to run.  It runs
 	<application>loader</application>, which is much more
 	sophisticated and provides a boot configuration file.  If the
 	boot process is interrupted at stage two, the following
 	interactive screen is displayed:</para>
 
       <example xml:id="boot-boot2-example">
 	<title><filename>boot2</filename> 螢幕截圖</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">&gt;&gt; FreeBSD/i386 BOOT
 Default: 0:ad(0,a)/boot/loader
 boot:</screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To replace the installed <filename>boot1</filename> and
 	<filename>boot2</filename>, use <command>bsdlabel</command>,
 	where <replaceable>diskslice</replaceable> is the disk and
 	slice to boot from, such as <filename>ad0s1</filename> for the
 	first slice on the first <acronym>IDE</acronym> disk:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bsdlabel -B <replaceable>diskslice</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If just the disk name is used, such as
 	  <filename>ad0</filename>, <command>bsdlabel</command> will
 	  create the disk in <quote>dangerously dedicated
 	    mode</quote>, without slices.  This is probably not the
 	  desired action, so double check the
 	  <replaceable>diskslice</replaceable> before pressing
 	  <keycap>Return</keycap>.</para>
       </warning>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="boot-loader">
       <title>階段三</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>boot-loader</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>loader</application> is the final stage
 	of the three-stage bootstrap process.  It is located on the
 	file system, usually as
 	<filename>/boot/loader</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>loader</application> is intended as an
 	interactive method for configuration, using a built-in command
 	set, backed up by a more powerful interpreter which has a more
 	complex command set.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">During initialization, <application>loader</application>
 	will probe for a console and for disks, and figure out which
 	disk it is booting from.  It will set variables accordingly,
 	and an interpreter is started where user commands can be
 	passed from a script or interactively.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>loader</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>loader configuration</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>loader</application> will then read
 	<filename>/boot/loader.rc</filename>, which by default reads
 	in <filename>/boot/defaults/loader.conf</filename> which sets
 	reasonable defaults for variables and reads
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> for local changes to
 	those variables.  <filename>loader.rc</filename> then acts on
 	these variables, loading whichever modules and kernel are
 	selected.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Finally, by default, <application>loader</application>
 	issues a 10 second wait for key presses, and boots the kernel
 	if it is not interrupted.  If interrupted, the user is
 	presented with a prompt which understands the command set,
 	where the user may adjust variables, unload all modules, load
 	modules, and then finally boot or reboot.  <xref linkend="boot-loader-commands"/> lists the most commonly
 	used <application>loader</application> commands.  For a
 	complete discussion of all available commands, refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <table xml:id="boot-loader-commands" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>載入程式內建指令</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>變數</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">autoboot
 		<replaceable>seconds</replaceable></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Proceeds to boot the kernel if not interrupted
 		within the time span given, in seconds.  It displays a
 		countdown, and the default time span is 10
 		seconds.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">boot
 		<optional><replaceable>-options</replaceable></optional>
 		<optional><replaceable>kernelname</replaceable></optional></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Immediately proceeds to boot the kernel, with
 		any specified options or kernel name.  Providing a
 		kernel name on the command-line is only applicable
 		after an <command>unload</command> has been issued.
 		Otherwise, the previously-loaded kernel will be
 		used.  If <emphasis>kernelname</emphasis> is not
 		qualified it will be searched under
 		<emphasis>/boot/kernel</emphasis> and
 		<emphasis>/boot/modules</emphasis>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">boot-conf</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Goes through the same automatic configuration of
 		modules based on specified variables, most commonly
 		<envar>kernel</envar>.  This only makes sense if
 		<command>unload</command> is used first, before
 		changing some variables.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">help
 		<optional><replaceable>topic</replaceable></optional></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Shows help messages read from
 		<filename>/boot/loader.help</filename>.  If the topic
 		given is <literal>index</literal>, the list of
 		available topics is displayed.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">include <replaceable>filename</replaceable>
 		…</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Reads the specified file and interprets it line
 		by line.  An error immediately stops the
 		<command>include</command>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">load <optional>-t
 		  <replaceable>type</replaceable></optional>
 		<replaceable>filename</replaceable></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Loads the kernel, kernel module, or file of the
 		type given, with the specified filename.  Any
 		arguments after <replaceable>filename</replaceable>
 		are passed to the file.  If
 		<emphasis>filename</emphasis> is not qualified it
 		will be searched under
 		<emphasis>/boot/kernel</emphasis>
 		and <emphasis>/boot/modules</emphasis>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ls <optional>-l</optional>
 		<optional><replaceable>path</replaceable></optional></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Displays a listing of files in the given path, or
 		the root directory, if the path is not specified.  If
 		<option>-l</option> is specified, file sizes will
 		also be shown.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">lsdev <optional>-v</optional></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Lists all of the devices from which it may be
 		possible to load modules.  If <option>-v</option> is
 		specified, more details are printed.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">lsmod <optional>-v</optional></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Displays loaded modules.  If <option>-v</option>
 		is specified, more details are shown.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">more <replaceable>filename</replaceable></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Displays the files specified, with a pause at
 		each <varname>LINES</varname> displayed.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">reboot</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Immediately reboots the system.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">set <replaceable>variable</replaceable>, set
 		<replaceable>variable</replaceable>=<replaceable>value</replaceable></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Sets the specified environment variables.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">unload</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Removes all loaded modules.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Here are some practical examples of loader usage.  To boot
 	the usual kernel in single-user mode
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>single-user
 	  mode</primary></indexterm>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>boot -s</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To unload the usual kernel and modules and then load the
 	previous or another, specified kernel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>unload</userinput>
 <userinput>load <replaceable>kernel.old</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <filename>kernel.GENERIC</filename> to refer to the
 	default kernel that comes with an installation, or
 	<filename>kernel.old</filename>, to refer to the previously
 	installed kernel before a system upgrade or before configuring
 	a custom kernel.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use the following to load the usual modules with another
 	kernel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>unload</userinput>
 <userinput>set kernel="<replaceable>kernel.old</replaceable>"</userinput>
 <userinput>boot-conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To load an automated kernel configuration script:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>load -t userconfig_script <replaceable>/boot/kernel.conf</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>kernel</primary>
 	<secondary>boot interaction</secondary>
       </indexterm>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="boot-init">
       <title>最終階段</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the kernel is loaded by either
 	<application>loader</application> or by
 	<application>boot2</application>, which bypasses
 	<application>loader</application>, it examines any boot flags
 	and adjusts its behavior as necessary.  <xref linkend="boot-kernel"/> lists the commonly used boot flags.
 	Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>boot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on the other boot
 	flags.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>kernel</primary>
 	<secondary>bootflags</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <table xml:id="boot-kernel" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>開機時核心互動參數</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>項目</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-a</option></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">During kernel initialization, ask for the device
 		to mount as the root file system.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-C</option></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Boot the root file system from a
 		<acronym>CDROM</acronym>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-s</option></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Boot into single-user mode.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-v</option></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Be more verbose during kernel startup.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the kernel has finished booting, it passes control to
 	the user process <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which is located at
 	<filename>/sbin/init</filename>, or the program path specified
 	in the <envar>init_path</envar> variable in
 	<command>loader</command>.  This is the last stage of the boot
 	process.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The boot sequence makes sure that the file systems
 	available on the system are consistent.  If a
 	<acronym>UFS</acronym> file system is not, and
 	<command>fsck</command> cannot fix the inconsistencies,
 	<application>init</application> drops the system into
 	single-user mode so that the system administrator can resolve
 	the problem directly.  Otherwise, the system boots into
 	multi-user mode.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="boot-singleuser">
 	<title>單使用者模式</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>single-user mode</primary></indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>console</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A user can specify this mode by booting with
 	  <option>-s</option> or by setting the
 	  <envar>boot_single</envar> variable in
 	  <application>loader</application>.  It can also be reached
 	  by running <command>shutdown now</command> from multi-user
 	  mode.  Single-user mode begins with this message:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Enter full pathname of shell or RETURN for /bin/sh:</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the user presses <keycap>Enter</keycap>, the system
 	  will enter the default Bourne shell.  To specify a different
 	  shell, input the full path to the shell.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Single-user mode is usually used to repair a system that
 	  will not boot due to an inconsistent file system or an error
 	  in a boot configuration file.  It can also be used to reset
 	  the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> password
 	  when it is unknown.  These actions are possible as the
 	  single-user mode prompt gives full, local access to the
 	  system and its configuration files.  There is no networking
 	  in this mode.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">While single-user mode is useful for repairing a system,
 	  it poses a security risk unless the system is in a
 	  physically secure location.  By default, any user who can
 	  gain physical access to a system will have full control of
 	  that system after booting into single-user mode.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the system <literal>console</literal> is changed to
 	  <literal>insecure</literal> in
 	  <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, the system will first prompt
 	  for the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	  password before initiating single-user mode.  This adds a
 	  measure of security while removing the ability to reset the
 	  <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> password when
 	  it is unknown.</para>
 
 	<example xml:id="boot-insecure-console">
 	  <title>在 <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> 設定不安全的 Console</title>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en"># name  getty                           type    status          comments
 #
 # If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password
 # when going to single-user mode.
 console none                            unknown off <replaceable>insecure</replaceable></programlisting>
 	</example>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <literal>insecure</literal> console means that
 	  physical security to the console is considered to be
 	  insecure, so only someone who knows the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> password may use
 	  single-user mode.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="boot-multiuser">
 	<title>多使用者模式</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>multi-user mode</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If <application>init</application> finds the file
 	  systems to be in order, or once the user has finished their
 	  commands in single-user mode and has typed
 	  <command>exit</command> to leave single-user mode, the
 	  system enters multi-user mode, in which it starts the
 	  resource configuration of the system.</para>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>rc files</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The resource configuration system reads in configuration
 	  defaults from <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> and
 	  system-specific details from
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  It then proceeds to
 	  mount the system file systems listed in
 	  <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  It starts up networking
 	  services, miscellaneous system daemons, then the startup
 	  scripts of locally installed packages.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To learn more about the resource configuration system,
 	  refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and examine the scripts located in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.d</filename>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
   <!--
   <sect2 id="boot-kernel-userconfig">
       <title>UserConfig: the Boot-time Kernel Configurator</title>
 
       <para> </para>
   </sect2> -->
 
   <sect1 xml:id="boot-splash">
     <info>
       <title>設定開機啟動畫面</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Joseph J.</firstname>
 	    <surname>Barbish</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Typically when a FreeBSD system boots, it displays its progress
       as a series of messages at the console.  A boot splash screen
       creates an alternate boot screen that hides all of the boot
       probe and service startup messages.  A few boot loader messages,
       including the boot options menu and a timed wait countdown
       prompt, are displayed at boot time, even when the splash screen
       is enabled.  The display of the splash screen can be turned off
       by hitting any key on the keyboard during the boot
       process.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are two basic environments available in FreeBSD.  The
       first is the default legacy virtual console command line
       environment.  After the system finishes booting, a console login
       prompt is presented.  The second environment is a configured
       graphical environment.  Refer to <xref linkend="x11"/> for more
       information on how to install and configure a graphical display
       manager and a graphical login manager.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once the system has booted, the splash screen defaults to
       being a screen saver.  After a time period of non-use, the
       splash screen will display and will cycle through steps of
       changing intensity of the image, from bright to very dark and
       over again.  The configuration of the splash screen saver can be
       overridden by adding a <literal>saver=</literal> line to
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Several built-in screen
       savers are available and described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>splash</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The
       <literal>saver=</literal> option only applies to virtual
       consoles and has no effect on graphical display managers.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Sample splash screen files can be downloaded from the
       gallery at <link xlink:href="http://artwork.freebsdgr.org/node/3/">http://artwork.freebsdgr.org</link>.
       By installing the <package>sysutils/bsd-splash-changer</package>
       package or port, a random splash image from a collection will
       display at boot.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The splash screen function supports 256-colors in the
       bitmap (<filename>.bmp</filename>), ZSoft
       <acronym>PCX</acronym> (<filename>.pcx</filename>), or
       TheDraw (<filename>.bin</filename>) formats.  The
       <filename>.bmp</filename>, <filename>.pcx</filename>, or
       <filename>.bin</filename> image has to be placed on the root
       partition, for example in <filename>/boot</filename>.  The
       splash image files must have a resolution of 320 by 200 pixels
       or less in order to work on standard <acronym>VGA</acronym>
       adapters.  For the default boot display resolution of 256-colors
       and 320 by 200 pixels or less, add the following lines to
       <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  Replace
       <replaceable>splash.bmp</replaceable> with the name of the
       bitmap file to use:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">splash_bmp_load="YES"
 bitmap_load="YES"
 bitmap_name="/boot/<replaceable>splash.bmp</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To use a <acronym>PCX</acronym> file instead of a bitmap
       file:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">splash_pcx_load="YES"
 bitmap_load="YES"
 bitmap_name="/boot/<replaceable>splash.pcx</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To instead use ASCII art in the <link xlink:href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheDraw">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheDraw</link>
       format:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">splash_txt="YES"
 bitmap_load="YES"
 bitmap_name="/boot/<replaceable>splash.bin</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To use larger images that fill the whole display screen, up
       to the maximum resolution of 1024 by 768 pixels, the
       <acronym>VESA</acronym> module must also be loaded during system
       boot.  If using a custom kernel, ensure that the custom kernel
       configuration file includes the <literal>VESA</literal> kernel
       configuration option.  To load the <acronym>VESA</acronym>
       module for the splash screen, add this line to
       <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> before the three lines
       mentioned in the above examples:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">vesa_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Other interesting <filename>loader.conf</filename> options
       include:</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry><term xml:lang="en"><literal>beastie_disable="YES"</literal></term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This will stop the boot options menu from being
 	    displayed, but the timed wait count down prompt will still
 	    be present.  Even with the display of the boot options
 	    menu disabled, entering an option selection at the timed
 	    wait count down prompt will enact the corresponding boot
 	    option.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry><term xml:lang="en"><literal>loader_logo="beastie"</literal></term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This will replace the default words
 	    <quote>FreeBSD</quote>, which are displayed to the right of
 	    the boot options menu, with the colored beastie
 	    logo.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For more information, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>splash</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vga</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="device-hints">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en">Device Hints</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>device.hints</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">During initial system startup, the boot <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> reads
       <citerefentry vendor="current"><refentrytitle>device.hints</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This file stores kernel boot information
       known as variables, sometimes referred to as
       <quote>device hints</quote>.  These <quote>device hints</quote>
       are used by device drivers for device configuration.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Device hints may also be specified at the Stage 3 boot
       loader prompt, as demonstrated in <xref linkend="boot-loader"/>.
       Variables can be added using <command>set</command>, removed
       with <command>unset</command>, and viewed
       <command>show</command>.  Variables set in
       <filename>/boot/device.hints</filename> can also be overridden.
       Device hints entered at the boot loader are not permanent and
       will not be applied on the next reboot.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once the system is booted, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kenv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be used to dump
       all of the variables.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The syntax for <filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>
       is one variable per line, using the hash
       <quote>#</quote> as comment markers.  Lines are constructed as
       follows:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>hint.driver.unit.keyword="<replaceable>value</replaceable>"</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The syntax for the Stage 3 boot loader is:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>set hint.driver.unit.keyword=<replaceable>value</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">where <literal>driver</literal> is the device driver name,
       <literal>unit</literal> is the device driver unit number, and
       <literal>keyword</literal> is the hint keyword.  The keyword may
       consist of the following options:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>at</literal>: specifies the bus which the
 	  device is attached to.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>port</literal>: specifies the start address of
 	  the <acronym>I/O</acronym> to be used.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>irq</literal>: specifies the interrupt request
 	  number to be used.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>drq</literal>: specifies the DMA channel
 	  number.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>maddr</literal>: specifies the physical memory
 	  address occupied by the device.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>flags</literal>: sets various flag bits for the
 	  device.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>disabled</literal>: if set to
 	  <literal>1</literal> the device is disabled.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Since device drivers may accept or require more hints not
       listed here, viewing a driver's manual page is recommended.
       For more information, refer to <citerefentry vendor="current"><refentrytitle>device.hints</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kenv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="boot-shutdown">
     <title>關機程序</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>shutdown</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Upon controlled shutdown using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>shutdown</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will attempt to run the script
       <filename>/etc/rc.shutdown</filename>, and then proceed to send
       all processes the <literal>TERM</literal> signal, and
       subsequently the <literal>KILL</literal> signal to any that do
       not terminate in a timely manner.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To power down a FreeBSD machine on architectures and systems
       that support power management, use
 
       <command>shutdown -p now</command> to turn the power off
       immediately.  To reboot a FreeBSD system, use
       <command>shutdown -r now</command>.  One must be
       <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> or a member of
       <systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem> in order to
       run <citerefentry><refentrytitle>shutdown</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  One can also use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>halt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>reboot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Refer to their manual pages and to
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>shutdown</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Modify group membership by referring to
       <xref linkend="users-synopsis"/>.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Power management requires <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acpi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> to be loaded as
 	a module or statically compiled into a custom kernel.</para>
     </note>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="security">
 
   <info>
     <title>安全性</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Rewritten by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>security</primary></indexterm>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>不論實體或虛擬，安全性這個主題大到有整個產業圍繞著它，上百個標準案例已經被用來搛寫如何確保系統與網路的安全性。身為 FreeBSD 必須了解如何避免攻擊與入侵。</para>
 
     <para>在此章會討論幾個基本原理及技術。FreeBSD 系統的安全性有許多層面，且有許多第三方工具可以用來增加安全性。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>基礎 FreeBSD 系統安全概念。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 中的幾種加密 (Crypt) 機制。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定一次性密碼認證。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 中的 <application>TCP Wrapper</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 設定 <application>Kerberos</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 <acronym>IPsec</acronym> 並且建立 <acronym>VPN</acronym>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 設定並使用 <application>OpenSSH</application></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用檔案系統 <acronym>ACL</acronym>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>如何使用 <application>pkg</application> 來稽查從 Ports 套件集安裝的第三方軟體套件。</para>
+	<para>如何使用 <application>pkg</application> 來稽查從 Port 套件集安裝的第三方軟體套件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何利用 FreeBSD 安全報告。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>什麼是程序追蹤 (Process Accounting) 以及如何在 FreeBSD 開啟。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用登入類別或資源限制資料庫控制使用者資源。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 FreeBSD 基礎及網路概念。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>其他的安全性議題會在本操作手冊的其他處說明。例如 強制存取控制 (Mandatory Access Control, MAC) 會在 <xref linkend="mac"/> 討論及網路防火牆會在 <xref linkend="firewalls"/> 討論。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-intro">
     <title>簡介</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Security is everyone's responsibility.  A weak entry point
       in any system could allow intruders to gain access to critical
       information and cause havoc on an entire network.  One of the
       core principles of information security is the
       <acronym>CIA</acronym> triad, which stands for the
       Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of information
       systems.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>CIA</acronym> triad is a bedrock concept of
       computer security as customers and users expect their data to be
       protected.  For example, a customer expects that their credit
       card information is securely stored (confidentiality), that
       their orders are not changed behind the scenes (integrity), and
       that they have access to their order information at all times
       (availablility).</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To provide <acronym>CIA</acronym>, security professionals
       apply a defense in depth strategy.  The idea of defense in depth
       is to add several layers of security to prevent one single layer
       failing and the entire security system collapsing.  For example,
       a system administrator cannot simply turn on a firewall and
       consider the network or system secure.  One must also audit
       accounts, check the integrity of binaries, and ensure malicious
       tools are not installed.  To implement an effective security
       strategy, one must understand threats and how to defend against
       them.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">What is a threat as it pertains to computer security?
       Threats are not limited to remote attackers who attempt to
       access a system without permission from a remote location.
       Threats also include employees, malicious software, unauthorized
       network devices, natural disasters, security vulnerabilities,
       and even competing corporations.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Systems and networks can be accessed without permission,
       sometimes by accident, or by remote attackers, and in some
       cases, via corporate espionage or former employees.  As a user,
       it is important to prepare for and admit when a mistake has led
       to a security breach and report possible issues to the security
       team.  As an administrator, it is important to know of the
       threats and be prepared to mitigate them.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When applying security to systems, it is recommended to
       start by securing the basic accounts and system configuration,
       and then to secure the network layer so that it adheres to the
       system policy and the organization's security procedures.  Many
       organizations already have a security policy that covers the
       configuration of technology devices.  The policy should include
       the security configuration of workstations, desktops, mobile
       devices, phones, production servers, and development servers.
       In many cases, standard operating procedures
       (<acronym>SOP</acronym>s) already exist.  When in doubt, ask the
       security team.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The rest of this introduction describes how some of these
       basic security configurations are performed on a FreeBSD system.
       The rest of this chapter describes some specific tools which can
       be used when implementing a security policy on a FreeBSD
       system.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-accounts">
       <title>防止登入</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In securing a system, a good starting point is an audit of
 	accounts.  Ensure that <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> has a strong password and
 	that this password is not shared.  Disable any accounts that
 	do not need login access.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To deny login access to accounts, two methods exist.  The
 	first is to lock the account.  This example locks the
 	<systemitem class="username">toor</systemitem> account:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw lock <replaceable>toor</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The second method is to prevent login access by changing
 	the shell to <filename>/sbin/nologin</filename>.  Only the
 	superuser can change the shell for other users:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chsh -s /usr/sbin/nologin <replaceable>toor</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>/usr/sbin/nologin</filename> shell prevents
 	the system from assigning a shell to the user when they
 	attempt to login.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-accountmgmt">
       <title>帳號升級授權</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In some cases, system administration needs to be shared
 	with other users.  FreeBSD has two methods to handle this.  The
 	first one, which is not recommended, is a shared root password
 	used by members of the <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem> group.  With this
 	method, a user types <command>su</command> and enters the
 	password for <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem>
 	whenever superuser access is needed.  The user should then
 	type <command>exit</command> to leave privileged access after
 	finishing the commands that required administrative access.
 	To add a user to this group, edit
 	<filename>/etc/group</filename> and add the user to the end of
 	the <literal>wheel</literal> entry.  The user must be
 	separated by a comma character with no space.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The second, and recommended, method to permit privilege
 	escalation is to install the <package>security/sudo</package>
 	package or port.  This software provides additional auditing,
 	more fine-grained user control, and can be configured to lock
 	users into running only the specified privileged
 	commands.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After installation, use <command>visudo</command> to edit
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/sudoers</filename>.  This example
 	creates a new <systemitem class="groupname">webadmin</systemitem> group, adds the
 	<systemitem class="username">trhodes</systemitem> account to
 	that group, and configures that group access to restart
 	<package>apache24</package>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupadd webadmin -M trhodes -g 6000</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>visudo</userinput>
 %webadmin ALL=(ALL) /usr/sbin/service apache24 *</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-passwords">
       <title>密碼編碼方式</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Passwords are a necessary evil of technology.  When they
 	must be used, they should be complex and a powerful hash
 	mechanism should be used to encrypt the version that is stored
 	in the password database.  FreeBSD supports the
 	<acronym>DES</acronym>, <acronym>MD5</acronym>,
 	<acronym>SHA256</acronym>, <acronym>SHA512</acronym>, and
 	Blowfish hash algorithms in its <function>crypt()</function>
 	library.  The default of <acronym>SHA512</acronym> should not
 	be changed to a less secure hashing algorithm, but can be
 	changed to the more secure Blowfish algorithm.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Blowfish is not part of <acronym>AES</acronym> and is
 	  not considered compliant with any Federal Information
 	  Processing Standards (<acronym>FIPS</acronym>).  Its use may
 	  not be permitted in some environments.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To determine which hash algorithm is used to encrypt a
 	user's password, the superuser can view the hash for the user
 	in the FreeBSD password database.  Each hash starts with a symbol
 	which indicates the type of hash mechanism used to encrypt the
 	password.  If <acronym>DES</acronym> is used, there is no
 	beginning symbol.  For <acronym>MD5</acronym>, the symbol is
 	<literal>$</literal>.  For <acronym>SHA256</acronym> and
 	<acronym>SHA512</acronym>, the symbol is
 	<literal>$6$</literal>.  For Blowfish, the symbol is
 	<literal>$2a$</literal>.  In this example, the password for
 	<systemitem class="username">dru</systemitem> is hashed using
 	the default <acronym>SHA512</acronym> algorithm as the hash
 	starts with <literal>$6$</literal>.  Note that the encrypted
 	hash, not the password itself, is stored in the password
 	database:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>grep dru /etc/master.passwd</userinput>
 dru:$6$pzIjSvCAn.PBYQBA$PXpSeWPx3g5kscj3IMiM7tUEUSPmGexxta.8Lt9TGSi2lNQqYGKszsBPuGME0:1001:1001::0:0:dru:/usr/home/dru:/bin/csh</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The hash mechanism is set in the user's login class.  For
 	this example, the user is in the <literal>default</literal>
 	login class and the hash algorithm is set with this line in
 	<filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">        :passwd_format=sha512:\</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To change the algorithm to Blowfish, modify that line to
 	look like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">        :passwd_format=blf:\</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then run <command>cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf</command> as
 	described in <xref linkend="users-limiting"/>.  Note that this
 	change will not affect any existing password hashes.  This
 	means that all passwords should be re-hashed by asking users
 	to run <command>passwd</command> in order to change their
 	password.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For remote logins, two-factor authentication should be
 	used.  An example of two-factor authentication is
 	<quote>something you have</quote>, such as a key, and
 	<quote>something you know</quote>, such as the passphrase for
 	that key.  Since <application>OpenSSH</application> is part of
 	the FreeBSD base system, all network logins should be over an
 	encrypted connection and use key-based authentication instead
 	of passwords.  For more information, refer to <xref linkend="openssh"/>.  Kerberos users may need to make
 	additional changes to implement
 	<application>OpenSSH</application> in their network.  These
 	changes are described in <xref linkend="kerberos5"/>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-pwpolicy">
       <title>強制密碼政策</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Enforcing a strong password policy for local accounts is a
 	fundamental aspect of system security.  In FreeBSD, password
 	length, password strength, and password complexity can be
 	implemented using built-in Pluggable Authentication Modules
 	(<acronym>PAM</acronym>).</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to configure the minimum and
 	maximum password length and the enforcement of mixed
 	characters using the <filename>pam_passwdqc.so</filename>
 	module.  This module is enforced when a user changes their
 	password.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure this module, become the superuser and
 	uncomment the line containing
 	<literal>pam_passwdqc.so</literal> in
 	<filename>/etc/pam.d/passwd</filename>.  Then, edit that line
 	to match the password policy:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">password        requisite       pam_passwdqc.so         <replaceable>min=disabled,disabled,disabled,12,10 similar=deny retry=3</replaceable> enforce=users</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example sets several requirements for new passwords.
 	The <literal>min</literal> setting controls the minimum
 	password length.  It has five values because this module
 	defines five different types of passwords based on their
 	complexity.  Complexity is defined by the type of characters
 	that must exist in a password, such as letters, numbers,
 	symbols, and case.  The types of passwords are described in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pam_passwdqc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  In this example, the first three types
 	of passwords are disabled, meaning that passwords that meet
 	those complexity requirements will not be accepted, regardless
 	of their length.    The <literal>12</literal> sets a minimum
 	password policy of at least twelve characters, if the password
 	also contains characters with three types of complexity.  The
 	<literal>10</literal> sets the password policy to also allow
 	passwords of at least ten characters, if the password contains
 	characters with four types of complexity.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>similar</literal> setting denies passwords
 	that are similar to the user's previous password.  The
 	<literal>retry</literal> setting provides a user with three
 	opportunities to enter a new password.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once this file is saved, a user changing their password
 	will see a message similar to the following:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>passwd</userinput>
 Changing local password for trhodes
 Old Password:
 
 You can now choose the new password.
 A valid password should be a mix of upper and lower case letters,
 digits and other characters.  You can use a 12 character long
 password with characters from at least 3 of these 4 classes, or
 a 10 character long password containing characters from all the
 classes.  Characters that form a common pattern are discarded by
 the check.
 Alternatively, if noone else can see your terminal now, you can
 pick this as your password: "trait-useful&amp;knob".
 Enter new password:</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If a password that does not match the policy is entered,
 	it will be rejected with a warning and the user will have an
 	opportunity to try again, up to the configured number of
 	retries.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Most password policies require passwords to expire after
 	so many days.  To set a password age time in FreeBSD, set
 	<option>passwordtime</option> for the user's login class in
 	<filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>.  The
 	<literal>default</literal> login class contains an
 	example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#       :passwordtime=90d:\</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">So, to set an expiry of 90 days for this login class,
 	remove the comment symbol (<literal>#</literal>), save the
 	edit, and run <command>cap_mkdb
 	  /etc/login.conf</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To set the expiration on individual users, pass an
 	expiration date or the number of days to expiry and a username
 	to <command>pw</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw usermod -p <replaceable>30-apr-2015</replaceable> -n <replaceable>trhodes</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As seen here, an expiration date is set in the form of
 	day, month, and year.  For more information, see
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-rkhunter">
       <title>偵測 Rootkits</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <firstterm>rootkit</firstterm> is any unauthorized
 	software that attempts to gain <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> access to a system.  Once
 	installed, this malicious software will normally open up
 	another avenue of entry for an attacker.  Realistically, once
 	a system has been compromised by a rootkit and an
 	investigation has been performed, the system should be
 	reinstalled from scratch.  There is tremendous risk that even
 	the most prudent security or systems engineer will miss
 	something an attacker left behind.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A rootkit does do one thing usefulfor administrators: once
 	detected, it is a sign that a compromise happened at some
 	point.  But, these types of applications tend to be very well
 	hidden.  This section demonstrates a tool that can be used to
 	detect rootkits, <package>security/rkhunter</package>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After installation of this package or port, the system may
 	be checked using the following command.  It will produce a lot
 	of information and will require some manual pressing of
 	<keycap>ENTER</keycap>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rkhunter -c</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After the process completes, a status message will be
 	printed to the screen.  This message will include the amount
 	of files checked, suspect files, possible rootkits, and more.
 	During the check, some generic security warnings may
 	be produced about hidden files, the
 	<application>OpenSSH</application> protocol selection, and
 	known vulnerable versions of installed software.  These can be
 	handled now or after a more detailed analysis has been
 	performed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Every administrator should know what is running on the
 	systems they are responsible for.  Third-party tools like
 	<application>rkhunter</application> and
 	<package>sysutils/lsof</package>, and native commands such
 	as <command>netstat</command> and <command>ps</command>, can
 	show a great deal of information on the system.  Take notes on
 	what is normal, ask questions when something seems out of
 	place, and be paranoid.  While preventing a compromise is
 	ideal, detecting a compromise is a must.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-ids">
       <title>Binary 檢驗</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Verification of system files and binaries is important
 	because it provides the system administration and security
 	teams information about system changes.  A software
 	application that monitors the system for changes is called an
 	Intrusion Detection System (<acronym>IDS</acronym>).</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides native support for a basic
 	<acronym>IDS</acronym> system.  While the nightly security
 	emails will notify an administrator of changes, the
 	information is stored locally and there is a chance that a
 	malicious user could modify this information in order to hide
 	their changes to the system.  As such, it is recommended to
 	create a separate set of binary signatures and store them on a
 	read-only, root-owned directory or, preferably, on a removable
 	<acronym>USB</acronym> disk or remote
 	<application>rsync</application> server.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The built-in <command>mtree</command> utility can be used
 	to generate a specification of the contents of a directory.  A
 	seed, or a numeric constant, is used to generate the
 	specification and is required to check that the specification
 	has not changed.  This makes it possible to determine if a
 	file or binary has been modified.  Since the seed value is
 	unknown by an attacker, faking or checking the checksum values
 	of files will be difficult to impossible.  The following
 	example generates a set of <acronym>SHA256</acronym> hashes,
 	one for each system binary in <filename>/bin</filename>, and
 	saves those values to a hidden file in <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>'s home directory,
 	<filename>/root/.bin_chksum_mtree</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mtree -s <replaceable>3483151339707503</replaceable> -c -K cksum,sha256digest -p <replaceable>/bin</replaceable> &gt; <replaceable>/root/.bin_chksum_mtree</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> mtree: /bin checksum: 3427012225</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <replaceable>3483151339707503</replaceable> represents
 	the seed.  This value should be remembered, but not
 	shared.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Viewing <filename>/root/.bin_cksum_mtree</filename> should
 	yield output similar to the following:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#          user: root
 #       machine: dreadnaught
 #          tree: /bin
 #          date: Mon Feb  3 10:19:53 2014
 
 # .
 /set type=file uid=0 gid=0 mode=0555 nlink=1 flags=none
 .               type=dir mode=0755 nlink=2 size=1024 \
                 time=1380277977.000000000
     \133        nlink=2 size=11704 time=1380277977.000000000 \
                 cksum=484492447 \
                 sha256digest=6207490fbdb5ed1904441fbfa941279055c3e24d3a4049aeb45094596400662a
     cat         size=12096 time=1380277975.000000000 cksum=3909216944 \
                 sha256digest=65ea347b9418760b247ab10244f47a7ca2a569c9836d77f074e7a306900c1e69
     chflags     size=8168 time=1380277975.000000000 cksum=3949425175 \
                 sha256digest=c99eb6fc1c92cac335c08be004a0a5b4c24a0c0ef3712017b12c89a978b2dac3
     chio        size=18520 time=1380277975.000000000 cksum=2208263309 \
                 sha256digest=ddf7c8cb92a58750a675328345560d8cc7fe14fb3ccd3690c34954cbe69fc964
     chmod       size=8640 time=1380277975.000000000 cksum=2214429708 \
                 sha256digest=a435972263bf814ad8df082c0752aa2a7bdd8b74ff01431ccbd52ed1e490bbe7</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The machine's hostname, the date and time the
 	specification was created, and the name of the user who
 	created the specification are included in this report.  There
 	is a checksum, size, time, and <acronym>SHA</acronym>256
 	digest for each binary in the directory.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To verify that the binary signatures have not changed,
 	compare the current contents of the directory to the
 	previously generated specification, and save the results to a
 	file.  This command requires the seed that was used to
 	generate the original specification:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mtree -s <replaceable>3483151339707503</replaceable> -p <replaceable>/bin</replaceable> &lt; <replaceable>/root/.bin_chksum_mtree</replaceable> &gt;&gt; <replaceable>/root/.bin_chksum_output</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> mtree: /bin checksum: 3427012225</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This should produce the same checksum for
 	<filename>/bin</filename> that was produced when the
 	specification was created.  If no changes have occurred to the
 	binaries in this directory, the
 	<filename>/root/.bin_chksum_output</filename> output file will
 	be empty.  To simulate a change, change the date on
 	<filename>/bin/cat</filename> using <command>touch</command>
 	and run the verification command again:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>touch /bin/cat</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mtree -s <replaceable>3483151339707503</replaceable> -p <replaceable>/bin</replaceable> &lt; <replaceable>/root/.bin_chksum_mtree</replaceable> &gt;&gt; <replaceable>/root/.bin_chksum_output</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>more /root/.bin_chksum_output</userinput>
 cat changed
 	modification time expected Fri Sep 27 06:32:55 2013 found Mon Feb  3 10:28:43 2014</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is recommended to create specifications for the
 	directories which contain binaries and configuration files, as
 	well as any directories containing sensitive data.  Typically,
 	specifications are created for <filename>/bin</filename>,
 	<filename>/sbin</filename>, <filename>/usr/bin</filename>,
 	<filename>/usr/sbin</filename>,
 	<filename>/usr/local/bin</filename>,
 	<filename>/etc</filename>, and
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More advanced <acronym>IDS</acronym> systems exist, such
 	as <package>security/aide</package>.  In most cases,
 	<command>mtree</command> provides the functionality
 	administrators need.  It is important to keep the seed value
 	and the checksum output hidden from malicious users.  More
 	information about <command>mtree</command> can be found in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mtree</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-tuning">
       <title>系統安全性調校</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, many system features can be tuned using
 	<command>sysctl</command>.  A few of the security features
 	which can be tuned to prevent Denial of Service
 	(<acronym>DoS</acronym>) attacks will be covered in this
 	section.  More information about using
 	<command>sysctl</command>, including how to temporarily change
 	values and how to make the changes permanent after testing,
 	can be found in <xref linkend="configtuning-sysctl"/>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Any time a setting is changed with
 	  <command>sysctl</command>, the chance to cause undesired
 	  harm is increased, affecting the availability of the system.
 	  All changes should be monitored and, if possible, tried on a
 	  testing system before being used on a production
 	  system.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, the FreeBSD kernel boots with a security level of
 	<literal>-1</literal>.  This is called <quote>insecure
 	  mode</quote> because immutable file flags may be turned off
 	and all devices may be read from or written to.  The security
 	level will remain at <literal>-1</literal> unless it is
 	altered through <command>sysctl</command> or by a setting in
 	the startup scripts.  The security level may be increased
 	during system startup by setting
 	<varname>kern_securelevel_enable</varname> to
 	<literal>YES</literal> in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>,
 	and the value of <varname>kern_securelevel</varname> to the
 	desired security level.  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>security</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	for more information on these settings and the available
 	security levels.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Increasing the <varname>securelevel</varname> can break
 	  <application>Xorg</application> and cause other issues.  Be
 	  prepared to do some debugging.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <varname>net.inet.tcp.blackhole</varname> and
 	<varname>net.inet.udp.blackhole</varname> settings can be used
 	to drop incoming <acronym>SYN</acronym> packets on closed
 	ports without sending a return <acronym>RST</acronym>
 	response.  The default behavior is to return an
 	<acronym>RST</acronym> to show a port is closed.  Changing the
 	default provides some level of protection against ports scans,
 	which are used to determine which applications are running on
 	a system.  Set <varname>net.inet.tcp.blackhole</varname> to
 	<literal>2</literal> and
 	<varname>net.inet.udp.blackhole</varname> to
 	<literal>1</literal>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>blackhole</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	information about these settings.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <varname>net.inet.icmp.drop_redirect</varname> and
 	<varname>net.inet.ip.redirect</varname> settings help prevent
 	against <firstterm>redirect attacks</firstterm>.  A redirect
 	attack is a type of <acronym>DoS</acronym> which sends mass
 	numbers of <acronym>ICMP</acronym> type 5 packets.  Since
 	these packets are not required, set
 	<varname>net.inet.icmp.drop_redirect</varname> to
 	<literal>1</literal> and set
 	<varname>net.inet.ip.redirect</varname> to
 	<literal>0</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Source routing is a method for detecting and accessing
 	non-routable addresses on the internal network.  This should
 	be disabled as non-routable addresses are normally not
 	routable on purpose.  To disable this feature, set
 	<varname>net.inet.ip.sourceroute</varname> and
 	<varname>net.inet.ip.accept_sourceroute</varname> to
 	<literal>0</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When a machine on the network needs to send messages to
 	all hosts on a subnet, an <acronym>ICMP</acronym> echo request
 	message is sent to the broadcast address.  However, there is
 	no reason for an external host to perform such an action.  To
 	reject all external broadcast requests, set
 	<varname>net.inet.icmp.bmcastecho </varname> to
 	<literal>0</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some additional settings are documented in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>security</refentrytitle><manvolnum>7</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="one-time-passwords">
     <title>一次性密碼</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>one-time passwords</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>security</primary>
       <secondary>one-time passwords</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">By default, FreeBSD includes support for One-time Passwords In
       Everything (<acronym>OPIE</acronym>).  <acronym>OPIE</acronym>
       is designed to prevent replay attacks, in which an attacker
       discovers a user's password and uses it to access a system.
       Since a password is only used once in <acronym>OPIE</acronym>, a
       discovered password is of little use to an attacker.
       <acronym>OPIE</acronym> uses a secure hash and a
       challenge/response system to manage passwords.  The FreeBSD
       implementation uses the <acronym>MD5</acronym> hash by
       default.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>OPIE</acronym> uses three different types of
       passwords.  The first is the usual <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> or Kerberos password.
       The second is the one-time password which is generated by
       <command>opiekey</command>.  The third type of password is the
       <quote>secret password</quote> which is used to generate
       one-time passwords.  The secret password has nothing to do with,
       and should be different from, the <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> password.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are two other pieces of data that are important to
       <acronym>OPIE</acronym>.  One is the <quote>seed</quote> or
       <quote>key</quote>, consisting of two letters and five digits.
       The other is the <quote>iteration count</quote>, a number
       between 1 and 100.  <acronym>OPIE</acronym> creates the one-time
       password by concatenating the seed and the secret password,
       applying the <acronym>MD5</acronym> hash as many times as
       specified by the iteration count, and turning the result into
       six short English words which represent the one-time password.
       The authentication system keeps track of the last one-time
       password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the
       user-provided password is equal to the previous password.
       Because a one-way hash is used, it is impossible to generate
       future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is
       captured.  The iteration count is decremented after each
       successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync.
       When the iteration count gets down to <literal>1</literal>,
       <acronym>OPIE</acronym> must be reinitialized.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are a few programs involved in this process.  A
       one-time password, or a consecutive list of one-time passwords,
       is generated by passing an iteration count, a seed, and a secret
       password to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>opiekey</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  In addition to initializing
       <acronym>OPIE</acronym>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>opiepasswd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to change
       passwords, iteration counts, or seeds.  The relevant credential
       files in <filename>/etc/opiekeys</filename> are examined by
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>opieinfo</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> which prints out the invoking user's current
       iteration count and seed.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes four different sorts of operations.
       The first is how to set up one-time-passwords for the first time
       over a secure connection.  The second is how to use
       <command>opiepasswd</command> over an insecure connection.  The
       third is how to log in over an insecure connection.  The fourth
       is how to generate a number of keys which can be written down or
       printed out to use at insecure locations.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>初始化 <acronym>OPIE</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To initialize <acronym>OPIE</acronym> for the first time,
 	run this command from a secure location:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>opiepasswd -c</userinput>
 Adding unfurl:
 Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using
 telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password.
 Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter.
 Using MD5 to compute responses.
 Enter new secret pass phrase:
 Again new secret pass phrase:
 
 ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268
 MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <option>-c</option> sets console mode which assumes
 	that the command is being run from a secure location, such as
 	a computer under the user's control or a
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym> session to a computer under the user's
 	control.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When prompted, enter the secret password which will be
 	used to generate the one-time login keys.  This password
 	should be difficult to guess and should be different than the
 	password which is associated with the user's login account.
 	It must be between 10 and 127 characters long.  Remember this
 	password.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>ID</literal> line lists the login name
 	(<literal>unfurl</literal>), default iteration count
 	(<literal>499</literal>), and default seed
 	(<literal>to4268</literal>).  When logging in, the system will
 	remember these parameters and display them, meaning that they
 	do not have to be memorized.  The last line lists the
 	generated one-time password which corresponds to those
 	parameters and the secret password.  At the next login, use
 	this one-time password.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>不安全連線初始化</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To initialize or change the secret password on an
 	insecure system, a secure connection is needed to some place
 	where <command>opiekey</command> can be run.  This might be a
 	shell prompt on a trusted machine.  An iteration count is
 	needed, where 100 is probably a good value, and the seed can
 	either be specified or the randomly-generated one used.  On
 	the insecure connection, the machine being initialized, use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>opiepasswd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>opiepasswd</userinput>
 
 Updating unfurl:
 You need the response from an OTP generator.
 Old secret pass phrase:
 	otp-md5 498 to4268 ext
 	Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT
 New secret pass phrase:
 	otp-md5 499 to4269
 	Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY
 
 ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269
 LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To accept the default seed, press <keycap>Return</keycap>.
 	Before entering an access password, move over to the secure
 	connection and give it the same parameters:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>opiekey 498 to4268</userinput>
 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
 Reminder: Do not use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
 Enter secret pass phrase:
 GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the
 	generated one-time password over to the relevant
 	program.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>產生單組一次性密碼</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After initializing <acronym>OPIE</acronym> and logging in,
 	a prompt like this will be displayed:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>telnet example.com</userinput>
 Trying 10.0.0.1...
 Connected to example.com
 Escape character is '^]'.
 
 FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)
 
 login: <userinput>&lt;username&gt;</userinput>
 otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext
 Password: </screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>OPIE</acronym> prompts provides a useful
 	feature.  If <keycap>Return</keycap> is pressed at the
 	password prompt, the prompt will turn echo on and display
 	what is typed.  This can be useful when attempting to type in
 	a password by hand from a printout.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MS-DOS</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Windows</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MacOS</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, generate the one-time password to answer
 	this login prompt.  This must be done on a trusted system
 	where it is safe to run <citerefentry><refentrytitle>opiekey</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  There are versions
 	of this command for <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> and FreeBSD.  This command
 	needs the iteration count and the seed as command line
 	options.  Use cut-and-paste from the login prompt on the
 	machine being logged in to.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On the trusted system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>opiekey 498 to4268</userinput>
 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
 Reminder: Do not use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
 Enter secret pass phrase:
 GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the one-time password is generated, continue to log
 	in.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>產生多組一次性密碼</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Sometimes there is no access to a trusted machine or
 	secure connection.  In this case, it is possible to use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>opiekey</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to generate a number of one-time passwords
 	beforehand.  For example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>opiekey -n 5 30 zz99999</userinput>
 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
 Reminder: Do not use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
 Enter secret pass phrase: <userinput>&lt;secret password&gt;</userinput>
 26: JOAN BORE FOSS DES NAY QUIT
 27: LATE BIAS SLAY FOLK MUCH TRIG
 28: SALT TIN ANTI LOON NEAL USE
 29: RIO ODIN GO BYE FURY TIC
 30: GREW JIVE SAN GIRD BOIL PHI</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <option>-n 5</option> requests five keys in sequence,
 	and <option>30</option> specifies what the last iteration
 	number should be.  Note that these are printed out in
 	<emphasis>reverse</emphasis> order of use.  The really
 	paranoid might want to write the results down by hand;
 	otherwise, print the list.  Each line shows both the iteration
 	count and the one-time password.  Scratch off the passwords as
 	they are used.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>限制使用 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 密碼</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>OPIE</acronym> can restrict the use of <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>
 	passwords based on the IP address of a login session.  The
 	relevant file is <filename>/etc/opieaccess</filename>, which
 	is present by default.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>opieaccess</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	information on this file and which security considerations to
 	be aware of when using it.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Here is a sample <filename>opieaccess</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">permit 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This line allows users whose IP source address (which is
 	vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask,
 	to use <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> passwords at any time.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If no rules in <filename>opieaccess</filename> are
 	matched, the default is to deny non-<acronym>OPIE</acronym>
 	logins.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="tcpwrappers">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en">TCP Wrapper</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Written
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>TCP Wrapper</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>TCP Wrapper</application> is a host-based
       access control system which extends the abilities of <xref linkend="network-inetd"/>.  It can be configured to provide
       logging support, return messages, and connection restrictions
       for the server daemons under the control of
       <application>inetd</application>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
       more information about
       <application>TCP Wrapper</application> and its features.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>TCP Wrapper</application> should not be
       considered a replacement for a properly configured firewall.
       Instead, <application>TCP Wrapper</application> should be used
       in conjunction with a firewall and other security enhancements
       in order to provide another layer of protection in the
       implementation of a security policy.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>初始設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <application>TCP Wrapper</application> in FreeBSD,
 	add the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">inetd_enable="YES"
 inetd_flags="-Ww"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, properly configure
 	<filename>/etc/hosts.allow</filename>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Unlike other implementations of
 	  <application>TCP Wrapper</application>, the use of
 	  <filename>hosts.deny</filename> is deprecated in FreeBSD.  All
 	  configuration options should be placed in
 	  <filename>/etc/hosts.allow</filename>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the simplest configuration, daemon connection policies
 	are set to either permit or block, depending on the options in
 	<filename>/etc/hosts.allow</filename>.  The default
 	configuration in FreeBSD is to allow all connections to the
 	daemons started with <application>inetd</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Basic configuration usually takes the form of
 	<literal>daemon : address : action</literal>, where
 	<literal>daemon</literal> is the daemon which
 	<application>inetd</application> started,
 	<literal>address</literal> is a valid hostname,
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address, or an IPv6 address enclosed in
 	brackets ([ ]), and <literal>action</literal> is either
 	<literal>allow</literal> or <literal>deny</literal>.
 	<application>TCP Wrapper</application> uses a first rule match
 	semantic, meaning that the configuration file is scanned from
 	the beginning for a matching rule.  When a match is found, the
 	rule is applied and the search process stops.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For example, to allow <acronym>POP</acronym>3 connections
 	via the <package>mail/qpopper</package> daemon, the following
 	lines should be appended to
 	<filename>hosts.allow</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># This line is required for POP3 connections:
 qpopper : ALL : allow</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Whenever this file is edited, restart
 	<application>inetd</application>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service inetd restart</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>進階設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>TCP Wrapper</application> provides advanced
 	options to allow more control over the way connections are
 	handled.  In some cases, it may be appropriate to return a
 	comment to certain hosts or daemon connections.  In other
 	cases, a log entry should be recorded or an email sent to the
 	administrator.  Other situations may require the use of a
 	service for local connections only.  This is all possible
 	through the use of configuration options known as wildcards,
 	expansion characters, and external command execution.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Suppose that a situation occurs where a connection should
 	be denied yet a reason should be sent to the host who
 	attempted to establish that connection.  That action is
 	possible with <option>twist</option>.  When a connection
 	attempt is made, <option>twist</option> executes a shell
 	command or script.  An example exists in
 	<filename>hosts.allow</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># The rest of the daemons are protected.
 ALL : ALL \
 	: severity auth.info \
 	: twist /bin/echo "You are not welcome to use %d from %h."</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the message <quote>You are not allowed to
 	  use <replaceable>daemon name</replaceable> from
 	  <replaceable>hostname</replaceable>.</quote> will be
 	returned for any daemon not configured in
 	<filename>hosts.allow</filename>.  This is useful for sending
 	a reply back to the connection initiator right after the
 	established connection is dropped.  Any message returned
 	<emphasis>must</emphasis> be wrapped in quote
 	(<literal>"</literal>) characters.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It may be possible to launch a denial of service attack
 	  on the server if an attacker floods these daemons with
 	  connection requests.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Another possibility is to use <option>spawn</option>.
 	Like <option>twist</option>, <option>spawn</option> implicitly
 	denies the connection and may be used to run external shell
 	commands or scripts.  Unlike <option>twist</option>,
 	<option>spawn</option> will not send a reply back to the host
 	who established the connection.  For example, consider the
 	following configuration:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># We do not allow connections from example.com:
 ALL : .example.com \
 	: spawn (/bin/echo %a from %h attempted to access %d &gt;&gt; \
 	  /var/log/connections.log) \
 	: deny</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will deny all connection attempts from <systemitem class="fqdomainname">*.example.com</systemitem> and log the
 	hostname, <acronym>IP</acronym> address, and the daemon to
 	which access was attempted to
 	<filename>/var/log/connections.log</filename>.  This example
 	uses the substitution characters <literal>%a</literal> and
 	<literal>%h</literal>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts_access</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the
 	complete list.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To match every instance of a daemon, domain, or
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address, use <literal>ALL</literal>.
 	Another wildcard is <literal>PARANOID</literal> which may be
 	used to match any host which provides an <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address that may be forged because the <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address differs from its resolved hostname.  In this example,
 	all connection requests to <application>Sendmail</application>
 	which have an <acronym>IP</acronym> address that varies from
 	its hostname will be denied:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Block possibly spoofed requests to sendmail:
 sendmail : PARANOID : deny</programlisting>
 
       <caution>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Using the <literal>PARANOID</literal> wildcard will
 	  result in denied connections if the client or server has a
 	  broken <acronym>DNS</acronym> setup.</para>
       </caution>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To learn more about wildcards and their associated
 	functionality, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts_access</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When adding new configuration lines, make sure that any
 	  unneeded entries for that daemon are commented out in
 	  <filename>hosts.allow</filename>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="kerberos5">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en"><application>Kerberos</application></title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tillman</firstname>
 	    <surname>Hodgson</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Mark</firstname>
 	    <surname>Murray</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Based on a contribution by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>Kerberos</application> is a network
       authentication protocol which was originally created by the
       Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<acronym>MIT</acronym>)
       as a way to securely provide authentication across a potentially
       hostile network.  The <application>Kerberos</application>
       protocol uses strong cryptography so that both a client and
       server can prove their identity without sending any unencrypted
       secrets over the network.  <application>Kerberos</application>
       can be described as an identity-verifying proxy system and as a
       trusted third-party authentication system.  After a user
       authenticates with <application>Kerberos</application>, their
       communications can be encrypted to assure privacy and data
       integrity.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The only function of <application>Kerberos</application> is
       to provide the secure authentication of users and servers on the
       network.  It does not provide authorization or auditing
       functions.  It is recommended that
       <application>Kerberos</application> be used with other security
       methods which provide authorization and audit services.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The current version of the protocol is version 5, described
       in <acronym>RFC</acronym> 4120.  Several free
       implementations of this protocol are available, covering a wide
       range of operating systems.  <acronym>MIT</acronym> continues to
       develop their <application>Kerberos</application> package.  It
       is commonly used in the <acronym>US</acronym> as a cryptography
       product, and has historically been subject to
       <acronym>US</acronym> export regulations.  In FreeBSD,
       <acronym>MIT</acronym> <application>Kerberos</application> is
       available as the <package>security/krb5</package> package or
       port.  The Heimdal <application>Kerberos</application>
       implementation was explicitly developed outside of the
       <acronym>US</acronym> to avoid export regulations.  The Heimdal
       <application>Kerberos</application> distribution is included in
       the base FreeBSD installation, and another distribution with more
       configurable options is available as
       <package>security/heimdal</package> in the Ports
       Collection.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In <application>Kerberos</application> users and services
       are identified as <quote>principals</quote> which are contained
       within an administrative grouping, called a
       <quote>realm</quote>.  A typical user principal would be of the
       form
       <literal><replaceable>user</replaceable>@<replaceable>REALM</replaceable></literal>
       (realms are traditionally uppercase).</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section provides a guide on how to set up
       <application>Kerberos</application> using the Heimdal
       distribution included in FreeBSD.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For purposes of demonstrating a
       <application>Kerberos</application> installation, the name
       spaces will be as follows:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DNS</acronym> domain (zone) will be
 	  <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <application>Kerberos</application> realm will be
 	  <literal>EXAMPLE.ORG</literal>.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Use real domain names when setting up
 	<application>Kerberos</application>, even if it will run
 	internally.  This avoids <acronym>DNS</acronym> problems and
 	assures inter-operation with other
 	<application>Kerberos</application> realms.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 Heimdal <acronym>KDC</acronym></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Kerberos5</primary>
 	<secondary>Key Distribution Center</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Key Distribution Center (<acronym>KDC</acronym>) is
 	the centralized authentication service that
 	<application>Kerberos</application> provides, the
 	<quote>trusted third party</quote> of the system.  It is the
 	computer that issues <application>Kerberos</application>
 	tickets, which are used for clients to authenticate to
 	servers.  Because the <acronym>KDC</acronym> is considered
 	trusted by all other computers in the
 	<application>Kerberos</application> realm, it has heightened
 	security concerns.  Direct access to the KDC should be
 	limited.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While running a <acronym>KDC</acronym> requires few
 	computing resources, a dedicated machine acting only as a
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> is recommended for security
 	reasons.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To begin setting up a <acronym>KDC</acronym>, add these
 	lines to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">kdc_enable="YES"
 kadmind_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, edit <filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename> as
 	follows:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">[libdefaults]
     default_realm = <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable>
 [realms]
     <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable> = {
 	kdc = <replaceable>kerberos.example.org</replaceable>
 	admin_server = <replaceable>kerberos.example.org</replaceable>
     }
 [domain_realm]
     <replaceable>.example.org</replaceable> = <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the <acronym>KDC</acronym> will use the
 	fully-qualified hostname <systemitem class="fqdomainname">kerberos.example.org</systemitem>.  The
 	hostname of the KDC must be resolvable in the
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Kerberos</application> can also use the
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> to locate KDCs, instead of a
 	<literal>[realms]</literal> section in
 	<filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename>.  For large organizations
 	that have their own <acronym>DNS</acronym> servers, the above
 	example could be trimmed to:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">[libdefaults]
       default_realm = <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable>
 [domain_realm]
     <replaceable>.example.org</replaceable> = <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">With the following lines being included in the
 	<systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem> zone
 	file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">_kerberos._udp      IN  SRV     01 00 88 <replaceable>kerberos.example.org</replaceable>.
 _kerberos._tcp      IN  SRV     01 00 88 <replaceable>kerberos.example.org</replaceable>.
 _kpasswd._udp       IN  SRV     01 00 464 <replaceable>kerberos.example.org</replaceable>.
 _kerberos-adm._tcp  IN  SRV     01 00 749 <replaceable>kerberos.example.org</replaceable>.
 _kerberos           IN  TXT     <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">In order for clients to be able to find the
 	  <application>Kerberos</application> services, they
 	  <emphasis>must</emphasis> have either
 	  a fully configured <filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename> or a
 	  minimally configured <filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename>
 	  <emphasis>and</emphasis> a properly configured
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> server.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, create the <application>Kerberos</application>
 	database which contains the keys of all principals (users and
 	hosts) encrypted with a master password.  It is not required
 	to remember this password as it will be stored in
 	<filename>/var/heimdal/m-key</filename>; it would be
 	reasonable to use a 45-character random password for this
 	purpose.  To create the master key, run
 	<command>kstash</command> and enter a password:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kstash</userinput>
 Master key: <userinput><replaceable>xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx</replaceable></userinput>
 Verifying password - Master key: <userinput><replaceable>xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the master key has been created, the database should
 	be initialized.  The <application>Kerberos</application>
 	administrative tool <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kadmin</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be used on the KDC in a
 	mode that operates directly on the database, without using the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>kadmind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> network service, as
 	<command>kadmin -l</command>.  This resolves the
 	chicken-and-egg problem of trying to connect to the database
 	before it is created.  At the <command>kadmin</command>
 	prompt, use <command>init</command> to create the realm's
 	initial database:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kadmin -l</userinput>
 kadmin&gt; <userinput>init <replaceable>EXAMPLE.ORG</replaceable></userinput>
 Realm max ticket life [unlimited]:</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Lastly, while still in <command>kadmin</command>, create
 	the first principal using <command>add</command>.  Stick to
 	the default options for the principal for now, as these can be
 	changed later with <command>modify</command>.  Type
 	<literal>?</literal> at the prompt to see the available
 	options.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">kadmin&gt; <userinput>add <replaceable>tillman</replaceable></userinput>
 Max ticket life [unlimited]:
 Max renewable life [unlimited]:
 Attributes []:
 Password: <userinput><replaceable>xxxxxxxx</replaceable></userinput>
 Verifying password - Password: <userinput><replaceable>xxxxxxxx</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, start the <acronym>KDC</acronym> services by running
 	<command>service kdc start</command> and
 	<command>service kadmind start</command>.  While there will
 	not be any kerberized daemons running at this point, it is
 	possible to confirm that the <acronym>KDC</acronym> is
 	functioning by obtaining a ticket for the
 	principal that was just created:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>kinit <replaceable>tillman</replaceable></userinput>
 tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG's Password:</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Confirm that a ticket was successfully obtained using
 	<command>klist</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>klist</userinput>
 Credentials cache: FILE:/tmp/krb5cc_1001
 	Principal: tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG
 
   Issued                Expires               Principal
 Aug 27 15:37:58 2013  Aug 28 01:37:58 2013  krbtgt/EXAMPLE.ORG@EXAMPLE.ORG</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The temporary ticket can be destroyed when the test is
 	finished:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>kdestroy</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定伺服器使用 <application>Kerberos</application></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Kerberos5</primary>
 	<secondary>enabling services</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first step in configuring a server to use
 	<application>Kerberos</application> authentication is to
 	ensure that it has the correct configuration in
 	<filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename>.  The version from the
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> can be used as-is, or it can be
 	regenerated on the new system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, create <filename>/etc/krb5.keytab</filename> on the
 	server.  This is the main part of <quote>Kerberizing</quote> a
 	service — it corresponds to generating a secret shared
 	between the service and the <acronym>KDC</acronym>.  The
 	secret is a cryptographic key, stored in a
 	<quote>keytab</quote>.  The keytab contains the server's host
 	key, which allows it and the <acronym>KDC</acronym> to verify
 	each others' identity.  It must be transmitted to the server
 	in a secure fashion, as the security of the server can be
 	broken if the key is made public.  Typically, the
 	<filename>keytab</filename> is generated on an administrator's
 	trusted machine using <command>kadmin</command>, then securely
 	transferred to the server, e.g., with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>scp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>; it can also
 	be created directly on the server if that is consistent with
 	the desired security policy.  It is very important that the
 	keytab is transmitted to the server in a secure fashion: if
 	the key is known by some other party, that party can
 	impersonate any user to the server!  Using
 	<command>kadmin</command> on the server directly is
 	convenient, because the entry for the host principal in the
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> database is also created using
 	<command>kadmin</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Of course, <command>kadmin</command> is a kerberized
 	service; a <application>Kerberos</application> ticket is
 	needed to authenticate to the network service, but to ensure
 	that the user running <command>kadmin</command> is actually
 	present (and their session has not been hijacked),
 	<command>kadmin</command> will prompt for the password to get
 	a fresh ticket.  The principal authenticating to the kadmin
 	service must be permitted to use the <command>kadmin</command>
 	interface, as specified in <filename>kadmind.acl</filename>.
 	See the section titled <quote>Remote administration</quote> in
 	<command>info heimdal</command> for details on designing
 	access control lists.  Instead of enabling remote
 	<command>kadmin</command> access, the administrator could
 	securely connect to the <acronym>KDC</acronym> via the local
 	console or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and perform administration locally
 	using <command>kadmin -l</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After installing <filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename>,
 	use <command>add --random-key</command> in
 	<command>kadmin</command>.  This adds the server's host
 	principal to the database, but does not extract a copy of the
 	host principal key to a keytab.  To generate the keytab, use
 	<command>ext</command> to extract the server's host principal
 	key to its own keytab:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kadmin</userinput>
 kadmin&gt;<userinput> add --random-key host/myserver.example.org</userinput>
 Max ticket life [unlimited]:
 Max renewable life [unlimited]:
 Principal expiration time [never]:
 Password expiration time [never]:
 Attributes []:
 kadmin&gt;<userinput> ext_keytab <replaceable>host/myserver.example.org</replaceable></userinput>
 kadmin&gt;<userinput> exit</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Note that <command>ext_keytab</command> stores the
 	extracted key in <filename>/etc/krb5.keytab</filename> by
 	default.  This is good when being run on the server being
 	kerberized, but the <command>--keytab
 	  <replaceable>path/to/file</replaceable></command> argument
 	should be used when the keytab is being extracted
 	elsewhere:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kadmin</userinput>
 kadmin&gt;<userinput> ext_keytab --keytab=/tmp/example.keytab <replaceable>host/myserver.example.org</replaceable></userinput>
 kadmin&gt;<userinput> exit</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The keytab can then be securely copied to the server
 	using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>scp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> or a removable media.  Be sure to specify a
 	non-default keytab name to avoid inserting unneeded keys into
 	the system's keytab.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, the server can read encrypted messages from
 	the <acronym>KDC</acronym> using its shared key, stored in
 	<filename>krb5.keytab</filename>.  It is now ready for the
 	<application>Kerberos</application>-using services to be
 	enabled.  One of the most common such services is
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which supports
 	<application>Kerberos</application> via the
 	<acronym>GSS-API</acronym>.  In
 	<filename>/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename>, add the
 	line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">GSSAPIAuthentication yes</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After making this change, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> must be restared
 	for the new configuration to take effect:
 	<command>service sshd restart</command>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定客戶端使用 <application>Kerberos</application></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Kerberos5</primary>
 	<secondary>configure clients</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As it was for the server, the client requires
 	configuration in <filename>/etc/krb5.conf</filename>.  Copy
 	the file in place (securely) or re-enter it as needed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Test the client by using <command>kinit</command>,
 	<command>klist</command>, and <command>kdestroy</command> from
 	the client to obtain, show, and then delete a ticket for an
 	existing principal.  <application>Kerberos</application>
 	applications should also be able to connect to
 	<application>Kerberos</application> enabled servers.  If that
 	does not work but obtaining a ticket does, the problem is
 	likely with the server and not with the client or the
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym>.  In the case of kerberized
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <acronym>GSS-API</acronym> is disabled by
 	default, so test using <command>ssh -o
 	  GSSAPIAuthentication=yes
 	  <replaceable>hostname</replaceable></command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When testing a Kerberized application, try using a packet
 	sniffer such as <command>tcpdump</command> to confirm that no
 	sensitive information is sent in the clear.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Various <application>Kerberos</application> client
 	applications are available.  With the advent of a bridge so
 	that applications using <acronym>SASL</acronym> for
 	authentication can use <acronym>GSS-API</acronym> mechanisms
 	as well, large classes of client applications can use
 	<application>Kerberos</application> for authentication, from
 	Jabber clients to <acronym>IMAP</acronym> clients.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>.k5login</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>.k5users</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Users within a realm typically have their
 	<application>Kerberos</application> principal mapped to a
 	local user account.  Occasionally, one needs to grant access
 	to a local user account to someone who does not have a
 	matching <application>Kerberos</application> principal.  For
 	example, <systemitem class="username">tillman@EXAMPLE.ORG</systemitem> may need
 	access to the local user account <systemitem class="username">webdevelopers</systemitem>.  Other
 	principals may also need access to that local account.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>.k5login</filename> and
 	<filename>.k5users</filename> files, placed in a user's home
 	directory, can be used to solve this problem.  For example, if
 	the following <filename>.k5login</filename> is placed in the
 	home directory of <systemitem class="username">webdevelopers</systemitem>, both principals
 	listed will have access to that account without requiring a
 	shared password:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">tillman@example.org
 jdoe@example.org</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ksu</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information about
 	<filename>.k5users</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>與 <acronym>MIT</acronym> 的差異</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The major difference between the <acronym>MIT</acronym>
 	and Heimdal implementations is that <command>kadmin</command>
 	has a different, but equivalent, set of commands and uses a
 	different protocol.  If the <acronym>KDC</acronym> is
 	<acronym>MIT</acronym>, the Heimdal version of
 	<command>kadmin</command> cannot be used to administer the
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> remotely, and vice versa.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Client applications may also use slightly different
 	command line options to accomplish the same tasks.  Following
 	the instructions at <link xlink:href="http://web.mit.edu/Kerberos/www/">http://web.mit.edu/Kerberos/www/</link>
 	is recommended.  Be careful of path issues: the
 	<acronym>MIT</acronym> port installs into
 	<filename>/usr/local/</filename> by default, and the FreeBSD
 	system applications run instead of the
 	<acronym>MIT</acronym> versions if <envar>PATH</envar> lists
 	the system directories first.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using MIT Kerberos as a <acronym>KDC</acronym> on
 	FreeBSD, the following edits should also be made to
 	<filename>rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">kerberos5_server="/usr/local/sbin/krb5kdc"
 kadmind5_server="/usr/local/sbin/kadmind"
 kerberos5_server_flags=""
 kerberos5_server_enable="YES"
 kadmind5_server_enable="YES"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><application>Kerberos</application> 提示、技巧與疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When configuring and troubleshooting
 	<application>Kerberos</application>, keep the following points
 	in mind:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When using either Heimdal or <acronym>MIT</acronym>
 	    <application>Kerberos</application> from ports, ensure
 	    that the <envar>PATH</envar> lists the port's versions of
 	    the client applications before the system versions.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If all the computers in the realm do not have
 	    synchronized time settings, authentication may fail.
 	    <xref linkend="network-ntp"/> describes how to synchronize
 	    clocks using <acronym>NTP</acronym>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the hostname is changed, the <systemitem class="username">host/</systemitem> principal must be
 	    changed and the keytab updated.  This also applies to
 	    special keytab entries like the <systemitem class="username">HTTP/</systemitem> principal used for
 	    Apache's <package>www/mod_auth_kerb</package>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">All hosts in the realm must be both forward and
 	    reverse resolvable in <acronym>DNS</acronym> or, at a
 	    minimum, exist in <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>.  CNAMEs
 	    will work, but the A and PTR records must be correct and
 	    in place.  The error message for unresolvable hosts is not
 	    intuitive: <errorname>Kerberos5 refuses authentication
 	      because Read req failed: Key table entry not
 	      found</errorname>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Some operating systems that act as clients to the
 	    <acronym>KDC</acronym> do not set the permissions for
 	    <command>ksu</command> to be setuid <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  This means that
 	    <command>ksu</command> does not work.  This is a
 	    permissions problem, not a <acronym>KDC</acronym>
 	    error.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">With <acronym>MIT</acronym>
 	    <application>Kerberos</application>, to allow a principal
 	    to have a ticket life longer than the default lifetime of
 	    ten hours, use <command>modify_principal</command> at the
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kadmin</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> prompt to change the
 	    <literal>maxlife</literal> of both the principal in
 	    question and the
 	    <systemitem class="username">krbtgt</systemitem>
 	    principal.  The principal can then use
 	    <command>kinit -l</command> to request a ticket with a
 	    longer lifetime.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When running a packet sniffer on the
 	    <acronym>KDC</acronym> to aid in troubleshooting while
 	    running <command>kinit</command> from a workstation, the
 	    Ticket Granting Ticket (<acronym>TGT</acronym>) is sent
 	    immediately, even before the password is typed.  This is
 	    because the <application>Kerberos</application> server
 	    freely transmits a <acronym>TGT</acronym> to any
 	    unauthorized request.  However, every
 	    <acronym>TGT</acronym> is encrypted in a key derived from
 	    the user's password.  When a user types their password, it
 	    is not sent to the <acronym>KDC</acronym>, it is instead
 	    used to decrypt the <acronym>TGT</acronym> that
 	    <command>kinit</command> already obtained.  If the
 	    decryption process results in a valid ticket with a valid
 	    time stamp, the user has valid
 	    <application>Kerberos</application> credentials.  These
 	    credentials include a session key for establishing secure
 	    communications with the
 	    <application>Kerberos</application> server in the future,
 	    as well as the actual <acronym>TGT</acronym>, which is
 	    encrypted with the <application>Kerberos</application>
 	    server's own key.  This second layer of encryption allows
 	    the <application>Kerberos</application> server to verify
 	    the authenticity of each <acronym>TGT</acronym>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Host principals can have a longer ticket lifetime.  If
 	    the user principal has a lifetime of a week but the host
 	    being connected to has a lifetime of nine hours, the user
 	    cache will have an expired host principal and the ticket
 	    cache will not work as expected.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When setting up <filename>krb5.dict</filename> to
 	    prevent specific bad passwords from being used as
 	    described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kadmind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, remember that it only
 	    applies to principals that have a password policy assigned
 	    to them.  The format used in
 	    <filename>krb5.dict</filename> is one string per line.
 	    Creating a symbolic link to
 	    <filename>/usr/share/dict/words</filename> might be
 	    useful.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>減輕 <application>Kerberos</application> 的限制</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Kerberos5</primary>
 	<secondary>limitations and shortcomings</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <application>Kerberos</application> is an all or
 	nothing approach, every service enabled on the network must
 	either be modified to work with
 	<application>Kerberos</application> or be otherwise secured
 	against network attacks.  This is to prevent user credentials
 	from being stolen and re-used.  An example is when
 	<application>Kerberos</application> is enabled on all remote
 	shells but the non-Kerberized <acronym>POP3</acronym> mail
 	server sends passwords in plain text.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>KDC</acronym> is a single point of failure.
 	By design, the <acronym>KDC</acronym> must be as secure as its
 	master password database.  The <acronym>KDC</acronym> should
 	have absolutely no other services running on it and should be
 	physically secure.  The danger is high because
 	<application>Kerberos</application> stores all passwords
 	encrypted with the same master key which is stored as a file
 	on the <acronym>KDC</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A compromised master key is not quite as bad as one might
 	fear.  The master key is only used to encrypt the
 	<application>Kerberos</application> database and as a seed for
 	the random number generator.  As long as access to the
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> is secure, an attacker cannot do much
 	with the master key.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <acronym>KDC</acronym> is unavailable, network
 	services are unusable as authentication cannot be performed.
 	This can be alleviated with a single master
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> and one or more slaves, and with
 	careful implementation of secondary or fall-back
 	authentication using <acronym>PAM</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Kerberos</application> allows users, hosts
 	and services to authenticate between themselves.  It does not
 	have a mechanism to authenticate the
 	<acronym>KDC</acronym> to the users, hosts, or services.  This
 	means that a trojanned <command>kinit</command> could record
 	all user names and passwords.  File system integrity checking
 	tools like <package>security/tripwire</package> can
 	alleviate this.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>相關資源與延伸資訊</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Kerberos5</primary>
 	<secondary>external resources</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.faqs.org/faqs/Kerberos-faq/general/preamble.html">
 	      The <application>Kerberos</application>
 	      FAQ</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://web.mit.edu/Kerberos/www/dialogue.html">Designing
 	      an Authentication System: a Dialog in Four
 	      Scenes</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4120.txt?number=4120">RFC
 	      4120, The <application>Kerberos</application> Network
 	      Authentication Service (V5)</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://web.mit.edu/Kerberos/www/"><acronym>MIT</acronym>
 	      <application>Kerberos</application> home
 	      page</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.pdc.kth.se/heimdal/">Heimdal
 	      <application>Kerberos</application> home
 	      page</link></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="openssl">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en">OpenSSL</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Written
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>security</primary>
       <secondary>OpenSSL</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>OpenSSL</application> is an open source
       implementation of the <acronym>SSL</acronym> and
       <acronym>TLS</acronym> protocols.  It provides an encryption
       transport layer on top of the normal communications layer,
       allowing it to be intertwined with many network applications and
       services.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The version of <application>OpenSSL</application> included
       in FreeBSD supports the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3)
       and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security
       protocols and can be used as a general cryptographic
       library.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>OpenSSL</application> is often used to encrypt
       authentication of mail clients and to secure web based
       transactions such as credit card payments.  Some ports, such as
       <package>www/apache24</package> and
       <package>databases/postgresql91-server</package>, include a
       compile option for building with
       <application>OpenSSL</application>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides two versions of
       <application>OpenSSL</application>: one in the base system and
       one in the Ports Collection.  Users can choose which version to
       use by default for other ports using the following knobs:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">WITH_OPENSSL_PORT: when set, the port will use
 	  <application>OpenSSL</application> from the
 	  <package>security/openssl</package> port, even if the
 	  version in the base system is up to date or newer.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">WITH_OPENSSL_BASE: when set, the port will compile
 	  against <application>OpenSSL</application> provided by the
 	  base system.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Another common use of <application>OpenSSL</application> is
       to provide certificates for use with software applications.
       Certificates can be used to verify the credentials of a company
       or individual.  If a certificate has not been signed by an
       external <firstterm>Certificate Authority</firstterm>
       (<acronym>CA</acronym>), such as <link xlink:href="http://www.verisign.com">http://www.verisign.com</link>,
       the application that uses the certificate will produce a
       warning.  There is a cost associated with obtaining a signed
       certificate and using a signed certificate is not mandatory as
       certificates can be self-signed.  However, using an external
       authority will prevent warnings and can put users at
       ease.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to create and use certificates
       on a FreeBSD system.  Refer to <xref linkend="ldap-config"/> for an
       example of how to create a <acronym>CA</acronym> for signing
       one's own certificates.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For more information about <acronym>SSL</acronym>, read the
       free <link xlink:href="https://www.feistyduck.com/books/openssl-cookbook/">OpenSSL
 	Cookbook</link>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>產生憑証</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>OpenSSL</primary>
 	<secondary>certificate generation</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To generate a certificate that will be signed by an
 	external <acronym>CA</acronym>, issue the following command
 	and input the information requested at the prompts.  This
 	input information will be written to the certificate.  At the
 	<literal>Common Name</literal> prompt, input the fully
 	qualified name for the system that will use the certificate.
 	If this name does not match the server, the application
 	verifying the certificate will issue a warning to the user,
 	rendering the verification provided by the certificate as
 	useless.</para>
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl req -new -nodes -out req.pem -keyout cert.key -sha256 -newkey rsa:2048</userinput>
 Generating a 2048 bit RSA private key
 ..................+++
 .............................................................+++
 writing new private key to 'cert.key'
 -----
 You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
 into your certificate request.
 What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
 There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
 For some fields there will be a default value,
 If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
 -----
 Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:<userinput><replaceable>US</replaceable></userinput>
 State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:<userinput><replaceable>PA</replaceable></userinput>
 Locality Name (eg, city) []:<userinput><replaceable>Pittsburgh</replaceable></userinput>
 Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:<userinput><replaceable>My Company</replaceable></userinput>
 Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:<userinput><replaceable>Systems Administrator</replaceable></userinput>
 Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:<userinput><replaceable>localhost.example.org</replaceable></userinput>
 Email Address []:<userinput><replaceable>trhodes@FreeBSD.org</replaceable></userinput>
 
 Please enter the following 'extra' attributes
 to be sent with your certificate request
 A challenge password []:
 An optional company name []:<userinput><replaceable>Another Name</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other options, such as the expire time and alternate
 	encryption algorithms, are available when creating a
 	certificate.  A complete list of options is described in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>openssl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command will create two files in the current
 	directory.  The certificate request,
 	<filename>req.pem</filename>, can be sent to a
 	<acronym>CA</acronym> who will validate the entered
 	credentials, sign the request, and return the signed
 	certificate.  The second file,
 	<filename>cert.key</filename>, is the private key for the
 	certificate and should be stored in a secure location.  If
 	this falls in the hands of others, it can be used to
 	impersonate the user or the server.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternately, if a signature from a <acronym>CA</acronym>
 	is not required, a self-signed certificate can be created.
 	First, generate the <acronym>RSA</acronym> key:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl genrsa -rand -genkey -out cert.key 2048</userinput>
 0 semi-random bytes loaded
 Generating RSA private key, 2048 bit long modulus
 .............................................+++
 .................................................................................................................+++
 e is 65537 (0x10001)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use this key to create a self-signed certificate.
 	Follow the usual prompts for creating a certificate:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -key cert.key -out cert.crt -sha256</userinput>
 You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
 into your certificate request.
 What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
 There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
 For some fields there will be a default value,
 If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
 -----
 Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:<userinput><replaceable>US</replaceable></userinput>
 State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:<userinput><replaceable>PA</replaceable></userinput>
 Locality Name (eg, city) []:<userinput><replaceable>Pittsburgh</replaceable></userinput>
 Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:<userinput><replaceable>My Company</replaceable></userinput>
 Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:<userinput><replaceable>Systems Administrator</replaceable></userinput>
 Common Name (e.g. server FQDN or YOUR name) []:<userinput><replaceable>localhost.example.org</replaceable></userinput>
 Email Address []:<userinput><replaceable>trhodes@FreeBSD.org</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will create two new files in the current directory: a
 	private key file
 	<filename>cert.key</filename>, and the certificate itself,
 	<filename>cert.crt</filename>.  These should be placed in a
 	directory, preferably under <filename>/etc/ssl/</filename>,
 	which is readable only by <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  Permissions of
 	<literal>0700</literal> are appropriate for these files and
 	can be set using <command>chmod</command>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用憑證</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">One use for a certificate is to encrypt connections to the
 	<application>Sendmail</application> mail server in order to
 	prevent the use of clear text authentication.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some mail clients will display an error if the user has
 	  not installed a local copy of the certificate.  Refer to the
 	  documentation included with the software for more
 	  information on certificate installation.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE and above, it is possible to create a
 	self-signed certificate for
 	<application>Sendmail</application> automatically.  To enable
 	this, add the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">sendmail_enable="YES"
 sendmail_cert_create="YES"
 sendmail_cert_cn="<replaceable>localhost.example.org</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will automatically create a self-signed certificate,
 	<filename>/etc/mail/certs/host.cert</filename>, a signing key,
 	<filename>/etc/mail/certs/host.key</filename>, and a
 	<acronym>CA</acronym> certificate,
 	<filename>/etc/mail/certs/cacert.pem</filename>.  The
 	certificate will use the <literal>Common Name</literal>
 	specified in <option>sendmail_cert_cn</option>.  After saving
 	the edits, restart <application>Sendmail</application>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sendmail restart</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If all went well, there will be no error messages in
 	<filename>/var/log/maillog</filename>.  For a simple test,
 	connect to the mail server's listening port using
 	<command>telnet</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>telnet <replaceable>example.com</replaceable> 25</userinput>
 Trying 192.0.34.166...
 Connected to example.com.
 Escape character is '^]'.
 220 example.com ESMTP Sendmail 8.14.7/8.14.7; Fri, 18 Apr 2014 11:50:32 -0400 (EDT)
 <userinput>ehlo <replaceable>example.com</replaceable></userinput>
 250-example.com Hello example.com [192.0.34.166], pleased to meet you
 250-ENHANCEDSTATUSCODES
 250-PIPELINING
 250-8BITMIME
 250-SIZE
 250-DSN
 250-ETRN
 250-AUTH LOGIN PLAIN
 250-STARTTLS
 250-DELIVERBY
 250 HELP
 <userinput>quit</userinput>
 221 2.0.0 example.com closing connection
 Connection closed by foreign host.</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <literal>STARTTLS</literal> line appears in the
 	output, everything is working correctly.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ipsec">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>VPN</acronym> over
 	<acronym>IPsec</acronym></title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Nik</firstname>
 	    <surname>Clayton</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <affiliation>
 	    <address xml:lang="en">
 	      <email>nik@FreeBSD.org</email>
 	    </address>
 	  </affiliation>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Hiten M.</firstname>
 	    <surname>Pandya</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <affiliation>
 	    <address xml:lang="en">
 	      <email>hmp@FreeBSD.org</email>
 	    </address>
 	  </affiliation>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>IPsec</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Internet Protocol Security (<acronym>IPsec</acronym>) is a
       set of protocols which sit on top of the Internet Protocol
       (<acronym>IP</acronym>) layer.  It allows two or more hosts to
       communicate in a secure manner by authenticating and encrypting
       each <acronym>IP</acronym> packet of a communication session.
       The FreeBSD <acronym>IPsec</acronym> network stack is based on the
       <link xlink:href="http://www.kame.net/">http://www.kame.net/</link>
       implementation and supports both <acronym>IPv4</acronym> and
       <acronym>IPv6</acronym> sessions.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>IPsec</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>ESP</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>IPsec</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>AH</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPsec</acronym> is comprised of the following
       sub-protocols:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Encapsulated Security Payload
 	    (<acronym>ESP</acronym>)</emphasis>: this protocol
 	  protects the <acronym>IP</acronym> packet data from third
 	  party interference by encrypting the contents using
 	  symmetric cryptography algorithms such as Blowfish and
 	  <acronym>3DES</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Authentication Header
 	    (<acronym>AH</acronym>)</emphasis>: this protocol
 	  protects the <acronym>IP</acronym> packet header from third
 	  party interference and spoofing by computing a cryptographic
 	  checksum and hashing the <acronym>IP </acronym> packet
 	  header fields with a secure hashing function.  This is then
 	  followed by an additional header that contains the hash, to
 	  allow the information in the packet to be
 	  authenticated.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>IP Payload Compression Protocol
 	    (<acronym>IPComp</acronym></emphasis>): this protocol
 	  tries to increase communication performance by compressing
 	  the <acronym>IP </acronym> payload in order to reduce the
 	  amount of data sent.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">These protocols can either be used together or separately,
       depending on the environment.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>VPN</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>virtual private network</primary>
       <see>VPN</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPsec</acronym> supports two modes of operation.
       The first mode, <firstterm>Transport Mode</firstterm>, protects
       communications between two hosts.  The second mode,
       <firstterm>Tunnel Mode</firstterm>, is used to build virtual
       tunnels, commonly known as Virtual Private Networks
       (<acronym>VPN</acronym>s).  Consult <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipsec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for detailed
       information on the <acronym>IPsec</acronym> subsystem in
       FreeBSD.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To add <acronym>IPsec</acronym> support to the kernel, add
       the following options to the custom kernel configuration file
       and rebuild the kernel using the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>:</para>
 
     <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPSEC</secondary></indexterm>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">options   IPSEC        #IP security
 device    crypto</screen>
 
     <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPSEC_DEBUG</secondary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If <acronym>IPsec</acronym> debugging support is desired,
       the following kernel option should also be added:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">options   IPSEC_DEBUG  #debug for IP security</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This rest of this chapter demonstrates the process of
       setting up an <acronym>IPsec</acronym> <acronym>VPN</acronym>
       between a home network and a corporate network.  In the example
       scenario:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Both sites are connected to the Internet through a
 	  gateway that is running FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The gateway on each network has at least one external
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  In this example, the
 	  corporate <acronym>LAN</acronym>'s external
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address is <systemitem class="ipaddress">172.16.5.4</systemitem> and the home
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym>'s external <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  address is <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.12</systemitem>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The internal addresses of the two networks can be either
 	  public or private <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses.  However,
 	  the address space must not collide.  For example, both
 	  networks cannot use <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.x</systemitem>.  In this
 	  example, the corporate <acronym>LAN</acronym>'s internal
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address is <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.246.38.1</systemitem> and the home
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym>'s internal <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  address is <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.5</systemitem>.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <sect2>
       <info>
 	<title>在 FreeBSD 上設定 <acronym>VPN</acronym></title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <affiliation>
 	      <address xml:lang="en">
 		<email>trhodes@FreeBSD.org</email>
 	      </address>
 	    </affiliation>
 	    <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To begin, <package>security/ipsec-tools</package> must be
 	installed from the Ports Collection.  This software provides a
 	number of applications which support the configuration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next requirement is to create two <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gif</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	pseudo-devices which will be used to tunnel packets and allow
 	both networks to communicate properly.  As <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, run the following
 	commands, replacing <replaceable>internal</replaceable> and
 	<replaceable>external</replaceable> with the real IP
 	addresses of the internal and external interfaces of the two
 	gateways:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig gif0 create</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig gif0 <replaceable>internal1 internal2</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig gif0 tunnel <replaceable>external1 external2</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Verify the setup on each gateway, using
 	<command>ifconfig</command>.  Here is the output from Gateway
 	1:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gif0: flags=8051 mtu 1280
 tunnel inet 172.16.5.4 --&gt; 192.168.1.12
 inet6 fe80::2e0:81ff:fe02:5881%gif0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x6
 inet 10.246.38.1 --&gt; 10.0.0.5 netmask 0xffffff00</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Here is the output from Gateway 2:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gif0: flags=8051 mtu 1280
 tunnel inet 192.168.1.12 --&gt; 172.16.5.4
 inet 10.0.0.5 --&gt; 10.246.38.1 netmask 0xffffff00
 inet6 fe80::250:bfff:fe3a:c1f%gif0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x4</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once complete, both internal <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	addresses should be reachable using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">priv-net# ping 10.0.0.5
 PING 10.0.0.5 (10.0.0.5): 56 data bytes
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.5: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=42.786 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.5: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=19.255 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.5: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=20.440 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.5: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=21.036 ms
 --- 10.0.0.5 ping statistics ---
 4 packets transmitted, 4 packets received, 0% packet loss
 round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 19.255/25.879/42.786/9.782 ms
 
 corp-net# ping 10.246.38.1
 PING 10.246.38.1 (10.246.38.1): 56 data bytes
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.1: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=28.106 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.1: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=42.917 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.1: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=127.525 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.1: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=119.896 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.1: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=154.524 ms
 --- 10.246.38.1 ping statistics ---
 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
 round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 28.106/94.594/154.524/49.814 ms</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As expected, both sides have the ability to send and
 	receive <acronym>ICMP</acronym> packets from the privately
 	configured addresses.  Next, both gateways must be told how to
 	route packets in order to correctly send traffic from either
 	network.  The following commands will achieve this
 	goal:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>corp-net# route add <replaceable>10.0.0.0 10.0.0.5 255.255.255.0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>corp-net# route add net <replaceable>10.0.0.0: gateway 10.0.0.5</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>priv-net# route add <replaceable>10.246.38.0 10.246.38.1 255.255.255.0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>priv-net# route add host <replaceable>10.246.38.0: gateway 10.246.38.1</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, internal machines should be reachable from
 	each gateway as well as from machines behind the gateways.
 	Again, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to confirm:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">corp-net# ping 10.0.0.8
 PING 10.0.0.8 (10.0.0.8): 56 data bytes
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.8: icmp_seq=0 ttl=63 time=92.391 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.8: icmp_seq=1 ttl=63 time=21.870 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.8: icmp_seq=2 ttl=63 time=198.022 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.8: icmp_seq=3 ttl=63 time=22.241 ms
 64 bytes from 10.0.0.8: icmp_seq=4 ttl=63 time=174.705 ms
 --- 10.0.0.8 ping statistics ---
 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
 round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 21.870/101.846/198.022/74.001 ms
 
 priv-net# ping 10.246.38.107
 PING 10.246.38.1 (10.246.38.107): 56 data bytes
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.107: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=53.491 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.107: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=23.395 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.107: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=23.865 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.107: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=21.145 ms
 64 bytes from 10.246.38.107: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=36.708 ms
 --- 10.246.38.107 ping statistics ---
 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss
 round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 21.145/31.721/53.491/12.179 ms</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Setting up the tunnels is the easy part.  Configuring a
 	secure link is a more in depth process.  The following
 	configuration uses pre-shared (<acronym>PSK</acronym>)
 	<acronym>RSA</acronym> keys.  Other than the
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> addresses, the
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/racoon/racoon.conf</filename> on both
 	gateways will be identical and look similar to:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">path    pre_shared_key  "/usr/local/etc/racoon/psk.txt"; #location of pre-shared key file
 log     debug;	#log verbosity setting: set to 'notify' when testing and debugging is complete
 
 padding	# options are not to be changed
 {
         maximum_length  20;
         randomize       off;
         strict_check    off;
         exclusive_tail  off;
 }
 
 timer	# timing options. change as needed
 {
         counter         5;
         interval        20 sec;
         persend         1;
 #       natt_keepalive  15 sec;
         phase1          30 sec;
         phase2          15 sec;
 }
 
 listen	# address [port] that racoon will listen on
 {
         isakmp          172.16.5.4 [500];
         isakmp_natt     172.16.5.4 [4500];
 }
 
 remote  192.168.1.12 [500]
 {
         exchange_mode   main,aggressive;
         doi             ipsec_doi;
         situation       identity_only;
         my_identifier   address 172.16.5.4;
         peers_identifier        address 192.168.1.12;
         lifetime        time 8 hour;
         passive         off;
         proposal_check  obey;
 #       nat_traversal   off;
         generate_policy off;
 
                         proposal {
                                 encryption_algorithm    blowfish;
                                 hash_algorithm          md5;
                                 authentication_method   pre_shared_key;
                                 lifetime time           30 sec;
                                 dh_group                1;
                         }
 }
 
 sainfo  (address 10.246.38.0/24 any address 10.0.0.0/24 any)	# address $network/$netmask $type address $network/$netmask $type ( $type being any or esp)
 {								# $network must be the two internal networks you are joining.
         pfs_group       1;
         lifetime        time    36000 sec;
         encryption_algorithm    blowfish,3des;
         authentication_algorithm        hmac_md5,hmac_sha1;
         compression_algorithm   deflate;
 }</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For descriptions of each available option, refer to the
 	manual page for <filename>racoon.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Security Policy Database (<acronym>SPD</acronym>)
 	needs to be configured so that FreeBSD and
 	<application>racoon</application> are able to encrypt and
 	decrypt network traffic between the hosts.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This can be achieved with a shell script, similar to the
 	following, on the corporate gateway.  This file will be used
 	during system initialization and should be saved as
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/racoon/setkey.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">flush;
 spdflush;
 # To the home network
 spdadd 10.246.38.0/24 10.0.0.0/24 any -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/172.16.5.4-192.168.1.12/use;
 spdadd 10.0.0.0/24 10.246.38.0/24 any -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/192.168.1.12-172.16.5.4/use;</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once in place, <application>racoon</application> may be
 	started on both gateways using the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/usr/local/sbin/racoon -F -f /usr/local/etc/racoon/racoon.conf -l /var/log/racoon.log</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output should be similar to the following:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">corp-net# /usr/local/sbin/racoon -F -f /usr/local/etc/racoon/racoon.conf
 Foreground mode.
 2006-01-30 01:35:47: INFO: begin Identity Protection mode.
 2006-01-30 01:35:48: INFO: received Vendor ID: KAME/racoon
 2006-01-30 01:35:55: INFO: received Vendor ID: KAME/racoon
 2006-01-30 01:36:04: INFO: ISAKMP-SA established 172.16.5.4[500]-192.168.1.12[500] spi:623b9b3bd2492452:7deab82d54ff704a
 2006-01-30 01:36:05: INFO: initiate new phase 2 negotiation: 172.16.5.4[0]192.168.1.12[0]
 2006-01-30 01:36:09: INFO: IPsec-SA established: ESP/Tunnel 192.168.1.12[0]-&gt;172.16.5.4[0] spi=28496098(0x1b2d0e2)
 2006-01-30 01:36:09: INFO: IPsec-SA established: ESP/Tunnel 172.16.5.4[0]-&gt;192.168.1.12[0] spi=47784998(0x2d92426)
 2006-01-30 01:36:13: INFO: respond new phase 2 negotiation: 172.16.5.4[0]192.168.1.12[0]
 2006-01-30 01:36:18: INFO: IPsec-SA established: ESP/Tunnel 192.168.1.12[0]-&gt;172.16.5.4[0] spi=124397467(0x76a279b)
 2006-01-30 01:36:18: INFO: IPsec-SA established: ESP/Tunnel 172.16.5.4[0]-&gt;192.168.1.12[0] spi=175852902(0xa7b4d66)</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To ensure the tunnel is working properly, switch to
 	another console and use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcpdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to view network
 	traffic using the following command.  Replace
 	<literal>em0</literal> with the network interface card as
 	required:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tcpdump -i em0 host <replaceable>172.16.5.4 and dst 192.168.1.12</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Data similar to the following should appear on the
 	console.  If not, there is an issue and debugging the
 	returned data will be required.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">01:47:32.021683 IP corporatenetwork.com &gt; 192.168.1.12.privatenetwork.com: ESP(spi=0x02acbf9f,seq=0xa)
 01:47:33.022442 IP corporatenetwork.com &gt; 192.168.1.12.privatenetwork.com: ESP(spi=0x02acbf9f,seq=0xb)
 01:47:34.024218 IP corporatenetwork.com &gt; 192.168.1.12.privatenetwork.com: ESP(spi=0x02acbf9f,seq=0xc)</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, both networks should be available and seem
 	to be part of the same network.  Most likely both networks are
 	protected by a firewall.  To allow traffic to flow between
 	them, rules need to be added to pass packets.  For the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> firewall, add the following lines to the firewall
 	configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipfw add 00201 allow log esp from any to any
 ipfw add 00202 allow log ah from any to any
 ipfw add 00203 allow log ipencap from any to any
 ipfw add 00204 allow log udp from any 500 to any</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The rule numbers may need to be altered depending on the
 	  current host configuration.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For users of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, the following
 	rules should do the trick:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pass in quick proto esp from any to any
 pass in quick proto ah from any to any
 pass in quick proto ipencap from any to any
 pass in quick proto udp from any port = 500 to any port = 500
 pass in quick on gif0 from any to any
 pass out quick proto esp from any to any
 pass out quick proto ah from any to any
 pass out quick proto ipencap from any to any
 pass out quick proto udp from any port = 500 to any port = 500
 pass out quick on gif0 from any to any</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Finally, to allow the machine to start support for the
 	<acronym>VPN</acronym> during system initialization, add the
 	following lines to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipsec_enable="YES"
 ipsec_program="/usr/local/sbin/setkey"
 ipsec_file="/usr/local/etc/racoon/setkey.conf" # allows setting up spd policies on boot
 racoon_enable="yes"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="openssh">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en">OpenSSH</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Chern</firstname><surname>Lee</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
 	<!-- 21 April 2001 -->
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>OpenSSH</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>security</primary>
       <secondary>OpenSSH</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>OpenSSH</application> is a set of network
       connectivity tools used to provide secure access to remote
       machines.  Additionally, <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> connections
       can be tunneled or forwarded securely through
       <acronym>SSH</acronym> connections.
       <application>OpenSSH</application> encrypts all traffic to
       effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and
       other network-level attacks.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>OpenSSH</application> is maintained by the
       OpenBSD project and is installed by default in FreeBSD.  It is
       compatible with both <acronym>SSH</acronym> version 1 and 2
       protocols.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When data is sent over the network in an unencrypted form,
       network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can
       steal user/password information or data transferred during the
       session.  <application>OpenSSH</application> offers a variety of
       authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from
       happening.  More information about
       <application>OpenSSH</application> is available from <link xlink:href="http://www.openssh.com/">http://www.openssh.com/</link>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section provides an overview of the built-in client
       utilities to securely access other systems and securely transfer
       files from a FreeBSD system.  It then describes how to configure a
       <acronym>SSH</acronym> server on a FreeBSD system.  More
       information is available in the man pages mentioned in this
       chapter.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 SSH 客戶端工具</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>OpenSSH</primary>
 	<secondary>client</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To log into a <acronym>SSH</acronym> server, use
 	<command>ssh</command> and specify a username that exists on
 	that server and the <acronym>IP</acronym> address or hostname
 	of the server.  If this is the first time a connection has
 	been made to the specified server, the user will be prompted
 	to first verify the server's fingerprint:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ssh <replaceable>user@example.com</replaceable></userinput>
 The authenticity of host 'example.com (10.0.0.1)' can't be established.
 ECDSA key fingerprint is 25:cc:73:b5:b3:96:75:3d:56:19:49:d2:5c:1f:91:3b.
 Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? <userinput>yes</userinput>
 Permanently added 'example.com' (ECDSA) to the list of known hosts.
 Password for user@example.com: <userinput><replaceable>user_password</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>SSH</acronym> utilizes a key fingerprint system
 	to verify the authenticity of the server when the client
 	connects.  When the user accepts the key's fingerprint by
 	typing <literal>yes</literal> when connecting for the first
 	time, a copy of the key is saved to
 	<filename>.ssh/known_hosts</filename> in the user's home
 	directory.  Future attempts to login are verified against the
 	saved key and <command>ssh</command> will display an alert if
 	the server's key does not match the saved key.  If this
 	occurs, the user should first verify why the key has changed
 	before continuing with the connection.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, recent versions of
 	<application>OpenSSH</application> only accept
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym>v2 connections.  By default, the client
 	will use version 2 if possible and will fall back to version 1
 	if the server does not support version 2.  To force
 	<command>ssh</command> to only use the specified protocol,
 	include <option>-1</option> or <option>-2</option>.
 	Additional options are described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>OpenSSH</primary>
 	<secondary>secure copy</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>scp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>scp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to securely copy a file to or from a
 	remote machine.  This example copies
 	<filename>COPYRIGHT</filename> on the remote system to a file
 	of the same name in the current directory of the local
 	system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>scp <replaceable>user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT</replaceable></userinput>
 Password for user@example.com: <userinput><replaceable>*******</replaceable></userinput>
 COPYRIGHT            100% |*****************************|  4735
 00:00
 <prompt>#</prompt></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since the fingerprint was already verified for this host,
 	the server's key is automatically checked before prompting for
 	the user's password.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The arguments passed to <command>scp</command> are similar
 	to <command>cp</command>.  The file or files to copy is the
 	first argument and the destination to copy to is the second.
 	Since the file is fetched over the network, one or more of the
 	file arguments takes the form
 	<option>user@host:&lt;path_to_remote_file&gt;</option>.  Be
 	aware when copying directories recursively that
 	<command>scp</command> uses <option>-r</option>, whereas
 	<command>cp</command> uses <option>-R</option>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To open an interactive session for copying files, use
 	<command>sftp</command>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sftp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a list of
 	available commands while in an <command>sftp</command>
 	session.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="security-ssh-keygen">
 	<title>以金鑰為基礎的認證</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Instead of using passwords, a client can be configured
 	  to connect to the remote machine using keys.  To generate
 	  <acronym>DSA</acronym> or <acronym>RSA</acronym>
 	  authentication keys, use <command>ssh-keygen</command>.  To
 	  generate a public and private key pair, specify the type of
 	  key and follow the prompts.  It is recommended to protect
 	  the keys with a memorable, but hard to guess
 	  passphrase.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ssh-keygen -t <replaceable>dsa</replaceable></userinput>
 Generating public/private dsa key pair.
 Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/id_dsa):
 Created directory '/home/user/.ssh'.
 Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase): <replaceable>type some passphrase here which can contain spaces</replaceable>
 Enter same passphrase again: <replaceable>type some passphrase here which can contain spaces</replaceable>
 Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/id_dsa.
 Your public key has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/id_dsa.pub.
 The key fingerprint is:
 bb:48:db:f2:93:57:80:b6:aa:bc:f5:d5:ba:8f:79:17 user@host.example.com</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Depending upon the specified protocol, the private key
 	  is stored in <filename>~/.ssh/id_dsa</filename> (or
 	  <filename>~/.ssh/id_rsa</filename>), and the public key
 	  is stored in <filename>~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub</filename> (or
 	  <filename>~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub</filename>).  The
 	  <emphasis>public</emphasis> key must be first copied to
 	  <filename>~/.ssh/authorized_keys</filename> on the remote
 	  machine in order for key-based authentication to
 	  work.</para>
 
 	<warning>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Many users believe that keys are secure by design and
 	    will use a key without a passphrase.  This is
 	    <emphasis>dangerous</emphasis> behavior.  An
 	    administrator can verify that a key pair is protected by a
 	    passphrase by viewing the private key manually.  If the
 	    private key file contains the word
 	    <literal>ENCRYPTED</literal>, the key owner is using a
 	    passphrase.  In addition, to better secure end users,
 	    <literal>from</literal> may be placed in the public key
 	    file.  For example, adding
 	    <literal>from="192.168.10.5"</literal> in the front of
 	    <literal>ssh-rsa</literal> or <literal>rsa-dsa</literal>
 	    prefix will only allow that specific user to login from
 	    that <acronym>IP</acronym> address.</para>
 	</warning>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The various options and files can be different
 	  according to the <application>OpenSSH</application> version.
 	  To avoid problems, consult <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh-keygen</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If a passphrase is used, the user will be prompted for
 	  the passphrase each time a connection is made to the server.
 	  To load <acronym>SSH</acronym> keys into memory, without
 	  needing to type the passphrase each time, use
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh-agent</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh-add</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Authentication is handled by
 	  <command>ssh-agent</command>, using the private key(s) that
 	  are loaded into it.  Then, <command>ssh-agent</command>
 	  should be used to launch another application such as a
 	  shell or a window manager.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To use <command>ssh-agent</command> in a shell, start it
 	  with a shell as an argument.  Next, add the identity by
 	  running <command>ssh-add</command> and providing it the
 	  passphrase for the private key.  Once these steps have been
 	  completed, the user will be able to <command>ssh</command>
 	  to any host that has the corresponding public key installed.
 	  For example:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> ssh-agent <replaceable>csh</replaceable>
 <prompt>%</prompt> ssh-add
 Enter passphrase for key '/usr/home/user/.ssh/id_dsa': <replaceable>type passphrase here</replaceable>
 Identity added: /usr/home/user/.ssh/id_dsa (/usr/home/user/.ssh/id_dsa)
 <prompt>%</prompt></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To use <command>ssh-agent</command> in
 	  <application>Xorg</application>, add an entry for it in
 	  <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>.  This provides the
 	  <command>ssh-agent</command> services to all programs
 	  launched in <application>Xorg</application>.  An example
 	  <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename> might look like this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">exec ssh-agent <replaceable>startxfce4</replaceable></programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This launches <command>ssh-agent</command>, which in
 	  turn launches <application>XFCE</application>, every time
 	  <application>Xorg</application> starts.  Once
 	  <application>Xorg</application> has been restarted so that
 	  the changes can take effect, run <command>ssh-add</command>
 	  to load all of the <acronym>SSH</acronym> keys.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="security-ssh-tunneling">
 	<title><acronym>SSH</acronym> 通道</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>OpenSSH</primary>
 	  <secondary>tunneling</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>OpenSSH</application> has the ability to
 	  create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an
 	  encrypted session.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The following command tells <command>ssh</command> to
 	  create a tunnel for
 	  <application>telnet</application>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ssh -2 -N -f -L <replaceable>5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example uses the following options:</para>
 
 	<variablelist>
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><option>-2</option></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Forces <command>ssh</command> to use version 2 to
 		connect to the server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><option>-N</option></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Indicates no command, or tunnel only.  If omitted,
 		<command>ssh</command> initiates a normal
 		session.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><option>-f</option></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Forces <command>ssh</command> to run in the
 		background.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><option>-L</option></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Indicates a local tunnel in
 		<replaceable>localport:remotehost:remoteport</replaceable>
 		format.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><option>user@foo.example.com</option></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The login name to use on the specified remote
 		<acronym>SSH</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 	</variablelist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>SSH</acronym> tunnel works by creating a
 	  listen socket on <systemitem>localhost</systemitem> on the
 	  specified <literal>localport</literal>.  It then forwards
 	  any connections received on <literal>localport</literal> via
 	  the <acronym>SSH</acronym> connection to the specified
 	  <literal>remotehost:remoteport</literal>.  In the example,
 	  port <literal>5023</literal> on the client is forwarded to
 	  port <literal>23</literal> on the remote machine.  Since
 	  port 23 is used by <application>telnet</application>, this
 	  creates an encrypted <application>telnet</application>
 	  session through an <acronym>SSH</acronym> tunnel.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This method can be used to wrap any number of insecure
 	  <acronym>TCP</acronym> protocols such as
 	  <acronym>SMTP</acronym>, <acronym>POP3</acronym>, and
 	  <acronym>FTP</acronym>, as seen in the following
 	  examples.</para>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>建立供 <acronym>SMTP</acronym> 使用的安全通道</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ssh -2 -N -f -L <replaceable>5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com</replaceable></userinput>
 user@mailserver.example.com's password: <userinput>*****</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>telnet localhost 5025</userinput>
 Trying 127.0.0.1...
 Connected to localhost.
 Escape character is '^]'.
 220 mailserver.example.com ESMTP</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This can be used in conjunction with
 	    <command>ssh-keygen</command> and additional user accounts
 	    to create a more seamless <acronym>SSH</acronym> tunneling
 	    environment.  Keys can be used in place of typing a
 	    password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate
 	    user.</para>
 	</example>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>安全存取 <acronym>POP3</acronym> 伺服器</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In this example, there is an <acronym>SSH</acronym>
 	    server that accepts connections from the outside.  On the
 	    same network resides a mail server running a
 	    <acronym>POP3</acronym> server.  To check email in a
 	    secure manner, create an <acronym>SSH</acronym> connection
 	    to the <acronym>SSH</acronym> server and tunnel through to
 	    the mail server:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ssh -2 -N -f -L <replaceable>2110:mail.example.com:110 user@ssh-server.example.com</replaceable></userinput>
 user@ssh-server.example.com's password: <userinput>******</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Once the tunnel is up and running, point the email
 	    client to send <acronym>POP3</acronym> requests to
 	    <systemitem>localhost</systemitem> on port 2110.  This
 	    connection will be forwarded securely across the tunnel to
 	    <systemitem>mail.example.com</systemitem>.</para>
 	</example>
 
 	<example>
 	  <title>跳過防火牆</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Some firewalls
 	    filter both incoming and outgoing connections.  For
 	    example, a firewall might limit access from remote
 	    machines to ports 22 and 80 to only allow
 	    <acronym>SSH</acronym> and web surfing.  This prevents
 	    access to any other service which uses a port other than
 	    22 or 80.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The solution is to create an <acronym>SSH</acronym>
 	    connection to a machine outside of the network's firewall
 	    and use it to tunnel to the desired service:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ssh -2 -N -f -L <replaceable>8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled-system.example.org</replaceable></userinput>
 user@unfirewalled-system.example.org's password: <userinput>*******</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In this example, a streaming Ogg Vorbis client can now
 	    be pointed to <systemitem>localhost</systemitem> port
 	    8888, which will be forwarded over to
 	    <systemitem>music.example.com</systemitem> on port 8000,
 	    successfully bypassing the firewall.</para>
 	</example>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟 SSH 伺服器</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>OpenSSH</primary>
 	<secondary>enabling</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In addition to providing built-in <acronym>SSH</acronym>
 	client utilities, a FreeBSD system can be configured as an
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym> server, accepting connections from
 	other <acronym>SSH</acronym> clients.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To see if <application>sshd</application> is operating,
 	use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>service</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd status</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the service is not running, add the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">sshd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will start <application>sshd</application>, the
 	daemon program for <application>OpenSSH</application>, the
 	next time the system boots.  To start it now:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first time <application>sshd</application> starts on a
 	FreeBSD system, the system's host keys will be automatically
 	created and the fingerprint will be displayed on the console.
 	Provide users with the fingerprint so that they can verify it
 	the first time they connect to the server.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the list of available options
 	when starting <application>sshd</application> and a more
 	complete discussion about authentication, the login process,
 	and the various configuration files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, the <application>sshd</application> should
 	be available to all users with a username and password on
 	the system.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>SSH 伺服器安全性</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While <application>sshd</application> is the most widely
 	used remote administration facility for FreeBSD, brute force
 	and drive by attacks are common to any system exposed to
 	public networks.  Several additional parameters are available
 	to prevent the success of these attacks and will be described
 	in this section.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is a good idea to limit which users can log into the
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym> server and from where using the
 	<literal>AllowUsers</literal> keyword in the
 	<application>OpenSSH</application> server configuration file.
 	For example, to only allow <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> to log in from
 	<systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.32</systemitem>, add
 	this line to <filename>/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">AllowUsers root@192.168.1.32</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To allow <systemitem class="username">admin</systemitem>
 	to log in from anywhere, list that user without specifying an
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">AllowUsers admin</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Multiple users should be listed on the same line, like
 	so:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">AllowUsers root@192.168.1.32 admin</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After making changes to
 	<filename>/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename>,
 	tell <application>sshd</application> to reload its
 	configuration file by running:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sshd reload</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When this keyword is used, it is important to list each
 	  user that needs to log into this machine.  Any user that is
 	  not specified in that line will be locked out.  Also, the
 	  keywords used in the <application>OpenSSH</application>
 	  server configuration file are case-sensitive.  If the
 	  keyword is not spelled correctly, including its case, it
 	  will be ignored.  Always test changes to this file to make
 	  sure that the edits are working as expected.  Refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd_config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> to verify the spelling and use of the
 	  available keywords.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In addition, users may be forced to use two factor
 	authentication via the use of a public and private key.  When
 	required, the user may generate a key pair through the use
 	of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh-keygen</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and send the administrator the public
 	key.  This key file will be placed in the
 	<filename>authorized_keys</filename> as described above in
 	the client section.  To force the users to use keys only,
 	the following option may be configured:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">AuthenticationMethods publickey</programlisting>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Do not confuse <filename>/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename>
 	  with <filename>/etc/ssh/ssh_config</filename> (note the
 	  extra <literal>d</literal> in the first filename).  The
 	  first file configures the server and the second file
 	  configures the client.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh_config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a
 	  listing of the available client settings.</para>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="fs-acl">
     <info>
       <title>存取控制清單</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>ACL</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Access Control Lists (<acronym>ACL</acronym>s) extend the
       standard <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> permission model in a <trademark class="registered">POSIX</trademark>.1e compatible way.
       This permits an administrator to take advantage of a more
       fine-grained permissions model.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel provides
       <acronym>ACL</acronym> support for <acronym>UFS</acronym> file
       systems.  Users who prefer to compile a custom kernel must
       include the following option in their custom kernel
       configuration file:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">options UFS_ACL</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If this option is not compiled in, a warning message will be
       displayed when attempting to mount a file system with
       <acronym>ACL</acronym> support.  <acronym>ACL</acronym>s rely on
       extended attributes which are natively supported in
       <acronym>UFS2</acronym>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter describes how to enable
       <acronym>ACL</acronym> support and provides some usage
       examples.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟 <acronym>ACL</acronym> 支援</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACL</acronym>s are enabled by the mount-time
 	administrative flag, <option>acls</option>, which may be added
 	to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  The mount-time flag can
 	also be automatically set in a persistent manner using
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to modify a superblock <acronym>ACL</acronym>s
 	flag in the file system header.  In general, it is preferred
 	to use the superblock flag for several reasons:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The superblock flag cannot be changed by a remount
 	    using <option>mount -u</option> as it requires a complete
 	    <command>umount</command> and fresh
 	    <command>mount</command>.  This means that
 	    <acronym>ACL</acronym>s cannot be enabled on the root file
 	    system after boot.  It also means that
 	    <acronym>ACL</acronym> support on a file system cannot be
 	    changed while the system is in use.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Setting the superblock flag causes the file system to
 	    always be mounted with <acronym>ACL</acronym>s enabled,
 	    even if there is not an <filename>fstab</filename> entry
 	    or if the devices re-order.  This prevents accidental
 	    mounting of the file system without <acronym>ACL</acronym>
 	    support.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is desirable to discourage accidental mounting
 	  without <acronym>ACL</acronym>s enabled because nasty things
 	  can happen if <acronym>ACL</acronym>s are enabled, then
 	  disabled, then re-enabled without flushing the extended
 	  attributes.  In general, once <acronym>ACL</acronym>s are
 	  enabled on a file system, they should not be disabled, as
 	  the resulting file protections may not be compatible with
 	  those intended by the users of the system, and re-enabling
 	  <acronym>ACL</acronym>s may re-attach the previous
 	  <acronym>ACL</acronym>s to files that have since had their
 	  permissions changed, resulting in unpredictable
 	  behavior.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">File systems with <acronym>ACL</acronym>s enabled will
 	show a plus (<literal>+</literal>) sign in their permission
 	settings:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">drwx------  2 robert  robert  512 Dec 27 11:54 private
 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert  robert  512 Dec 23 10:57 directory1
 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert  robert  512 Dec 22 10:20 directory2
 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert  robert  512 Dec 27 11:57 directory3
 drwxr-xr-x  2 robert  robert  512 Nov 10 11:54 public_html</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, <filename>directory1</filename>,
 	<filename>directory2</filename>, and
 	<filename>directory3</filename> are all taking advantage of
 	<acronym>ACL</acronym>s, whereas
 	<filename>public_html</filename> is not.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 <acronym>ACL</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">File system <acronym>ACL</acronym>s can be viewed using
 	<command>getfacl</command>.  For instance, to view the
 	<acronym>ACL</acronym> settings on
 	<filename>test</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>getfacl test</userinput>
 	#file:test
 	#owner:1001
 	#group:1001
 	user::rw-
 	group::r--
 	other::r--</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To change the <acronym>ACL</acronym> settings on this
 	file, use <command>setfacl</command>.  To remove all of the
 	currently defined <acronym>ACL</acronym>s from a file or file
 	system, include <option>-k</option>.  However, the preferred
 	method is to use <option>-b</option> as it leaves the basic
 	fields required for <acronym>ACL</acronym>s to work.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>setfacl -k test</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To modify the default <acronym>ACL</acronym> entries, use
 	<option>-m</option>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>setfacl -m u:trhodes:rwx,group:web:r--,o::--- test</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, there were no pre-defined entries, as
 	they were removed by the previous command.  This command
 	restores the default options and assigns the options listed.
 	If a user or group is added which does not exist on the
 	system, an <errorname>Invalid argument</errorname> error will
 	be displayed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>getfacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>setfacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	information about the options available for these
 	commands.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-pkg">
     <info>
       <title>監視第三方安全性問題</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>pkg</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In recent years, the security world has made many
       improvements to how vulnerability assessment is handled.  The
       threat of system intrusion increases as third party utilities
       are installed and configured for virtually any operating
       system available today.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Vulnerability assessment is a key factor in security.
       While FreeBSD releases advisories for the base system, doing so
       for every third party utility is beyond the FreeBSD Project's
       capability.  There is a way to mitigate third party
       vulnerabilities and warn administrators of known security
       issues.  A FreeBSD add on utility known as
       <application>pkg</application> includes options explicitly for
       this purpose.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>pkg</application> polls a database for security
       issues.  The database is updated and maintained by the FreeBSD
       Security Team and ports developers.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Please refer to <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pkgng-intro.html">instructions</link>
       for installing
       <application>pkg</application>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Installation provides <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> configuration files
       for maintaining the <application>pkg</application> audit
       database, and provides a programmatic method of keeping it
       updated.  This functionality is enabled if
       <literal>daily_status_security_pkgaudit_enable</literal>
       is set to <literal>YES</literal> in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
       Ensure that daily security run emails, which are sent to
       <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>'s email account,
       are being read.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">After installation, and to audit third party utilities as
       part of the Ports Collection at any time, an administrator may
       choose to update the database and view known vulnerabilities
       of installed packages by invoking:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg audit -F</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>pkg</application> displays messages
       any published vulnerabilities in installed packages:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">Affected package: cups-base-1.1.22.0_1
 Type of problem: cups-base -- HPGL buffer overflow vulnerability.
 Reference: &lt;http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/portaudit/40a3bca2-6809-11d9-a9e7-0001020eed82.html&gt;
 
 1 problem(s) in your installed packages found.
 
 You are advised to update or deinstall the affected package(s) immediately.</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">By pointing a web browser to the displayed
       <acronym>URL</acronym>, an administrator may obtain more
       information about the vulnerability.  This will include the
       versions affected, by FreeBSD port version, along with other web
       sites which may contain security advisories.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>pkg</application> is a powerful utility
       and is extremely useful when coupled with
       <package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-advisories">
     <info>
       <title>FreeBSD 安全報告</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>FreeBSD Security Advisories</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Like many producers of quality operating systems, the FreeBSD
       Project has a security team which is responsible for
       determining the End-of-Life (<acronym>EoL</acronym>) date for
       each FreeBSD release and to provide security updates for supported
       releases which have not yet reached their
       <acronym>EoL</acronym>.  More information about the FreeBSD
       security team and the supported releases is available on the
       <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/security">FreeBSD security
 	page</link>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">One task of the security team is to respond to reported
       security vulnerabilities in the FreeBSD operating system.  Once a
       vulnerability is confirmed, the security team verifies the steps
       necessary to fix the vulnerability and updates the source code
       with the fix.  It then publishes the details as a
       <quote>Security Advisory</quote>.  Security
       advisories are published on the <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/security/advisories.html">FreeBSD
 	website</link> and mailed to the
       <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security-notifications">freebsd-security-notifications</link>, <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security">freebsd-security</link>, and
       <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-announce">freebsd-announce</link> mailing lists.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes the format of a FreeBSD security
       advisory.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>安全報告的格式</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Here is an example of a FreeBSD security advisory:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">=============================================================================
 -----BEGIN PGP SIGNED MESSAGE-----
 Hash: SHA512
 
 =============================================================================
 FreeBSD-SA-14:04.bind                                       Security Advisory
                                                           The FreeBSD Project
 
 Topic:          BIND remote denial of service vulnerability
 
 Category:       contrib
 Module:         bind
 Announced:      2014-01-14
 Credits:        ISC
 Affects:        FreeBSD 8.x and FreeBSD 9.x
 Corrected:      2014-01-14 19:38:37 UTC (stable/9, 9.2-STABLE)
                 2014-01-14 19:42:28 UTC (releng/9.2, 9.2-RELEASE-p3)
                 2014-01-14 19:42:28 UTC (releng/9.1, 9.1-RELEASE-p10)
                 2014-01-14 19:38:37 UTC (stable/8, 8.4-STABLE)
                 2014-01-14 19:42:28 UTC (releng/8.4, 8.4-RELEASE-p7)
                 2014-01-14 19:42:28 UTC (releng/8.3, 8.3-RELEASE-p14)
 CVE Name:       CVE-2014-0591
 
 For general information regarding FreeBSD Security Advisories,
 including descriptions of the fields above, security branches, and the
 following sections, please visit &lt;URL:http://security.FreeBSD.org/&gt;.
 
 I.   Background
 
 BIND 9 is an implementation of the Domain Name System (DNS) protocols.
 The named(8) daemon is an Internet Domain Name Server.
 
 II.  Problem Description
 
 Because of a defect in handling queries for NSEC3-signed zones, BIND can
 crash with an "INSIST" failure in name.c when processing queries possessing
 certain properties.  This issue only affects authoritative nameservers with
 at least one NSEC3-signed zone.  Recursive-only servers are not at risk.
 
 III. Impact
 
 An attacker who can send a specially crafted query could cause named(8)
 to crash, resulting in a denial of service.
 
 IV.  Workaround
 
 No workaround is available, but systems not running authoritative DNS service
 with at least one NSEC3-signed zone using named(8) are not vulnerable.
 
 V.   Solution
 
 Perform one of the following:
 
 1) Upgrade your vulnerable system to a supported FreeBSD stable or
 release / security branch (releng) dated after the correction date.
 
 2) To update your vulnerable system via a source code patch:
 
 The following patches have been verified to apply to the applicable
 FreeBSD release branches.
 
 a) Download the relevant patch from the location below, and verify the
 detached PGP signature using your PGP utility.
 
 [FreeBSD 8.3, 8.4, 9.1, 9.2-RELEASE and 8.4-STABLE]
 # fetch http://security.FreeBSD.org/patches/SA-14:04/bind-release.patch
 # fetch http://security.FreeBSD.org/patches/SA-14:04/bind-release.patch.asc
 # gpg --verify bind-release.patch.asc
 
 [FreeBSD 9.2-STABLE]
 # fetch http://security.FreeBSD.org/patches/SA-14:04/bind-stable-9.patch
 # fetch http://security.FreeBSD.org/patches/SA-14:04/bind-stable-9.patch.asc
 # gpg --verify bind-stable-9.patch.asc
 
 b) Execute the following commands as root:
 
 # cd /usr/src
 # patch &lt; /path/to/patch
 
 Recompile the operating system using buildworld and installworld as
 described in &lt;URL:http://www.FreeBSD.org/handbook/makeworld.html&gt;.
 
 Restart the applicable daemons, or reboot the system.
 
 3) To update your vulnerable system via a binary patch:
 
 Systems running a RELEASE version of FreeBSD on the i386 or amd64
 platforms can be updated via the freebsd-update(8) utility:
 
 # freebsd-update fetch
 # freebsd-update install
 
 VI.  Correction details
 
 The following list contains the correction revision numbers for each
 affected branch.
 
 Branch/path                                                      Revision
 - -------------------------------------------------------------------------
 stable/8/                                                         r260646
 releng/8.3/                                                       r260647
 releng/8.4/                                                       r260647
 stable/9/                                                         r260646
 releng/9.1/                                                       r260647
 releng/9.2/                                                       r260647
 - -------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
 To see which files were modified by a particular revision, run the
 following command, replacing NNNNNN with the revision number, on a
 machine with Subversion installed:
 
 # svn diff -cNNNNNN --summarize svn://svn.freebsd.org/base
 
 Or visit the following URL, replacing NNNNNN with the revision number:
 
 &lt;URL:http://svnweb.freebsd.org/base?view=revision&amp;revision=NNNNNN&gt;
 
 VII. References
 
 &lt;URL:https://kb.isc.org/article/AA-01078&gt;
 
 &lt;URL:http://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2014-0591&gt;
 
 The latest revision of this advisory is available at
 &lt;URL:http://security.FreeBSD.org/advisories/FreeBSD-SA-14:04.bind.asc&gt;
 -----BEGIN PGP SIGNATURE-----
 
 iQIcBAEBCgAGBQJS1ZTYAAoJEO1n7NZdz2rnOvQP/2/68/s9Cu35PmqNtSZVVxVG
 ZSQP5EGWx/lramNf9566iKxOrLRMq/h3XWcC4goVd+gZFrvITJSVOWSa7ntDQ7TO
 XcinfRZ/iyiJbs/Rg2wLHc/t5oVSyeouyccqODYFbOwOlk35JjOTMUG1YcX+Zasg
 ax8RV+7Zt1QSBkMlOz/myBLXUjlTZ3Xg2FXVsfFQW5/g2CjuHpRSFx1bVNX6ysoG
 9DT58EQcYxIS8WfkHRbbXKh9I1nSfZ7/Hky/kTafRdRMrjAgbqFgHkYTYsBZeav5
 fYWKGQRJulYfeZQ90yMTvlpF42DjCC3uJYamJnwDIu8OhS1WRBI8fQfr9DRzmRua
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 zKO3OwuKOVHJnKvpOcr+eNwo7jbnHlis0oBksj/mrq2P9m2ueF9gzCiq5Ri5Syag
 Wssb1HUoMGwqU0roS8+pRpNC8YgsWpsttvUWSZ8u6Vj/FLeHpiV3mYXPVMaKRhVm
 067BA2uj4Th1JKtGleox+Em0R7OFbCc/9aWC67wiqI6KRyit9pYiF3npph+7D5Eq
 7zPsUdDd+qc+UTiLp3liCRp5w6484wWdhZO6wRtmUgxGjNkxFoNnX8CitzF8AaqO
 UWWemqWuz3lAZuORQ9KX
 =OQzQ
 -----END PGP SIGNATURE-----</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Every security advisory uses the following format:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Each security advisory is signed by the
 	    <acronym>PGP</acronym> key of the Security Officer.  The
 	    public key for the Security Officer can be verified at
 	    <xref linkend="pgpkeys"/>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The name of the security advisory always begins with
 	    <literal>FreeBSD-SA-</literal> (for FreeBSD Security
 	    Advisory), followed by the year in two digit format
 	    (<literal>14:</literal>), followed by the advisory number
 	    for that year (<literal>04.</literal>), followed by the
 	    name of the affected application or subsystem
 	    (<literal>bind</literal>).  The advisory shown here is the
 	    fourth advisory for 2014 and it affects
 	    <application>BIND</application>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Topic</literal> field summarizes the
 	    vulnerability.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Category</literal> refers to the
 	    affected part of the system which may be one of
 	    <literal>core</literal>, <literal>contrib</literal>, or
 	    <literal>ports</literal>.  The <literal>core</literal>
 	    category means that the vulnerability affects a core
 	    component of the FreeBSD operating system.  The
 	    <literal>contrib</literal> category means that the
 	    vulnerability affects software included with  FreeBSD,
 	    such as <application>BIND</application>.  The
 	    <literal>ports</literal> category indicates that the
 	    vulnerability affects software available through the Ports
 	    Collection.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Module</literal> field refers to the
 	    component location.  In this example, the
 	    <literal>bind</literal> module is affected; therefore,
 	    this vulnerability affects an application installed with
 	    the operating system.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Announced</literal> field reflects the
 	    date the security advisory was published.  This means
 	    that the security team has verified that the problem
 	    exists and that a patch has been committed to the FreeBSD
 	    source code repository.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Credits</literal> field gives credit to
 	    the individual or organization who noticed the
 	    vulnerability and reported it.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Affects</literal> field explains which
 	    releases of FreeBSD are affected by this
 	    vulnerability.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Corrected</literal> field indicates the
 	    date, time, time offset, and releases that were
 	    corrected.  The section in parentheses shows each branch
 	    for which the fix has been merged, and the version number
 	    of the corresponding release from that branch.  The
 	    release identifier itself includes the version number
 	    and, if appropriate, the patch level.  The patch level is
 	    the letter <literal>p</literal> followed by a number,
 	    indicating the sequence number of the patch, allowing
 	    users to track which patches have already been applied to
 	    the system.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>CVE Name</literal> field lists the
 	    advisory number, if one exists, in the public <link xlink:href="http://cve.mitre.org">cve.mitre.org</link>
 	    security vulnerabilities database.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Background</literal> field provides a
 	    description of the affected module.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Problem Description</literal> field
 	    explains the vulnerability.  This can include
 	    information about the flawed code and how the utility
 	    could be maliciously used.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Impact</literal> field describes what
 	    type of impact the problem could have on a system.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Workaround</literal> field indicates if
 	    a workaround is available to system administrators who
 	    cannot immediately patch the system .</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Solution</literal> field provides the
 	    instructions for patching the affected system.  This is a
 	    step by step tested and verified method for getting a
 	    system patched and working securely.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>Correction Details</literal> field
 	    displays each affected Subversion branch with the revision
 	    number that contains the corrected code.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>References</literal> field offers sources
 	    of additional information regarding the
 	    vulnerability.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-accounting">
     <info>
       <title>程序追蹤</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Process Accounting</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Process accounting is a security method in which an
       administrator may keep track of system resources used and
       their allocation among users, provide for system monitoring,
       and minimally track a user's commands.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Process accounting has both positive and negative points.
       One of the positives is that an intrusion may be narrowed down
       to the point of entry.  A negative is the amount of logs
       generated by process accounting, and the disk space they may
       require.  This section walks an administrator through the basics
       of process accounting.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">If more fine-grained accounting is needed, refer to
 	<xref linkend="audit"/>.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟並使用程序追蹤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Before using process accounting, it must be enabled using
 	the following commands:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>touch /var/account/acct</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 600 /var/account/acct</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>accton /var/account/acct</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo 'accounting_enable="YES"' &gt;&gt; /etc/rc.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once enabled, accounting will begin to track information
 	such as <acronym>CPU</acronym> statistics and executed
 	commands.  All accounting logs are in a non-human readable
 	format which can be viewed using <command>sa</command>.  If
 	issued without any options, <command>sa</command> prints
 	information relating to the number of per-user calls, the
 	total elapsed time in minutes, total <acronym>CPU</acronym>
 	and user time in minutes, and the average number of
 	<acronym>I/O</acronym> operations.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sa</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	the list of available options which control the output.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To display the commands issued by users, use
 	<command>lastcomm</command>.  For example, this command
 	prints out all usage of <command>ls</command> by <systemitem class="username">trhodes</systemitem> on the
 	<literal>ttyp1</literal> terminal:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>lastcomm ls trhodes ttyp1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Many other useful options exist and are explained in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>lastcomm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>acct</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sa</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-resourcelimits">
     <info>
       <title>限制資源</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Resource limits</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides several methods for an administrator to
 	limit the amount of system resources an individual may use.
 	Disk quotas limit the amount of disk space available to users.
 	Quotas are discussed in <xref linkend="quotas"/>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>quotas</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>quotas</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disk quotas</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Limits to other resources, such as <acronym>CPU</acronym>
       and memory, can be set using either a flat file or a command to
       configure a resource limits database.  The traditional method
       defines login classes by editing
       <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>.  While this method is
       still supported, any changes require a multi-step process of
       editing this file, rebuilding the resource database, making
       necessary changes to <filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename>,
       and rebuilding the password database.  This can become time
       consuming, depending upon the number of users to
       configure.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Beginning with FreeBSD 9.0-RELEASE,
       <command>rctl</command> can be used to provide a more
       fine-grained method for controlling resource limits.  This
       command supports more than user limits as it can also be used to
       set resource constraints on processes and jails.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates both methods for controlling
       resources, beginning with the traditional method.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="users-limiting">
       <title>設定登入類別</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>accounts</primary>
 	<secondary>limiting</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/etc/login.conf</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the traditional method, login classes and the resource
 	limits to apply to a login class are defined in
 	<filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>.   Each user account can
 	be assigned to a login class, where <literal>default</literal>
 	is the default login class.  Each login class has a set of
 	login capabilities associated with it.  A login capability is
 	a
 	<literal><replaceable>name</replaceable>=<replaceable>value</replaceable></literal>
 	pair, where <replaceable>name</replaceable> is a well-known
 	identifier and <replaceable>value</replaceable> is an
 	arbitrary string which is processed accordingly depending on
 	the <replaceable>name</replaceable>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Whenever <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> is edited,
 	  the <filename>/etc/login.conf.db</filename> must be updated
 	  by executing the following command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf</userinput></screen>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Resource limits differ from the default login capabilities
 	in two ways.  First, for every limit, there is a
 	<firstterm>soft</firstterm> and <firstterm>hard</firstterm>
 	limit.  A soft limit may be adjusted by the user or
 	application, but may not be set higher than the hard limit.
 	The hard limit may be lowered by the user, but can only be
 	raised by the superuser.  Second, most resource limits apply
 	per process to a specific user.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="resource-limits"/> lists the most commonly
 	used resource limits.  All of the available resource limits
 	and capabilities are described in detail in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>login.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>coredumpsize</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>cputime</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>filesize</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>maxproc</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>memorylocked</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>memoryuse</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>openfiles</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>sbsize</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>limiting users</primary>
 	<secondary>stacksize</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <table xml:id="resource-limits" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>登入類別限制資源類型</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>限制資源</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">coredumpsize</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The limit on the size of a core file generated by
 		a program is subordinate to other limits on disk
 		usage, such as <literal>filesize</literal> or disk
 		quotas.  This limit is often used as a less severe
 		method of controlling disk space consumption.  Since
 		users do not generate core files and often do not
 		delete them, this setting may save them from running
 		out of disk space should a large program
 		crash.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">cputime</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum amount of <acronym>CPU</acronym> time
 		a user's process may consume.  Offending processes
 		will be killed by the kernel.  This is a limit on
 		<acronym>CPU</acronym> <emphasis>time</emphasis>
 		consumed, not the percentage of the
 		<acronym>CPU</acronym> as displayed in some of the
 		fields generated by <command>top</command> and
 		<command>ps</command>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">filesize</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum size of a file the user may own.
 		Unlike disk quotas (<xref linkend="quotas"/>), this
 		limit is enforced on individual files, not the set of
 		all files a user owns.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">maxproc</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum number of foreground and background
 		processes a user can run.  This limit may not be
 		larger than the system limit specified by
 		<varname>kern.maxproc</varname>.  Setting this limit
 		too small may hinder a user's productivity as some
 		tasks, such as compiling a large program, start lots
 		of processes.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">memorylocked</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum amount of memory a process may
 		request to be locked into main memory using
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mlock</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Some system-critical programs, such as
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>amd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, lock into main memory so that if the
 		system begins to swap, they do not contribute to disk
 		thrashing.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">memoryuse</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum amount of memory a process may
 		consume at any given time.  It includes both core
 		memory and swap usage.  This is not a catch-all limit
 		for restricting memory consumption, but is a good
 		start.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">openfiles</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum number of files a process may have
 		open.  In FreeBSD, files are used to represent sockets
 		and <acronym>IPC</acronym> channels, so be careful not
 		to set this too low.  The system-wide limit for this
 		is defined by
 		<varname>kern.maxfiles</varname>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">sbsize</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The limit on the amount of network memory a user
 		may consume.  This can be generally used to limit
 		network communications.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">stacksize</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The maximum size of a process stack.  This alone
 		is not sufficient to limit the amount of memory a
 		program may use, so it should be used in conjunction
 		with other limits.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are a few other things to remember when setting
 	resource limits:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Processes started at system startup by
 	    <filename>/etc/rc</filename> are assigned to the
 	    <literal>daemon</literal> login class.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Although the default
 	    <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> is a good source of
 	    reasonable values for most limits, they may not be
 	    appropriate for every system.  Setting a limit too high
 	    may open the system up to abuse, while setting it too low
 	    may put a strain on productivity.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> takes a lot of
 	    resources and encourages users to run more programs
 	    simultaneously.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Many limits apply to individual processes, not the
 	    user as a whole.  For example, setting
 	    <varname>openfiles</varname> to <literal>50</literal>
 	    means that each process the user runs may open up to
 	    <literal>50</literal> files.  The total amount of files a
 	    user may open is the value of <literal>openfiles</literal>
 	    multiplied by the value of <literal>maxproc</literal>.
 	    This also applies to memory consumption.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For further information on resource limits and login
 	classes and capabilities in general, refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cap_mkdb</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>getrlimit</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>login.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟並設定資源限制</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As of FreeBSD 10.2, <command>rctl</command> support is
 	built into the kernel.  Previous supported releases will
 	need to be recompiled using the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.  Add these lines to either
 	<filename>GENERIC</filename> or a custom kernel configuration
 	file, then rebuild the kernel:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options         RACCT
 options         RCTL</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the system has rebooted into the new kernel,
 	<command>rctl</command> may be used to set rules for the
 	system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Rule syntax is controlled through the use of a subject,
 	subject-id, resource, and action, as seen in this example
 	rule:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">user:trhodes:maxproc:deny=10/user</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this rule, the subject is <literal>user</literal>, the
 	subject-id is <literal>trhodes</literal>, the resource,
 	<literal>maxproc</literal>, is the maximum number of
 	processes, and the action is <literal>deny</literal>, which
 	blocks any new processes from being created.  This means that
 	the user, <literal>trhodes</literal>, will be constrained to
 	no greater than <literal>10</literal> processes.  Other
 	possible actions include logging to the console, passing a
 	notification to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, or sending a sigterm to the
 	process.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some care must be taken when adding rules.  Since this
 	user is constrained to <literal>10</literal> processes, this
 	example will prevent the user from performing other tasks
 	after logging in and executing a
 	<command>screen</command> session.  Once a resource limit has
 	been hit, an error will be printed, as in this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>man test</userinput>
     /usr/bin/man: Cannot fork: Resource temporarily unavailable
 eval: Cannot fork: Resource temporarily unavailable</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As another example, a jail can be prevented from exceeding
 	a memory limit.  This rule could be written as:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rctl -a jail:httpd:memoryuse:deny=2G/jail</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Rules will persist across reboots if they have been added
 	to <filename>/etc/rctl.conf</filename>.  The format is a rule,
 	without the preceding command.  For example, the previous rule
 	could be added as:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Block jail from using more than 2G memory:
 jail:httpd:memoryuse:deny=2G/jail</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To remove a rule, use <command>rctl</command> to remove it
 	from the list:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rctl -r user:trhodes:maxproc:deny=10/user</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A method for removing all rules is documented in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  However, if removing all rules for a single
 	user is required, this command may be issued:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rctl -r user:trhodes</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Many other resources exist which can be used to exert
 	additional control over various <literal>subjects</literal>.
 	See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to learn about them.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="security-sudo">
     <info>
       <title>使用 Sudo 分享管理權限</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	  by </contrib></author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Security</primary>
       <secondary>Sudo</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">System administrators often need the ability to grant
       enhanced permissions to users so they may perform privileged
       tasks.  The idea that team members are provided access
       to a FreeBSD system to perform their specific tasks opens up unique
       challenges to every administrator.  These team members only
       need a subset of access beyond normal end user levels; however,
       they almost always tell management they are unable to
       perform their tasks without superuser access.  Thankfully, there
       is no reason to provide such access to end users because tools
       exist to manage this exact requirement.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Up to this point, the security chapter has covered permitting
       access to authorized users and attempting to prevent unauthorized
       access.  Another problem arises once authorized users have access
       to the system resources.  In many cases, some users may need
       access to application startup scripts, or a team of
       administrators need to maintain the system.  Traditionally, the
       standard users and groups, file permissions, and even the
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command would manage this access.  And as applications
       required more access, as more users needed to use system
       resources, a better solution was required.  The most used
       application is currently <application>Sudo</application>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>Sudo</application> allows administrators
       to configure more rigid access to system commands
       and provide for some advanced logging features.
       As a tool, it is available from the Ports Collection as
       <package role="port">security/sudo</package> or by use of
       the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility.  To use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pkg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> tool:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install sudo</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">After the installation is complete, the installed
       <command>visudo</command> will open the configuration file with
       a text editor.  Using <command>visudo</command> is highly
       recommended as it comes with a built in syntax checker to verify
       there are no errors before the file is saved.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The configuration file is made up of several small sections
       which allow for extensive configuration.  In the following
       example, web application maintainer, user1, needs to start,
       stop, and restart the web application known as
       <replaceable>webservice</replaceable>.  To
       grant this user permission to perform these tasks, add
       this line to the end of
       <filename>/usr/local/etc/sudoers</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">user1   ALL=(ALL)       /usr/sbin/service webservice *</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The user may now start <replaceable>webservice</replaceable>
       using this command:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sudo /usr/sbin/service <replaceable>webservice</replaceable> start</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">While this configuration allows a single user access to the
       <application>webservice</application> service; however, in most
       organizations, there is an entire web team in charge of managing
       the service.  A single line can also give access to an entire
       group.  These steps will create a web group, add a user to this
       group, and allow all members of the group to manage the
       service:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupadd -g 6001 -n webteam</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Using the same <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> command, the user is added to
       the webteam group:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod -m user1 -n webteam</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Finally, this line in
       <filename>/usr/local/etc/sudoers</filename> allows any
       member of the webteam group to manage
       <replaceable>webservice</replaceable>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">%webteam   ALL=(ALL)       /usr/sbin/service webservice *</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Unlike <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <application>Sudo</application>
       only requires the end user password.  This adds an advantage where
       users will not need shared passwords, a finding in most security
       audits and just bad all the way around.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Users permitted to run applications with
       <application>Sudo</application> only enter their own passwords.
       This is more secure and gives better control than <citerefentry><refentrytitle>su</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
       where the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
       password is entered and the user acquires all
       <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
       permissions.</para>
 
     <tip>
       <para xml:lang="en">Most organizations are moving or have moved toward a two
 	factor authentication model.  In these cases, the user may
 	not have a password to enter.  <application>Sudo</application>
 	provides for these cases with the <literal>NOPASSWD</literal>
 	variable.  Adding it to the configuration above
 	will allow all members of the <replaceable>webteam</replaceable>
 	group to manage the service without the password
 	requirement:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">%webteam   ALL=(ALL)       NOPASSWD: /usr/sbin/service webservice *</programlisting>
     </tip>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="security-sudo-loggin">
       <title>記錄輸出</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An advantage to implementing
 	<application>Sudo</application> is the ability to enable
 	session logging.  Using the built in log mechanisms
 	and the included <application>sudoreplay</application>
 	command, all commands initiated through
 	<application>Sudo</application> are logged for later
 	verification.  To enable this feature, add a default log
 	directory entry, this example uses a user variable.
 	Several other log filename conventions exist, consult the
 	manual page for <application>sudoreplay</application> for
 	additional information.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Defaults iolog_dir=/var/log/sudo-io/%{user}</programlisting>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This directory will be created automatically after the
 	  logging is configured.  It is best to let the system create
 	  directory with default permissions just to be safe.  In
 	  addition, this entry will also log administrators who use the
 	  <application>sudoreplay</application> command.  To change
 	  this behavior, read and uncomment the logging options inside
 	  <filename>sudoers</filename>.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once this directive has been added to the
 	<filename>sudoers</filename> file, any user configuration
 	can be updated with the request to log access.  In the
 	example shown, the updated <replaceable>webteam</replaceable>
 	entry would have the following additional changes:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">%webteam ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: LOG_INPUT: LOG_OUTPUT: /usr/sbin/service webservice *</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">From this point on, all <replaceable>webteam</replaceable>
 	members altering the status of the
 	<replaceable>webservice</replaceable> application
 	will be logged.  The list of previous and current sessions
 	can be displayed with:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sudoreplay -l</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the output, to replay a specific session, search for the
 	<literal>TSID=</literal> entry, and pass that to
 	<application>sudoreplay</application> with no other options to
 	replay the session at normal speed.  For example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sudoreplay user1/00/00/02</userinput></screen>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">While sessions are logged, any administrator is
 	  able to remove sessions and leave only a question of why they
 	  had done so.  It is worthwhile to add a daily check
 	  through an intrusion detection system (<acronym>IDS</acronym>)
 	  or similar software so that other administrators are alerted
 	  to manual alterations.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <command>sudoreplay</command> is extremely extendable.
 	Consult the documentation for more information.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
     The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
     $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="jails">
   <info>
-    <title xml:lang="en">Jails</title>
+    <title>Jail</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Matteo</firstname><surname>Riondato</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>jails</primary></indexterm>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="jails-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>由於系統管理是一項困難的工作，許多工具開發來讓系統管理者能夠更輕鬆。這些工具通常可以強化系統安裝、設定以及維護的方式。這些工具之可以用來強化 FreeBSD 系統的安全性之一的就是 <firstterm>Jail</firstterm>。Jail 早在 FreeBSD 4.X 便可使用並持續強化它的功能、效率、穩定性以及安全性。</para>
 
     <para>Jail 建立在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> 概念之上，會更改一系列程序的根目錄。這可以創造一個安全的環境，將程序與系統的其他部份分隔。在 chroot 的環境所建立的程序不能存取該環境以外的檔案或資源。也因此，滲透一個在 chroot 的環境執行的服務並不會讓整個系統被攻擊者滲透。但 chroot 有許多限制，只適合用在簡單的工作，不需要許多彈性或複雜性、進階功能的工作。隨著時間推移，許多可以逃離 chroot 的環境的方法已經被找到，讓這個方法不再是確保服務安全的理想方案。</para>
 
     <para>Jail 用許多方式改進了傳統 chroot 環境的概念。在傳統 chroot 環境，程序僅限制在一部份檔案系統可存取的地方。其餘的系統資源、系統使用者、執行的程序以及網路子系統被 chroot 的程序及主機系統的程序所共享。Jail 透過虛擬化存取檔案系統、使用者及網路子系統來擴展這個模型，可使用更多細微的控制參數來調校 Jail 的環境存取方式，Jail 可算是一種作業系統層級的虛擬化。</para>
 
     <para>Jail 的四個要素：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>一個子樹狀目錄：進入 Jail 的起點目錄，一但在 Jail 中，程序便沒有權限離開此目錄之外。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>一個主機名稱：將會由 Jail 所使用。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>一個 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址：用來分配給 Jail。Jail 的 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址通常是現有網路介面的別名位址。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>一個指令：要在 Jail 中可執行的執行檔路徑名稱。該路徑是 Jail 環境根目錄的相對路徑。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>Jail 有自己使用者及自己的 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 帳號，皆受到 Jail 環境的限制。Jail 中的 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 帳號不允許對指定 Jail 環境之外的系統執行操作。</para>
 
     <para>本章將提供 FreeBSD Jail 術語及管理指令的概述，Jail 對系統管理者及進階的使用者來二者來說皆是強大的工具。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>Jail 是什麼及它在 FreeBSD 中提供的目的。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何建立、啟動及停止 Jail。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>Jail 管理基礎，不論從內部或外部。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <important>
       <para>Jail 是強大的工具，但它不是安全性問題的萬靈丹。雖然 Jail 的程序不可能自己獨自打破規則，但有許多方法可以讓在 Jail 之外無權限的使用者與在 Jail 之內有權限的使用者串通來取得主機環境的更高權限。</para>
 
       <para>大多數這類型的攻擊者可以由確保 Jail 根目錄不會被無權限使用者存取來減少。基本上，不受信任的使用者有 Jail 的存取權限並不會讓其可存取主機環境。</para>
     </important>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="jails-terms">
     <title>Jail 相關術語</title>
 
     <para>為協助更容易理解 FreeBSD 系統有關 Jail 部份， 以及它們與 FreeBSD 其他部分的相互作用關係， 以下列出本章將使用的術語：</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term><citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> (指令)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>工具，用來使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> FreeBSD 系統呼叫 (System call) 來更改程予及其衍伸程序的根目錄。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term><citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> (環境)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>指程序在 <quote>chroot</quote> 中執行的環境。包含的資源如：一部份可見的檔案系統、可用的使用者及群組 ID、網路介面及其他 IPC 機制等。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term><citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> (指令)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>允許在 Jail 環境下執行程序的系統管理工具。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term>主機 (系統、程序、使用者等)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Jail 環境的控制系統。 主機系統可以存取所有可用的硬體資源，並能控制 Jail 環境內外的程序。主機系統與 Jail 最大的差別在於：在主機系統中的超級使用者程序並不像在 Jail 環境那樣受到限制。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term>託管 (主機、程序、使用者等)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>存取資源受到 FreeBSD Jail 限制的託管程序、使用者或其他實體。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="jails-build">
     <title>建立和控制 Jail</title>
 
     <para>部份管理者將 Jail 分成兩種類型：<quote>完整的</quote> Jail，它像一個真正的 FreeBSD 系統以及 <quote>服務的</quote> Jail，專門用於某個應用程式或服務，可能使用管理權限執行。但這些只是概念上的區分，建立 Jail 的程序並不受這個概念的影響。當要建立一個 <quote>完整的</quote> Jail，Userland 有兩個來源選項：使用預先編譯的 Binary (如安裝媒體上提供的 Binary) 或從原始碼編譯。</para>
 
     <para>要從安裝媒體安裝 Userland，需要先建立根目錄供 Jail 使用。這個動作可以透過設定 <varname>DESTDIR</varname> 來到適當的位置來完成。</para>
 
     <para>啟動 Shell 並定義 <varname>DESTDIR</varname>：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sh</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>export DESTDIR=<replaceable>/here/is/the/jail</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para>當使用安裝 ISO 時，可依 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 中的說明掛載安裝媒體：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t cd9660 /dev/`mdconfig -f cdimage.iso` /mnt</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>從安裝媒體上的 Tarball 中取出 Binary 並放到宣告的位置，至少需要取出 Base set 的部份，若需要也可完整安裝。</para>
 
     <para>只安裝基礎系統 (Base system)：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar -xf /mnt/usr/freebsd-dist/base.txz -C $DESTDIR</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>安裝全部不含核心：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>for <replaceable>sets</replaceable> in BASE PORTS; do tar -xf /mnt/FREEBSD_INSTALL/USR/FREEBSD_DIST/$<replaceable>sets</replaceable>.TXZ -C $DESTDIR ; done</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>依 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊說明的程序建置 Jail：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setenv D <replaceable>/here/is/the/jail</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir -p $D</userinput>      <co xml:id="jailpath"/>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make buildworld</userinput>  <co xml:id="jailbuildworld"/>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installworld DESTDIR=$D</userinput>  <co xml:id="jailinstallworld"/>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make distribution DESTDIR=$D</userinput>  <co xml:id="jaildistrib"/>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t devfs devfs $D/dev</userinput>   <co xml:id="jaildevfs"/></screen>
 
     <calloutlist>
       <callout arearefs="jailpath">
 	<para>選擇 Jail 的位置是建置 Jail 最好的起點，這是在 Jail 主機上儲存 Jail 的實體位置。較好的選擇是 <filename>/usr/jail/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable></filename>，其中 <replaceable>jailname</replaceable> 是用來辦識 Jail 的主機名稱。通常在 <filename>/usr/</filename> 會有足夠的空間供 Jail 檔案系統使用，對 <quote>完整的</quote> Jail 來說，便是複製 FreeBSD 基礎系統預設安裝的每一個檔案。</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="jailbuildworld">
 	<para>若您已經使用 <command>make world</command> 或 <command>make buildworld</command> 重新編譯您的 Userland，您可以跳過這個步驟並安裝您已存在的 Userland 到新的 Jail。</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="jailinstallworld">
 	<para>這個指令將會在檔案系統中 Jail 所在的實體位置產生樹狀目錄及必要的 Binary、程式庫、操作手冊與相關檔案。</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="jaildistrib">
 	<para><application>make</application> 的 <buildtarget>distribution</buildtarget> 目標會安裝所有需要的設定檔。簡單來說，它會安裝所有 <filename>/usr/src/etc/</filename> 中可安裝的檔案到 Jail 環境的 <filename>/etc</filename>目錄：<filename>$D/etc/</filename>。</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="jaildevfs">
 	<para>在 Jail 中掛載 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 檔案系統並非必要的動作。從另一個角度來說，任何或大部份的應用程式會依該程式的目的會需要存取至少一個裝置，在 Jail 中控制存取的裝置非常重要，不恰當的設定可能會讓攻擊者可以在 Jail 中做不軌的事。對 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 的控制是透過  Ruleset，在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊中有詳細說明。</para>
       </callout>
     </calloutlist>
 
     <para>Jail 安裝完成之後，便可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具來啟動。<citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 工具需要四個必要參數，在 <xref linkend="jails-synopsis"/> 有說明。其他參數也可能需要指定，例如要使用特定使用者的身份來執行要 Jail 的程序。<option><replaceable>command</replaceable></option> 參數依 Jail 的類型所需而定，對一個 <emphasis>虛擬系統</emphasis> 來說，<filename>/etc/rc</filename> 是不錯的選擇，因為該檔案可以模仿真實 FreeBSD 的啟動順序。對於 <emphasis>服務的</emphasis> Jail 來說，則看在 Jail 中要執行的服務或應用程式來決定。</para>
 
     <para>Jail 通常會需要隨著開機執行，使用 FreeBSD <filename>rc</filename> 機制可讓以簡單的達成這件事。</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <step>
 	<para>要在開機時啟動的 Jail 應加入到 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 檔案中：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">jail_enable="YES"   # Set to NO to disable starting of any jails
 jail_list="<replaceable>www</replaceable>"     # Space separated list of names of jails</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para>在 <varname>jail_list</varname> 中的 Jail 名稱只允許使用英數字元。</para>
 	</note>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para>針對每個列在 <varname>jail_list</varname> 中的 Jail 圴需加入一組 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 設定來描述指定的 Jail：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">jail_<replaceable>www</replaceable>_rootdir="/usr/jail/www"     # jail's root directory
 jail_<replaceable>www</replaceable>_hostname="<replaceable>www</replaceable>.example.org"  # jail's hostname
 jail_<replaceable>www</replaceable>_ip="192.168.0.10"           # jail's IP address
 jail_<replaceable>www</replaceable>_devfs_enable="YES"          # mount devfs in the jail</programlisting>
 
 	<para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>中會假設 Jail 是完整的虛擬系統，預設會啟動 Jail 的 <filename>/etc/rc</filename> Script。針對服務的 Jail 則需設定適當的 <varname>jail_<replaceable>jailname</replaceable>_exec_start</varname> 選項來修改預設啟動的指令。</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para>要取得完整可用選項的清單，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊。</para>
 	</note>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <para>若該 Jail 已經在 <filename>rc.conf</filename> 中設定，可以用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>service</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來啟動或停止 Jail：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service jail start <replaceable>www</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service jail stop <replaceable>www</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para>Jail 可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jexec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來關機。先使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來辦識 Jail 的 <varname>JID</varname>，然後使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jexec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 在該 Jail 中執行關機 Script。</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>jls</userinput>
    JID  IP Address      Hostname                      Path
      3  192.168.0.10    www                           /usr/jail/www
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>jexec <replaceable>3</replaceable> /etc/rc.shutdown</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>更多有關 Jail 的資訊可在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊取得。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="jails-tuning">
     <title>調校與管理</title>
 
     <para>還有許多選項可以對所有 Jail 做設定，以及各種可讓 Jail 與主機 FreeBSD 系統結合的方法來提供更高層級的應用程式使用。 本節將介紹：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some of the options available for tuning the behavior
 	  and security restrictions implemented by a jail
 	  installation.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some of the high-level applications for jail management,
 	  which are available through the FreeBSD Ports Collection, and
 	  can be used to implement overall jail-based
 	  solutions.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-tuning-utilities">
       <title>在 FreeBSD 中調校 Jail 的系統工具</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Fine tuning of a jail's configuration is mostly done by
 	setting <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variables.  A special subtree of sysctl
 	exists as a basis for organizing all the relevant options: the
 	<varname>security.jail.*</varname> hierarchy of FreeBSD kernel
 	options.  Here is a list of the main jail-related sysctls,
 	complete with their default value.  Names should be
 	self-explanatory, but for more information about them, please
 	refer to the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual
 	pages.</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.set_hostname_allowed:
 	      1</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.socket_unixiproute_only:
 	      1</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.sysvipc_allowed:
 	      0</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.enforce_statfs:
 	      2</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.allow_raw_sockets:
 	      0</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.chflags_allowed:
 	      0</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.jail.jailed: 0</varname></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These variables can be used by the system administrator of
 	the <emphasis>host system</emphasis> to add or remove some of
 	the limitations imposed by default on the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user.  Note that there
 	are some limitations which cannot be removed.  The
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user is not
 	allowed to mount or unmount file systems from within a
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> inside a jail may not
 	load or unload <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> rulesets, set firewall rules, or
 	do many other administrative tasks which require modifications
 	of in-kernel data, such as setting the
 	<varname>securelevel</varname> of the kernel.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The base system of FreeBSD contains a basic set of tools for
 	viewing information about the active jails, and attaching to a
 	jail to run administrative commands.  The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>jexec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> commands are part of the base FreeBSD system, and
 	can be used to perform the following simple tasks:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Print a list of active jails and their corresponding
 	    jail identifier (<acronym>JID</acronym>),
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> address, hostname and path.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Attach to a running jail, from its host system, and
 	    run a command inside the jail or perform administrative
 	    tasks inside the jail itself.  This is especially useful
 	    when the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	    user wants to cleanly shut down a jail.  The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jexec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    utility can also be used to start a shell in a jail to do
 	    administration in it; for example:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>jexec <replaceable>1</replaceable> tcsh</userinput></screen>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-tuning-admintools">
-      <title>在 FreeBSD Ports 套件集中的高層級管理工具</title>
+      <title>在 FreeBSD Port 套件集中的高層級管理工具</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Among the many third-party utilities for jail
 	administration, one of the most complete and useful is
 	<package>sysutils/ezjail</package>.  It is a set of scripts
 	that contribute to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> management.  Please refer to
 	<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/jails-ezjail.html">the
 	  handbook section on <application>ezjail</application></link>
 	for more information.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-updating">
       <title>持續 Jail 的修補與更新</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Jails should be kept up to date from the host operating
 	system as attempting to patch userland from within the jail
 	may likely fail as the default behavior in FreeBSD is to
 	disallow the use of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chflags</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> in a jail which prevents
 	the replacement of some files.  It is possible to change this
 	behavior but it is recommended to use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>freebsd-update</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	to maintain jails instead.  Use <option>-b</option> to specify
 	the path of the jail to be updated.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update -b <replaceable>/here/is/the/jail</replaceable> fetch</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update -b <replaceable>/here/is/the/jail</replaceable> install</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="jails-application">
     <info>
       <title>更新多個 Jail</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Daniel</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gerzo</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Simon</firstname>
 	    <surname>L. B. Nielsen</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Based upon an idea presented by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Ken</firstname>
 	    <surname>Tom</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>And an article written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The management of multiple jails can become problematic
       because every jail has to be rebuilt from scratch whenever it is
       upgraded.  This can be time consuming and tedious if a lot of
       jails are created and manually updated.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates one method to resolve this issue
       by safely sharing as much as is possible between jails using
       read-only <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_nullfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> mounts, so that updating is
       simpler.  This makes it more attractive to put single services,
       such as <acronym>HTTP</acronym>, <acronym>DNS</acronym>, and
       <acronym>SMTP</acronym>, into individual jails.  Additionally,
       it provides a simple way to add, remove, and upgrade
       jails.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Simpler solutions exist, such as
 	<application>ezjail</application>, which provides an easier
 	method of administering FreeBSD jails but is less versatile than
 	this setup.  <application>ezjail</application> is covered in
 	more detail in <xref linkend="jails-ezjail"/>.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The goals of the setup described in this section are:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create a simple and easy to understand jail structure
 	  that does not require running a full installworld on each
 	  and every jail.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Make it easy to add new jails or remove existing
 	  ones.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Make it easy to update or upgrade existing jails.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Make it possible to run a customized FreeBSD branch.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Be paranoid about security, reducing as much as
 	  possible the possibility of compromise.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Save space and inodes, as much as possible.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This design relies on a single, read-only master template
       which is mounted into each jail and one read-write device per
       jail.  A device can be a separate physical disc, a partition, or
       a vnode backed memory device.  This example uses read-write
       <application>nullfs</application> mounts.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The file system layout is as follows:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The jails are based under the
 	  <filename>/home</filename> partition.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Each jail will be mounted under the
 	  <filename>/home/j</filename> directory.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The template for each jail and the read-only partition
 	  for  all of the jails is
 	  <filename>/home/j/mroot</filename>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A blank directory will be created for each jail under
 	  the <filename>/home/j</filename> directory.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Each jail will have a <filename>/s</filename> directory
 	  that will be linked to the read-write portion of the
 	  system.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Each jail will have its own read-write system that is
 	  based upon <filename>/home/j/skel</filename>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The read-write portion of each jail will be created in
 	  <filename>/home/js</filename>.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
 	<!-- Insert an image or drawing here to illustrate the example. -->
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-service-jails-template">
       <title>建立範本</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes the steps needed to create the
 	master template.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is recommended to first update the host FreeBSD system to
 	the latest -RELEASE branch using the instructions in <xref linkend="makeworld"/>.  Additionally, this template uses the
 	<package>sysutils/cpdup</package> package or port and
 	<application>portsnap</application> will be used to download
 	the FreeBSD Ports Collection.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">First, create a directory structure for the read-only
 	    file system which will contain the FreeBSD binaries for the
 	    jails.  Then, change directory to the FreeBSD source tree and
 	    install the read-only file system to the jail
 	    template:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /home/j /home/j/mroot</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installworld DESTDIR=/home/j/mroot</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Next, prepare a FreeBSD Ports Collection for the jails as
 	    well as a FreeBSD source tree, which is required for
 	    <application>mergemaster</application>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /home/j/mroot</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir usr/ports</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portsnap -p /home/j/mroot/usr/ports fetch extract</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cpdup /usr/src /home/j/mroot/usr/src</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create a skeleton for the read-write portion of the
 	    system:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /home/j/skel /home/j/skel/home /home/j/skel/usr-X11R6 /home/j/skel/distfiles</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv etc /home/j/skel</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv usr/local /home/j/skel/usr-local</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv tmp /home/j/skel</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv var /home/j/skel</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv root /home/j/skel</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use <application>mergemaster</application> to install
 	    missing configuration files.  Then, remove the extra
 	    directories that <application>mergemaster</application>
 	    creates:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mergemaster -t /home/j/skel/var/tmp/temproot -D /home/j/skel -i</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /home/j/skel</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm -R bin boot lib libexec mnt proc rescue sbin sys usr dev</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Now, symlink the read-write file system to the
 	    read-only file system.  Ensure that the symlinks are
 	    created in the correct <filename>s/</filename> locations
 	    as the creation of directories in the wrong locations will
 	    cause the installation to fail.</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /home/j/mroot</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir s</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/etc etc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/home home</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/root root</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s ../s/usr-local usr/local</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s ../s/usr-X11R6 usr/X11R6</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s ../../s/distfiles usr/ports/distfiles</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/tmp tmp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/var var</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">As a last step, create a generic
 	    <filename>/home/j/skel/etc/make.conf</filename> containing
 	    this line:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">WRKDIRPREFIX?=  /s/portbuild</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This makes it possible to compile FreeBSD ports inside
 	    each jail.  Remember that the ports directory is part of
 	    the read-only system.  The custom path for
 	    <literal>WRKDIRPREFIX</literal> allows builds to be done
 	    in the read-write portion of every jail.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-service-jails-creating">
       <title>建立 Jail</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The jail template can now be used to setup and configure
 	the jails in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  This example
 	demonstrates the creation of 3 jails: <literal>NS</literal>,
 	<literal>MAIL</literal> and <literal>WWW</literal>.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add the following lines to
 	    <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>, so that the read-only
 	    template for the jails and the read-write space will be
 	    available in the respective jails:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">/home/j/mroot   /home/j/ns     nullfs  ro  0   0
 /home/j/mroot   /home/j/mail   nullfs  ro  0   0
 /home/j/mroot   /home/j/www    nullfs  ro  0   0
 /home/js/ns     /home/j/ns/s   nullfs  rw  0   0
 /home/js/mail   /home/j/mail/s nullfs  rw  0   0
 /home/js/www    /home/j/www/s  nullfs  rw  0   0</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To prevent
 	    <application>fsck</application> from checking
 	    <application>nullfs</application> mounts during boot and
 	    <application>dump</application> from backing up the
 	    read-only nullfs mounts of the jails, the last two
 	    columns are both set to <literal>0</literal>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Configure the jails in
 	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">jail_enable="YES"
 jail_set_hostname_allow="NO"
 jail_list="ns mail www"
 jail_ns_hostname="ns.example.org"
 jail_ns_ip="192.168.3.17"
 jail_ns_rootdir="/usr/home/j/ns"
 jail_ns_devfs_enable="YES"
 jail_mail_hostname="mail.example.org"
 jail_mail_ip="192.168.3.18"
 jail_mail_rootdir="/usr/home/j/mail"
 jail_mail_devfs_enable="YES"
 jail_www_hostname="www.example.org"
 jail_www_ip="62.123.43.14"
 jail_www_rootdir="/usr/home/j/www"
 jail_www_devfs_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The
 	    <varname>jail_<replaceable>name</replaceable>_rootdir</varname>
 	    variable is set to
 	    <filename>/usr/home</filename> instead
 	    of <filename>/home</filename> because
 	    the physical path of <filename>/home</filename> on a default FreeBSD
 	    installation is <filename>/usr/home</filename>.  The
 	    <varname>jail_<replaceable>name</replaceable>_rootdir</varname>
 	    variable must <emphasis>not</emphasis> be set to a path
 	    which includes a symbolic link, otherwise the jails will
 	    refuse to start.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create the required mount points for the read-only
 	    file system of each jail:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /home/j/ns /home/j/mail /home/j/www</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Install the read-write template into each jail using
 	    <package>sysutils/cpdup</package>:</para>
 	    <!-- keramida: Why is cpdup required here?  Doesn't cpio(1)
 	     already include adequate functionality for performing this
 	     job *and* have the advantage of being part of the base
 	     system of FreeBSD? -->
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /home/js</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cpdup /home/j/skel /home/js/ns</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cpdup /home/j/skel /home/js/mail</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cpdup /home/j/skel /home/js/www</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In this phase, the jails are built and prepared to
 	    run.  First, mount the required file systems for each
 	    jail, and then start them:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -a</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service jail start</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The jails should be running now.  To check if they have
 	started correctly, use <command>jls</command>.  Its output
 	should be similar to the following:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>jls</userinput>
    JID  IP Address      Hostname                      Path
      3  192.168.3.17    ns.example.org                /home/j/ns
      2  192.168.3.18    mail.example.org              /home/j/mail
      1  62.123.43.14    www.example.org               /home/j/www</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, it should be possible to log onto each
 	jail, add new users, or configure daemons.  The
 	<literal>JID</literal> column indicates the jail
 	identification number of each running jail.  Use the following
 	command to perform administrative tasks in the jail whose
 	<acronym>JID</acronym> is <literal>3</literal>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>jexec 3 tcsh</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-service-jails-upgrading">
       <title>升級</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The design of this setup provides an easy way to upgrade
 	existing jails while minimizing their downtime.  Also, it
 	provides a way to roll back to the older version should a
 	problem occur.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The first step is to upgrade the host system.  Then,
 	    create a new temporary read-only template in
 	    <filename>/home/j/mroot2</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /home/j/mroot2</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installworld DESTDIR=/home/j/mroot2</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /home/j/mroot2</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cpdup /usr/src usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir s</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <buildtarget xml:lang="en">installworld</buildtarget> creates a
 	    few unnecessary directories, which should be
 	    removed:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chflags -R 0 var</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm -R etc var root usr/local tmp</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Recreate the read-write symlinks for the master file
 	    system:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/etc etc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/root root</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/home home</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s ../s/usr-local usr/local</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s ../s/usr-X11R6 usr/X11R6</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/tmp tmp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s s/var var</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Next, stop the jails:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service jail stop</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Unmount the original file systems as the read-write
 	    systems are attached to the read-only system
 	    (<filename>/s</filename>):</para>
 	    <!-- keramida: Shouldn't we suggest a short script-based
 	     loop here, instead of tediously copying the same commands
 	     multiple times? -->
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /home/j/ns/s</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /home/j/ns</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /home/j/mail/s</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /home/j/mail</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /home/j/www/s</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /home/j/www</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Move the old read-only file system and replace it with
 	    the new one.  This will serve as a backup and archive of
 	    the old read-only file system should something go wrong.
 	    The naming convention used here corresponds to when a new
 	    read-only file system has been created.  Move the original
 	    FreeBSD Ports Collection over to the new file system to save
 	    some space and inodes:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /home/j</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv mroot mroot.20060601</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv mroot2 mroot</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv mroot.20060601/usr/ports mroot/usr</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">At this point the new read-only template is ready, so
 	    the only remaining task is to remount the file systems and
 	    start the jails:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -a</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service jail start</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <command>jls</command> to check if the jails started
 	correctly.  Run <command>mergemaster</command> in each jail to
 	update the configuration files.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="jails-ezjail">
     <info>
       <title>使用 <application>ezjail</application> 管理 Jail</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Warren</firstname>
 	    <surname>Block</surname>
 	  </personname><contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Creating and managing multiple jails can quickly become
       tedious and error-prone.  Dirk Engling's
       <application>ezjail</application> automates and greatly
       simplifies many jail tasks.  A <emphasis>basejail</emphasis> is
       created as a template.  Additional jails use
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_nullfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to share many of the basejail directories
       without using additional disk space.  Each additional jail takes
       only a few megabytes of disk space before applications are
       installed.  Upgrading the copy of the userland in the basejail
       automatically upgrades all of the other jails.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Additional benefits and features are described in detail on
       the <application>ezjail</application> web site, <link xlink:href="https://erdgeist.org/arts/software/ezjail/"/>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-ezjail-install">
       <title>安裝 <application>ezjail</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Installing <application>ezjail</application> consists of
 	adding a loopback interface for use in jails, installing the
 	port or package, and enabling the service.</para>
 
       <procedure xml:id="jails-ezjail-install-procedure">
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To keep jail loopback traffic off the host's loopback
 	    network interface <literal>lo0</literal>, a second
 	    loopback interface is created by adding an entry to
 	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">cloned_interfaces="lo1"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The second loopback interface <literal>lo1</literal>
 	    will be created when the system starts.  It can also be
 	    created manually without a restart:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif cloneup</userinput>
 Created clone interfaces: lo1.</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Jails can be allowed to use aliases of this secondary
 	    loopback interface without interfering with the
 	    host.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Inside a jail, access to the loopback address
 	    <systemitem class="ipaddress">127.0.0.1</systemitem> is
 	    redirected to the first <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	    assigned to the jail.  To make the jail loopback
 	    correspond with the new <literal>lo1</literal> interface,
 	    that interface must be specified first in the list of
 	    interfaces and <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses given when
 	    creating a new jail.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Give each jail a unique loopback address in the
 	    <systemitem class="ipaddress">127.0.0.0</systemitem><systemitem class="netmask">/8</systemitem> netblock.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Install
 	    <package role="port">sysutils/ezjail</package>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/sysutils/ezjail</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enable <application>ezjail</application> by adding
 	    this line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">ezjail_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The service will automatically start on system boot.
 	    It can be started immediately for the current
 	    session:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ezjail start</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-ezjail-initialsetup">
       <title>初始設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">With <application>ezjail</application> installed, the
 	basejail directory structure can be created and populated.
 	This step is only needed once on the jail host
 	computer.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In both of these examples, <option>-p</option> causes the
 	ports tree to be retrieved with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>portsnap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> into the
 	basejail.  That single copy of the ports directory will be
 	shared by all the jails.  Using a separate copy of the ports
 	directory for jails isolates them from the host.  The
 	<application>ezjail</application> <acronym>FAQ</acronym>
 	explains in more detail: <link xlink:href="http://erdgeist.org/arts/software/ezjail/#FAQ"/>.</para>
 
       <procedure xml:id="jails-ezjail-initialsetup-procedure">
 	<step>
 	  <stepalternatives>
 	    <step>
 	      <title xml:lang="en">To Populate the Jail with FreeBSD-RELEASE</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">For a basejail based on the FreeBSD RELEASE matching
 		that of the host computer, use
 		<command>install</command>.  For example, on a host
 		computer running FreeBSD 10-STABLE, the latest
 		RELEASE version of FreeBSD -10 will be installed in
 		the jail):</para>
 
 	      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin install -p</userinput></screen>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <title xml:lang="en">To Populate the Jail with
 		<command>installworld</command></title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The basejail can be installed from binaries
 		created by <buildtarget xml:lang="en">buildworld</buildtarget> on
 		the host with
 		<command>ezjail-admin update</command>.</para>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">In this example, FreeBSD 10-STABLE has been
 		built from source.  The jail directories are created.
 		Then <buildtarget xml:lang="en">installworld</buildtarget> is
 		executed, installing the host's
 		<filename>/usr/obj</filename> into the
 		basejail.</para>
 
 	      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin update -i -p</userinput></screen>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The host's <filename>/usr/src</filename> is used
 		by default.  A different source directory on the host
 		can be specified with <option>-s</option> and a path,
 		or set with <varname>ezjail_sourcetree</varname> in
 		<filename>/usr/local/etc/ezjail.conf</filename>.</para>
 	    </step>
 	  </stepalternatives>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The basejail's ports tree is shared by other jails.
 	  However, downloaded distfiles are stored in the jail that
 	  downloaded them.  By default, these files are stored in
 	  <filename>/var/ports/distfiles</filename> within each
 	  jail.  <filename>/var/ports</filename> inside each jail is
 	  also used as a work directory when building ports.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>FTP</acronym> protocol is used by default
 	  to download packages for the installation of the basejail.
 	  Firewall or proxy configurations can prevent or interfere
 	  with <acronym>FTP</acronym> transfers.  The
 	  <acronym>HTTP</acronym> protocol works differently and
 	  avoids these problems.  It can be chosen by specifying a
 	  full <acronym>URL</acronym> for a particular download mirror
 	  in <filename>/usr/local/etc/ezjail.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ezjail_ftphost=http://<replaceable>ftp.FreeBSD.org</replaceable></programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">See <xref linkend="mirrors-ftp"/> for a list of
 	  sites.</para>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-ezjail-create">
       <title>建立並啟動新的 Jail</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">New jails are created with
 	<command>ezjail-admin create</command>.  In these examples,
 	the <literal>lo1</literal> loopback interface is used as
 	described above.</para>
 
       <procedure xml:id="jails-ezjail-create-steps">
 	<title xml:lang="en">Create and Start a New Jail</title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create the jail, specifying a name and the loopback
 	    and network interfaces to use, along with their
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses.  In this example, the
 	    jail is named <literal>dnsjail</literal>.</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin create <replaceable>dnsjail</replaceable> '<replaceable>lo1|127.0.1.1</replaceable>,<replaceable>em0</replaceable>|<replaceable>192.168.1.50</replaceable>'</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <tip xml:id="jails-ezjail-raw-network-sockets">
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Most network services run in jails without
 	      problems.  A few network services, most notably
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, use
 	      <emphasis>raw network sockets</emphasis>.  In jails, raw
 	      network sockets are disabled by default for security.
 	      Services that require them will not work.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Occasionally, a jail genuinely needs raw sockets.
 	      For example, network monitoring applications often use
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to check the availability of other
 	      computers.  When raw network sockets are actually needed
 	      in a jail, they can be enabled by editing the
 	      <application>ezjail</application>
 	      configuration file for the individual jail,
 	      <filename>/usr/local/etc/ezjail/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable></filename>.
 	      Modify the <literal>parameters</literal>
 	      entry:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">export jail_<replaceable>jailname</replaceable>_parameters="allow.raw_sockets=1"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Do not enable raw network sockets unless services in
 	      the jail actually require them.</para>
 	  </tip>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Start the jail:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin start <replaceable>dnsjail</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use a console on the jail:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin console <replaceable>dnsjail</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The jail is operating and additional configuration can be
 	completed.  Typical settings added at this point
 	include:</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Set the
 	    <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	    Password</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Connect to the jail and set the
 	    <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user's
 	    password:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin console <replaceable>dnsjail</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>passwd</userinput>
 Changing local password for root
 New Password:
 Retype New Password:</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Time Zone Configuration</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The jail's time zone can be set with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tzsetup</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	    To avoid spurious error messages, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adjkerntz</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    entry in <filename>/etc/crontab</filename> can be
 	    commented or removed.  This job attempts to update the
 	    computer's hardware clock with time zone changes, but
 	    jails are not allowed to access that hardware.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>DNS</acronym> Servers</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enter domain name server lines in
 	    <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> so
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym> works in the jail.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Change the address and add the jail name to the
 	    <literal>localhost</literal> entries in
 	    <filename>/etc/hosts</filename>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Configure <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enter configuration settings in
 	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  This is much like
 	    configuring a full computer.  The host name and
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> address are not set here.  Those
 	    values are already provided by the jail
 	    configuration.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">With the jail configured, the applications for which the
 	jail was created can be installed.</para>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some ports must be built with special options to be used
 	  in a jail.  For example, both of the network monitoring
 	  plugin packages
 	  <package role="port">net-mgmt/nagios-plugins</package> and
 	  <package role="port">net-mgmt/monitoring-plugins</package>
 	  have a <literal>JAIL</literal> option which must be enabled
 	  for them to work correctly inside a jail.</para>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-ezjail-update">
       <title>更新 Jail</title>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="jails-ezjail-update-os">
 	<title>更新作業系統</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Because the basejail's copy of the userland is shared by
 	  the other jails, updating the basejail automatically updates
 	  all of the other jails.  Either source or binary updates can
 	  be used.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To build the world from source on the host, then
 	  install it in the basejail, use:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin update -b</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the world has already been compiled on the host,
 	  install it in the basejail with:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin update -i</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Binary updates use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>freebsd-update</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  These
 	  updates have the same limitations as if
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>freebsd-update</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> were being run directly.  The most
 	  important one is that only -RELEASE versions of FreeBSD are
 	  available with this method.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Update the basejail to the latest patched release of
 	  the version of FreeBSD on the host.  For example, updating from
 	  RELEASE-p1 to RELEASE-p2.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin update -u</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To upgrade the basejail to a new version, first
 	  upgrade the host system as described in <xref linkend="freebsdupdate-upgrade"/>.  Once the host has
 	  been upgraded and rebooted, the basejail can then be
 	  upgraded.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>freebsd-update</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> has no way of determining
 	  which version is currently installed in the basejail, so the
 	  original version must be specified.  Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>file</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
 	  determine the original version in the basejail:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>file /usr/jails/basejail/bin/sh</userinput>
 /usr/jails/basejail/bin/sh: ELF 64-bit LSB executable, x86-64, version 1 (FreeBSD), dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for FreeBSD 9.3, stripped</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Now use this information to perform the upgrade from
 	  <literal>9.3-RELEASE</literal> to the current version of
 	  the host system:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin update -U -s <replaceable>9.3-RELEASE</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">After updating the basejail, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> must
 	  be run to update each jail's configuration files.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> depends on the purpose
 	  and trustworthiness of a jail.  If a jail's services or
 	  users are not trusted, then <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> should only
 	  be run from within that jail:</para>
 
 	<example xml:id="jails-ezjail-update-mergemaster-untrusted">
 	  <title>在不信任的 Jail 做 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Delete the link from the jail's
 	    <filename>/usr/src</filename> into the basejail and
 	    create a new <filename>/usr/src</filename> in the jail
 	    as a mountpoint.  Mount the host computer's
 	    <filename>/usr/src</filename> read-only on the jail's
 	    new <filename>/usr/src</filename> mountpoint:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm /usr/jails/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable>/usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /usr/jails/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable>/usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t nullfs -o ro /usr/src /usr/jails/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable>/usr/src</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Get a console in the jail:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin console <replaceable>jailname</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Inside the jail, run <command>mergemaster</command>.
 	    Then exit the jail console:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mergemaster -U</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>exit</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Finally, unmount the jail's
 	    <filename>/usr/src</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /usr/jails/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable>/usr/src</userinput></screen>
 	</example>
 
 	<example xml:id="jails-ezjail-update-mergemaster-trusted">
 
 	  <title>在信任的 Jail 做 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the users and services in a jail are trusted,
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be run from the host:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mergemaster -U -D /usr/jails/<replaceable>jailname</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	</example>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="jails-ezjail-update-ports">
-	<title>更新 Ports</title>
+	<title>更新 Port</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The ports tree in the basejail is shared by the other
 	  jails.  Updating that copy of the ports tree gives the other
 	  jails the updated version also.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The basejail ports tree is updated with
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>portsnap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin update -P</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-ezjail-control">
       <title>控制 Jail</title>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="jails-ezjail-control-stop-start">
 	<title>停止與啟動 Jail</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>ezjail</application> automatically starts
 	  jails when the computer is started.  Jails can be manually
 	  stopped and restarted with <command>stop</command> and
 	  <command>start</command>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin stop <replaceable>sambajail</replaceable></userinput>
 Stopping jails: sambajail.</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">By default, jails are started automatically when the
 	  host computer starts.  Autostarting can be disabled
 	  with <command>config</command>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin config -r norun <replaceable>seldomjail</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This takes effect the next time the host computer is
 	  started.  A jail that is already running will not be
 	  stopped.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Enabling autostart is very similar:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin config -r run <replaceable>oftenjail</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="jails-ezjail-control-backup">
 	<title>封存與還原 Jail</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use <command>archive</command> to create a
 	  <filename>.tar.gz</filename> archive of a jail.  The file
 	  name is composed from the name of the jail and the current
 	  date.  Archive files are written to the archive directory,
 	  <filename>/usr/jails/ezjail_archives</filename>.  A
 	  different archive directory can be chosen by setting
 	  <varname>ezjail_archivedir</varname> in the configuration
 	  file.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The archive file can be copied elsewhere as a backup, or
 	  an existing jail can be restored from it with
 	  <command>restore</command>.  A new jail can be created from
 	  the archive, providing a convenient way to clone existing
 	  jails.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Stop and archive a jail named
 	  <literal>wwwserver</literal>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin stop <replaceable>wwwserver</replaceable></userinput>
 Stopping jails: wwwserver.
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin archive <replaceable>wwwserver</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /usr/jails/ezjail-archives/</userinput>
 wwwserver-201407271153.13.tar.gz</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create a new jail named
 	  <literal>wwwserver-clone</literal> from the archive created
 	  in the previous step.  Use the <filename>em1</filename>
 	  interface and assign a new <acronym>IP</acronym> address to
 	  avoid conflict with the original:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin create -a /usr/jails/ezjail_archives/wwwserver-201407271153.13.tar.gz <replaceable>wwwserver-clone</replaceable> 'lo1|127.0.3.1,em1|192.168.1.51'</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="jails-ezjail-example-bind">
       <title>完整範例：在 Jail 中安裝 <application>BIND</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Putting the <application>BIND</application>
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server in a jail improves security by
 	isolating it.  This example creates a simple caching-only name
 	server.</para>
 
       <itemizedlist xml:id="jails-ezjail-example-bind-assumptions">
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The jail will be called
 	    <literal>dns1</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The jail will use <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	    <literal>192.168.1.240</literal> on the host's
 	    <literal>re0</literal> interface.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The upstream <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s DNS servers are
 	    at <literal>10.0.0.62</literal> and
 	    <literal>10.0.0.61</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The basejail has already been created and a ports tree
 	    installed as shown in
 	    <xref linkend="jails-ezjail-initialsetup"/>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <example xml:id="jails-ezjail-example-bind-steps">
 	<title>在 Jail 中執行 BIND</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create a cloned loopback interface by adding a line to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">cloned_interfaces="lo1"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Immediately create the new loopback interface:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif cloneup</userinput>
 Created clone interfaces: lo1.</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create the jail:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin create dns1 'lo1|127.0.2.1,re0|192.168.1.240'</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Start the jail, connect to a console running on it, and
 	  perform some basic configuration:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin start dns1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ezjail-admin console dns1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>passwd</userinput>
 Changing local password for root
 New Password:
 Retype New Password:
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tzsetup</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sed -i .bak -e '/adjkerntz/ s/^/#/' /etc/crontab</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sed -i .bak -e 's/127.0.0.1/127.0.2.1/g; s/localhost.my.domain/dns1.my.domain dns1/' /etc/hosts</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Temporarily set the upstream <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	  servers in <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> so ports
 	  can be downloaded:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">nameserver 10.0.0.62
 nameserver 10.0.0.61</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Still using the jail console, install
 	  <package role="port">dns/bind99</package>.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -C /usr/ports/dns/bind99 install clean</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Configure the name server by editing
 	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create an Access Control List (<acronym>ACL</acronym>)
 	  of addresses and networks that are permitted to send
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> queries to this name server.  This
 	  section is added just before the <literal>options</literal>
 	  section already in the file:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">...
 // or cause huge amounts of useless Internet traffic.
 
 acl "trusted" {
 	192.168.1.0/24;
 	localhost;
 	localnets;
 };
 
 options {
 ...</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use the jail <acronym>IP</acronym> address in the
 	  <literal>listen-on</literal> setting to accept
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> queries from other computers on the
 	  network:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">	listen-on	{ 192.168.1.240; };</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A simple caching-only <acronym>DNS</acronym> name server
 	  is created by changing the <literal>forwarders</literal>
 	  section.  The original file contains:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">/*
 	forwarders {
 		127.0.0.1;
 	};
 */</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Uncomment the section by removing the
 	  <literal>/*</literal> and <literal>*/</literal> lines.
 	  Enter the <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses of the upstream
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> servers.  Immediately after the
 	  <literal>forwarders</literal> section, add references to the
 	  <literal>trusted</literal> <acronym>ACL</acronym> defined
 	  earlier:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">	forwarders {
 		10.0.0.62;
 		10.0.0.61;
 	};
 
 	allow-query       { any; };
 	allow-recursion   { trusted; };
 	allow-query-cache { trusted; };</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Enable the service in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">named_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Start and test the name server:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service named start</userinput>
 wrote key file "/usr/local/etc/namedb/rndc.key"
 Starting named.
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/usr/local/bin/dig @192.168.1.240 freebsd.org</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A response that includes</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">;; Got answer;</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">shows that the new <acronym>DNS</acronym> server is
 	  working.  A long delay followed by a response
 	  including</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">;; connection timed out; no servers could be reached</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">shows a problem.  Check the configuration settings and
 	  make sure any local firewalls allow the new
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> access to the upstream
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> servers.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The new <acronym>DNS</acronym> server can use itself for
 	  local name resolution, just like other local computers.  Set
 	  the address of the <acronym>DNS</acronym> server in the
 	  client computer's
 	  <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">nameserver 192.168.1.240</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A local <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server can be configured
 	  to provide this address for a local <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	  server, providing automatic configuration on
 	  <acronym>DHCP</acronym> clients.</para>
       </example>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="mac">
   <info>
     <title>強制存取控制 (MAC)</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Written
 	by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MAC</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Mandatory Access Control</primary>
       <see>MAC</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD supports security extensions  based on the
       <trademark class="registered">POSIX</trademark>.1e draft.  These security mechanisms include file system
       Access Control Lists (<xref linkend="fs-acl"/>) and Mandatory
       Access Control (<acronym>MAC</acronym>).  <acronym>MAC</acronym>
       allows access control modules to be loaded in order to implement
       security policies.  Some modules provide protections for a
       narrow subset of the system, hardening a particular service.
       Others provide comprehensive labeled security across all
       subjects and objects.  The mandatory part of the definition
       indicates that enforcement of controls is performed by
       administrators and the operating system.  This is in contrast to
       the default security mechanism of Discretionary Access Control
       (<acronym>DAC</acronym>) where enforcement is left to the
       discretion of users.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter focuses on the <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework
       and the set of pluggable security policy modules FreeBSD provides
       for enabling various security mechanisms.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The terminology associated with the
 	  <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The capabilities of <acronym>MAC</acronym> security
 	  policy modules as well as the difference between a labeled
 	  and non-labeled policy.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The considerations to take into account before
 	  configuring a system to use the
 	  <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework.</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Which <acronym>MAC</acronym> security policy modules
 	  are included in FreeBSD and how to configure them.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to implement a more secure environment using the
 	  <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to test the <acronym>MAC</acronym> configuration
 	  to ensure the framework has been properly
 	  implemented.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 及 FreeBSD 基礎 (<xref linkend="basics"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Have some familiarity with security and how it pertains
 	  to FreeBSD (<xref linkend="security"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">Improper <acronym>MAC</acronym> configuration may cause
 	loss of system access, aggravation of users, or inability to
 	access the features provided by
 	<application>Xorg</application>.  More importantly,
 	<acronym>MAC</acronym> should not be relied upon to completely
 	secure a system.  The <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework only
 	augments an existing security policy.  Without sound security
 	practices and regular security checks, the system will never
 	be completely secure.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The examples contained within this chapter are for
 	demonstration purposes and the example settings should
 	<emphasis>not</emphasis> be implemented on a production
 	system.  Implementing any security policy takes a good deal of
 	understanding, proper design, and thorough testing.</para>
     </warning>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">While this chapter covers a broad range of security issues
       relating to the <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework, the
       development of new <acronym>MAC</acronym> security policy
       modules will not be covered.  A number of security policy
       modules included with the <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework have
       specific characteristics which are provided for both testing and
       new module development.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_test</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_stub</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_none</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on
       these security policy modules and the various mechanisms they
       provide.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-inline-glossary">
     <title>關鍵詞</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following key terms are used when referring to the
       <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>compartment</emphasis>: a set of programs and
 	  data to be partitioned or separated, where users are given
 	  explicit access to specific component of a system.  A
 	  compartment represents a grouping, such as a work group,
 	  department, project, or topic.  Compartments make it
 	  possible to implement a need-to-know-basis security
 	  policy.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>integrity</emphasis>: the level of trust which
 	  can be placed on data.  As the integrity of the data is
 	  elevated, so does the ability to trust that data.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>level</emphasis>: the increased or decreased
 	  setting of a security attribute.  As the level increases,
 	  its security is considered to elevate as well.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>label</emphasis>: a security attribute which
 	  can be applied to files, directories, or other items in the
 	  system.  It could be considered a confidentiality stamp.
 	  When a label is placed on a file, it describes the security
 	  properties of that file and will only permit access by
 	  files, users, and resources with a similar security setting.
 	  The meaning and interpretation of label values depends on
 	  the policy configuration.  Some policies treat a label as
 	  representing the integrity or secrecy of an object while
 	  other policies might use labels to hold rules for
 	  access.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>multilabel</emphasis>: this property is a file
 	  system option which can be set in single-user mode using
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, during boot using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, or during
 	  the creation of a new file system.  This option permits
 	  an administrator to apply different <acronym>MAC</acronym>
 	  labels on different objects.  This option only applies to
 	  security policy modules which support labeling.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>single label</emphasis>: a policy where the
 	  entire file system uses one label to enforce access control
 	  over the flow of data.  Whenever <option>multilabel</option>
 	  is not set, all files will conform to the same label
 	  setting.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>object</emphasis>: an entity through which
 	  information flows under the direction of a
 	  <emphasis>subject</emphasis>.  This includes directories,
 	  files, fields, screens, keyboards, memory, magnetic storage,
 	  printers or any other data storage or moving device.  An
 	  object is a data container or a system resource.  Access to
 	  an object effectively means access to its data.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>subject</emphasis>: any active entity that
 	  causes information to flow between
 	  <emphasis>objects</emphasis> such as a user, user process,
 	  or system process.  On FreeBSD, this is almost always a
 	  thread acting in a process on behalf of a user.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>policy</emphasis>: a collection of rules
 	  which defines how objectives are to be achieved.  A policy
 	  usually documents how certain items are to be handled.  This
 	  chapter considers a policy to be a collection of rules which
 	  controls the flow of data and information and defines who
 	  has access to that data and information.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>high-watermark</emphasis>: this type of
 	  policy permits the raising of security levels for the
 	  purpose of accessing higher level information.  In most
 	  cases, the original level is restored after the process is
 	  complete.  Currently, the FreeBSD <acronym>MAC</acronym>
 	  framework does not include this type of policy.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>low-watermark</emphasis>: this type of policy
 	  permits lowering security levels for the purpose of
 	  accessing information which is less secure.  In most cases,
 	  the original security level of the user is restored after
 	  the process is complete.  The only security policy module in
 	  FreeBSD to use this is <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_lomac</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>sensitivity</emphasis>: usually used when
 	  discussing Multilevel Security (<acronym>MLS</acronym>).  A
 	  sensitivity level describes how important or secret the data
 	  should be.  As the sensitivity level increases, so does the
 	  importance of the secrecy, or confidentiality, of the
 	  data.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-understandlabel">
     <title>了解 MAC 標籤</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A <acronym>MAC</acronym> label is a security attribute
       which may be applied to subjects and objects throughout the
       system.  When setting a label, the administrator must
       understand its implications in order to prevent unexpected or
       undesired behavior of the system.  The attributes available on
       an object depend on the loaded policy module, as policy modules
       interpret their attributes in different ways.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The security label on an object is used as a part of a
       security access control decision by a policy.  With some
       policies, the label contains all of the information necessary
       to make a decision.  In other policies, the labels may be
       processed as part of a larger rule set.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are two types of label policies: single label and
       multi label.  By default, the system will use single label.  The
       administrator should be aware of the pros and cons of each in
       order to implement policies which meet the requirements of the
       system's security model.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A single label security policy only permits one label to be
       used for every subject or object.  Since a single label policy
       enforces one set of access permissions across the entire system,
       it provides lower administration overhead, but decreases the
       flexibility of policies which support labeling.  However, in
       many environments, a single label policy may be all that is
       required.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A single label policy is somewhat similar to
       <acronym>DAC</acronym> as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> configures the policies so
       that users are placed in the appropriate categories and access
       levels.  A notable difference is that many policy modules can
       also restrict <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.
       Basic control over objects will then be released to the group,
       but <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> may revoke or
       modify the settings at any time.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When appropriate, a multi label policy can be set on a
       <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system by passing
       <option>multilabel</option> to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  A multi label
       policy permits each subject or object to have its own
       independent <acronym>MAC</acronym> label.  The decision to use a
       multi label or single label policy is only required for policies
       which implement the labeling feature, such as
       <literal>biba</literal>, <literal>lomac</literal>, and
       <literal>mls</literal>.  Some policies, such as
       <literal>seeotheruids</literal>, <literal>portacl</literal> and
       <literal>partition</literal>, do not use labels at all.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Using a multi label policy on a partition and establishing a
       multi label security model can increase administrative overhead
       as everything in that file system has a label.  This includes
       directories, files, and even device nodes.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following command will set <option>multilabel</option>
       on the specified <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system.  This may
       only be done in single-user mode and is not a requirement for
       the swap file system:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tunefs -l enable /</userinput></screen>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Some users have experienced problems with setting the
 	<option>multilabel</option> flag on the root partition.  If
 	this is the case, please review <xref linkend="mac-troubleshoot"/>.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Since the multi label policy is set on a per-file system
       basis, a multi label policy may not be needed if the file system
       layout is well designed.  Consider an example security
       <acronym>MAC</acronym> model for a FreeBSD web server.  This
       machine uses the single label, <literal>biba/high</literal>, for
       everything in the default file systems.  If the web server needs
       to run at <literal>biba/low</literal> to prevent write up
       capabilities, it could be installed to a separate
       <acronym>UFS</acronym> <filename>/usr/local</filename> file
       system set at <literal>biba/low</literal>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>標籤設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Virtually all aspects of label policy module configuration
 	will be performed using the base system utilities.  These
 	commands provide a simple interface for object or subject
 	configuration or the manipulation and verification of
 	the configuration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">All configuration may be done using
 	<command>setfmac</command>, which is used to set
 	<acronym>MAC</acronym> labels on system objects, and
 	<command>setpmac</command>, which is used to set the labels on
 	system subjects.  For example, to set the
 	<literal>biba</literal> <acronym>MAC</acronym> label to
 	<literal>high</literal> on <filename>test</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setfmac biba/high test</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the configuration is successful, the prompt will be
 	returned without error.  A common error is
 	<errorname>Permission denied</errorname> which usually occurs
 	when the label is being set or modified on a restricted
 	object.  Other conditions may produce different failures.  For
 	instance, the file may not be owned by the user attempting to
 	relabel the object, the object may not exist, or the object
 	may be read-only.  A mandatory policy will not allow the
 	process to relabel the file, maybe because of a property of
 	the file, a property of the process, or a property of the
 	proposed new label value.  For example, if a user running at
 	low integrity tries to change the label of a high integrity
 	file, or a user running at low integrity tries to change the
 	label of a low integrity file to a high integrity label, these
 	operations will fail.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The system administrator may use
 	<command>setpmac</command> to override the policy module's
 	settings by assigning a different label to the invoked
 	process:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setfmac biba/high test</userinput>
 <errorname>Permission denied</errorname>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setpmac biba/low setfmac biba/high test</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>getfmac test</userinput>
 test: biba/high</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For currently running processes, such as
 	<application>sendmail</application>,
 	<command>getpmac</command> is usually used instead.  This
 	command takes a process ID (<acronym>PID</acronym>) in place
 	of a command name.  If users attempt to manipulate a file not
 	in their access, subject to the rules of the loaded policy
 	modules, the <errorname>Operation not permitted</errorname>
 	error will be displayed.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>預先定義的標籤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A few FreeBSD policy modules which support the labeling
 	feature offer three predefined labels: <literal>low</literal>,
 	<literal>equal</literal>, and <literal>high</literal>,
 	where:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>low</literal> is considered the lowest label
 	    setting an object or subject may have.  Setting this on
 	    objects or subjects blocks their access to objects or
 	    subjects marked high.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>equal</literal> sets the subject or object to
 	    be disabled or unaffected and should only be placed on
 	    objects considered to be exempt from the policy.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>high</literal> grants an object or subject
 	    the highest setting available in the Biba and
 	    <acronym>MLS</acronym> policy modules.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Such policy modules include <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_biba</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_mls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_lomac</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Each of the predefined
 	labels establishes a different information flow directive.
 	Refer to the manual page of the module to determine the traits
 	of the generic label configurations.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>數值標籤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Biba and <acronym>MLS</acronym> policy modules support
 	a numeric label which may be set to indicate the precise level
 	of hierarchical control.  This numeric level is used to
 	partition or sort information into different groups of
 	classification, only permitting access to that group or a
 	higher group level.  For example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">biba/10:2+3+6(5:2+3-20:2+3+4+5+6)</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">may be interpreted as <quote>Biba Policy Label/Grade
 	  10:Compartments 2, 3 and 6: (grade 5 ...</quote>)</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the first grade would be considered the
 	effective grade with effective compartments, the second grade
 	is the low grade, and the last one is the high grade.  In most
 	configurations, such fine-grained settings are not needed as
 	they are considered to be advanced configurations.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">System objects only have a current grade and compartment.
 	System subjects reflect the range of available rights in the
 	system, and network interfaces, where they are used for access
 	control.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The grade and compartments in a subject and object pair
 	are used to construct a relationship known as
 	<firstterm>dominance</firstterm>, in which a subject dominates
 	an object, the object dominates the subject, neither dominates
 	the other, or both dominate each other.  The <quote>both
 	  dominate</quote> case occurs when the two labels are equal.
 	Due to the information flow nature of Biba, a user has rights
 	to a set of compartments that might correspond to projects,
 	but objects also have a set of compartments.  Users may have
 	to subset their rights using <command>su</command> or
 	<command>setpmac</command> in order to access objects in a
 	compartment from which they are not restricted.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用者標籤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Users are required to have labels so that their files and
 	processes properly interact with the security policy defined
 	on the system.  This is configured in
 	<filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> using login classes.
 	Every policy module that uses labels will implement the user
 	class setting.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To set the user class default label which will be enforced
 	by <acronym>MAC</acronym>, add a <option>label</option> entry.
 	An example <option>label</option> entry containing every
 	policy module is displayed below.  Note that in a real
 	configuration, the administrator would never enable every
 	policy module.  It is recommended that the rest of this
 	chapter be reviewed before any configuration is
 	implemented.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">default:\
 	:copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\
 	:welcome=/etc/motd:\
 	:setenv=MAIL=/var/mail/$,BLOCKSIZE=K:\
 	:path=~/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:\
 	:manpath=/usr/share/man /usr/local/man:\
 	:nologin=/usr/sbin/nologin:\
 	:cputime=1h30m:\
 	:datasize=8M:\
 	:vmemoryuse=100M:\
 	:stacksize=2M:\
 	:memorylocked=4M:\
 	:memoryuse=8M:\
 	:filesize=8M:\
 	:coredumpsize=8M:\
 	:openfiles=24:\
 	:maxproc=32:\
 	:priority=0:\
 	:requirehome:\
 	:passwordtime=91d:\
 	:umask=022:\
 	:ignoretime@:\
 	:label=partition/13,mls/5,biba/10(5-15),lomac/10[2]:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While users can not modify the default value, they may
 	change their label after they login, subject to the
 	constraints of the policy.  The example above tells the Biba
 	policy that a process's minimum integrity is
 	<literal>5</literal>, its maximum is <literal>15</literal>,
 	and the default effective label is <literal>10</literal>.  The
 	process will run at <literal>10</literal> until it chooses to
 	change label, perhaps due to the user using
 	<command>setpmac</command>, which will be constrained by Biba
 	to the configured range.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After any change to <filename>login.conf</filename>, the
 	login class capability database must be rebuilt using
 	<command>cap_mkdb</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Many sites have a large number of users requiring
 	several different user classes.  In depth planning is
 	required as this can become difficult to manage.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>網路介面標籤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Labels may be set on network interfaces to help control
 	the flow of data across the network.  Policies using network
 	interface labels function in the same way that policies
 	function with respect to objects.  Users at high settings in
 	Biba, for example, will not be permitted to access network
 	interfaces with a label of <literal>low</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When setting the <acronym>MAC</acronym> label on network
 	interfaces, <option>maclabel</option> may be passed to
 	<command>ifconfig</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bge0 maclabel biba/equal</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example will set the <acronym>MAC</acronym> label of
 	<literal>biba/equal</literal> on the <literal>bge0</literal>
 	interface.  When using a setting similar to
 	<literal>biba/high(low-high)</literal>, the entire label
 	should be quoted to prevent an error from being
 	returned.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Each policy module which supports labeling has a tunable
 	which may be used to disable the <acronym>MAC</acronym> label
 	on network interfaces.  Setting the label to
 	<option>equal</option> will have a similar effect.  Review
 	the output of <command>sysctl</command>, the policy manual
 	pages, and the information in the rest of this chapter for
 	more information on those tunables.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-planning">
     <title>規劃安全架構</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before implementing any <acronym>MAC</acronym> policies, a
       planning phase is recommended.  During the planning stages, an
       administrator should consider the implementation requirements
       and goals, such as:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to classify information and resources available on
 	  the target systems.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Which information or resources to restrict access to
 	  along with the type of restrictions that should be
 	  applied.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Which <acronym>MAC</acronym> modules will be required to
 	  achieve this goal.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A trial run of the trusted system and its configuration
       should occur <emphasis>before</emphasis> a
       <acronym>MAC</acronym> implementation is used on production
       systems.  Since different environments have different needs and
       requirements, establishing a complete security profile will
       decrease the need of changes once the system goes live.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Consider how the <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework augments
       the security of the system as a whole.  The various security
       policy modules provided by the <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework
       could be used to protect the network and file systems or to
       block users from accessing certain ports and sockets.  Perhaps
       the best use of the policy modules is to load several security
       policy modules at a time in order to provide a
       <acronym>MLS</acronym> environment.  This approach differs from
       a hardening policy, which typically hardens elements of a system
       which are used only for specific purposes.  The downside to
       <acronym>MLS</acronym> is increased administrative
       overhead.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The overhead is minimal when compared to the lasting effect
       of a framework which provides the ability to pick and choose
       which policies are required for a specific configuration and
       which keeps performance overhead down.  The reduction of support
       for unneeded policies can increase the overall performance of
       the system as well as offer flexibility of choice.  A good
       implementation would consider the overall security requirements
       and effectively implement the various security policy modules
       offered by the framework.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A system utilizing <acronym>MAC</acronym> guarantees that a
       user will not be permitted to change security attributes at
       will.  All user utilities, programs, and scripts must work
       within the constraints of the access rules provided by the
       selected security policy modules and control of the
       <acronym>MAC</acronym> access rules is in the hands of the
       system administrator.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is the duty of the system administrator to carefully
       select the correct security policy modules.  For an environment
       that needs to limit access control over the network, the
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_portacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_ifoff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_biba</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
       policy modules make good starting points.  For an environment
       where strict confidentiality of file system objects is required,
       consider the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_bsdextended</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_mls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy
       modules.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Policy decisions could be made based on network
       configuration.  If only certain users should be permitted
       access to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_portacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy module is
       a good choice.  In the case of file systems, access to objects
       might be considered confidential to some users, but not to
       others.  As an example, a large development team might be
       broken off into smaller projects where  developers in project A
       might not be permitted to access objects written by developers
       in project B.  Yet both projects might need to access objects
       created by developers in project C.  Using the different
       security policy modules provided by the <acronym>MAC</acronym>
       framework, users could be divided into these groups and then
       given access to the appropriate objects.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Each security policy module has a unique way of dealing with
       the overall security of a system.  Module selection should be
       based on a well thought out security policy which may require
       revision and reimplementation.  Understanding the different
       security policy modules offered by the <acronym>MAC</acronym>
       framework will help administrators choose the best policies
       for their situations.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">  The rest of this chapter covers the available modules,
       describes their use and configuration, and in some cases,
       provides insight on applicable situations.</para>
 
     <caution>
       <para xml:lang="en">Implementing <acronym>MAC</acronym> is much like
 	implementing a firewall since care must be taken to prevent
 	being completely locked out of the system.  The ability to
 	revert back to a previous configuration should be considered
 	and the implementation of <acronym>MAC</acronym> over a remote
 	connection should be done with extreme caution.</para>
     </caution>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-policies">
     <title>可用的 MAC 管理政策</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The default FreeBSD kernel
       includes <literal>options MAC</literal>.  This means that every
       module included with the <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework can be
       loaded with <command>kldload</command> as a run-time kernel
       module.  After testing the module, add the module name to
       <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> so that it will load
       during boot.  Each module also provides a kernel option for
       those administrators who choose to compile their own custom
       kernel.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD includes a group of policies that will cover most
       security requirements.  Each policy is summarized below.  The
       last three policies support integer settings in place of the
       three default labels.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-seeotheruids">
       <title>MAC See Other UIDs 政策</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC See Other UIDs Policy</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name:
 	<filename>mac_seeotheruids.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line:
 	<literal>options MAC_SEEOTHERUIDS</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option:
 	<literal>mac_seeotheruids_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_seeotheruids</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module extends the
 	<varname>security.bsd.see_other_uids</varname> and
 	<varname>security.bsd.see_other_gids</varname>
 	<command>sysctl</command> tunables.  This option does not
 	require any labels to be set before configuration and can
 	operate transparently with other modules.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After loading the module, the following
 	<command>sysctl</command> tunables may be used to control its
 	features:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.seeotheruids.enabled</varname>
 	    enables the module and implements the default settings
 	    which deny users the ability to view processes and sockets
 	    owned by other users.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">
 	    <varname>security.mac.seeotheruids.specificgid_enabled</varname>
 	    allows specified groups to be exempt from this policy.  To
 	    exempt specific groups, use the
 	    <varname>security.mac.seeotheruids.specificgid=<replaceable>XXX</replaceable></varname>
 	    <command>sysctl</command> tunable, replacing
 	    <replaceable>XXX</replaceable> with the numeric group ID
 	    to be exempted.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">
 	    <varname>security.mac.seeotheruids.primarygroup_enabled</varname>
 	    is used to exempt specific primary groups from this
 	    policy.  When using this tunable,
 	    <varname>security.mac.seeotheruids.specificgid_enabled</varname>
 	    may not be set.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-bsdextended">
       <title>MAC BSD Extended 政策</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC</primary>
 	  <secondary>File System Firewall Policy</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name:
 	<filename>mac_bsdextended.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line:
 	<literal>options MAC_BSDEXTENDED</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option:
 	<literal>mac_bsdextended_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_bsdextended</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module enforces a file system
 	firewall.  It provides an extension to the standard file
 	system permissions model, permitting an administrator to
 	create a firewall-like ruleset to protect files, utilities,
 	and directories in the file system hierarchy.  When access to
 	a file system object is attempted, the list of rules is
 	iterated until either a matching rule is located or the end is
 	reached.  This behavior may be changed using
 	<varname>security.mac.bsdextended.firstmatch_enabled</varname>.
 	Similar to other firewall modules in FreeBSD, a file containing
 	the access control rules can be created and read by the system
 	at boot time using an <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The rule list may be entered using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ugidfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> which
 	has a syntax similar to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  More tools can be
 	written by using the functions in the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>libugidfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	library.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_bsdextended</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module has been loaded,
 	the following command may be used to list the current rule
 	configuration:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ugidfw list</userinput>
 0 slots, 0 rules</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, no rules are defined and everything is
 	completely accessible.  To create a rule which blocks all
 	access by users but leaves <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> unaffected:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ugidfw add subject not uid root new object not uid root mode n</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While this rule is simple to implement, it is a very bad
 	idea as it blocks all users from issuing any commands.  A
 	more realistic example blocks <systemitem class="username">user1</systemitem> all access, including
 	directory listings, to <systemitem class="username"><replaceable>user2</replaceable></systemitem>'s
 	home directory:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ugidfw set 2 subject uid <replaceable>user1</replaceable> object uid <replaceable>user2</replaceable> mode n</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ugidfw set 3 subject uid <replaceable>user1</replaceable> object gid <replaceable>user2</replaceable> mode n</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Instead of <systemitem class="username">user1</systemitem>, <option>not
 	  uid <replaceable>user2</replaceable></option> could be used
 	in order to enforce the same access restrictions for all
 	users.  However, the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user is unaffected by
 	these rules.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Extreme caution should be taken when working with this
 	  module as incorrect use could block access to certain
 	  parts of the file system.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-ifoff">
       <title>MAC Interface Silencing 政策</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC Interface Silencing Policy</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name: <filename>mac_ifoff.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line: <literal>options
 	  MAC_IFOFF</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option:
 	<literal>mac_ifoff_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_ifoff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module is used to disable network
 	interfaces on the fly and to keep network interfaces from
 	being brought up during system boot.  It does not use labels
 	and does not depend on any other
 	<acronym>MAC</acronym> modules.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Most of this module's control is performed through these
 	<command>sysctl</command> tunables:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.ifoff.lo_enabled</varname>
 	    enables or disables all traffic on the loopback,
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lo</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, interface.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.ifoff.bpfrecv_enabled</varname>
 	    enables or disables all traffic on the Berkeley Packet
 	    Filter interface, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bpf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.ifoff.other_enabled</varname>
 	    enables or disables traffic on all other
 	    interfaces.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">One of the most common uses of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_ifoff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> is
 	network monitoring in an environment where network traffic
 	should not be permitted during the boot sequence.  Another
 	use would be to write a script which uses an application such
 	as <package>security/aide</package> to automatically block
 	network traffic if it finds new or altered files in protected
 	directories.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-portacl">
       <title>MAC Port Access Control 政策</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC Port Access Control List Policy</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name: <filename>mac_portacl.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line:
 	<literal>MAC_PORTACL</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option:
 	<literal>mac_portacl_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_portacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module is used to limit binding to
 	local <acronym>TCP</acronym> and <acronym>UDP</acronym> ports,
 	making it possible to allow non-<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> users to bind to
 	specified privileged ports below 1024.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once loaded, this module enables the
 	<acronym>MAC</acronym> policy on all sockets.  The following
 	tunables are available:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.portacl.enabled</varname>
 	    enables or disables the policy completely.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.portacl.port_high</varname>
 	    sets the highest port number that <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_portacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    protects.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.portacl.suser_exempt</varname>,
 	    when set to a non-zero value, exempts the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user from this
 	    policy.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.portacl.rules</varname>
 	    specifies the policy as a text string of the form
 	    <literal>rule[,rule,...]</literal>, with as many rules as
 	    needed, and where each rule is of the form
 	    <literal>idtype:id:protocol:port</literal>.  The
 	    <parameter>idtype</parameter> is either
 	    <literal>uid</literal> or <literal>gid</literal>.  The
 	    <parameter>protocol</parameter> parameter can be
 	    <literal>tcp</literal> or <literal>udp</literal>.  The
 	    <parameter>port</parameter> parameter is the port number
 	    to allow the specified user or group to bind to.  Only
 	    numeric values can be used for the user ID, group ID,
 	    and port parameters.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, ports below 1024 can only be used by
 	privileged processes which run as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  For <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_portacl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	to allow non-privileged processes to bind to ports below 1024,
 	set the following tunables as
 	follows:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl security.mac.portacl.port_high=1023</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.inet.ip.portrange.reservedlow=0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.inet.ip.portrange.reservedhigh=0</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To prevent the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user from being affected
 	by this policy, set
 	<varname>security.mac.portacl.suser_exempt</varname> to a
 	non-zero value.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl security.mac.portacl.suser_exempt=1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To allow the <systemitem class="username">www</systemitem>
 	user with <acronym>UID</acronym> 80 to bind to port 80
 	without ever needing <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> privilege:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl security.mac.portacl.rules=uid:80:tcp:80</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This next example permits the user with the
 	<acronym>UID</acronym> of 1001 to bind to
 	<acronym>TCP</acronym> ports 110 (POP3) and 995
 	(POP3s):</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl security.mac.portacl.rules=uid:1001:tcp:110,uid:1001:tcp:995</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-partition">
       <title>MAC Partition 政策</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC Process Partition Policy</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name: <filename>mac_partition.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line:
 	<literal>options MAC_PARTITION</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option:
 	<literal>mac_partition_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_partition</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy drops processes into
 	specific <quote>partitions</quote> based on their
 	<acronym>MAC</acronym> label.  Most configuration for this
 	policy is done using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>setpmac</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  One
 	<command>sysctl</command> tunable is available for this
 	policy:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.partition.enabled</varname>
 	    enables the enforcement of <acronym>MAC</acronym> process
 	    partitions.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When this policy is enabled, users will only be permitted
 	to see their processes, and any others within their partition,
 	but will not be permitted to work with utilities outside the
 	scope of this partition.  For instance, a user in the
 	<literal>insecure</literal> class will not be permitted to
 	access <command>top</command> as well as many other commands
 	that must spawn a process.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example adds <command>top</command> to the label set
 	on users in the <literal>insecure</literal> class.  All
 	processes spawned by users in the <literal>insecure</literal>
 	class will stay in the <literal>partition/13</literal>
 	label.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setpmac partition/13 top</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command displays the partition label and the process
 	list:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ps Zax</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command displays another user's process partition
 	label and that user's currently running processes:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ps -ZU trhodes</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Users can see processes in <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>'s label unless the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_seeotheruids</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy is loaded.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-mls">
       <title>MAC Multi-Level Security 模組</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC Multi-Level Security Policy</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name: <filename>mac_mls.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line:
 	<literal>options MAC_MLS</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option: <literal>mac_mls_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_mls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy controls access between
 	subjects and objects in the system by enforcing a strict
 	information flow policy.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In <acronym>MLS</acronym> environments, a
 	<quote>clearance</quote> level is set in the label of each
 	subject or object, along with compartments.  Since these
 	clearance levels can reach numbers greater than several
 	thousand, it would be a daunting task to thoroughly configure
 	every subject or object.  To ease this administrative
 	overhead, three labels are included in this policy:
 	<literal>mls/low</literal>, <literal>mls/equal</literal>, and
 	<literal>mls/high</literal>, where:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Anything labeled with <literal>mls/low</literal> will
 	    have a low clearance level and not be permitted to access
 	    information of a higher level.  This label also prevents
 	    objects of a higher clearance level from writing or
 	    passing information to a lower level.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>mls/equal</literal> should be placed on
 	    objects which should be exempt from the policy.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>mls/high</literal> is the highest level of
 	    clearance possible.  Objects assigned this label will hold
 	    dominance over all other objects in the system; however,
 	    they will not permit the leaking of information to objects
 	    of a lower class.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>MLS</acronym> provides:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A hierarchical security level with a set of
 	    non-hierarchical categories.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Fixed rules of <literal>no read up, no write
 	      down</literal>.  This means that a subject can have read
 	    access to objects on its own level or below, but not
 	    above.  Similarly, a subject can have write access to
 	    objects on its own level or above, but not beneath.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Secrecy, or the prevention of inappropriate disclosure
 	    of data.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A basis for the design of systems that concurrently
 	    handle data at multiple sensitivity levels without leaking
 	    information between secret and confidential.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following <command>sysctl</command> tunables are
 	available:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.mls.enabled</varname> is used to
 	    enable or disable the <acronym>MLS</acronym>
 	    policy.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.mls.ptys_equal</varname>
 	    labels all <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> devices as
 	    <literal>mls/equal</literal> during creation.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.mls.revocation_enabled</varname>
 	    revokes access to objects after their label changes to a
 	    label of a lower grade.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.mls.max_compartments</varname>
 	    sets the maximum number of compartment levels allowed on a
 	    system.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To manipulate <acronym>MLS</acronym> labels, use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>setfmac</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  To assign a label to an object:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setfmac mls/5 test</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To get the <acronym>MLS</acronym> label for the file
 	<filename>test</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>getfmac test</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Another approach is to create a master policy file in
 	<filename>/etc/</filename> which specifies the
 	<acronym>MLS</acronym> policy information and to feed that
 	file to <command>setfmac</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using the <acronym>MLS</acronym> policy module, an
 	administrator plans to control the flow of sensitive
 	information.  The default <literal>block read up block write
 	  down</literal> sets everything to a low state.  Everything
 	is accessible and an administrator slowly augments the
 	confidentiality of the information.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Beyond the three basic label options, an administrator
 	may group users and groups as required to block the
 	information flow between them.  It might be easier to look at
 	the information in clearance levels using descriptive words,
 	such as classifications of <literal>Confidential</literal>,
 	<literal>Secret</literal>, and <literal>Top Secret</literal>.
 	Some administrators instead create different groups based on
 	project levels.  Regardless of the classification method, a
 	well thought out plan must exist before implementing a
 	restrictive policy.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some example situations for the <acronym>MLS</acronym>
 	policy module include an e-commerce web server, a file server
 	holding critical company information, and financial
 	institution environments.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-biba">
       <title>MAC Biba 模組</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC Biba Integrity Policy</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name: <filename>mac_biba.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line: <literal>options
 	  MAC_BIBA</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option: <literal>mac_biba_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_biba</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module loads the
 	<acronym>MAC</acronym> Biba policy.  This policy is similar to
 	the <acronym>MLS</acronym> policy with the exception that the
 	rules for information flow are slightly reversed.  This is to
 	prevent the downward flow of sensitive information whereas the
 	<acronym>MLS</acronym> policy prevents the upward flow of
 	sensitive information.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In Biba environments, an <quote>integrity</quote> label is
 	set on each subject or object.  These labels are made up of
 	hierarchical grades and non-hierarchical components.  As a
 	grade ascends, so does its integrity.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Supported labels are <literal>biba/low</literal>,
 	<literal>biba/equal</literal>, and
 	<literal>biba/high</literal>, where:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>biba/low</literal> is considered the lowest
 	    integrity an object or subject may have.  Setting this on
 	    objects or subjects blocks their write access to objects
 	    or subjects marked as <literal>biba/high</literal>, but
 	    will not prevent read access.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>biba/equal</literal> should only be placed on
 	    objects considered to be exempt from the policy.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>biba/high</literal> permits writing to
 	    objects set at a lower label, but does not permit reading
 	    that object.  It is recommended that this label be
 	    placed on objects that affect the integrity of the entire
 	    system.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Biba provides:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Hierarchical integrity levels with a set of
 	    non-hierarchical integrity categories.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Fixed rules are <literal>no write up, no read
 	      down</literal>, the opposite of
 	    <acronym>MLS</acronym>.  A subject can have write access
 	    to objects on its own level or below, but not above.
 	    Similarly, a subject can have read access to objects on
 	    its own level or above, but not below.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Integrity by preventing inappropriate modification of
 	    data.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Integrity levels instead of <acronym>MLS</acronym>
 	    sensitivity levels.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following tunables can be used to manipulate the Biba
 	policy:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.biba.enabled</varname> is used
 	    to enable or disable enforcement of the Biba policy on the
 	    target machine.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.biba.ptys_equal</varname> is
 	    used to disable the Biba policy on <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    devices.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><varname>security.mac.biba.revocation_enabled</varname>
 	    forces the revocation of access to objects if the label is
 	    changed to dominate the subject.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To access the Biba policy setting on system objects, use
 	<command>setfmac</command> and
 	<command>getfmac</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setfmac biba/low test</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>getfmac test</userinput>
 test: biba/low</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Integrity, which is different from sensitivity, is used to
 	guarantee that information is not manipulated by untrusted
 	parties.  This includes information passed between subjects
 	and objects.  It ensures that users will only be able to
 	modify or access information they have been given explicit
 	access to.  The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_biba</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> security policy module
 	permits an administrator to configure which files and programs
 	a user may see and invoke while assuring that the programs and
 	files are trusted by the system for that user.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">During the initial planning phase, an administrator must
 	be prepared to partition users into grades, levels, and areas.
 	The system will default to a high label once this policy
 	module is enabled, and it is up to the administrator to
 	configure the different grades and levels for users.  Instead
 	of using clearance levels, a good planning method could
 	include topics.  For instance, only allow developers
 	modification access to the source code repository, source
 	code compiler, and other development utilities.  Other users
 	would be grouped into other categories such as testers,
 	designers, or end users and would only be permitted read
 	access.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A lower integrity subject is unable to write to a higher
 	integrity subject and a higher integrity subject cannot list
 	or read a lower integrity object.  Setting a label at the
 	lowest possible grade could make it inaccessible to subjects.
 	Some prospective environments for this security policy module
 	would include a constrained web server, a development and test
 	machine, and a source code repository.  A less useful
 	implementation would be a personal workstation, a machine used
 	as a router, or a network firewall.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mac-lomac">
       <title>MAC Low-watermark 模組</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC LOMAC</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Module name: <filename>mac_lomac.ko</filename></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel configuration line: <literal>options
 	  MAC_LOMAC</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot option:
 	<literal>mac_lomac_load="YES"</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Unlike the <acronym>MAC</acronym> Biba policy, the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_lomac</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy permits access to lower integrity
 	objects only after decreasing the integrity level to not
 	disrupt any integrity rules.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Low-watermark integrity policy works almost
 	identically to Biba, with the exception of using floating
 	labels to support subject demotion via an auxiliary grade
 	compartment.  This secondary compartment takes the form
 	<literal>[auxgrade]</literal>.  When assigning a policy with
 	an auxiliary grade, use the syntax
 	<literal>lomac/10[2]</literal>, where
 	<literal>2</literal> is the auxiliary grade.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This policy relies on the ubiquitous labeling of all
 	system objects with integrity labels, permitting subjects to
 	read from low integrity objects and then downgrading the label
 	on the subject to prevent future writes to high integrity
 	objects using <literal>[auxgrade]</literal>.  The policy may
 	provide greater compatibility and require less initial
 	configuration than Biba.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Like the Biba and <acronym>MLS</acronym> policies,
 	<command>setfmac</command> and <command>setpmac</command>
 	are used to place labels on system objects:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setfmac /usr/home/trhodes lomac/high[low]</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>getfmac /usr/home/trhodes lomac/high[low]</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The auxiliary grade <literal>low</literal> is a feature
 	provided only by the <acronym>MAC</acronym>
 	<acronym>LOMAC</acronym> policy.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-userlocked">
     <title xml:lang="en">User Lock Down</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This example considers a relatively small storage system
       with fewer than fifty users.  Users will have login
       capabilities and are permitted to store data and access
       resources.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For this scenario, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_bsdextended</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_seeotheruids</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> policy modules could co-exist and block
       access to system objects while hiding user processes.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Begin by adding the following line to
       <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">mac_seeotheruids_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_bsdextended</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> security policy module may be
       activated by adding this line to
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">ugidfw_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Default rules stored in
       <filename>/etc/rc.bsdextended</filename> will be loaded at
       system initialization.  However, the default entries may need
       modification.  Since this machine is expected only to service
       users, everything may be left commented out except the last
       two lines in order to force the loading of user owned system
       objects by default.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Add the required users to this machine and reboot.  For
       testing purposes, try logging in as a different user across
       two consoles.  Run <command>ps aux</command> to see if processes
       of other users are visible.  Verify that running <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ls</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> on
       another user's home directory fails.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Do not try to test with the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user unless the specific
       <command>sysctl</command>s have been modified to block super
       user access.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">When a new user is added, their <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_bsdextended</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	rule will not be in the ruleset list.  To update the ruleset
 	quickly, unload the security policy module and reload it again
 	using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldunload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </note>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-implementing">
     <title>在 MAC Jail 中使用 Nagios</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Nagios in a MAC Jail</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates the steps that are needed to
       implement the <application>Nagios</application> network
       monitoring system in a <acronym>MAC</acronym> environment.  This
       is meant as an example which still requires the administrator to
       test that the implemented policy meets the security requirements
       of the network before using in a production environment.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This example requires <option>multilabel</option> to be set
       on each file system.  It also assumes that
       <package>net-mgmt/nagios-plugins</package>,
       <package>net-mgmt/nagios</package>, and
       <package>www/apache22</package> are all installed, configured,
       and working correctly before attempting the integration into the
       <acronym>MAC</acronym> framework.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>建立不安全的使用者類別</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Begin the procedure by adding the following user class
 	to <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">insecure:\
 :copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\
 :welcome=/etc/motd:\
 :setenv=MAIL=/var/mail/$,BLOCKSIZE=K:\
 :path=~/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin
 :manpath=/usr/share/man /usr/local/man:\
 :nologin=/usr/sbin/nologin:\
 :cputime=1h30m:\
 :datasize=8M:\
 :vmemoryuse=100M:\
 :stacksize=2M:\
 :memorylocked=4M:\
 :memoryuse=8M:\
 :filesize=8M:\
 :coredumpsize=8M:\
 :openfiles=24:\
 :maxproc=32:\
 :priority=0:\
 :requirehome:\
 :passwordtime=91d:\
 :umask=022:\
 :ignoretime@:\
 :label=biba/10(10-10):</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, add the following line to the default user class
 	section:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">:label=biba/high:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Save the edits and issue the following command to rebuild
 	the database:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定使用者</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Set the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	user to the default class using:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw usermod root -L default</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">All user accounts that are not <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> will now require a login
 	class.  The login class is required, otherwise users will be
 	refused access to common commands.  The following
 	<command>sh</command> script should do the trick:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>for x in `awk -F: '($3 &gt;= 1001) &amp;&amp; ($3 != 65534) { print $1 }' \</userinput>
 	<userinput>/etc/passwd`; do pw usermod $x -L default; done;</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, drop the <systemitem class="username">nagios</systemitem> and <systemitem class="username">www</systemitem> accounts into the insecure
 	class:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw usermod nagios -L insecure</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw usermod www -L insecure</userinput></screen>
       </sect2>
 
       <sect2>
 	<title>建立關聯檔 (Context File)</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A contexts file should now be created as
 	  <filename>/etc/policy.contexts</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en"># This is the default BIBA policy for this system.
 
 # System:
 /var/run(/.*)?			biba/equal
 
 /dev/(/.*)?			biba/equal
 
 /var				biba/equal
 /var/spool(/.*)?		biba/equal
 
 /var/log(/.*)?			biba/equal
 
 /tmp(/.*)?			biba/equal
 /var/tmp(/.*)?			biba/equal
 
 /var/spool/mqueue		biba/equal
 /var/spool/clientmqueue		biba/equal
 
 # For Nagios:
 /usr/local/etc/nagios(/.*)?	biba/10
 
 /var/spool/nagios(/.*)?		biba/10
 
 # For apache
 /usr/local/etc/apache(/.*)?	biba/10</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This policy enforces security by setting restrictions on
 	the flow of information.  In this specific configuration,
 	users, including <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, should never be
 	allowed to access <application>Nagios</application>.
 	Configuration files and processes that are a part of
 	<application>Nagios</application> will be completely self
 	contained or jailed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This file will be read after running
 	<command>setfsmac</command> on every file system.  This
 	example sets the policy on the root file system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setfsmac -ef /etc/policy.contexts /</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, add these edits to the main section of
 	<filename>/etc/mac.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">default_labels file ?biba
 default_labels ifnet ?biba
 default_labels process ?biba
 default_labels socket ?biba</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>載入程式設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To finish the configuration, add the following lines to
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">mac_biba_load="YES"
 mac_seeotheruids_load="YES"
 security.mac.biba.trust_all_interfaces=1</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">And the following line to the network card configuration
 	stored in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  If the primary
 	network configuration is done via <acronym>DHCP</acronym>,
 	this may need to be configured manually after every system
 	boot:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">maclabel biba/equal</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>測試設定</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>MAC Configuration Testing</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">First, ensure that the web server and
 	<application>Nagios</application> will not be started on
 	system initialization and reboot.  Ensure that <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> cannot access any of the
 	files in the <application>Nagios</application> configuration
 	directory.  If <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	can list the contents of
 	<filename>/var/spool/nagios</filename>, something is wrong.
 	Instead, a <quote>permission denied</quote> error should be
 	returned.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If all seems well, <application>Nagios</application>,
 	<application>Apache</application>, and
 	<application>Sendmail</application> can now be started:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /etc/mail &amp;&amp; make stop &amp;&amp; \
 setpmac biba/equal make start &amp;&amp; setpmac biba/10\(10-10\) apachectl start &amp;&amp; \
 setpmac biba/10\(10-10\) /usr/local/etc/rc.d/nagios.sh forcestart</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Double check to ensure that everything is working
 	properly.  If not, check the log files for error messages.  If
 	needed, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to disable the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mac_biba</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	security policy module and try starting everything again as
 	usual.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user
 	  can still change the security enforcement and edit its
 	  configuration files.  The following command will permit the
 	  degradation of the security policy to a lower grade for a
 	  newly spawned shell:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>setpmac biba/10 csh</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To block this from happening, force the user into a
 	  range using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>login.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  If <citerefentry><refentrytitle>setpmac</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> attempts
 	  to run a command outside of the compartment's range, an
 	  error will be returned and the command will not be executed.
 	  In this case, set root to
 	  <literal>biba/high(high-high)</literal>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mac-troubleshoot">
     <title>MAC 架構疑難排解</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>MAC Troubleshooting</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section discusses common configuration errors and how
       to resolve them.</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">The <option>multilabel</option> flag does not stay
 	  enabled on the root (<filename>/</filename>)
 	  partition:</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The following steps may resolve this transient
 	    error:</para>
 
 	  <procedure>
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> and set the
 		root partition to <option>ro</option> for
 		read-only.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Reboot into single user mode.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Run <command>tunefs</command> <option>-l
 		  enable</option> on <filename>/</filename>.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Reboot the system.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Run <command>mount</command> <option>-urw</option>
 		<filename>/</filename> and change the
 		<option>ro</option> back to <option>rw</option> in
 		<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> and reboot the system
 		again.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Double-check the output from
 		<command>mount</command> to ensure that
 		<option>multilabel</option> has been properly set on
 		the root file system.</para>
 	    </step>
 	  </procedure>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">After establishing a secure environment with
 	  <acronym>MAC</acronym>, <application>Xorg</application> no
 	  longer starts:</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This could be caused by the <acronym>MAC</acronym>
 	    <literal>partition</literal> policy or by a mislabeling
 	    in one of the <acronym>MAC</acronym> labeling policies.
 	    To debug, try the following:</para>
 
 	  <procedure>
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Check the error message.  If the user is in the
 		<literal>insecure</literal> class, the
 		<literal>partition</literal> policy may be the
 		culprit.  Try setting the user's class back to the
 		<literal>default</literal> class and rebuild the
 		database with <command>cap_mkdb</command>.  If this
 		does not alleviate the problem, go to step two.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Double-check that the label policies are set
 		correctly for the user,
 		<application>Xorg</application>, and the
 		<filename>/dev</filename> entries.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">If neither of these resolve the problem, send the
 		error message and a description of the environment to
 		the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-questions">FreeBSD general questions mailing list</link>.</para>
 	    </step>
 	  </procedure>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">The <errorname>_secure_path: unable to stat
 	    .login_conf</errorname> error appears:</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This error can appear when a user attempts to switch
 	    from the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	    user to another user in the system.  This message
 	    usually occurs when the user has a higher label setting
 	    than that of the user they are attempting to become.
 	    For instance, if <systemitem class="username">joe</systemitem> has a default label
 	    of <option>biba/low</option> and <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> has a label of
 	    <option>biba/high</option>, <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> cannot view
 	    <systemitem class="username">joe</systemitem>'s home
 	    directory.  This will happen whether or not <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> has used
 	    <command>su</command> to become <systemitem class="username">joe</systemitem> as the Biba
 	    integrity model will not permit <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> to view objects set
 	    at a lower integrity level.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">The system no longer recognizes <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>:</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When this occurs, <command>whoami</command> returns
 	    <literal>0</literal> and <command>su</command> returns
 	    <errorname>who are you?</errorname>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This can happen if a labeling policy has been
 	    disabled by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or the policy module was
 	    unloaded.  If the policy is disabled, the login
 	    capabilities database needs to be reconfigured.  Double
 	    check <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> to ensure
 	    that all <option>label</option> options have been
 	    removed and rebuild the database with
 	    <command>cap_mkdb</command>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This may also happen if a policy restricts access to
 	    <filename>master.passwd</filename>.  This is usually
 	    caused by an administrator altering the file under a
 	    label which conflicts with the general policy being used
 	    by the system.  In these cases, the user information
 	    would be read by the system and access would be blocked
 	    as the file has inherited the new label.  Disable the
 	    policy using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and everything should return
 	    to normal.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <!-- Need more documentation on praudit, auditreduce, etc.  Plus more info
 on the triggers from the kernel (log rotation, out of space, etc).
 And the /dev/audit special file if we choose to support that.  Could use
 some coverage of integrating MAC with Event auditing and perhaps discussion
 on how some companies or organizations handle auditing and auditing
 requirements. -->
 
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="audit">
 
   <info>
     <title>安全事件稽查</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
 
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Robert</firstname>
 	  <surname>Watson</surname>
 	</personname>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="audit-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>AUDIT</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Security Event Auditing</primary>
       <see>MAC</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD operating system includes support for security
       event auditing.  Event auditing supports reliable, fine-grained,
       and configurable logging of a variety of security-relevant
       system events, including logins, configuration changes, and file
       and network access.  These log records can be invaluable for
       live system monitoring, intrusion detection, and postmortem
       analysis.  FreeBSD implements <trademark>Sun</trademark>'s published Basic Security
       Module (<acronym>BSM</acronym>) Application Programming
       Interface (<acronym>API</acronym>) and file format, and is
       interoperable with the <trademark>Solaris</trademark> and <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X audit
       implementations.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter focuses on the installation and configuration
       of event auditing.  It explains audit policies and provides an
       example audit configuration.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">What event auditing is and how it works.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to configure event auditing on FreeBSD for users and
 	  processes.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to review the audit trail using the audit reduction
 	  and review tools.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 及 FreeBSD 基礎 (<xref linkend="basics"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Be familiar with the basics of kernel
 	  configuration/compilation (<xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Have some familiarity with security and how it pertains
 	  to FreeBSD (<xref linkend="security"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">The audit facility has some known limitations.  Not all
 	security-relevant system events are auditable and some login
 	mechanisms, such as <application>Xorg</application>-based
 	display managers and third-party daemons, do not properly
 	configure auditing for user login sessions.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The security event auditing facility is able to generate
 	very detailed logs of system activity.  On a busy system,
 	trail file data can be very large when configured for high
 	detail, exceeding gigabytes a week in some configurations.
 	Administrators should take into account the disk space
 	requirements associated with high volume audit configurations.
 	For example, it may be desirable to dedicate a file system to
 	<filename>/var/audit</filename> so that other file systems are
 	not affected if the audit file system becomes full.</para>
     </warning>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="audit-inline-glossary">
     <title>關鍵詞</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following terms are related to security event
       auditing:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>event</emphasis>: an auditable event is any
 	  event that can be logged using the audit subsystem.
 	  Examples of security-relevant events include the creation of
 	  a file, the building of a network connection, or a user
 	  logging in.  Events are either <quote>attributable</quote>,
 	  meaning that they can be traced to an authenticated user, or
 	  <quote>non-attributable</quote>.  Examples of
 	  non-attributable events are any events that occur before
 	  authentication in the login process, such as bad password
 	  attempts.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>class</emphasis>: a named set of related
 	  events which are used in selection expressions.  Commonly
 	  used classes of events include <quote>file creation</quote>
 	  (fc), <quote>exec</quote> (ex), and
 	  <quote>login_logout</quote> (lo).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>record</emphasis>: an audit log entry
 	  describing a security event.  Records contain a record
 	  event type, information on the subject (user) performing the
 	  action, date and time information, information on any
 	  objects or arguments, and a success or failure
 	  condition.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>trail</emphasis>: a log file consisting of a
 	  series of audit records describing security events.  Trails
 	  are in roughly chronological order with respect to the time
 	  events completed.  Only authorized processes are allowed to
 	  commit records to the audit trail.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>selection expression</emphasis>: a string
 	  containing a list of prefixes and audit event class names
 	  used to match events.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>preselection</emphasis>: the process by which
 	  the system identifies which events are of interest to the
 	  administrator.  The preselection configuration uses a series
 	  of selection expressions to identify which classes of events
 	  to audit for which users, as well as global settings that
 	  apply to both authenticated and unauthenticated
 	  processes.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>reduction</emphasis>: the process by which
 	  records from existing audit trails are selected for
 	  preservation, printing, or analysis.  Likewise, the process
 	  by which undesired audit records are removed from the audit
 	  trail.  Using reduction, administrators can implement
 	  policies for the preservation of audit data.  For example,
 	  detailed audit trails might be kept for one month, but after
 	  that, trails might be reduced in order to preserve only
 	  login information for archival purposes.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="audit-config">
     <title>稽查設定</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">User space support for event auditing is installed as part
       of the base FreeBSD operating system.  Kernel support is available
       in the <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel by default,
       and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>auditd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be enabled
       by adding the following line to
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">auditd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Then, start the audit daemon:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service auditd start</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Users who prefer to compile a custom kernel must include the
       following line in their custom kernel configuration file:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">options	AUDIT</programlisting>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>事件選擇表示法</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Selection expressions are used in a number of places in
 	the audit configuration to determine which events should be
 	audited.  Expressions contain a list of event classes to
 	match.  Selection expressions are evaluated from left to
 	right, and two expressions are combined by appending one onto
 	the other.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="event-selection"/> summarizes the default
 	audit event classes:</para>
 
       <table xml:id="event-selection" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>預設稽查事件類別</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="3">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>類別名稱</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	      <entry>動作</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">all</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">all</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Match all event classes.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">aa</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">authentication and authorization</entry>
 	      <entry/>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ad</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">administrative</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Administrative actions performed on the system as
 		a whole.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ap</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">application</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Application defined action.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">cl</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file close</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit calls to the
 		<function>close</function> system call.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ex</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">exec</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit program execution.  Auditing of command
 		line arguments and environmental variables is
 		controlled via <citerefentry><refentrytitle>audit_control</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> using the
 		<literal>argv</literal> and <literal>envv</literal>
 		parameters to the <literal>policy</literal>
 		setting.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">fa</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file attribute access</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit the access of object attributes such as
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>stat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pathconf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">fc</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file create</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit events where a file is created as a
 		result.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">fd</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file delete</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit events where file deletion occurs.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">fm</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file attribute modify</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit events  where file attribute modification
 		occurs, such as by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chown</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chflags</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>flock</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">fr</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file read</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit events in which data is read or files are
 		opened for reading.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">fw</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">file write</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit events in which data is written or files
 		are written or modified.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">io</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ioctl</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit use of the <function>ioctl</function>
 		system call.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ip</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ipc</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit various forms of Inter-Process
 		Communication, including POSIX pipes and System V
 		<acronym>IPC</acronym> operations.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">lo</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">login_logout</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit <citerefentry><refentrytitle>login</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>logout</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 		events.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">na</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">non attributable</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit non-attributable events.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">no</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">invalid class</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Match no audit events.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">nt</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">network</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit events related to network actions such as
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>connect</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>accept</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ot</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">other</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit miscellaneous events.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">pc</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">process</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit process operations such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>exec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>exit</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These audit event classes may be customized by modifying
 	the <filename>audit_class</filename> and
 	<filename>audit_event</filename> configuration files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Each audit event class may be combined with a prefix
 	indicating whether successful/failed operations are matched,
 	and whether the entry is adding or removing matching for the
 	class and type.  <xref linkend="event-prefixes"/> summarizes
 	the available prefixes:</para>
 
       <table xml:id="event-prefixes" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>稽查事件類別字首</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>字首</entry>
 	      <entry>動作</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">+</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit successful events in this class.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">-</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit failed events in this class.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">^</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Audit neither successful nor failed events in
 		this class.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">^+</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Do not audit successful events in this
 		class.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">^-</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Do not audit failed events in this class.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If no prefix is present, both successful and failed
 	instances of the event will be audited.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following example selection string selects both
 	successful and failed login/logout events, but only successful
 	execution events:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">lo,+ex</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定檔</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following configuration files for security event
 	auditing are found in
 	<filename>/etc/security</filename>:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>audit_class</filename>: contains the
 	    definitions of the audit classes.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>audit_control</filename>: controls aspects
 	    of the audit subsystem, such as default audit classes,
 	    minimum disk space to leave on the audit log volume, and
 	    maximum audit trail size.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>audit_event</filename>: textual names and
 	    descriptions of system audit events and a list of which
 	    classes each event is in.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>audit_user</filename>: user-specific audit
 	    requirements to be combined with the global defaults at
 	    login.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>audit_warn</filename>: a customizable shell
 	    script used by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>auditd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to generate warning messages
 	    in exceptional situations, such as when space for audit
 	    records is running low or when the audit trail file has
 	    been rotated.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Audit configuration files should be edited and
 	  maintained carefully, as errors in configuration may result
 	  in improper logging of events.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In most cases, administrators will only need to modify
 	<filename>audit_control</filename> and
 	<filename>audit_user</filename>.  The first file controls
 	system-wide audit properties and policies and the second file
 	may be used to fine-tune auditing by user.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="audit-auditcontrol">
 	<title xml:lang="en">The <filename>audit_control</filename> File</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A number of defaults for the audit subsystem are
 	  specified in <filename>audit_control</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">dir:/var/audit
 dist:off
 flags:lo,aa
 minfree:5
 naflags:lo,aa
 policy:cnt,argv
 filesz:2M
 expire-after:10M</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>dir</option> entry is used to set one or
 	  more directories where audit logs will be stored.  If more
 	  than one directory entry appears, they will be used in order
 	  as they fill.  It is common to configure audit so that audit
 	  logs are stored on a dedicated file system, in order to
 	  prevent interference between the audit subsystem and other
 	  subsystems if the file system fills.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the <option>dist</option> field is set to
 	  <literal>on</literal> or <literal>yes</literal>, hard links
 	  will be created to all trail files in
 	  <filename>/var/audit/dist</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>flags</option> field sets the system-wide
 	  default preselection mask for attributable events.  In the
 	  example above, successful and failed login/logout events as
 	  well as authentication and authorization are audited for all
 	  users.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>minfree</option> entry defines the minimum
 	  percentage of free space for the file system where the audit
 	  trail is stored.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>naflags</option> entry specifies audit
 	  classes to be audited for non-attributed events, such as the
 	  login/logout process and authentication and
 	  authorization.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>policy</option> entry specifies a
 	  comma-separated list of policy flags controlling various
 	  aspects of audit behavior.  The <literal>cnt</literal>
 	  indicates that the system should continue running despite an
 	  auditing failure (this flag is highly recommended).  The
 	  other flag, <literal>argv</literal>, causes command line
 	  arguments to the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>execve</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> system call to be audited as
 	  part of command execution.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>filesz</option> entry specifies the maximum
 	  size for an audit trail before automatically terminating and
 	  rotating the trail file.  A value of <literal>0</literal>
 	  disables automatic log rotation.  If the requested file size
 	  is below the minimum of 512k, it will be ignored and a log
 	  message will be generated.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>expire-after</option> field specifies when
 	  audit log files will expire and be removed.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="audit-audituser">
 	<title xml:lang="en">The <filename>audit_user</filename> File</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The administrator can specify further audit requirements
 	  for specific users in <filename>audit_user</filename>.
 	  Each line configures auditing for a user via two fields:
 	  the <literal>alwaysaudit</literal> field specifies a set of
 	  events that should always be audited for the user, and the
 	  <literal>neveraudit</literal> field specifies a set of
 	  events that should never be audited for the user.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The following example entries audit login/logout events
 	  and successful command execution for <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> and file creation and
 	  successful command execution for <systemitem class="username">www</systemitem>.  If used with the
 	  default <filename>audit_control</filename>, the
 	  <literal>lo</literal> entry for <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> is redundant, and
 	  login/logout events will also be audited for <systemitem class="username">www</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">root:lo,+ex:no
 www:fc,+ex:no</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="audit-administration">
     <title>查看稽查線索</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Since audit trails are stored in the <acronym>BSM</acronym>
       binary format, several built-in tools are available to modify or
       convert these trails to text.  To convert trail files to a
       simple text format, use <command>praudit</command>.  To reduce
       the audit trail file for analysis, archiving, or printing
       purposes, use <command>auditreduce</command>.  This utility
       supports a variety of selection parameters, including event
       type, event class, user, date or time of the event, and the file
       path or object acted on.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For example, to dump the entire contents of a specified
       audit log in plain text:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>praudit /var/audit/<replaceable>AUDITFILE</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Where <replaceable>AUDITFILE</replaceable> is the audit log
       to dump.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Audit trails consist of a series of audit records made up of
       tokens, which <command>praudit</command> prints sequentially,
       one per line.  Each token is of a specific type, such as
       <literal>header</literal> (an audit record header) or
       <literal>path</literal> (a file path from a name lookup).  The
       following is an example of an
       <literal>execve</literal> event:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">header,133,10,execve(2),0,Mon Sep 25 15:58:03 2006, + 384 msec
 exec arg,finger,doug
 path,/usr/bin/finger
 attribute,555,root,wheel,90,24918,104944
 subject,robert,root,wheel,root,wheel,38439,38032,42086,128.232.9.100
 return,success,0
 trailer,133</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This audit represents a successful
       <literal>execve</literal> call, in which the command
       <literal>finger doug</literal> has been run.  The
       <literal>exec arg</literal> token contains the processed command
       line presented by the shell to the kernel.  The
       <literal>path</literal> token holds the path to the executable
       as looked up by the kernel.  The <literal>attribute</literal>
       token describes the binary and includes the file mode.  The
       <literal>subject</literal> token stores the audit user ID,
       effective user ID and group ID, real user ID and group ID,
       process ID, session ID, port ID, and login address.  Notice that
       the audit user ID and real user ID differ as the user
       <systemitem class="username">robert</systemitem> switched to the
       <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> account before
       running this command, but it is audited using the original
       authenticated user.  The <literal>return</literal> token
       indicates the successful execution and the
       <literal>trailer</literal> concludes the record.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>XML</acronym> output format is also supported and
       can be selected by including <option>-x</option>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Since audit logs may be very large, a subset of records can
       be selected using <command>auditreduce</command>.  This example
       selects all audit records produced for the user
       <systemitem class="username">trhodes</systemitem> stored in
       <filename>AUDITFILE</filename>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>auditreduce -u <replaceable>trhodes</replaceable> /var/audit/<replaceable>AUDITFILE</replaceable> | praudit</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Members of the <systemitem class="groupname">audit</systemitem> group have permission to
       read audit trails in <filename>/var/audit</filename>.  By
       default, this group is empty, so only the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user can read audit trails.
       Users may be added to the <systemitem class="groupname">audit</systemitem> group in order to
       delegate audit review rights.  As the ability to track audit log
       contents provides significant insight into the behavior of users
       and processes, it is recommended that the delegation of audit
       review rights be performed with caution.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 Audit Pipes 即時監視</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Audit pipes are cloning pseudo-devices which allow
 	applications to tap the live audit record stream.  This is
 	primarily of interest to authors of intrusion detection and
 	system monitoring applications.  However, the audit pipe
 	device is a convenient way for the administrator to allow live
 	monitoring without running into problems with audit trail file
 	ownership or log rotation interrupting the event stream.  To
 	track the live audit event stream:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>praudit /dev/auditpipe</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, audit pipe device nodes are accessible only to
 	the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user.  To
 	make them accessible to the members of the <systemitem class="groupname">audit</systemitem> group, add a
 	<literal>devfs</literal> rule to
 	<filename>/etc/devfs.rules</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">add path 'auditpipe*' mode 0440 group audit</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs.rules</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on
 	configuring the devfs file system.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is easy to produce audit event feedback cycles, in
 	  which the viewing of each audit event results in the
 	  generation of more audit events.  For example, if all
 	  network <acronym>I/O</acronym> is audited, and
 	  <command>praudit</command> is run from an
 	  <acronym>SSH</acronym> session, a continuous stream of audit
 	  events will be generated at a high rate, as each event being
 	  printed will generate another event.  For this reason, it is
 	  advisable to run <command>praudit</command> on an audit pipe
 	  device from sessions without fine-grained
 	  <acronym>I/O</acronym> auditing.</para>
       </warning>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>循環與壓縮 Audit Trail 檔</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Audit trails are written to by the kernel and
 	managed by the audit daemon, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>auditd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	Administrators should not attempt to use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>newsyslog.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> or other tools to directly rotate
 	audit logs.  Instead, <command>audit</command> should
 	be used to shut down auditing, reconfigure the audit system,
 	and perform log rotation.  The following command causes the
 	audit daemon to create a new audit log and signal the kernel
 	to switch to using the new log.  The old log will be
 	terminated and renamed, at which point it may then be
 	manipulated by the administrator:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>audit -n</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <citerefentry><refentrytitle>auditd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is not currently running, this command
 	will fail and an error message will be produced.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Adding the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/crontab</filename> will schedule this rotation
 	every twelve hours:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">0     */12       *       *       *       root    /usr/sbin/audit -n</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The change will take effect once
 	<filename>/etc/crontab</filename> is saved.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Automatic rotation of the audit trail file based on file
 	size is possible using <option>filesz</option> in
 	<filename>audit_control</filename> as described in <xref linkend="audit-auditcontrol"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As audit trail files can become very large, it is often
 	desirable to compress or otherwise archive trails once they
 	have been closed by the audit daemon.  The
 	<filename>audit_warn</filename> script can be used to perform
 	customized operations for a variety of audit-related events,
 	including the clean termination of audit trails when they are
 	rotated.  For example, the following may be added to
 	<filename>/etc/security/audit_warn</filename> to compress
 	audit trails on close:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#
 # Compress audit trail files on close.
 #
 if [ "$1" = closefile ]; then
         gzip -9 $2
 fi</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other archiving activities might include copying trail
 	files to a centralized server, deleting old trail files, or
 	reducing the audit trail to remove unneeded records.  This
 	script will be run only when audit trail files are cleanly
 	terminated, so will not be run on trails left unterminated
 	following an improper shutdown.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="disks">
 
   <title>儲存設備</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disks-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>本章涵蓋如何在 FreeBSD 下使用磁碟及儲存媒體，這包含 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 及 <acronym>IDE</acronym> 磁碟、<acronym>CD</acronym> 及 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 媒體、記憶體磁碟及 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 系統加入額外的硬碟。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 擴增磁碟分割區的大小。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 FreeBSD 使用 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 系統使用 <acronym>CD</acronym> 及 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 媒體。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用在 FreeBSD 下可用的備份程式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定記憶體磁碟。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>什麼是檔案系統快照 (Snapshot) 以及如何有效使用。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用配額 (Quota) 來限制磁碟空間使用量。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何加密磁碟及交換空間來防範攻擊者。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定高可用性 (Highly available) 的儲存網路。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何 <link linkend="kernelconfig">設定並安裝新的 FreeBSD 核心</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disks-adding">
     <info>
       <title>加入磁碟</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>David</firstname>
 	    <surname>O'Brien</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>disks</primary>
       <secondary>adding</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>本節將說明如何加入新的 <acronym>SATA</acronym> 磁碟到目前只有一個磁碟的機器上。 首先要關閉電腦並依照電腦、控制器及磁碟製造商的操作指南將磁碟安裝到電腦。重新啟動系統並登入 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>。</para>
 
     <para>查看 <filename>/var/run/dmesg.boot</filename> 來確認已經找到新的磁碟。在本例中，會以 <filename>ada1</filename> 代表新加入的 <acronym>SATA</acronym> 磁碟。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>partitions</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><command>gpart</command></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>在本例中，會在新的磁碟上建立單一大型分割區，使用 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"> <acronym>GPT</acronym></link> 分割區結構而非較舊與通用性較差的 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 結構。</para>
+    <para>在本例中，會在新的磁碟上建立單一大型分割區，使用 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"> <acronym>GPT</acronym></link> 分割表格式而非較舊與通用性較差的 <acronym>MBR</acronym> 結構。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>若新加入的磁碟不是空白的，可以使用 <command>gpart delete</command> 來移除舊的分割區資訊。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得詳細資訊。</para>
     </note>
 
-    <para>建立完分割區結構後接著加入一個分割區，要在新的磁碟增進效能可使用較大的硬體區塊大小 (Block size)，此分割區會對齊 1 MB 的邊界：</para>
+    <para>建立完分割表格式後接著加入一個分割區，要在新的磁碟增進效能可使用較大的硬體區塊大小 (Block size)，此分割區會對齊 1 MB 的邊界：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart create -s GPT ada1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-ufs -a 1M ada1</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>依據使用情況，也可以使用較小的分割區。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得建立較小分割區的選項。</para>
 
     <para>磁碟分割區資訊可以使用 <command>gpart show</command> 檢視：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>gpart show ada1</userinput>
 =&gt;        34  1465146988  ada1  GPT  (699G)
           34        2014        - free -  (1.0M)
         2048  1465143296     1  freebsd-ufs  (699G)
   1465145344        1678        - free -  (839K)</screen>
 
     <para>在新磁碟的新分割區上建立檔案系統：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/ada1p1</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>建立一個空的目錄做來做為<emphasis>掛載點 (mountpoint)</emphasis>，一個在原有磁碟的檔案系統上可用來掛載新磁碟的位置：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /newdisk</userinput></screen>
 
     <para>最後，將磁碟項目加入到 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>，讓啟動時會自動掛載新的磁碟：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/ada1p1	/newdisk	ufs	rw	2	2</programlisting>
 
     <para>新的磁碟也可手動掛載，無須重新啟動系統：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /newdisk</userinput></screen>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disks-growing">
     <info>
       <title>重設大小與擴增磁碟</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Allan</firstname>
 	    <surname>Jude</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>disks</primary>
       <secondary>resizing</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>磁碟的容量可以增加且不需要更動任何已存在的資料。這時常會用在虛擬機器，當虛擬磁碟太小且需要增加時。有時磁碟映像檔會被寫入到 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟，但卻沒有使用全部的容量。此節我們將說明如合重設大小或 <emphasis>擴增</emphasis> 磁碟內容來使用增加的容量。</para>
 
     <para>要取得要重設大小的磁碟的代號可以查看 <filename>/var/run/dmesg.boot</filename>。在本例中，在系統上只有一個 <acronym>SATA</acronym> 磁碟，該磁碟會以 <filename>ada0</filename> 表示。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>partitions</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><command>gpart</command></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>列出在磁碟上的分割區來查看目前的設定：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 =&gt;      34  83886013  ada0  GPT  (48G) [CORRUPT]
         34       128     1  freebsd-boot  (64k)
        162  79691648     2  freebsd-ufs  (38G)
   79691810   4194236     3  freebsd-swap  (2G)
   83886046         1        - free -  (512B)</screen>
 
     <note>
-      <para>若磁碟已使用 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"> <acronym>GPT</acronym></link> 分割區結構格式化，可能會顯示為 <quote>已損壞 (corrupted)</quote> 因為 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 備份分割區已不存在於磁碟結尾。 使用 <command>gpart</command> 來修正備份分割區：</para>
+      <para>若磁碟已使用 <link xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"> <acronym>GPT</acronym></link> 分割表格式做格式化，可能會顯示為 <quote>已損壞 (corrupted)</quote> 因為 <acronym>GPT</acronym> 備份分割區已不存在於磁碟結尾。 使用 <command>gpart</command> 來修正備份分割區：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart recover <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 ada0 recovered</screen>
     </note>
 
     <para>現在在磁碟上的額外空間已經可以被新的分割區使用，或者可以拿來擴充既有的分割區：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 =&gt;       34  102399933  ada0  GPT  (48G)
          34        128     1  freebsd-boot  (64k)
         162   79691648     2  freebsd-ufs  (38G)
    79691810    4194236     3  freebsd-swap  (2G)
    83886046   18513921        - free -  (8.8G)</screen>
 
     <para>分割區只能重設大小到連續的未使用空間。在這個例子磁碟上最後的分割區為交換 (Swap) 分割區，而第二個分割區才是需要重設大小的分割區。交換分割區中只會有暫存的資料，所以可以安全的解除掛載、刪除，然後在重設其他分割區大小之後再重建。</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>swapoff <replaceable>/dev/ada0p3</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart delete -i <replaceable>3</replaceable> <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 ada0p3 deleted
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 =&gt;       34  102399933  ada0  GPT  (48G)
          34        128     1  freebsd-boot  (64k)
         162   79691648     2  freebsd-ufs  (38G)
    79691810   22708157        - free -  (10G)</screen>
 
     <warning>
       <para>在掛載的檔案系統上修改分割區表可能會造成資料遺失。最好的方式是在未掛載檔案系統的情況下 (使用 Live <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 或 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置) 執行以下步驟。雖然如此，若仍要這樣做的話，在關閉 GEOM 安全性功能之後可以在掛載的檔案系統上修改分割區表：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl kern.geom.debugflags=16</userinput></screen>
     </warning>
 
     <para>重設分割區大小，保留要用來重建交換分割區的大小。這個動作只會修改分割區大小，分割區中的檔案系統會在另一個步驟擴增。</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart resize -i <replaceable>2</replaceable> -a 4k -s <replaceable>47G</replaceable> <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 ada0p2 resized
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 =&gt;       34  102399933  ada0  GPT  (48G)
          34        128     1  freebsd-boot  (64k)
         162   98566144     2  freebsd-ufs  (47G)
    98566306    3833661        - free -  (1.8G)</screen>
 
     <para>重新建立交換分割區：</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-swap -a 4k <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 ada0p3 added
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show <replaceable>ada0</replaceable></userinput>
 =&gt;       34  102399933  ada0  GPT  (48G)
          34        128     1  freebsd-boot  (64k)
         162   98566144     2  freebsd-ufs  (47G)
    98566306    3833661     3  freebsd-swap  (1.8G)
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>swapon <replaceable>/dev/ada0p3</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para>擴增 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 檔案系統來使用重設分割區大小之後的新容量：</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>只能在 FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE 或之後的版本擴增運作中的 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 檔案系統，較先前的版本必須將檔案系統解除掛載。</para>
     </note>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growfs <replaceable>/dev/ada0p2</replaceable></userinput>
 Device is mounted read-write; resizing will result in temporary write suspension for /.
 It's strongly recommended to make a backup before growing the file system.
 OK to grow file system on /dev/ada0p2, mounted on /, from 38GB to 47GB? [Yes/No] <userinput>Yes</userinput>
 super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
  80781312, 82063552, 83345792, 84628032, 85910272, 87192512, 88474752,
  89756992, 91039232, 92321472, 93603712, 94885952, 96168192, 97450432</screen>
 
     <para>現在分割區與檔案系統已透過重設大小來使用新增加的磁碟空間。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="usb-disks">
     <info>
       <title><acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>USB</primary>
       <secondary>disks</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>許多外部儲存裝置的解決方案，例如硬碟、<acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟及
 <acronym>CD</acronym> 與 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 燒錄機皆使用通用序列匯流排 (Universal Serial Bus, <acronym>USB</acronym>)，FreeBSD 提供了對 <acronym>USB</acronym> 1.x, 2.0 及 3.0 裝置的支援。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>部份硬體尚不相容 <acronym>USB</acronym> 3.0，包含 Haswell (Lynx point) 晶片組，若 FreeBSD 開機出現 <errorname>failed with error 19</errorname> 訊息，請在系統 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 關閉 xHCI/USB3。</para>
     </note>
 
     <para>對 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置的支援已內建於 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心，若為自訂的核心，請確定在核心設定檔中有下列幾行設定：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">device scbus	# SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
 device da	# Direct Access (disks)
 device pass	# Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
 device uhci	# provides USB 1.x support
 device ohci	# provides USB 1.x support
 device ehci	# provides USB 2.0 support
 device xhci	# provides USB 3.0 support
 device usb	# USB Bus (required)
 device umass	# Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da
 device cd	# needed for CD and DVD burners</programlisting>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>umass</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式透過 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 子系統來存取 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置，因此任何在系統的 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置都會以 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 裝置呈現，若 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置是 <acronym>CD</acronym> 或 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 燒錄機，請<emphasis>不要</emphasis>在自訂核心設定檔中引用 <option>device atapicam</option>。</para>
 
     <para>本節後續的部份將示範如何檢查 FreeBSD 能夠辦識 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置以及如何設定該裝置。</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>裝置設定</title>
 
       <para>要測試 <acronym>USB</acronym> 設定，請先插入 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置，然後使用 <command>dmesg</command> 來確認系統訊息緩衝區中有出現該磁碟機，該訊息如下：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">umass0: &lt;STECH Simple Drive, class 0/0, rev 2.00/1.04, addr 3&gt; on usbus0
 umass0:  SCSI over Bulk-Only; quirks = 0x0100
 umass0:4:0:-1: Attached to scbus4
 da0 at umass-sim0 bus 0 scbus4 target 0 lun 0
 da0: &lt;STECH Simple Drive 1.04&gt; Fixed Direct Access SCSI-4 device
 da0: Serial Number WD-WXE508CAN263
 da0: 40.000MB/s transfers
 da0: 152627MB (312581808 512 byte sectors: 255H 63S/T 19457C)
 da0: quirks=0x2&lt;NO_6_BYTE&gt;</screen>
 
       <para>不同的裝置會有不同的廠牌、裝置節點 (<filename>da0</filename>)、速度與大小。</para>
 
       <para>當 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置可以做為 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 檢視時，便可使用 <command>camcontrol</command> 來列出連接到系統的 <acronym>USB</acronym> 儲存裝置：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>camcontrol devlist</userinput>
 &lt;STECH Simple Drive 1.04&gt;          at scbus4 target 0 lun 0 (pass3,da0)</screen>
 
       <para>或者，可以使用 <command>usbconfig</command> 來列出裝置，請參考 <citerefentry vendor="current"><refentrytitle>usbconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得更多有關此指令的資訊。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>usbconfig</userinput>
 ugen0.3: &lt;Simple Drive STECH&gt; at usbus0, cfg=0 md=HOST spd=HIGH (480Mbps) pwr=ON (2mA)</screen>
 
       <para>若該裝置尚未被格式化，請參考 <xref linkend="disks-adding"/> 中有關如何在 <acronym>USB</acronym> 磁碟格式化與建立分割區的說明。若磁碟中有檔案系統，可由 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 依據 <xref linkend="mount-unmount"/> 中的說明掛載磁碟。</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para>要允許未被信任的使用者掛載任意媒體，可開啟 <varname>vfs.usermount</varname>，詳細說明如下。從安全性的角度來看這並不是安全的，大多的檔案系統並不會防範惡意裝置。</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para>要讓裝置可讓一般使用者掛載，其中一個解決方案便是使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 讓所有裝置的使用者成為 <systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem> 群組的成員。接著，將下列幾行加入 <filename>/etc/devfs.rules</filename> 來確保 <systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem> 能夠讀取與寫入裝置：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">[localrules=5]
 add path 'da*' mode 0660 group operator</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para>若系統也同時安裝了內建 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 磁碟，請更改第二行如下：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">add path 'da[<replaceable>3</replaceable>-9]*' mode 0660 group operator</programlisting>
 
 	<para>這會從 <systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem> 群組中排除前三個 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 磁碟 (<filename>da0</filename> 到 <filename>da2</filename>)，接著取代 <replaceable>3</replaceable> 為內部 <acronym>SCSI</acronym> 磁碟的編號。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devfs.rules</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得更多有關此檔案的資訊。</para>
       </note>
 
       <para>接著，在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 開啟規則：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">devfs_system_ruleset="localrules"</programlisting>
 
       <para>然後，加入以下行到 <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename> 指示系統允許正常使用者掛載檔案系統：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">vfs.usermount=1</programlisting>
 
       <para>這樣只會在下次重新開機時生效，可使用 <command>sysctl</command> 來立即設定這個變數：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl vfs.usermount=1</userinput>
 vfs.usermount: 0 -&gt; 1</screen>
 
       <para>最後一個步驟是建立要掛載檔案系統要的目錄，要掛載檔案系統的使用者需要擁有這個目錄。其中一個辦法是讓 <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 建立由該使用者擁有的子目錄 <filename>/mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></filename>。在下面的例子，將 <replaceable>username</replaceable> 替換為該使用者的登入名稱並將 <replaceable>usergroup</replaceable> 替換為該使用者的主要群組：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chown <replaceable>username</replaceable>:<replaceable>usergroup</replaceable> /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>假如已經插入 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟，且已出現 <filename>/dev/da0s1</filename> 裝置。若裝置使用 <acronym>FAT</acronym> 格式的檔案系統，則使用者可使用以下指令掛載該檔案系統：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mount -t msdosfs -o -m=644,-M=755 /dev/da0s1 /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>在裝置可以被拔除前，<emphasis>必須</emphasis>先解除掛載：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>umount /mnt/<replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>裝置移除之後，系統訊息緩衝區會顯示如下的訊息：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">umass0: at uhub3, port 2, addr 3 (disconnected)
 da0 at umass-sim0 bus 0 scbus4 target 0 lun 0
 da0: &lt;STECH Simple Drive 1.04&gt; s/n WD-WXE508CAN263          detached
 (da0:umass-sim0:0:0:0): Periph destroyed</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>自動掛載可移除的媒體</title>
 
       <note>
 	<para>自 FreeBSD 10.2-RELEASE 開始 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 支援自動掛載可移除的媒體。</para>
       </note>
 
       <para>可以取消註解在 <filename>/etc/auto_master</filename> 中的下行來自動掛載 <acronym>USB</acronym> 裝置：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">/media		-media		-nosuid</screen>
 
       <para>然後加入這些行到 <filename>/etc/devd.conf</filename>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">notify 100 {
 	match "system" "GEOM";
 	match "subsystem" "DEV";
 	action "/usr/sbin/automount -c";
 };</screen>
 
       <para>若 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 已經正在執行，則需重新載入設定：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service automount reload</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service devd restart</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要設定讓 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 在開機時啟動可以加入此行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">autofs_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para><citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 需要開啟 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>，預設已經開啟。</para>
 
       <para>立即啟動服務：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service automount start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service automountd start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service autounmountd start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service devd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>可以被自動掛載的檔案系統會在 <filename>/media/</filename> 中以目錄呈現，會以檔案系統的標籤來命名目錄，若標籤遺失，則會以裝置節點命名。</para>
 
       <para>檔案系統會在第一次存取時自動掛載，並在一段時間未使用後自動解除掛載。自動掛載的磁碟也可手動解除掛載：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>automount -fu</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>這個機制一般會用在記憶卡與 <acronym>USB</acronym> 隨身碟，也可用在任何 Block 裝置，包含光碟機或 <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> <acronym>LUN</acronym>。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="creating-cds">
     <info>
       <title>建立與使用 <acronym>CD</acronym> 媒體</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Mike</firstname>
 	    <surname>Meyer</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>CD-ROM</acronym>s</primary>
       <secondary>creating</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Compact Disc (<acronym>CD</acronym>) media provide a number
       of features that differentiate them from conventional disks.
       They are designed so that they can be read continuously without
       delays to move the head between tracks.  While
       <acronym>CD</acronym> media do have tracks, these refer to a
       section of data to be read continuously, and not a physical
       property of the disk.  The <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file
       system was designed to deal with these differences.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><acronym>ISO</acronym>
       9660</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>file systems</primary>
       <secondary>ISO 9660</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>CD</acronym> burner</primary>
       <secondary><acronym>ATAPI</acronym></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD Ports Collection provides several utilities for
       burning and duplicating audio and data <acronym>CD</acronym>s.
       This chapter demonstrates the use of several command line
       utilities.  For <acronym>CD</acronym> burning software with a
       graphical utility, consider installing the
       <package>sysutils/xcdroast</package> or
       <package>sysutils/k3b</package> packages or ports.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="atapicam">
       <info>
 	<title>支援的裝置</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	      <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>CD</acronym> burner</primary>
 	<secondary>ATAPI/CAM driver</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel provides support
 	for <acronym>SCSI</acronym>,  <acronym>USB</acronym>, and
 	<acronym>ATAPI</acronym> <acronym>CD</acronym> readers and
 	burners.  If a custom kernel is used, the options that need to
 	be present in the kernel configuration file vary by the type
 	of device.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For a <acronym>SCSI</acronym> burner, make sure these
 	options are present:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device scbus	# SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
 device da	# Direct Access (disks)
 device pass	# Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
 device cd	# needed for CD and DVD burners</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For a <acronym>USB</acronym> burner, make sure these
 	options are present:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device scbus	# SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
 device da	# Direct Access (disks)
 device pass	# Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
 device cd	# needed for CD and DVD burners
 device uhci	# provides USB 1.x support
 device ohci	# provides USB 1.x support
 device ehci	# provides USB 2.0 support
 device xhci	# provides USB 3.0 support
 device usb	# USB Bus (required)
 device umass	# Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For an <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> burner, make sure these
 	options are present:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device ata	# Legacy ATA/SATA controllers
 device scbus	# SCSI bus (required for ATA/SCSI)
 device pass	# Passthrough device (direct ATA/SCSI access)
 device cd	# needed for CD and DVD burners</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">On FreeBSD versions prior to 10.x, this line is also
 	  needed in the kernel configuration file if the burner is an
 	  <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> device:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">device atapicam</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Alternately, this driver can be loaded at boot time by
 	  adding the following line to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">atapicam_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This will require a reboot of the system as this driver
 	  can only be loaded at boot time.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To verify that FreeBSD recognizes the device, run
 	<command>dmesg</command> and look for an entry for the device.
 	On systems prior to 10.x, the device name in the first line of
 	the output will be <filename>acd0</filename> instead of
 	<filename>cd0</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dmesg | grep cd</userinput>
 cd0 at ahcich1 bus 0 scbus1 target 0 lun 0
 cd0: &lt;HL-DT-ST DVDRAM GU70N LT20&gt; Removable CD-ROM SCSI-0 device
 cd0: Serial Number M3OD3S34152
 cd0: 150.000MB/s transfers (SATA 1.x, UDMA6, ATAPI 12bytes, PIO 8192bytes)
 cd0: Attempt to query device size failed: NOT READY, Medium not present - tray closed</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="cdrecord">
       <title>燒錄 <acronym>CD</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <command>cdrecord</command> can be used to burn
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>s.  This command is installed with the
 	<package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> package or port.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While <command>cdrecord</command> has many options, basic
 	usage is simple.  Specify the name of the
 	<acronym>ISO</acronym> file to burn and, if the system has
 	multiple burner devices, specify the name of the device to
 	use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cdrecord <replaceable>dev=device</replaceable> <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To determine the device name of the burner, use
 	<option>-scanbus</option> which might produce results like
 	this:</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>CD-ROM</acronym>s</primary>
 	<secondary>burning</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cdrecord -scanbus</userinput>
 ProDVD-ProBD-Clone 3.00 (amd64-unknown-freebsd10.0) Copyright (C) 1995-2010 Jörg Schilling
 Using libscg version 'schily-0.9'
 scsibus0:
         0,0,0     0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW       ' '0004' Disk
         0,1,0     1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W        ' '5958' Disk
         0,2,0     2) *
         0,3,0     3) 'iomega  ' 'jaz 1GB         ' 'J.86' Removable Disk
         0,4,0     4) 'NEC     ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM
         0,5,0     5) *
         0,6,0     6) *
         0,7,0     7) *
 scsibus1:
         1,0,0   100) *
         1,1,0   101) *
         1,2,0   102) *
         1,3,0   103) *
         1,4,0   104) *
         1,5,0   105) 'YAMAHA  ' 'CRW4260         ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM
         1,6,0   106) 'ARTEC   ' 'AM12S           ' '1.06' Scanner
         1,7,0   107) *</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Locate the entry for the <acronym>CD</acronym> burner and
 	use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for
 	<option>dev</option>.  In this case, the Yamaha burner device
 	is <literal>1,5,0</literal>, so the appropriate input to
 	specify that device is <option>dev=1,5,0</option>.  Refer to
 	the manual page for <command>cdrecord</command> for other ways
 	to specify this value and for information on writing audio
 	tracks and controlling the write speed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternately, run the following command to get the device
 	address of the burner:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>camcontrol devlist</userinput>
 &lt;MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00&gt;   at scbus1 target 0 lun 0 (cd0,pass0)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use the numeric values for <literal>scbus</literal>,
 	<literal>target</literal>, and <literal>lun</literal>.  For
 	this example, <literal>1,0,0</literal> is the device name to
 	use.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mkisofs">
       <title>寫入資料到一個 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 檔案系統</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to produce a data <acronym>CD</acronym>, the data
 	files that are going to make up the tracks on the
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> must be prepared before they can be
 	burned to the <acronym>CD</acronym>.  In FreeBSD,
 	<package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> installs
 	<command>mkisofs</command>, which can be used to produce an
 	<acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system that is an image of a
 	directory tree within a <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> file system.  The simplest
 	usage is to specify the name of the <acronym>ISO</acronym>
 	file to create and the path to the files to place into the
 	<acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkisofs -o <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable> <replaceable>/path/to/tree</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>file systems</primary>
 	<secondary>ISO 9660</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command maps the file names in the specified path to
 	names that fit the limitations of the standard
 	<acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system, and will exclude
 	files that do not meet the standard for <acronym>ISO</acronym>
 	file systems.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>file systems</primary>
 	<secondary>Joliet</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A number of options are available to overcome the
 	restrictions imposed by the standard.  In particular,
 	<option>-R</option> enables the Rock Ridge extensions common
 	to <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> systems and <option>-J</option> enables Joliet
 	extensions used by <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> systems.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For <acronym>CD</acronym>s that are going to be used only
 	on FreeBSD systems, <option>-U</option> can be used to disable
 	all filename restrictions.  When used with
 	<option>-R</option>, it produces a file system image that is
 	identical to the specified FreeBSD tree, even if it violates the
 	<acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 standard.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>CD-ROM</acronym>s</primary>
 	<secondary>creating bootable</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The last option of general use is <option>-b</option>.
 	This is used to specify the location of a boot image for use
 	in producing an <quote>El Torito</quote> bootable
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>.  This option takes an argument which is
 	the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being
 	written to the <acronym>CD</acronym>.  By default,
 	<command>mkisofs</command> creates an <acronym>ISO</acronym>
 	image in <quote>floppy disk emulation</quote> mode, and thus
 	expects the boot image to be exactly 1200, 1440 or
 	2880 KB in size.  Some boot loaders, like the one used by
 	the FreeBSD distribution media, do not use emulation mode.  In
 	this case, <option>-no-emul-boot</option> should be used.  So,
 	if <filename>/tmp/myboot</filename> holds a bootable FreeBSD
 	system with the boot image in
 	<filename>/tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot</filename>, this command
 	would produce
 	<filename>/tmp/bootable.iso</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkisofs -R -no-emul-boot -b boot/cdboot -o /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The resulting <acronym>ISO</acronym> image can be mounted
 	as a memory disk with:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /tmp/bootable.iso -u 0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">One can then verify that <filename>/mnt</filename> and
 	<filename>/tmp/myboot</filename> are identical.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are many other options available for
 	<command>mkisofs</command> to fine-tune its behavior.  Refer
 	to <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is possible to copy a data <acronym>CD</acronym> to
 	  an image file that is functionally equivalent to the image
 	  file created with <command>mkisofs</command>.  To do so, use
 	  <filename>dd</filename> with the device name as the input
 	  file and the name of the <acronym>ISO</acronym> to create as
 	  the output file:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/<replaceable>cd0</replaceable> of=<replaceable>file.iso</replaceable> bs=2048</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The resulting image file can be burned to
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym> as described in <xref linkend="cdrecord"/>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mounting-cd">
       <title>使用資料 <acronym>CD</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once an <acronym>ISO</acronym> has been burned to a
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>, it can be mounted by specifying the
 	file system type, the name of the device containing the
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>, and an existing mount point:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t cd9660 <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <command>mount</command> assumes that a file system
 	is of type <literal>ufs</literal>, a <errorname>Incorrect
 	  super block</errorname> error will occur if <literal>-t
 	  cd9660</literal> is not included when mounting a data
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While any data <acronym>CD</acronym> can be mounted this
 	way, disks with certain <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 extensions
 	might behave oddly.  For example, Joliet disks store all
 	filenames in two-byte Unicode characters.  If some non-English
 	characters show up as question marks, specify the local
 	charset with <option>-C</option>.  For more information, refer
 	to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_cd9660</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">In order to do this character conversion with the help
 	  of <option>-C</option>, the kernel requires the
 	  <filename>cd9660_iconv.ko</filename> module to be loaded.
 	  This can be done either by adding this line to
 	  <filename>loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">cd9660_iconv_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">and then rebooting the machine, or by directly loading
 	  the module with <command>kldload</command>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Occasionally, <errorname>Device not configured</errorname>
 	will be displayed when trying to mount a data
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>.  This usually means that the
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> drive has not detected a disk in
 	the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus.  It
 	can take a couple of seconds for a <acronym>CD</acronym>
 	drive to detect media, so be
 	patient.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Sometimes, a <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> drive may be missed because it did not
 	have enough time to answer the bus reset.  To resolve this,
 	a custom kernel can be created which increases the default
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> delay.  Add the following option to
 	the custom kernel configuration file and rebuild the kernel
 	using the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig-building"/>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options SCSI_DELAY=15000</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This tells the <acronym>SCSI</acronym> bus to pause 15
 	seconds during boot, to give the <acronym>CD</acronym>
 	drive every possible chance to answer the bus reset.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is possible to burn a file directly to
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym>, without creating an
 	  <acronym>ISO</acronym> 9660 file system.  This is known as
 	  burning a raw data <acronym>CD</acronym> and some people do
 	  this for backup purposes.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This type of disk can not be mounted as a normal data
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym>.  In order to retrieve the data burned
 	  to such a <acronym>CD</acronym>, the data must be read from
 	  the raw device node.  For example, this command will extract
 	  a compressed tar file located on the second
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym> device into the current working
 	  directory:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar xzvf /dev/<replaceable>cd1</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">  In order to mount a data <acronym>CD</acronym>, the
 	  data must be written using
 	  <command>mkisofs</command>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="duplicating-audiocds">
       <title>複製音樂 <acronym>CD</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To duplicate an audio <acronym>CD</acronym>, extract the
 	audio data from the <acronym>CD</acronym> to a series of
 	files, then write these files to a blank
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="using-cdrecord"/> describes how to
 	duplicate and burn an audio <acronym>CD</acronym>.  If the
 	FreeBSD version is less than 10.0 and the device is
 	<acronym>ATAPI</acronym>, the <option>atapicam</option> module
 	must be first loaded using the instructions in <xref linkend="atapicam"/>.</para>
 
       <procedure xml:id="using-cdrecord">
 	<title xml:lang="en">Duplicating an Audio <acronym>CD</acronym></title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package> package or
 	    port installs <command>cdda2wav</command>.  This command
 	    can be used to extract all of the audio tracks, with each
 	    track written to a separate <acronym>WAV</acronym> file in
 	    the current working directory:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cdda2wav -vall -B -Owav</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A device name does not need to be specified if there
 	    is only one <acronym>CD</acronym> device on the system.
 	    Refer to the <command>cdda2wav</command> manual page for
 	    instructions on how to specify a device and to learn more
 	    about the other options available for this command.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use <command>cdrecord</command> to write the
 	    <filename>.wav</filename> files:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cdrecord -v dev=<replaceable>2,0</replaceable> -dao -useinfo  *.wav</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Make sure that <replaceable>2,0</replaceable> is set
 	    appropriately, as described in <xref linkend="cdrecord"/>.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="creating-dvds">
     <info>
       <title>建立與使用 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 媒體</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Andy</firstname>
 	    <surname>Polyakov</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>With inputs from </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>burning</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Compared to the <acronym>CD</acronym>, the
       <acronym>DVD</acronym> is the next generation of optical media
       storage technology.  The <acronym>DVD</acronym> can hold more
       data than any <acronym>CD</acronym> and is the standard for
       video publishing.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Five physical recordable formats can be defined for a
       recordable <acronym>DVD</acronym>:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">DVD-R: This was the first <acronym>DVD</acronym>
 	  recordable format available.  The DVD-R standard is defined
 	  by the <link xlink:href="http://www.dvdforum.com/forum.shtml"><acronym>DVD</acronym>
 	    Forum</link>.  This format is write once.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>: This is the rewritable
 	  version of the DVD-R standard.  A
 	  <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> can be rewritten about 1000
 	  times.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym>: This is a rewritable format
 	  which can be seen as a removable hard drive.  However, this
 	  media is not compatible with most
 	  <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives and DVD-Video players as
 	  only a few <acronym>DVD</acronym> writers support the
 	  <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> format.  Refer to <xref linkend="creating-dvd-ram"/> for more information on
 	  <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> use.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>: This is a rewritable format
 	  defined by the <link xlink:href="http://www.dvdrw.com/"><acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>
 	    Alliance</link>.  A <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> can be
 	  rewritten about 1000 times.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">DVD+R: This format is the write once variation of the
 	  <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> format.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A single layer recordable <acronym>DVD</acronym> can hold up
       to 4,700,000,000 bytes which is actually 4.38 GB or
       4485 MB as 1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">A distinction must be made between the physical media and
 	the application.  For example, a DVD-Video is a specific file
 	layout that can be written on any recordable
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym> physical media such as DVD-R, DVD+R, or
 	<acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>.  Before choosing the type of media,
 	ensure that both the burner and the DVD-Video player are
 	compatible with the media under consideration.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To perform <acronym>DVD</acronym> recording, use
 	<citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This command is part of the
 	<package>sysutils/dvd+rw-tools</package> utilities which
 	support all <acronym>DVD</acronym> media types.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These tools use the <acronym>SCSI</acronym> subsystem to
 	access the devices, therefore <link linkend="atapicam">ATAPI/CAM support</link> must be loaded
 	or statically compiled into the kernel.  This support is not
 	needed if the burner uses the <acronym>USB</acronym>
 	interface.  Refer to <xref linkend="usb-disks"/> for more
 	details on <acronym>USB</acronym> device configuration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">DMA access must also be enabled for
 	<acronym>ATAPI</acronym> devices, by adding the following line
 	to <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hw.ata.atapi_dma="1"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Before attempting to use
 	<application>dvd+rw-tools</application>, consult the <link xlink:href="http://fy.chalmers.se/~appro/linux/DVD+RW/hcn.html">Hardware
 	  Compatibility Notes</link>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">For a graphical user interface, consider using
 	  <package>sysutils/k3b</package> which provides a user
 	  friendly interface to <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and many other
 	  burning tools.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>燒錄資料 <acronym>DVD</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is a front-end to <link linkend="mkisofs">mkisofs</link>, it will invoke
 	<citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to create the file system layout and perform
 	the write on the <acronym>DVD</acronym>.  This means that an
 	image of the data does not need to be created before the
 	burning process.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To burn to a DVD+R or a DVD-R the data in
 	<filename>/path/to/data</filename>, use the following
 	command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -dvd-compat -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, <option>-J -R</option> is passed to
 	<citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>  to create an ISO 9660 file system with Joliet
 	and Rock Ridge extensions.  Refer to <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	details.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For the initial session recording, <option>-Z</option> is
 	used for both single and multiple sessions.  Replace
 	<replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>, with the name of the
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym> device.  Using
 	<option>-dvd-compat</option> indicates that the disk will be
 	closed and that the recording will be unappendable.  This
 	should also provide better media compatibility with
 	<acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To burn a pre-mastered image, such as
 	<replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable>, use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -dvd-compat -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>=<replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The write speed should be detected and automatically set
 	according to the media and the drive being used.  To force the
 	write speed, use  <option>-speed=</option>.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for example usage.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">In order to support working files larger than 4.38GB, an
 	  UDF/ISO-9660 hybrid file system must be created by passing
 	  <option>-udf -iso-level 3</option> to <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	  all related programs, such as <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This is
 	  required only when creating an ISO image file or when
 	  writing files directly to a disk.  Since a disk created this
 	  way must be mounted as an UDF file system with
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_udf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, it will be usable only on an UDF aware
 	  operating system.  Otherwise it will look as if it contains
 	  corrupted files.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To create this type of ISO file:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mkisofs -R -J -udf -iso-level 3 -o <replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable> <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To burn files directly to a disk:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -dvd-compat -udf -iso-level 3 -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When an ISO image already contains large files, no
 	  additional options are required for <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
 	  burn that image on a disk.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Be sure to use an up-to-date version of
 	  <package>sysutils/cdrtools</package>, which contains
 	  <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, as an older version may not contain large
 	  files support.  If the latest version does not work, install
 	  <package>sysutils/cdrtools-devel</package> and read its
 	  <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>燒錄 <acronym>DVD</acronym>-Video</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>DVD-Video</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A DVD-Video is a specific file layout based on the ISO
 	9660 and micro-UDF (M-UDF) specifications.  Since DVD-Video
 	presents a specific data structure hierarchy, a particular
 	program such as <package>multimedia/dvdauthor</package> is
 	needed to author the <acronym>DVD</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If an image of the DVD-Video file system already exists,
 	it can be burned in the same way as any other image.  If
 	<command>dvdauthor</command> was used to make the
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym> and the result is in
 	<filename>/path/to/video</filename>, the following command
 	should be used to burn the DVD-Video:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -dvd-video <replaceable>/path/to/video</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><option>-dvd-video</option> is passed to <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	to instruct it to create a DVD-Video file system layout.
 	This option implies the <option>-dvd-compat</option>
 	<citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> option.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary><acronym>DVD+RW</acronym></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Unlike CD-RW, a virgin <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> needs to
 	be formatted before first use.  It is
 	<emphasis>recommended</emphasis> to let <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> take
 	care of this automatically whenever appropriate.  However, it
 	is possible to use <command>dvd+rw-format</command> to format
 	the <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dvd+rw-format <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Only perform this operation once and keep in mind that
 	only virgin <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> medias need to be
 	formatted.  Once formatted, the <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> can
 	be burned as usual.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To burn a totally new file system and not just append some
 	data onto a <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>, the media does not need
 	to be blanked first.  Instead, write over the previous
 	recording like this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/newdata</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> format supports appending
 	data to a previous recording.  This operation consists of
 	merging a new session to the existing one as it is not
 	considered to be multi-session writing.  <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	will <emphasis>grow</emphasis> the ISO 9660 file system
 	present on the media.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For example, to append data to a
 	<acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>, use the following:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -M <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/nextdata</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The same <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>mkisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> options used to burn the
 	initial session should be used during next writes.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use <option>-dvd-compat</option> for better media
 	  compatibility with <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives.  When
 	  using <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym>, this option will not
 	  prevent the addition of data.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To blank the media, use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>=<replaceable>/dev/zero</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary><acronym>DVD-RW</acronym></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> accepts two disc formats:
 	incremental sequential and restricted overwrite.  By default,
 	<acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> discs are in sequential
 	format.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A virgin <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> can be directly written
 	without being formatted.  However, a non-virgin
 	<acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in sequential format needs to be
 	blanked before writing a new initial session.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To blank a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in sequential
 	mode:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dvd+rw-format -blank=full <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A full blanking using <option>-blank=full</option> will
 	  take about one hour on a 1x media.  A fast blanking can be
 	  performed using <option>-blank</option>, if the
 	  <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> will be recorded in Disk-At-Once
 	  (DAO) mode.  To burn the <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in DAO
 	  mode, use the command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -use-the-force-luke=dao -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable>=<replaceable>imagefile.iso</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Since <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> automatically attempts to detect
 	  fast blanked media and engage DAO write,
 	  <option>-use-the-force-luke=dao</option> should not be
 	  required.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">One should instead use restricted overwrite mode with
 	  any <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> as this format is more
 	  flexible than the default of incremental sequential.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To write data on a sequential <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>,
 	use the same instructions as for the other
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym> formats:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -Z <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/data</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To append some data to a previous recording, use
 	<option>-M</option> with <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  However, if data
 	is appended on a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in incremental
 	sequential mode, a new session will be created on the disc and
 	the result will be a multi-session disc.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in restricted overwrite format
 	does not need to be blanked before a new initial session.
 	Instead, overwrite the disc with <option>-Z</option>.  It is
 	also possible to grow an existing ISO 9660 file system written
 	on the disc with <option>-M</option>.  The result will be a
 	one-session <acronym>DVD</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To put a <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in restricted overwrite
 	format, the following command must be used:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dvd+rw-format <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To change back to sequential format, use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dvd+rw-format -blank=full <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>多階段燒錄 (Multi-Session)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Few <acronym>DVD-ROM</acronym> drives support
 	multi-session DVDs and most of the time only read the first
 	session.  DVD+R, DVD-R and <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in
 	sequential format can accept multiple sessions.  The notion
 	of multiple sessions does not exist for the
 	<acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> and the <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym>
 	restricted overwrite formats.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Using the following command after an initial non-closed
 	session on a DVD+R, DVD-R, or <acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in
 	sequential format, will add a new session to the disc:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>growisofs -M <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable> -J -R <replaceable>/path/to/nextdata</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Using this command with a <acronym>DVD+RW</acronym> or a
 	<acronym>DVD-RW</acronym> in restricted overwrite mode will
 	append data while merging the new session to the existing one.
 	The result will be a single-session disc.  Use this method to
 	add data after an initial write on these types of
 	media.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Since some space on the media is used between each
 	  session to mark the end and start of sessions, one should
 	  add sessions with a large amount of data to optimize media
 	  space.  The number of sessions is limited to 154 for a
 	  DVD+R, about 2000 for a DVD-R, and 127 for a DVD+R Double
 	  Layer.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>取得更多資訊</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To obtain more information about a <acronym>DVD</acronym>,
 	use <command>dvd+rw-mediainfo
 	  <replaceable>/dev/cd0</replaceable></command> while the
 	disc in the specified drive.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More information about
 	<application>dvd+rw-tools</application> can be found in
 	<citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>growisofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, on the <link xlink:href="http://fy.chalmers.se/~appro/linux/DVD+RW/">dvd+rw-tools
 	  web site</link>, and in the <link xlink:href="http://lists.debian.org/cdwrite/">cdwrite
 	  mailing list</link> archives.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When creating a problem report related to the use of
 	  <application>dvd+rw-tools</application>, always include the
 	  output of <command>dvd+rw-mediainfo</command>.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="creating-dvd-ram">
       <title>使用 <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DVD</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary><acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> writers can use either a
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym> or <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> interface.
 	For <acronym>ATAPI</acronym> devices, DMA access has to be
 	enabled by adding the following line to
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hw.ata.atapi_dma="1"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> can be seen as a removable
 	hard drive.  Like any other hard drive, the
 	<acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> must be formatted before it can be
 	used.  In this example, the whole disk space will be formatted
 	with a standard UFS2 file system:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=<replaceable>/dev/acd0</replaceable> bs=2k count=1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bsdlabel -Bw <replaceable>acd0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs <replaceable>/dev/acd0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DVD</acronym> device,
 	<filename>acd0</filename>, must be changed according to the
 	configuration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> has been formatted, it
 	can be mounted as a normal hard drive:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount <replaceable>/dev/acd0</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once mounted, the <acronym>DVD-RAM</acronym> will be both
 	readable and writeable.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="floppies">
     <title>建立與使用軟碟</title>
 
 <!--
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Julio</firstname>
 	    <surname>Merino</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Original work by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Martin</firstname>
 	    <surname>Karlsson</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Rewritten by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       -->
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section explains how to format a 3.5 inch floppy disk
       in FreeBSD.</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <title xml:lang="en">Steps to Format a Floppy</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A floppy disk needs to be low-level formatted before it
 	can be used.  This is usually done by the vendor, but
 	formatting is a good way to check media integrity.  To
 	low-level format the floppy disk on FreeBSD, use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>fdformat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  When using this utility, make note of any
 	error messages, as these can help determine if the disk is
 	good or bad.</para>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">To format the floppy, insert a new 3.5 inch floppy disk
 	  into the first floppy drive and issue:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/usr/sbin/fdformat -f 1440 /dev/fd0</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">After low-level formatting the disk, create a disk label
 	  as it is needed by the system to determine the size of the
 	  disk and its geometry.  The supported geometry values are
 	  listed in <filename>/etc/disktab</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To write the disk label, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsdlabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/sbin/bsdlabel -B -w /dev/fd0 fd1440</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The floppy is now ready to be high-level formatted with
 	  a file system.  The floppy's file system can be either UFS
 	  or FAT, where FAT is generally a better choice for
 	  floppies.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To format the floppy with FAT, issue:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0</userinput></screen>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The disk is now ready for use.  To use the floppy, mount it
       with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_msdosfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  One can also install and use
       <package>emulators/mtools</package> from the Ports
       Collection.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="backup-basics">
     <title>備份基礎概念</title>
 
 <!--
     <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Lowell</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gilbert</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Original work by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       -->
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Implementing a backup plan is essential in order to have the
       ability to recover from disk failure, accidental file deletion,
       random file corruption, or complete machine destruction,
       including destruction of on-site backups.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The backup type and schedule will vary, depending upon the
       importance of the data, the granularity needed for file
       restores, and the amount of acceptable downtime.  Some possible
       backup techniques include:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Archives of the whole system, backed up onto permanent,
 	  off-site media.  This provides protection against all of the
 	  problems listed above, but is slow and inconvenient to
 	  restore from, especially for non-privileged users.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">File system snapshots, which are useful for restoring
 	  deleted files or previous versions of files.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Copies of whole file systems or disks which are
 	  sychronized with another system on the network using a
 	  scheduled <package>net/rsync</package>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Hardware or software <acronym>RAID</acronym>, which
 	  minimizes or avoids downtime when a disk fails.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Typically, a mix of backup techniques is used.  For
       example, one could create a schedule to automate a weekly, full
       system backup that is stored off-site and to supplement this
       backup with hourly ZFS snapshots.  In addition, one could make a
       manual backup of individual directories or files before making
       file edits or deletions.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes some of the utilities which can be
       used to create and manage backups on a FreeBSD system.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>檔案系統備份</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>backup software</primary>
 	<secondary>dump / restore</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><command>dump</command></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><command>restore</command></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The traditional <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> programs for backing up a file
 	system are <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which creates the backup, and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>restore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which restores the backup.  These utilities
 	work at the disk block level, below the abstractions of the
 	files, links, and directories that are created by file
 	systems.  Unlike other backup software,
 	<command>dump</command> backs up an entire file system and is
 	unable to backup only part of a file system or a directory
 	tree that spans multiple file systems.  Instead of writing
 	files and directories, <command>dump</command> writes the raw
 	data blocks that comprise files and directories.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If <command>dump</command> is used on the root
 	  directory, it will not back up <filename>/home</filename>,
 	  <filename>/usr</filename> or many other directories since
 	  these are typically mount points for other file systems or
 	  symbolic links into those file systems.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When used to restore data, <command>restore</command>
 	stores temporary files in <filename>/tmp/</filename> by
 	default.  When using a recovery disk with a small
 	<filename>/tmp</filename>, set <envar>TMPDIR</envar> to a
 	directory with more free space in order for the restore to
 	succeed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using <command>dump</command>, be aware that some
 	quirks remain from its early days in Version 6 of
 	AT&amp;T <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>,circa 1975.  The default parameters assume a
 	backup to a 9-track tape, rather than to another type of media
 	or to the high-density tapes available today.  These defaults
 	must be overridden on the command line.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>.rhosts</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to backup a file system across the network
 	to a another system or to a tape drive attached to another
 	computer.  While the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rrestore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	utilities can be used for this purpose, they are not
 	considered to be secure.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Instead, one can use <command>dump</command> and
 	<command>restore</command> in a more secure fashion over an
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym> connection.  This example creates a
 	full, compressed backup of <filename>/usr</filename> and sends
 	the backup file to the specified host over a
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym> connection.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>在 <application>ssh</application> 使用 <command>dump</command></title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh -c blowfish \
           targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz</userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example sets <envar>RSH</envar> in order to write the
 	backup to a tape drive on a remote system over a
 	<acronym>SSH</acronym> connection:</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>在 <application>ssh</application> 使用 <command>dump</command> 透過 <envar>RSH</envar> 設定</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>env RSH=/usr/bin/ssh /sbin/dump -0uan -f targetuser@targetmachine.example.com:/dev/sa0 /usr</userinput></screen>
       </example>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>目錄備份</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>backup software</primary>
 	<secondary><command>tar</command></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Several built-in utilities are available for backing up
 	and restoring specified files and directories as
 	needed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A good choice for making a backup of all of the files in a
 	directory is <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This utility dates back to Version
 	6 of AT&amp;T <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> and by default assumes a recursive backup
 	to a local tape  device.  Switches can be used to instead
 	specify the name of a backup file.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><command>tar</command></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example creates a compressed backup of the current
 	directory and saves it to
 	<filename>/tmp/mybackup.tgz</filename>.  When creating a
 	backup file, make sure that the backup is not saved to the
 	same directory that is being backed up.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <command>tar</command> 備份目前目錄</title>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar czvf <replaceable>/tmp/mybackup.tgz</replaceable> . </userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To restore the entire backup, <command>cd</command> into
 	the directory to restore into and specify the name of the
 	backup.  Note that this will overwrite any newer versions of
 	files in the restore directory.  When in doubt, restore to a
 	temporary directory or specify the name of the file within the
 	backup to restore.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <command>tar</command> 還原目前目錄</title>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar xzvf <replaceable>/tmp/mybackup.tgz</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are dozens of available switches which are described
 	in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tar</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This utility also supports the use of exclude
 	patterns to specify which files should not be included when
 	backing up the specified directory or restoring files from a
 	backup.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>backup software</primary>
 	<secondary><command>cpio</command></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To create a backup using a specified list of files and
 	directories, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cpio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is a good choice.  Unlike
 	<command>tar</command>, <command>cpio</command> does not know
 	how to walk the directory tree and it must be provided the
 	list of files to backup.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For example, a list of files can be created using
 	<command>ls</command> or <command>find</command>.  This
 	example creates a recursive listing of the current directory
 	which is then piped to  <command>cpio</command> in order to
 	create an output backup file named
 	<filename>/tmp/mybackup.cpio</filename>.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <command>ls</command> 與 <command>cpio</command> 來製作目前目錄的遞迴備份</title>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls -R | cpio -ovF <replaceable>/tmp/mybackup.cpio</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>backup software</primary>
 	<secondary><command>pax</command></secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><command>pax</command></primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>POSIX</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>IEEE</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A backup utility which tries to bridge the features
 	provided by <command>tar</command> and <command>cpio</command>
 	is <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pax</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Over the years, the various versions of
 	<command>tar</command> and <command>cpio</command> became
 	slightly incompatible.  <trademark class="registered">POSIX</trademark> created <command>pax</command>
 	which attempts to read and write many of the various
 	<command>cpio</command> and <command>tar</command> formats,
 	plus new formats of its own.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <command>pax</command> equivalent to the previous
 	examples would be:</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <command>pax</command> 備份目前目錄</title>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pax -wf <replaceable>/tmp/mybackup.pax</replaceable> .</userinput></screen>
       </example>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="backups-tapebackups">
       <title>使用資料磁帶備份</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>tape media</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While tape technology has continued to evolve, modern
 	backup systems tend to combine off-site backups with local
 	removable media.  FreeBSD supports any tape drive that uses
 	<acronym>SCSI</acronym>, such as <acronym>LTO</acronym> or
 	<acronym>DAT</acronym>.  There is limited support for
 	<acronym>SATA</acronym> and <acronym>USB</acronym> tape
 	drives.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For <acronym>SCSI</acronym> tape devices, FreeBSD uses the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sa</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver and the <filename>/dev/sa0</filename>,
 	<filename>/dev/nsa0</filename>, and
 	<filename>/dev/esa0</filename> devices.  The physical device
 	name is <filename>/dev/sa0</filename>.  When
 	<filename>/dev/nsa0</filename> is used, the backup application
 	will not rewind the tape after writing a file, which allows
 	writing more than one file to a tape.  Using
 	<filename>/dev/esa0</filename> ejects the tape after the
 	device is closed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <command>mt</command> is used to control
 	operations of the tape drive, such as seeking through files on
 	a tape or writing tape control marks to the tape.  For
 	example, the first three files on a tape can be preserved by
 	skipping past them before writing a new file:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mt -f /dev/nsa0 fsf 3</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This utility supports many operations.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To write a single file to tape using
 	<command>tar</command>, specify the name of the tape device
 	and the file to backup:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar cvf /dev/sa0 <replaceable>file</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To recover files from a <command>tar</command> archive
 	on tape into the current directory:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar xvf /dev/sa0</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To backup a <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system, use
 	<command>dump</command>.  This examples backs up
 	<filename>/usr</filename> without rewinding the tape when
 	finished:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -0aL -b64 -f /dev/nsa0 /usr</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To interactively restore files from a
 	<command>dump</command> file on tape into the current
 	directory:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>restore -i -f /dev/nsa0</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="backups-programs-amanda">
       <title>第三方備份工具</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>backup software</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD Ports Collection provides many third-party
 	utilities which can be used to schedule the creation of
 	backups, simplify tape backup, and make backups easier and
 	more convenient.  Many of these applications are client/server
 	based and can be used to automate the backups of a single
 	system or all of the computers in a network.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Popular utilities include
 	<application>Amanda</application>,
 	<application>Bacula</application>,
 	<application>rsync</application>, and
 	<application>duplicity</application>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>緊急還原</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In addition to regular backups, it is recommended to
 	perform the following steps as part of an emergency
 	preparedness plan.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><command>bsdlabel</command></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a print copy of the output of the following
 	commands:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><command>gpart show</command></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><command>more /etc/fstab</command></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><command>dmesg</command></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>livefs
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Store this printout and a copy of the installation media
 	in a secure location.  Should an emergency restore be
 	needed, boot into the installation media and select
 	<literal>Live CD</literal> to access a rescue shell.  This
 	rescue mode can be used to view the current state of the
 	system, and if needed, to  reformat disks and restore data
 	from backups.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The installation media for
 	  FreeBSD/i386 9.3-RELEASE does not
 	  include a rescue shell.  For this version, instead
 	  download and burn a Livefs <acronym>CD</acronym> image from
 	  <uri xlink:href="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/ISO-IMAGES/9.3/FreeBSD-9.3-RELEASE-i386-livefs.iso">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/ISO-IMAGES/9.3/FreeBSD-9.3-RELEASE-i386-livefs.iso</uri>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, test the rescue shell and the backups.  Make notes
 	of the procedure.  Store these notes with the media, the
 	printouts, and the backups.  These notes may prevent the
 	inadvertent destruction of the backups while under the stress
 	of performing an emergency recovery.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For an added measure of security, store the latest backup
 	at a remote location which is physically separated from the
 	computers and disk drives by a significant distance.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disks-virtual">
     <info>
       <title>記憶體磁碟</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Reorganized and enhanced by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In addition to physical disks, FreeBSD also supports the
       creation and use of memory disks.  One possible use for a
       memory disk is to access the contents of an
       <acronym>ISO</acronym> file system without the overhead of first
       burning it to a <acronym>CD</acronym> or <acronym>DVD</acronym>,
       then mounting the <acronym>CD/DVD</acronym> media.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, the  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>md</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver is used to provide support
       for memory disks.  The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel
       includes this driver.  When using a custom kernel configuration
       file, ensure it includes this line:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">device md</programlisting>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="disks-mdconfig">
       <title>連接與解除連接既有的映象檔</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disks</primary>
 	<secondary>memory</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To mount an existing file system image, use
 	<command>mdconfig</command> to specify the name of the
 	<acronym>ISO</acronym> file and a free unit number.  Then,
 	refer to that unit number to mount it on an existing mount
 	point.  Once mounted, the files in the <acronym>ISO</acronym>
 	will appear in the mount point.  This example attaches
 	<replaceable>diskimage.iso</replaceable> to the memory device
 	<filename>/dev/md0</filename> then mounts that memory device
 	on <filename>/mnt</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -f <replaceable>diskimage.iso</replaceable> -u <replaceable>0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/md<replaceable>0</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If a unit number is not specified with
 	<option>-u</option>, <command>mdconfig</command> will
 	automatically allocate an unused memory device and output
 	the name of the allocated unit, such as
 	<filename>md4</filename>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	details about this command and its options.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disks</primary>
 	<secondary>detaching a memory disk</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When a memory disk is no longer in use, its resources
 	should be released back to the system.  First, unmount the
 	file system, then use <command>mdconfig</command> to detach
 	the disk from the system and release its resources.  To
 	continue this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /mnt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -d -u <replaceable>0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To determine if any memory disks are still attached to the
 	system, type <command>mdconfig -l</command>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="disks-md-freebsd5">
       <title>建立以檔案或記憶體為基底的磁碟</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disks</primary>
 	<secondary>memory file system</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD also supports memory disks where the storage to use
 	is allocated from either a hard disk or an area of memory.
 	The first method is commonly referred to as a file-backed file
 	system and the second method as a memory-backed file system.
 	Both types can be created using
 	<command>mdconfig</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To create a new memory-backed file system, specify a type
 	of <literal>swap</literal> and the size of the memory disk to
 	create.  Then, format the memory disk with a file system and
 	mount as usual.  This example creates a 5M memory disk on unit
 	<literal>1</literal>.  That memory disk is then formatted with
 	the <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system before it is
 	mounted:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -a -t swap -s <replaceable>5</replaceable>m -u <replaceable>1</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U md<replaceable>1</replaceable></userinput>
 /dev/md1: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048
         using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 192 inodes.
         with soft updates
 super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
  160, 2752, 5344, 7936
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/md<replaceable>1</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/md1        4718    4  4338     0%    /mnt</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To create a new file-backed memory disk, first allocate an
 	area of disk to use.  This example creates an empty 5K file
 	named <filename>newimage</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=<replaceable>newimage</replaceable> bs=1k count=<replaceable>5</replaceable>k</userinput>
 5120+0 records in
 5120+0 records out</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, attach that file to a memory disk, label the memory
 	disk and format it with the <acronym>UFS</acronym> file
 	system, mount the memory disk, and verify the size of the
 	file-backed disk:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -f <replaceable>newimage</replaceable> -u <replaceable>0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bsdlabel -w md<replaceable>0</replaceable> auto</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs md<replaceable>0</replaceable>a</userinput>
 /dev/md0a: 5.0MB (10224 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048
         using 4 cylinder groups of 1.25MB, 80 blks, 192 inodes.
 super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
  160, 2720, 5280, 7840
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/md<replaceable>0</replaceable>a <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/md0a       4710    4  4330     0%    /mnt</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It takes several commands to create a file- or
 	memory-backed file system using <command>mdconfig</command>.
 	FreeBSD also comes with <command>mdmfs</command> which
 	automatically configures a memory disk, formats it with the
 	<acronym>UFS</acronym> file system, and mounts it.  For
 	example, after creating <replaceable>newimage</replaceable>
 	with <command>dd</command>, this one command is equivalent to
 	running the <command>bsdlabel</command>,
 	<command>newfs</command>, and <command>mount</command>
 	commands shown above:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdmfs -F <replaceable>newimage</replaceable> -s <replaceable>5</replaceable>m md<replaceable>0</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To instead create a new memory-based memory disk with
 	<command>mdmfs</command>, use this one command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdmfs -s <replaceable>5</replaceable>m md<replaceable>1</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the unit number is not specified,
 	<command>mdmfs</command> will automatically select an unused
 	memory device.  For more details about
 	<command>mdmfs</command>, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mdmfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="snapshots">
     <info>
       <title>檔案系統快照</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>file systems</primary>
       <secondary>snapshots</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD offers a feature in conjunction with
       <link linkend="soft-updates">Soft Updates</link>: file system
       snapshots.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">UFS snapshots allow a user to create images of specified
       file systems, and treat them as a file.  Snapshot files must be
       created in the file system that the action is performed on, and
       a user may create no more than 20 snapshots per file system.
       Active snapshots are recorded in the superblock so they are
       persistent across unmount and remount operations along with
       system reboots.  When a snapshot is no longer required, it can
       be removed using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  While snapshots may be removed in
       any order, all the used space may not be acquired because
       another snapshot will possibly claim some of the released
       blocks.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The un-alterable <option>snapshot</option> file flag is set
       by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mksnap_ffs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> after initial creation of a snapshot file.
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>unlink</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> makes an exception for snapshot files since it
       allows them to be removed.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Snapshots are created using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  To place a
       snapshot of <filename>/var</filename> in the
       file <filename>/var/snapshot/snap</filename>, use the following
       command:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -u -o snapshot /var/snapshot/snap /var</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mksnap_ffs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to create the
       snapshot:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mksnap_ffs /var /var/snapshot/snap</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">One can find snapshot files on a file system, such as
       <filename>/var</filename>, using
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>find</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>find /var -flags snapshot</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once a snapshot has been created, it has several
       uses:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some administrators will use a snapshot file for backup
 	  purposes, because the snapshot can be transferred to
 	  <acronym>CD</acronym>s or tape.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The file system integrity checker, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, may be
 	  run on the snapshot.  Assuming that the file system was
 	  clean when it was mounted, this should always provide a
 	  clean and unchanging result.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Running <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> on the snapshot will produce a dump
 	  file that is consistent with the file system and the
 	  timestamp of the snapshot.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can also take a
 	  snapshot, create a dump image, and then remove the snapshot
 	  in one command by using <option>-L</option>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The snapshot can be mounted as a frozen image of the
 	  file system.  To <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> the snapshot
 	  <filename>/var/snapshot/snap</filename> run:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -a -t vnode -o readonly -f /var/snapshot/snap -u 4</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -r /dev/md4 /mnt</userinput></screen>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The frozen <filename>/var</filename> is now available
       through <filename>/mnt</filename>.  Everything will initially be
       in the same state it was during the snapshot creation time.  The
       only exception is that any earlier snapshots will appear as zero
       length files.  To unmount the snapshot, use:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /mnt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mdconfig -d -u 4</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For more information about <option>softupdates</option> and
       file system snapshots, including technical papers, visit
       Marshall Kirk McKusick's website at <uri xlink:href="http://www.mckusick.com/">http://www.mckusick.com/</uri>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="quotas">
     <title>磁碟配額</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>accounting</primary>
       <secondary>disk space</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>disk quotas</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para>磁碟配額可以用來限制使用者或群組成員能夠在各別檔案系統上使用的磁碟空間量或檔案數量。這個可避免一個使用者或群組成員耗盡所有磁碟的可用空間。</para>
 
     <para>本節將說明如何設定 <acronym>UFS</acronym> 檔案系統的磁碟配額。要在 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 檔案系統上設定配額，請參考 <xref linkend="zfs-zfs-quota"/></para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟磁碟配額</title>
 
       <para>查看 FreeBSD 核心是否支援磁碟配額：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sysctl kern.features.ufs_quota</userinput>
 kern.features.ufs_quota: 1</screen>
 
       <para>在本例中，數值 <literal>1</literal> 代表支援磁碟配額，若為 <literal>0</literal>，則需加入下列設定到自訂核心設定檔然後依照 <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/> 的指示重新編譯核心：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options QUOTA</programlisting>
 
       <para>接著，在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 開啟磁碟配額：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">quota_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disk quotas</primary>
 	<secondary>checking</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para>正常在開機時，會使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>quotacheck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 檢查每個檔案系統的配額完整性，這個程式會確保在配額資料庫中的資料正確的反映了檔案系統上的資料。這是一個耗費時間的程序，會明顯的影響系統開機的時間，要跳過這個步驟可以加入此變數到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">check_quotas="NO"</programlisting>
 
       <para>最後，編輯 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 來開啟在各個檔案系統上的磁碟配額。要開啟在檔案系統上對每個使用者的配額要加入 <option>userquota</option> 選項到  <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 要開啟配額的檔案系統的項目中。例如：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/da1s2g   /home    ufs rw,userquota 1 2</programlisting>
 
       <para>要開啟群組配額，則使用 <option>groupquota</option>。要同時開啟使用者及群組配額，可使用逗號隔開選項：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/da1s2g    /home    ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2</programlisting>
 
       <para>預設配額檔案會儲存在檔案系統的根目錄的 <filename>quota.user</filename> 及 <filename>quota.group</filename>，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來取得更多資訊，較不建議指定其他位置來儲存配額檔案。</para>
 
       <para>設定完成之後，重新啟動系統，<filename>/etc/rc</filename> 會自動執行適當的指令對所有在 <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> 中開啟配磁的檔案系統建立初始的配額檔。</para>
 
       <para>在一般的操作中，並不需要手動執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>quotacheck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>quotaon</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 或是 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>quotaoff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>，雖然如此，仍應閱讀這些指令的操作手冊來熟悉這些指令的操作。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定配額限制</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disk quotas</primary>
 	<secondary>limits</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>要確認配額已經開啟，可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>quota -v</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>每個有開啟配額的檔案系統應該會有一行磁碟用量及目前配額限制的摘要。</para>
 
       <para>現在系統已準備好可以使用 <command>edquota</command> 分配配額限制。</para>
 
       <para>有數個選項可以強制限制使用者或群組對磁碟空間的使用量以及可以建立多少檔案。可以用磁碟空間 (block 配額)，檔案數量 (inode 配額) 或同時使用來分配。每種限制又可進一步細分為兩個類型：硬性 (Hard) 及軟性 (Soft) 限制。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>hard limit</primary></indexterm>
       <para>硬性限制無法被超額使用。一旦使用者超出了硬性限制，該使用者在該檔案系統將無法再使用任何空間。舉例來說，若一個使用者在一個檔案系統上有 500 KB 的硬性限制，且目前已經使用了  490 KB，該使用者只能再使用 10 KB 的空間，若嘗試使用 11 KB 的空間將會失敗。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>soft limit</primary></indexterm>
       <para>軟性限制在有限的時間內可以被超額使用，即為寬限期 (Grace period)，預設為一週。若一個使用者超出限制並超過寬限期，則軟性限制將轉為硬性限制並且將不允許再使用空間。當使用者使用的空間回到低於軟性限制內，寬限期就會被重置。</para>
 
       <para>在下面的例子中，會編輯 <systemitem class="username">test</systemitem> 的配額。當執行 <command>edquota</command> 時，將會使用 <envar>EDITOR</envar> 指定的編輯器來編輯配額限制。預設的編輯器為 <application>vi</application>。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>edquota -u test</userinput>
 Quotas for user test:
 /usr: kbytes in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
         inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
 /usr/var: kbytes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
         inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)</screen>
 
       <para>正常每個開啟配額的檔案系統會有兩行需要設定，一行代表區塊限制 (Block limit) 而另一行代表節點限制 (inode limit)，更改行內的值來修改配額限制。舉例來說，要在 <filename>/usr</filename> 提高區塊的軟性限制到 <literal>500</literal> 以及硬性限制到 <literal>600</literal>，可更改行內的值如下：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/usr: kbytes in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)</programlisting>
 
       <para>新的配額限制將在離開編輯器後生效。</para>
 
       <para>有時會想要針對一群使用者設定配額限，這時可以透過指定想要的配額給第一個使用者，若然後使用 <option>-p</option> 來複製配額到指定範圍的使用者 ID  (<acronym>UID</acronym>)。以下指定將複製配額限制給 <acronym>UID</acronym> <literal>10,000</literal> 到 <literal>19,999</literal> 的使用者：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>edquota -p test 10000-19999</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要取得更多資訊，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>edquota</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>檢查配額限制與磁碟使用狀況</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>disk quotas</primary>
 	<secondary>checking</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>要檢查各別使用者或群組的配額與磁碟用量可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>quota</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。使用者僅可查看自己的配額以及所屬群組的配額，只有使超級使用者可以檢視所有使用者及群組的配額。要取得某個有開啟配額的檔案系統的所有配額及磁碟用量摘要，可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>repquota</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
       <para>正常情況，使用者未使用任何磁碟空間的檔案系統並不會顯示在 <command>quota</command> 的輸出結果中，即使該使用者有在該檔案系統設定配額限制，使用 <option>-v</option> 可以顯示這些檔案系統。以下是使用使用 <command>quota -v</command> 查詢某個使用者在兩個檔案系統上的配額限制的範例輸出。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002):
      Filesystem  usage    quota   limit   grace   files   quota   limit   grace
            /usr      65*     50      75   5days       7      50      60
        /usr/var       0      50      75               0      50      60</programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>grace period</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para>在這個例子當中，使用者在 <filename>/usr</filename> 的軟性限制 50 KB 已經超出了 15 KB 並已經過了 5 天寬限期。星號 <literal>*</literal> 代表該使用者目前已超出配額限制。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>NFS 上的配額</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NFS</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para>在 <acronym>NFS</acronym> 伺服器上，配額會由配額子系統強制執行，<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rpc.rquotad</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> Daemon 會提供配額資訊給 <acronym>NFS</acronym> 客戶端的 <command>quota</command>，讓在那些主機的使用者可以查看它們的配額統計資訊。</para>
 
       <para>在 <acronym>NFS</acronym> 伺服器上將 <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename> 中 <command>rpc.rquotad</command> 行前的 <literal>#</literal> 移除來開啟：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rquotad/1      dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad</programlisting>
 
       <para>然後重新啟動 <command>inetd</command>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service inetd restart</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disks-encrypting">
     <info>
       <title>磁碟分割區加密</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Lucky</firstname>
 	    <surname>Green</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  <affiliation>
 	    <address xml:lang="en">
 	      <email>shamrock@cypherpunks.to</email>
 	    </address>
 	  </affiliation>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>disks</primary>
       <secondary>encrypting</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD offers excellent online protections against
       unauthorized data access.  File permissions and <link linkend="mac">Mandatory Access Control</link> (MAC) help
       prevent unauthorized users from accessing data while the
       operating system is active and the computer is powered up.
       However, the permissions enforced by the operating system are
       irrelevant if an attacker has physical access to a computer and
       can move the computer's hard drive to another system to copy and
       analyze the data.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Regardless of how an attacker may have come into possession
       of a hard drive or powered-down computer, the
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym>-based cryptographic subsystems built
       into FreeBSD are able to protect the data on the computer's file
       systems against even highly-motivated attackers with significant
       resources.  Unlike encryption methods that encrypt individual
       files, the built-in <command>gbde</command> and
       <command>geli</command> utilities can be used to transparently
       encrypt entire file systems.  No cleartext ever touches the hard
       drive's platter.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter demonstrates how to create an encrypted file
       system on FreeBSD.  It first demonstrates the process using
       <command>gbde</command> and then demonstrates the same example
       using <command>geli</command>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 <application>gbde</application> 做磁碟加密</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The objective of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gbde</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> facility is to provide a
 	formidable challenge for an attacker to gain access to the
 	contents of a <emphasis>cold</emphasis> storage device.
 	However, if the computer is compromised while up and running
 	and the storage device is actively attached, or the attacker
 	has access to a valid passphrase, it offers no protection to
 	the contents of the storage device.  Thus, it is important to
 	provide physical security while the system is running and to
 	protect the passphrase used by the encryption
 	mechanism.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This facility provides several barriers to protect the
 	data stored in each disk sector.  It encrypts the contents of
 	a disk sector using 128-bit <acronym>AES</acronym> in
 	<acronym>CBC</acronym> mode.  Each sector on the disk is
 	encrypted with a different <acronym>AES</acronym> key.  For
 	more information on the cryptographic design, including how
 	the sector keys are derived from the user-supplied passphrase,
 	refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gbde</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides a kernel module for
 	<application>gbde</application> which can be loaded with this
 	command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload geom_bde</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If using a custom kernel configuration file, ensure it
 	contains this line:</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><literal>options GEOM_BDE</literal></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following example demonstrates adding a new hard drive
 	to a system that will hold a single encrypted partition that
 	will be mounted as <filename>/private</filename>.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Encrypting a Partition with
 	  <application>gbde</application></title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Add the New Hard Drive</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Install the new drive to the system as explained in
 	    <xref linkend="disks-adding"/>.  For the purposes of this
 	    example, a new hard drive partition has been added as
 	    <filename>/dev/ad4s1c</filename> and
 	    <filename>/dev/ad0s1<replaceable>*</replaceable></filename>
 	    represents the existing standard FreeBSD partitions.</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /dev/ad*</userinput>
 /dev/ad0        /dev/ad0s1b     /dev/ad0s1e     /dev/ad4s1
 /dev/ad0s1      /dev/ad0s1c     /dev/ad0s1f     /dev/ad4s1c
 /dev/ad0s1a     /dev/ad0s1d     /dev/ad4</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Create a Directory to Hold <command>gbde</command>
 	    Lock Files</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /etc/gbde</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <application>gbde</application> lock file
 	    contains information that <application>gbde</application>
 	    requires to access encrypted partitions.  Without access
 	    to the lock file, <application>gbde</application> will not
 	    be able to decrypt the data contained in the encrypted
 	    partition without significant manual intervention which is
 	    not supported by the software.  Each encrypted partition
 	    uses a separate lock file.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Initialize the <command>gbde</command>
 	    Partition</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A <application>gbde</application> partition must be
 	    initialized before it can be used.  This initialization
 	    needs to be performed only once.  This command will open
 	    the default editor, in order to set various configuration
 	    options in a template.  For use with the
 	    <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system, set the sector_size to
 	    2048:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gbde init /dev/ad4s1c -i -L /etc/gbde/ad4s1c.lock</userinput># $FreeBSD$
 #
 # Sector size is the smallest unit of data which can be read or written.
 # Making it too small decreases performance and decreases available space.
 # Making it too large may prevent filesystems from working.  512 is the
 # minimum and always safe.  For UFS, use the fragment size
 #
 sector_size	=	2048
 [...]</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Once the edit is saved, the user will be asked twice
 	    to type the passphrase used to secure the data.  The
 	    passphrase must be the same both times.  The ability of
 	    <application>gbde</application> to protect data depends
 	    entirely on the quality of the passphrase.  For tips on
 	    how to select a secure passphrase that is easy to
 	    remember, see <link xlink:href="http://world.std.com/~reinhold/diceware.html">http://world.std.com/~reinhold/diceware.htm</link>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This initialization creates a lock file for the
 	    <application>gbde</application> partition.  In this
 	    example, it is stored as
 	    <filename>/etc/gbde/ad4s1c.lock</filename>.  Lock files
 	    must end in <quote>.lock</quote> in order to be correctly
 	    detected by the <filename>/etc/rc.d/gbde</filename> start
 	    up script.</para>
 
 	  <caution>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Lock files <emphasis>must</emphasis> be backed up
 	      together with the contents of any encrypted partitions.
 	      Without the lock file, the legitimate owner will be
 	      unable to access the data on the encrypted
 	      partition.</para>
 	  </caution>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Attach the Encrypted Partition to the
 	    Kernel</title>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c.lock</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This command will prompt to input the passphrase that
 	    was selected during the initialization of the encrypted
 	    partition.  The new encrypted device will appear in
 	    <filename>/dev</filename> as
 	    <filename>/dev/device_name.bde</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /dev/ad*</userinput>
 /dev/ad0        /dev/ad0s1b     /dev/ad0s1e     /dev/ad4s1
 /dev/ad0s1      /dev/ad0s1c     /dev/ad0s1f     /dev/ad4s1c
 /dev/ad0s1a     /dev/ad0s1d     /dev/ad4        /dev/ad4s1c.bde</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Create a File System on the Encrypted
 	    Device</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Once the encrypted device has been attached to the
 	    kernel, a file system can be created on the device.  This
 	    example creates a <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system with
 	    soft updates enabled.  Be sure to specify the partition
 	    which has a
 	    <filename><replaceable>*</replaceable>.bde</filename>
 	    extension:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/ad4s1c.bde</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Mount the Encrypted Partition</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create a mount point and mount the encrypted file
 	    system:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /private</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Verify That the Encrypted File System is
 	    Available</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The encrypted file system should now be visible and
 	    available for use:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>df -H</userinput>
 Filesystem        Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a      1037M    72M   883M     8%    /
 /devfs            1.0K   1.0K     0B   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1f       8.1G    55K   7.5G     0%    /home
 /dev/ad0s1e      1037M   1.1M   953M     0%    /tmp
 /dev/ad0s1d       6.1G   1.9G   3.7G    35%    /usr
 /dev/ad4s1c.bde   150G   4.1K   138G     0%    /private</screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After each boot, any encrypted file systems must be
 	manually re-attached to the kernel, checked for errors, and
 	mounted, before the file systems can be used.  To configure
 	these steps, add the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gbde_autoattach_all="YES"
 gbde_devices="<replaceable>ad4s1c</replaceable>"
 gbde_lockdir="/etc/gbde"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This requires that the passphrase be entered at the
 	console at boot time.  After typing the correct passphrase,
 	the encrypted partition will be mounted automatically.
 	Additional <application>gbde</application> boot options are
 	available and listed in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 <!--
 What about bsdinstall?
 -->
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>sysinstall</application> is incompatible
 	  with <application>gbde</application>-encrypted devices.  All
 	  <filename>*.bde</filename> devices must be detached from the
 	  kernel before starting <application>sysinstall</application>
 	  or it will crash during its initial probing for devices.  To
 	  detach the encrypted device used in the example, use the
 	  following command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gbde detach /dev/<replaceable>ad4s1c</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="disks-encrypting-geli">
       <info>
 	<title>使用 <command>geli</command> 做磁碟加密</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Daniel</firstname>
 	      <surname>Gerzo</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An alternative cryptographic <acronym>GEOM</acronym> class
 	is available using <command>geli</command>.  This control
 	utility adds some features and uses a different scheme for
 	doing cryptographic work.  It provides the following
 	features:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Utilizes the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crypto</refentrytitle><manvolnum>9</manvolnum></citerefentry> framework and
 	    automatically uses cryptographic hardware when it is
 	    available.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Supports multiple cryptographic algorithms such as
 	    <acronym>AES</acronym>, Blowfish, and
 	    <acronym>3DES</acronym>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Allows the root partition to be encrypted.  The
 	    passphrase used to access the encrypted root partition
 	    will be requested during system boot.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Allows the use of two independent keys.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It is fast as it performs simple sector-to-sector
 	    encryption.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Allows backup and restore of master keys.  If a user
 	    destroys their keys, it is still possible to get access to
 	    the data by restoring keys from the backup.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Allows a disk to attach with a random, one-time key
 	    which is useful for swap partitions and temporary file
 	    systems.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More features and usage examples can be found in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following example describes how to generate a key file
 	which will be used as part of the master key for the encrypted
 	provider mounted under <filename>/private</filename>.  The key
 	file will provide some random data used to encrypt the master
 	key.  The master key will also be protected by a passphrase.
 	The provider's sector size will be 4kB.  The example describes
 	how to attach to the <command>geli</command> provider, create
 	a file system on it, mount it, work with it, and finally, how
 	to detach it.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Encrypting a Partition with
 	  <command>geli</command></title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Load <command>geli</command> Support</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Support for <command>geli</command> is available as a
 	    loadable kernel module.  To configure the system to
 	    automatically load the module at boot time, add the
 	    following line to
 	    <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">geom_eli_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To load the kernel module now:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload geom_eli</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For a custom kernel, ensure the kernel configuration
 	    file contains these lines:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">options GEOM_ELI
 device crypto</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Generate the Master Key</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The following commands generate a master key
 	    (<filename>/root/da2.key</filename>) that is protected
 	    with a passphrase.  The data source for the key file is
 	    <filename>/dev/random</filename> and the sector size of
 	    the provider (<filename>/dev/da2.eli</filename>) is 4kB as
 	    a bigger sector size provides better performance:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/random of=/root/da2.key bs=64 count=1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>geli init -s 4096 -K /root/da2.key /dev/da2</userinput>
 Enter new passphrase:
 Reenter new passphrase:</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It is not mandatory to use both a passphrase and a key
 	    file as either method of securing the master key can be
 	    used in isolation.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the key file is given as <quote>-</quote>, standard
 	    input will be used.  For example, this command generates
 	    three key files:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat keyfile1 keyfile2 keyfile3 | geli init -K - /dev/da2</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Attach the Provider with the Generated Key</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To attach the provider, specify the key file, the name
 	    of the disk, and the passphrase:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>geli attach -k /root/da2.key /dev/da2</userinput>
 Enter passphrase:</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This creates a new device with an
 	    <filename>.eli</filename> extension:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /dev/da2*</userinput>
 /dev/da2  /dev/da2.eli</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Create the New File System</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Next, format the device with the
 	    <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system and mount it on an
 	    existing mount point:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/random of=/dev/da2.eli bs=1m</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs /dev/da2.eli</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/da2.eli <replaceable>/private</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The encrypted file system should now be available for
 	    use:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df -H</userinput>
 Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a    248M    89M   139M    38%    /
 /devfs         1.0K   1.0K     0B   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1f    7.7G   2.3G   4.9G    32%    /usr
 /dev/ad0s1d    989M   1.5M   909M     0%    /tmp
 /dev/ad0s1e    3.9G   1.3G   2.3G    35%    /var
 /dev/da2.eli   150G   4.1K   138G     0%    /private</screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the work on the encrypted partition is done, and the
 	<filename>/private</filename> partition is no longer needed,
 	it is prudent to put the device into cold storage by
 	unmounting and detaching the <command>geli</command> encrypted
 	partition from the kernel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>umount /private</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>geli detach da2.eli</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <filename>rc.d</filename> script is provided to
 	simplify the mounting of <command>geli</command>-encrypted
 	devices at boot time.  For this example, add these lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">geli_devices="<replaceable>da2</replaceable>"
 geli_da2_flags="-k /root/<replaceable>da2.key</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This configures <filename>/dev/da2</filename> as a
 	<command>geli</command> provider with a master key of
 	<filename>/root/da2.key</filename>.  The system will
 	automatically detach the provider from the kernel before the
 	system shuts down.  During the startup process, the script
 	will prompt for the passphrase before attaching the provider.
 	Other kernel messages might be shown before and after the
 	password prompt.  If the boot process seems to stall, look
 	carefully for the password prompt among the other messages.
 	Once the correct passphrase is entered, the provider is
 	attached.  The file system is then mounted, typically by an
 	entry in <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  Refer to <xref linkend="mount-unmount"/> for instructions on how to
 	configure a file system to mount at boot time.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="swap-encrypting">
     <info>
       <title>交換空間加密</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Christian</firstname>
 	    <surname>Brueffer</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>swap</primary>
       <secondary>encrypting</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Like the encryption of disk partitions, encryption of swap
       space is used to protect sensitive information.  Consider an
       application that deals with passwords.  As long as these
       passwords stay in physical memory, they are not written to disk
       and will be cleared after a reboot.  However, if FreeBSD starts
       swapping out memory pages to free space, the passwords may be
       written to the disk unencrypted.  Encrypting swap space can be a
       solution for this scenario.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to configure an encrypted
       swap partition using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gbde</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> encryption.
       It assumes that
       <filename>/dev/ada0s1b</filename> is the swap partition.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定已加密的交換空間</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Swap partitions are not encrypted by default and should be
 	cleared of any sensitive data before continuing.  To overwrite
 	the current swap partition with random garbage, execute the
 	following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/random of=/dev/<replaceable>ada0s1b</replaceable> bs=1m</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To encrypt the swap partition using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gbde</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, add the
 	<literal>.bde</literal> suffix to the swap line in
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device		Mountpoint	FStype	Options		Dump	Pass#
 /dev/ada0s1b.bde	none		swap	sw		0	0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To instead encrypt the swap partition using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	use the
 	<literal>.eli</literal> suffix:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device		Mountpoint	FStype	Options		Dump	Pass#
 /dev/ada0s1b.eli	none		swap	sw		0	0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> uses the <acronym>AES</acronym>
 	algorithm with a key length of 128 bits.  Normally the default
 	settings will suffice.  If desired, these defaults can be
 	altered in the options field in
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  The possible flags
 	are:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">aalgo</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Data integrity verification algorithm used to ensure
 	      that the encrypted data has not been tampered with.  See
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a list of supported algorithms.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">ealgo</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Encryption algorithm used to protect the data.  See
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a list of supported algorithms.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">keylen</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The length of the key used for the encryption
 	      algorithm.  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the key lengths that
 	      are supported by each encryption algorithm.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">sectorsize</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The size of the blocks data is broken into before
 	      it is encrypted.  Larger sector sizes increase
 	      performance at the cost of higher storage
 	      overhead.  The recommended size is 4096 bytes.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example configures an encryped swap partition using
 	the Blowfish algorithm with a key length of 128 bits and a
 	sectorsize of 4 kilobytes:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device		Mountpoint	FStype	Options				Dump	Pass#
 /dev/ada0s1b.eli	none		swap	sw,ealgo=blowfish,keylen=128,sectorsize=4096	0	0</programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>加密的交換空間檢驗</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the system has rebooted, proper operation of the
 	encrypted swap can be verified using
 	<command>swapinfo</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gbde</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is being used:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>swapinfo</userinput>
 Device          1K-blocks     Used    Avail Capacity
 /dev/ada0s1b.bde   542720        0   542720     0%</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <citerefentry><refentrytitle>geli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is being used:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>swapinfo</userinput>
 Device          1K-blocks     Used    Avail Capacity
 /dev/ada0s1b.eli   542720        0   542720     0%</screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="disks-hast">
     <info>
       <title>高可用存儲空間 (<acronym>HAST</acronym>)</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Daniel</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gerzo</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Freddie</firstname>
 	    <surname>Cash</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>With inputs from </contrib>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Pawel Jakub</firstname>
 	    <surname>Dawidek</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Michael W.</firstname>
 	    <surname>Lucas</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Viktor</firstname>
 	    <surname>Petersson</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>HAST</primary>
       <secondary>high availability</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">High availability is one of the main requirements in
       serious business applications and highly-available storage is a
       key component in such environments.  In FreeBSD, the Highly
       Available STorage (<acronym>HAST</acronym>) framework allows
       transparent storage of the same data across several physically
       separated machines connected by a <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym>
       network.  <acronym>HAST</acronym> can be understood as a
       network-based RAID1 (mirror), and is similar to the DRBD®
       storage system used in the GNU/<trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> platform.  In combination
       with other high-availability features of FreeBSD like
       <acronym>CARP</acronym>, <acronym>HAST</acronym> makes it
       possible to build a highly-available storage cluster that is
       resistant to hardware failures.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following are the main features of
       <acronym>HAST</acronym>:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Can be used to mask <acronym>I/O</acronym> errors on
 	  local hard drives.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">File system agnostic as it works with any file system
 	  supported by FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Efficient and quick resynchronization as only the blocks
 	  that were modified during the downtime of a node are
 	  synchronized.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <!--
       <listitem>
 	<para>Has several synchronization modes to allow for fast
 	  failover.</para>
       </listitem>
       -->
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Can be used in an already deployed environment to add
 	  additional redundancy.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Together with <acronym>CARP</acronym>,
 	  <application>Heartbeat</application>, or other tools, it can
 	  be used to build a robust and durable storage system.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">After reading this section, you will know:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">What <acronym>HAST</acronym> is, how it works, and
 	  which features it provides.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to set up and use <acronym>HAST</acronym> on
 	  FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to integrate <acronym>CARP</acronym> and
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to build a robust storage system.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before reading this section, you should:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 及 FreeBSD 基礎 (<xref linkend="basics"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Know how to configure network
 	  interfaces and other core FreeBSD subsystems (<xref linkend="config-tuning"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Have a good understanding of FreeBSD
 	  networking (<xref linkend="network-communication"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>HAST</acronym> project was sponsored by The
       FreeBSD Foundation with support from <link xlink:href="http://www.omc.net/">http://www.omc.net/</link>
       and <link xlink:href="http://www.transip.nl/">http://www.transip.nl/</link>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>HAST 運作模式</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HAST</acronym> provides synchronous block-level
 	replication between two physical machines: the
 	<emphasis>primary</emphasis>, also known as the
 	<emphasis>master</emphasis> node, and the
 	<emphasis>secondary</emphasis>, or <emphasis>slave</emphasis>
 	node.  These two machines together are referred to as a
 	cluster.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <acronym>HAST</acronym> works in a primary-secondary
 	configuration, it allows only one of the cluster nodes to be
 	active at any given time.  The primary node, also called
 	<emphasis>active</emphasis>, is the one which will handle all
 	the <acronym>I/O</acronym> requests to
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym>-managed devices.  The secondary node
 	is automatically synchronized from the primary node.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The physical components of the <acronym>HAST</acronym>
 	system are the local disk on primary node, and the disk on the
 	remote, secondary node.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HAST</acronym> operates synchronously on a block
 	level, making it transparent to file systems and applications.
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym> provides regular GEOM providers in
 	<filename>/dev/hast/</filename> for use by other tools or
 	applications.  There is no difference between using
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym>-provided devices and raw disks or
 	partitions.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Each write, delete, or flush operation is sent to both the
 	local disk and to the remote disk over
 	<acronym>TCP/IP</acronym>.  Each read operation is served from
 	the local disk, unless the local disk is not up-to-date or an
 	<acronym>I/O</acronym> error occurs.  In such cases, the read
 	operation is sent to the secondary node.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HAST</acronym> tries to provide fast failure
 	recovery.  For this reason, it is important to reduce
 	synchronization time after a node's outage.  To provide fast
 	synchronization, <acronym>HAST</acronym> manages an on-disk
 	bitmap of dirty extents and only synchronizes those during a
 	regular synchronization, with an exception of the initial
 	sync.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are many ways to handle synchronization.
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym> implements several replication modes
 	to handle different synchronization methods:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>memsync</emphasis>: This mode reports a
 	    write operation as completed when the local write
 	    operation is finished and when the remote node
 	    acknowledges data arrival, but before actually storing the
 	    data.  The data on the remote node will be stored directly
 	    after sending the acknowledgement.  This mode is intended
 	    to reduce latency, but still provides good reliability.
 	    This mode is the default.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>fullsync</emphasis>: This mode reports a
 	    write operation as completed when both the local write and
 	    the remote write complete.  This is the safest and the
 	    slowest replication mode.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>async</emphasis>: This mode reports a write
 	    operation as completed when the local write completes.
 	    This is the fastest and the most dangerous replication
 	    mode.  It should only be used when replicating to a
 	    distant node where latency is too high for other
 	    modes.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>HAST 設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>HAST</acronym> framework consists of several
 	components:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hastd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon which provides data
 	    synchronization.  When this daemon is started, it will
 	    automatically load <varname>geom_gate.ko</varname>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The userland management utility,
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hastctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hast.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> configuration file.  This file
 	    must exist before starting
 	    <application>hastd</application>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Users who prefer to statically build
 	<literal>GEOM_GATE</literal> support into the kernel should
 	add this line to the custom kernel configuration file, then
 	rebuild the kernel using the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options	GEOM_GATE</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following example describes how to configure two nodes
 	in master-slave/primary-secondary operation using
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym> to replicate the data between the two.
 	The nodes will be called <literal>hasta</literal>, with an
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address of
 	<literal>172.16.0.1</literal>, and <literal>hastb</literal>,
 	with an <acronym>IP</acronym> address of
 	<literal>172.16.0.2</literal>.  Both nodes will have a
 	dedicated hard drive <filename>/dev/ad6</filename> of the same
 	size for <acronym>HAST</acronym> operation.  The
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym> pool, sometimes referred to as a
 	resource or the <acronym>GEOM</acronym> provider in <filename>/dev/hast/</filename>, will be called
 	<literal>test</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Configuration of <acronym>HAST</acronym> is done using
 	<filename>/etc/hast.conf</filename>.  This file should be
 	identical on both nodes.  The simplest configuration
 	is:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">resource <replaceable>test</replaceable> {
 	on <replaceable>hasta</replaceable> {
 		local <replaceable>/dev/ad6</replaceable>
 		remote <replaceable>172.16.0.2</replaceable>
 	}
 	on <replaceable>hastb</replaceable> {
 		local <replaceable>/dev/ad6</replaceable>
 		remote <replaceable>172.16.0.1</replaceable>
 	}
 }</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more advanced configuration, refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>hast.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is also possible to use host names in the
 	  <literal>remote</literal> statements if the hosts are
 	  resolvable and defined either in
 	  <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> or in the local
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym>.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the configuration exists on both nodes, the
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym> pool can be created.  Run these
 	commands on both nodes to place the initial metadata onto the
 	local disk and to start <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hastd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl create <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service hastd onestart</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is <emphasis>not</emphasis> possible to use
 	  <acronym>GEOM</acronym>
 	  providers with an existing file system or to convert an
 	  existing storage to a <acronym>HAST</acronym>-managed pool.
 	  This procedure needs to store some metadata on the provider
 	  and there will not be enough required space available on an
 	  existing provider.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A HAST node's <literal>primary</literal> or
 	<literal>secondary</literal> role is selected by an
 	administrator, or software like
 	<application>Heartbeat</application>, using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hastctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	On the primary node, <literal>hasta</literal>, issue this
 	command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl role primary <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Run this command on the secondary node,
 	<literal>hastb</literal>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl role secondary <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Verify the result by running <command>hastctl</command> on
 	each node:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl status <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Check the <literal>status</literal> line in the output.
 	If it says <literal>degraded</literal>, something is wrong
 	with the configuration file.  It should say
 	<literal>complete</literal> on each node, meaning that the
 	synchronization between the nodes has started.  The
 	synchronization completes when <command>hastctl
 	  status</command> reports 0 bytes of <literal>dirty</literal>
 	extents.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next step is to create a file system on the
 	<acronym>GEOM</acronym> provider and mount it.  This must be
 	done on the <literal>primary</literal> node.  Creating the
 	file system can take a few minutes, depending on the size of
 	the hard drive.  This example creates a <acronym>UFS</acronym>
 	file system on <filename>/dev/hast/test</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/hast/<replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /hast/<replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/hast/<replaceable>test</replaceable> <replaceable>/hast/test</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the <acronym>HAST</acronym> framework is configured
 	properly, the final step is to make sure that
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym> is started automatically during
 	system boot.  Add this line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hastd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>容錯移轉設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The goal of this example is to build a robust storage
 	  system which is resistant to the failure of any given node.
 	  If the primary node fails, the secondary node is there to
 	  take over seamlessly, check and mount the file system, and
 	  continue to work without missing a single bit of
 	  data.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To accomplish this task, the Common Address Redundancy
 	  Protocol (<acronym>CARP</acronym>) is used to provide for
 	  automatic failover at the <acronym>IP</acronym> layer.
 	  <acronym>CARP</acronym> allows multiple hosts on the same
 	  network segment to share an <acronym>IP</acronym> address.
 	  Set up <acronym>CARP</acronym> on both nodes of the cluster
 	  according to the documentation available in <xref linkend="carp"/>.  In this example, each node will have
 	  its own management <acronym>IP</acronym> address and a
 	  shared <acronym>IP</acronym> address of
 	  <replaceable>172.16.0.254</replaceable>.  The primary
 	  <acronym>HAST</acronym> node of the cluster must be the
 	  master <acronym>CARP</acronym> node.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>HAST</acronym> pool created in the previous
 	  section is now ready to be exported to the other hosts on
 	  the network.  This can be accomplished by exporting it
 	  through <acronym>NFS</acronym> or
 	  <application>Samba</application>, using the shared
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	  <replaceable>172.16.0.254</replaceable>.  The only problem
 	  which remains unresolved is an automatic failover should the
 	  primary node fail.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In the event of <acronym>CARP</acronym> interfaces going
 	  up or down, the FreeBSD operating system generates a
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> event, making it possible to watch for state
 	  changes on the <acronym>CARP</acronym> interfaces.  A state
 	  change on the <acronym>CARP</acronym> interface is an
 	  indication that one of the nodes failed or came back online.
 	  These state change events make it possible to run a script
 	  which will automatically handle the HAST failover.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To catch state changes on the
 	  <acronym>CARP</acronym> interfaces, add this configuration
 	  to <filename>/etc/devd.conf</filename> on each node:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">notify 30 {
 	match "system" "IFNET";
 	match "subsystem" "carp0";
 	match "type" "LINK_UP";
 	action "/usr/local/sbin/carp-hast-switch master";
 };
 
 notify 30 {
 	match "system" "IFNET";
 	match "subsystem" "carp0";
 	match "type" "LINK_DOWN";
 	action "/usr/local/sbin/carp-hast-switch slave";
 };</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the systems are running FreeBSD 10 or higher,
 	    replace <filename>carp0</filename> with the name of the
 	    <acronym>CARP</acronym>-configured interface.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Restart <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> on both nodes to put the new
 	  configuration into effect:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service devd restart</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When the specified interface state changes by going up
 	  or down , the system generates a notification, allowing the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> subsystem to run the specified automatic
 	  failover script,
 	  <filename>/usr/local/sbin/carp-hast-switch</filename>.
 	  For further clarification about this configuration, refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Here is an example of an automated failover
 	  script:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 
 # Original script by Freddie Cash &lt;fjwcash@gmail.com&gt;
 # Modified by Michael W. Lucas &lt;mwlucas@BlackHelicopters.org&gt;
 # and Viktor Petersson &lt;vpetersson@wireload.net&gt;
 
 # The names of the HAST resources, as listed in /etc/hast.conf
 resources="<replaceable>test</replaceable>"
 
 # delay in mounting HAST resource after becoming master
 # make your best guess
 delay=3
 
 # logging
 log="local0.debug"
 name="carp-hast"
 
 # end of user configurable stuff
 
 case "$1" in
 	master)
 		logger -p $log -t $name "Switching to primary provider for ${resources}."
 		sleep ${delay}
 
 		# Wait for any "hastd secondary" processes to stop
 		for disk in ${resources}; do
 			while $( pgrep -lf "hastd: ${disk} \(secondary\)" &gt; /dev/null 2&gt;&amp;1 ); do
 				sleep 1
 			done
 
 			# Switch role for each disk
 			hastctl role primary ${disk}
 			if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then
 				logger -p $log -t $name "Unable to change role to primary for resource ${disk}."
 				exit 1
 			fi
 		done
 
 		# Wait for the /dev/hast/* devices to appear
 		for disk in ${resources}; do
 			for I in $( jot 60 ); do
 				[ -c "/dev/hast/${disk}" ] &amp;&amp; break
 				sleep 0.5
 			done
 
 			if [ ! -c "/dev/hast/${disk}" ]; then
 				logger -p $log -t $name "GEOM provider /dev/hast/${disk} did not appear."
 				exit 1
 			fi
 		done
 
 		logger -p $log -t $name "Role for HAST resources ${resources} switched to primary."
 
 
 		logger -p $log -t $name "Mounting disks."
 		for disk in ${resources}; do
 			mkdir -p /hast/${disk}
 			fsck -p -y -t ufs /dev/hast/${disk}
 			mount /dev/hast/${disk} /hast/${disk}
 		done
 
 	;;
 
 	slave)
 		logger -p $log -t $name "Switching to secondary provider for ${resources}."
 
 		# Switch roles for the HAST resources
 		for disk in ${resources}; do
 			if ! mount | grep -q "^/dev/hast/${disk} on "
 			then
 			else
 				umount -f /hast/${disk}
 			fi
 			sleep $delay
 			hastctl role secondary ${disk} 2&gt;&amp;1
 			if [ $? -ne 0 ]; then
 				logger -p $log -t $name "Unable to switch role to secondary for resource ${disk}."
 				exit 1
 			fi
 			logger -p $log -t $name "Role switched to secondary for resource ${disk}."
 		done
 	;;
 esac</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In a nutshell, the script takes these actions when a
 	  node becomes master:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Promotes the <acronym>HAST</acronym> pool to
 	      primary on the other node.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Checks the file system under the
 	      <acronym>HAST</acronym> pool.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Mounts the pool.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When a node becomes secondary:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Unmounts the <acronym>HAST</acronym> pool.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Degrades the <acronym>HAST</acronym> pool to
 	      secondary.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<caution>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This is just an example script which serves as a proof
 	    of concept.  It does not handle all the possible scenarios
 	    and can be extended or altered in any way, for example, to
 	    start or stop required services.</para>
 	</caution>
 
 	<tip>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For this example, a standard <acronym>UFS</acronym>
 	    file system was used.  To reduce the time needed for
 	    recovery, a journal-enabled <acronym>UFS</acronym> or
 	    <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file system can be used
 	    instead.</para>
 	</tip>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">More detailed information with additional examples can
 	  be found at <link xlink:href="http://wiki.FreeBSD.org/HAST">http://wiki.FreeBSD.org/HAST</link>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HAST</acronym> should generally work without
 	issues.  However, as with any other software product, there
 	may be times when it does not work as supposed.  The sources
 	of the problems may be different, but the rule of thumb is to
 	ensure that the time is synchronized between the nodes of the
 	cluster.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When troubleshooting <acronym>HAST</acronym>, the
 	debugging level of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hastd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> should be increased by
 	starting <command>hastd</command> with <literal>-d</literal>.
 	This argument may be specified multiple times to further
 	increase the debugging level.  Consider also using
 	<literal>-F</literal>, which starts <command>hastd</command>
 	in the foreground.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="disks-hast-sb">
 	<title>自 Split-brain 情況復原</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><firstterm>Split-brain</firstterm> occurs when the nodes
 	  of the cluster are unable to communicate with each other,
 	  and both are configured as primary.  This is a dangerous
 	  condition because it allows both nodes to make incompatible
 	  changes to the data.  This problem must be corrected
 	  manually by the system administrator.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The administrator must either decide which node has more
 	  important changes, or perform the merge manually.  Then, let
 	  <acronym>HAST</acronym> perform full synchronization of the
 	  node which has the broken data.  To do this, issue these
 	  commands on the node which needs to be
 	  resynchronized:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl role init <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl create <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hastctl role secondary <replaceable>test</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="geom">
 
   <info>
     <title xml:lang="en">GEOM: Modular Disk Transformation Framework</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym> Disk Framework</primary>
       <see><acronym>GEOM</acronym></see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, the <acronym>GEOM</acronym> framework permits
       access and control to classes, such as Master Boot Records and
       <acronym>BSD</acronym> labels, through the use of providers, or
       the disk devices in <filename>/dev</filename>.  By supporting
       various software <acronym>RAID</acronym> configurations,
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym> transparently provides access  to the
       operating system and operating system utilities.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter covers the use of disks under the
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym> framework in FreeBSD.  This includes the
       major <acronym>RAID</acronym> control utilities which use the
       framework for configuration.  This chapter is not a definitive
       guide to <acronym>RAID</acronym> configurations and only
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym>-supported <acronym>RAID</acronym>
       classifications are discussed.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">What type of <acronym>RAID</acronym> support is
 	  available through <acronym>GEOM</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to use the base utilities to configure, maintain,
 	  and manipulate the various <acronym>RAID</acronym>
 	  levels.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to mirror, stripe, encrypt, and remotely connect
 	  disk devices through <acronym>GEOM</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to troubleshoot disks attached to the
 	  <acronym>GEOM</acronym> framework.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Understand how FreeBSD treats disk devices (<xref linkend="disks"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何設定並安裝新的核心 (<xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-striping">
     <info>
-      <title>RAID0 - 分散 (Striping)</title>
+      <title>RAID0 - 串連 (Striping)</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	    <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Striping</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Striping combines several disk drives into a single volume.
       Striping can be performed through the use of hardware
       <acronym>RAID</acronym> controllers.  The
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym> disk subsystem provides software support
       for disk striping, also known as <acronym>RAID0</acronym>,
       without the need for a <acronym>RAID</acronym> disk
       controller.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In <acronym>RAID0</acronym>, data is split into blocks that
       are written across all the drives in the array.  As seen in the
       following illustration, instead of having to wait on the system
       to write 256k to one disk, <acronym>RAID0</acronym> can
       simultaneously write 64k to each of the four disks in the array,
       offering superior <acronym>I/O</acronym> performance.  This
       performance can be enhanced further by using multiple disk
       controllers.</para>
 
     <mediaobject xml:lang="en">
       <imageobject>
 	<imagedata fileref="geom/striping" align="center"/>
       </imageobject>
 
       <textobject>
 	<phrase>Disk Striping Illustration</phrase>
       </textobject>
     </mediaobject>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Each disk in a <acronym>RAID0</acronym> stripe must be of
       the same size, since <acronym>I/O</acronym> requests are
       interleaved to read or write to multiple disks in
       parallel.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>RAID0</acronym> does <emphasis>not</emphasis>
 	provide any redundancy.  This means that if one disk in the
 	array fails, all of the data on the disks is lost.  If the
 	data is important, implement a backup strategy that regularly
 	saves backups to a remote system or device.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The process for creating a software,
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym>-based <acronym>RAID0</acronym> on a FreeBSD
       system using commodity disks is as follows.  Once the stripe is
       created, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gstripe</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on how
       to control an existing stripe.</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <title xml:lang="en">Creating a Stripe of Unformatted <acronym>ATA</acronym>
 	Disks</title>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Load the <filename>geom_stripe.ko</filename>
 	  module:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload geom_stripe</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Ensure that a suitable mount point exists.  If this
 	  volume will become a root partition, then temporarily use
 	  another mount point such as
 	  <filename>/mnt</filename>.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Determine the device names for the disks which will
 	  be striped, and create the new stripe device.  For example,
 	  to stripe two unused and unpartitioned
 	  <acronym>ATA</acronym> disks with device names of
 	  <filename>/dev/ad2</filename> and
 	  <filename>/dev/ad3</filename>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gstripe label -v st0 /dev/ad2 /dev/ad3</userinput>
 Metadata value stored on /dev/ad2.
 Metadata value stored on /dev/ad3.
 Done.</screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Write a standard label, also known as a partition table,
 	  on the new volume and install the default bootstrap
 	  code:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bsdlabel -wB /dev/stripe/st0</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This process should create two other devices in
 	  <filename>/dev/stripe</filename> in addition to
 	  <filename>st0</filename>.  Those include
 	  <filename>st0a</filename> and <filename>st0c</filename>.  At
 	  this point, a <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system can be
 	  created on <filename>st0a</filename> using
 	  <command>newfs</command>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/stripe/st0a</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Many numbers will glide across the screen, and after a
 	  few seconds, the process will be complete.  The volume has
 	  been created and is ready to be mounted.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">To manually mount the created disk stripe:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/stripe/st0a /mnt</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">To mount this striped file system automatically during
 	  the boot process, place the volume information in
 	  <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  In this example, a
 	  permanent mount point, named <filename>stripe</filename>, is
 	  created:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /stripe</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo "/dev/stripe/st0a /stripe ufs rw 2 2" \</userinput>
 <userinput>&gt;&gt; /etc/fstab</userinput></screen>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <filename>geom_stripe.ko</filename> module must also
 	  be automatically loaded during system initialization, by
 	  adding a line to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo 'geom_stripe_load="YES"' &gt;&gt; /boot/loader.conf</userinput></screen>
       </step>
     </procedure>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-mirror">
-    <title>RAID1 - 鏡射 (Mirroring)</title>
+    <title>RAID1 - 鏡像 (Mirroring)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Disk Mirroring</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>RAID1</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>RAID1</acronym>, or
       <emphasis>mirroring</emphasis>, is the technique of writing
       the same data to more than one disk drive.  Mirrors are usually
       used to guard against data loss due to drive failure.  Each
       drive in a mirror contains an identical copy of the data.  When
       an individual drive fails, the mirror continues to work,
       providing data from the drives that are still functioning.  The
       computer keeps running, and the administrator has time to
       replace the failed drive without user interruption.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Two common situations are illustrated in these examples.
       The first creates a mirror out of two new drives and uses it as
       a replacement for an existing single drive.  The second example
       creates a mirror on a single new drive, copies the old drive's
       data to it, then inserts the old drive into the mirror.  While
       this procedure is slightly more complicated, it only requires
       one new drive.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Traditionally, the two drives in a mirror are identical in
       model and capacity, but <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gmirror</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> does not require that.
       Mirrors created with dissimilar drives will have a capacity
       equal to that of the smallest drive in the mirror.  Extra space
       on larger drives will be unused.  Drives inserted into the
       mirror later must have at least as much capacity as the smallest
       drive already in the mirror.</para>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">The mirroring procedures shown here are non-destructive,
 	but as with any major disk operation, make a full backup
 	first.</para>
     </warning>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">While <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used in these procedures
 	to copy file systems, it does not work on file systems with
 	soft updates journaling.  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for information
 	on detecting and disabling soft updates journaling.</para>
     </warning>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-mirror-metadata">
       <title>Metadata 問題</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Many disk systems store metadata at the end of each disk.
 	Old metadata should be erased before reusing the disk for a
 	mirror.  Most problems are caused by two particular types of
 	leftover metadata: <acronym>GPT</acronym> partition tables and
 	old metadata from a previous mirror.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>GPT</acronym> metadata can be erased with
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This example erases both primary and backup
 	<acronym>GPT</acronym> partition tables from disk
 	<filename>ada8</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart destroy -F ada8</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A disk can be removed from an active mirror and the
 	metadata erased in one step using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gmirror</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Here, the
 	example disk <filename>ada8</filename> is removed from the
 	active mirror <filename>gm4</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror remove gm4 ada8</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the mirror is not running, but old mirror metadata is
 	still on the disk, use <command>gmirror clear</command> to
 	remove it:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror clear ada8</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>gmirror</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> stores one block of metadata at the end of
 	the disk.  Because <acronym>GPT</acronym> partition schemes
 	also store metadata at the end of the disk, mirroring entire
 	<acronym>GPT</acronym> disks with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gmirror</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is not
 	recommended.  <acronym>MBR</acronym> partitioning is used here
 	because it only stores a partition table at the start of the
 	disk and does not conflict with the mirror metadata.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-mirror-two-new-disks">
-      <title>使用兩個新磁碟建立鏡射</title>
+      <title>使用兩個新磁碟建立鏡像</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, FreeBSD has already been installed on a
 	single disk, <filename>ada0</filename>.  Two new disks,
 	<filename>ada1</filename> and <filename>ada2</filename>, have
 	been connected to the system.  A new mirror will be created on
 	these two disks and used to replace the old single
 	disk.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>geom_mirror.ko</filename> kernel module must
 	either be built into the kernel or loaded at boot- or
 	run-time.  Manually load the kernel module now:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror load</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create the mirror with the two new drives:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror label -v gm0 /dev/ada1 /dev/ada2</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><filename>gm0</filename> is a user-chosen device name
 	assigned to the new mirror.  After the mirror has been
 	started, this device name appears in
 	<filename>/dev/mirror/</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>MBR</acronym> and
 	<application>bsdlabel</application> partition tables can now
 	be created on the mirror with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This example
 	uses a traditional file system layout, with partitions for
 	<filename>/</filename>, swap, <filename>/var</filename>,
 	<filename>/tmp</filename>, and <filename>/usr</filename>.  A
 	single <filename>/</filename> and a swap partition
 	will also work.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Partitions on the mirror do not have to be the same size
 	as those on the existing disk, but they must be large enough
 	to hold all the data already present on
 	<filename>ada0</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart create -s MBR mirror/gm0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd -a 4k mirror/gm0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show mirror/gm0</userinput>
 =&gt;       63  156301423  mirror/gm0  MBR  (74G)
          63         63                    - free -  (31k)
         126  156301299                 1  freebsd  (74G)
   156301425         61                    - free -  (30k)</screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart create -s BSD mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-ufs  -a 4k -s 2g mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-swap -a 4k -s 4g mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-ufs  -a 4k -s 2g mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-ufs  -a 4k -s 1g mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-ufs  -a 4k       mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 =&gt;        0  156301299  mirror/gm0s1  BSD  (74G)
           0          2                      - free -  (1.0k)
           2    4194304                   1  freebsd-ufs  (2.0G)
     4194306    8388608                   2  freebsd-swap  (4.0G)
    12582914    4194304                   4  freebsd-ufs  (2.0G)
    16777218    2097152                   5  freebsd-ufs  (1.0G)
    18874370  137426928                   6  freebsd-ufs  (65G)
   156301298          1                      - free -  (512B)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Make the mirror bootable by installing bootcode in the
 	<acronym>MBR</acronym> and bsdlabel and setting the active
 	slice:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/mbr mirror/gm0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart set -a active -i 1 mirror/gm0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/boot mirror/gm0s1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Format the file systems on the new mirror, enabling
 	soft-updates.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1a</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1d</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1e</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1f</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">File systems from the original <filename>ada0</filename>
 	disk can now be copied onto the mirror with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>restore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1a /mnt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - / | (cd /mnt &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1d /mnt/var</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1e /mnt/tmp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1f /mnt/usr</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /var | (cd /mnt/var &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /tmp | (cd /mnt/tmp &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /usr | (cd /mnt/usr &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/mnt/etc/fstab</filename> to point to
 	the new mirror file systems:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device		Mountpoint	FStype	Options	Dump	Pass#
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1a	/		ufs	rw	1	1
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1b	none		swap	sw	0	0
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1d	/var		ufs	rw	2	2
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1e	/tmp		ufs	rw	2	2
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1f	/usr		ufs	rw	2	2</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <filename>geom_mirror.ko</filename> kernel module
 	has not been built into the kernel,
 	<filename>/mnt/boot/loader.conf</filename> is edited to load
 	the module at boot:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">geom_mirror_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Reboot the system to test the new mirror and verify that
 	all data has been copied.  The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> will
 	see the mirror as two individual drives rather than a mirror.
 	Because the drives are identical, it does not matter which is
 	selected to boot.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">See <xref linkend="gmirror-troubleshooting"/> if there are
 	problems booting.  Powering down and disconnecting the
 	original <filename>ada0</filename> disk will allow it to be
 	kept as an offline backup.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In use, the mirror will behave just like the original
 	single drive.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-mirror-existing-drive">
-      <title>使用既有磁碟建立鏡射</title>
+      <title>使用既有磁碟建立鏡像</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, FreeBSD has already been installed on a
 	single disk, <filename>ada0</filename>.  A new disk,
 	<filename>ada1</filename>, has been connected to the system.
 	A one-disk mirror will be created on the new disk, the
 	existing system copied onto it, and then the old disk will be
 	inserted into the mirror.  This slightly complex procedure is
 	required because <command>gmirror</command> needs to put a
 	512-byte block of metadata at the end of each disk, and the
 	existing <filename>ada0</filename> has usually had all of its
 	space already allocated.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Load the <filename>geom_mirror.ko</filename> kernel
 	module:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror load</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Check the media size of the original disk with
 	<command>diskinfo</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>diskinfo -v ada0 | head -n3</userinput>
 /dev/ada0
 	512             # sectorsize
 	1000204821504   # mediasize in bytes (931G)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a mirror on the new disk.  To make certain that the
 	mirror capacity is not any larger than the original
 	<filename>ada0</filename> drive, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gnop</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to
 	create a fake drive of the exact same size.  This drive does
 	not store any data, but is used only to limit the size of the
 	mirror.  When <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gmirror</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> creates the mirror, it will
 	restrict the capacity to the size of
 	<filename>gzero.nop</filename>, even if the new
 	<filename>ada1</filename> drive has more space.  Note that the
 	<replaceable>1000204821504</replaceable> in the second line is
 	equal to <filename>ada0</filename>'s media size as shown by
 	<command>diskinfo</command> above.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>geom zero load</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gnop create -s 1000204821504 gzero</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror label -v gm0 gzero.nop ada1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror forget gm0</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <filename>gzero.nop</filename> does not store any
 	data, the mirror does not see it as connected.  The mirror is
 	told to <quote>forget</quote> unconnected components, removing
 	references to <filename>gzero.nop</filename>.  The result is a
 	mirror device containing only a single disk,
 	<filename>ada1</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After creating <filename>gm0</filename>, view the
 	partition table on <filename>ada0</filename>.  This output is
 	from a 1 TB drive.  If there is some unallocated space at
 	the end of the drive, the contents may be copied directly from
 	<filename>ada0</filename> to the new mirror.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">However, if the output shows that all of the space on the
 	disk is allocated, as in the following listing, there is no
 	space available for the 512-byte mirror metadata at the end of
 	the disk.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show ada0</userinput>
 =&gt;        63  1953525105        ada0  MBR  (931G)
           63  1953525105           1  freebsd  [active]  (931G)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this case, the partition table must be edited to reduce
 	the capacity by one sector on <filename>mirror/gm0</filename>.
 	The procedure will be explained later.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In either case, partition tables on the primary disk
 	should be first copied using <command>gpart backup</command>
 	and <command>gpart restore</command>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart backup ada0 &gt; table.ada0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart backup ada0s1 &gt; table.ada0s1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These commands create two files,
 	<filename>table.ada0</filename> and
 	<filename>table.ada0s1</filename>.  This example is from a
 	1 TB drive:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat table.ada0</userinput>
 MBR 4
 1 freebsd         63 1953525105   [active]</screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat table.ada0s1</userinput>
 BSD 8
 1  freebsd-ufs          0    4194304
 2 freebsd-swap    4194304   33554432
 4  freebsd-ufs   37748736   50331648
 5  freebsd-ufs   88080384   41943040
 6  freebsd-ufs  130023424  838860800
 7  freebsd-ufs  968884224  984640881</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If no free space is shown at the end of the disk, the size
 	of both the slice and the last partition must be reduced by
 	one sector.  Edit the two files, reducing the size of both the
 	slice and last partition by one.  These are the last numbers
 	in each listing.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat table.ada0</userinput>
 MBR 4
 1 freebsd         63 <emphasis>1953525104</emphasis>   [active]</screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat table.ada0s1</userinput>
 BSD 8
 1  freebsd-ufs          0    4194304
 2 freebsd-swap    4194304   33554432
 4  freebsd-ufs   37748736   50331648
 5  freebsd-ufs   88080384   41943040
 6  freebsd-ufs  130023424  838860800
 7  freebsd-ufs  968884224  <emphasis>984640880</emphasis></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If at least one sector was unallocated at the end of the
 	disk, these two files can be used without modification.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now restore the partition table into
 	<filename>mirror/gm0</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart restore mirror/gm0 &lt; table.ada0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart restore mirror/gm0s1 &lt; table.ada0s1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Check the partition table with
 	<command>gpart show</command>.  This example has
 	<filename>gm0s1a</filename> for <filename>/</filename>,
 	<filename>gm0s1d</filename> for <filename>/var</filename>,
 	<filename>gm0s1e</filename> for <filename>/usr</filename>,
 	<filename>gm0s1f</filename> for <filename>/data1</filename>,
 	and <filename>gm0s1g</filename> for
 	<filename>/data2</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show mirror/gm0</userinput>
 =&gt;        63  1953525104  mirror/gm0  MBR  (931G)
           63  1953525042           1  freebsd  [active]  (931G)
   1953525105          62              - free -  (31k)
 
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart show mirror/gm0s1</userinput>
 =&gt;         0  1953525042  mirror/gm0s1  BSD  (931G)
            0     2097152             1  freebsd-ufs  (1.0G)
      2097152    16777216             2  freebsd-swap  (8.0G)
     18874368    41943040             4  freebsd-ufs  (20G)
     60817408    20971520             5  freebsd-ufs  (10G)
     81788928   629145600             6  freebsd-ufs  (300G)
    710934528  1242590514             7  freebsd-ufs  (592G)
   1953525042          63                - free -  (31k)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Both the slice and the last partition must have at least
 	one free block at the end of the disk.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create file systems on these new partitions.  The number
 	of partitions will vary to match the original disk,
 	<filename>ada0</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1a</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1d</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1e</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1f</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -U /dev/mirror/gm0s1g</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Make the mirror bootable by installing bootcode in the
 	<acronym>MBR</acronym> and bsdlabel and setting the active
 	slice:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/mbr mirror/gm0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart set -a active -i 1 mirror/gm0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/boot mirror/gm0s1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Adjust <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to use the new
 	partitions on the mirror.  Back up this file first by copying
 	it to <filename>/etc/fstab.orig</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /etc/fstab /etc/fstab.orig</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>, replacing
 	<filename>/dev/ada0</filename> with
 	<filename>mirror/gm0</filename>.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device		Mountpoint	FStype	Options	Dump	Pass#
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1a	/		ufs	rw	1	1
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1b	none		swap	sw	0	0
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1d	/var		ufs	rw	2	2
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1e	/usr		ufs	rw	2	2
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1f	/data1		ufs	rw	2	2
 /dev/mirror/gm0s1g	/data2		ufs	rw	2	2</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <filename>geom_mirror.ko</filename> kernel module
 	has not been built into the kernel, edit
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> to load it at
 	boot:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">geom_mirror_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">File systems from the original disk can now be copied onto
 	the mirror with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>restore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Each file
 	system dumped with <command>dump -L</command> will create a
 	snapshot first, which can take some time.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1a /mnt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /    | (cd /mnt &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1d /mnt/var</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1e /mnt/usr</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1f /mnt/data1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1g /mnt/data2</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /usr | (cd /mnt/usr &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /var | (cd /mnt/var &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /data1 | (cd /mnt/data1 &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dump -C16 -b64 -0aL -f - /data2 | (cd /mnt/data2 &amp;&amp; restore -rf -)</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Restart the system, booting from
 	<filename>ada1</filename>.  If everything is working, the
 	system will boot from <filename>mirror/gm0</filename>, which
 	now contains the same data as <filename>ada0</filename> had
 	previously.  See <xref linkend="gmirror-troubleshooting"/> if
 	there are problems booting.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, the mirror still consists of only the
 	single <filename>ada1</filename> disk.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After booting from <filename>mirror/gm0</filename>
 	successfully, the final step is inserting
 	<filename>ada0</filename> into the mirror.</para>
 
       <important>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When <filename>ada0</filename> is inserted into the
 	  mirror, its former contents will be overwritten by data from
 	  the mirror.  Make certain that
 	  <filename>mirror/gm0</filename> has the same contents as
 	  <filename>ada0</filename> before adding
 	  <filename>ada0</filename> to the mirror.  If the contents
 	  previously copied by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>restore</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> are
 	  not identical to what was on <filename>ada0</filename>,
 	  revert <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to mount the file
 	  systems on <filename>ada0</filename>, reboot, and start the
 	  whole procedure again.</para>
       </important>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror insert gm0 ada0</userinput>
 GEOM_MIRROR: Device gm0: rebuilding provider ada0</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Synchronization between the two disks will start
 	immediately.  Use <command>gmirror status</command> to view
 	the progress.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror status</userinput>
       Name    Status  Components
 mirror/gm0  DEGRADED  ada1 (ACTIVE)
                       ada0 (SYNCHRONIZING, 64%)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After a while, synchronization will finish.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">GEOM_MIRROR: Device gm0: rebuilding provider ada0 finished.
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror status</userinput>
       Name    Status  Components
 mirror/gm0  COMPLETE  ada1 (ACTIVE)
                       ada0 (ACTIVE)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><filename>mirror/gm0</filename> now consists
 	of the two disks <filename>ada0</filename> and
 	<filename>ada1</filename>, and the contents are automatically
 	synchronized with each other.  In use,
 	<filename>mirror/gm0</filename> will behave just like the
 	original single drive.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="gmirror-troubleshooting">
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the system no longer boots, <acronym>BIOS</acronym>
 	settings may have to be changed to boot from one of the new
 	mirrored drives.  Either mirror drive can be used for booting,
 	as they contain identical data.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the boot stops with this message, something is wrong
 	with the mirror device:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Mounting from ufs:/dev/mirror/gm0s1a failed with error 19.
 
 Loader variables:
   vfs.root.mountfrom=ufs:/dev/mirror/gm0s1a
   vfs.root.mountfrom.options=rw
 
 Manual root filesystem specification:
   &lt;fstype&gt;:&lt;device&gt; [options]
       Mount &lt;device&gt; using filesystem &lt;fstype&gt;
       and with the specified (optional) option list.
 
     eg. ufs:/dev/da0s1a
         zfs:tank
         cd9660:/dev/acd0 ro
           (which is equivalent to: mount -t cd9660 -o ro /dev/acd0 /)
 
   ?               List valid disk boot devices
   .               Yield 1 second (for background tasks)
   &lt;empty line&gt;    Abort manual input
 
 mountroot&gt;</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Forgetting to load the <filename>geom_mirror.ko</filename>
 	module in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> can cause
 	this problem.  To fix it, boot from a FreeBSD
 	installation media and choose <literal>Shell</literal> at the
 	first prompt.  Then load the mirror module and mount the
 	mirror device:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror load</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/mirror/gm0s1a /mnt</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/mnt/boot/loader.conf</filename>, adding a
 	line to load the mirror module:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">geom_mirror_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Save the file and reboot.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other problems that cause <errorname>error 19</errorname>
 	require more effort to fix.  Although the system should boot
 	from <filename>ada0</filename>, another prompt to select a
 	shell will appear if <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> is
 	incorrect.  Enter <literal>ufs:/dev/ada0s1a</literal> at the
 	boot loader prompt and press <keycap>Enter</keycap>.  Undo the
 	edits in <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> then mount the file
 	systems from the original disk (<filename>ada0</filename>)
 	instead of the mirror.  Reboot the system and try the
 	procedure again.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Enter full pathname of shell or RETURN for /bin/sh:
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /etc/fstab.orig /etc/fstab</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>reboot</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>自磁碟故障復原</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The benefit of disk mirroring is that an individual disk
 	can fail without causing the mirror to lose any data.  In the
 	above example, if <filename>ada0</filename> fails, the mirror
 	will continue to work, providing data from the remaining
 	working drive, <filename>ada1</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To replace the failed drive, shut down the system and
 	physically replace the failed drive with a new drive of equal
 	or greater capacity.  Manufacturers use somewhat arbitrary
 	values when rating drives in gigabytes, and the only way to
 	really be sure is to compare the total count of sectors shown
 	by <command>diskinfo -v</command>.  A drive with larger
 	capacity than the mirror will work, although the extra space
 	on the new drive will not be used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After the computer is powered back up, the mirror will be
 	running in a <quote>degraded</quote> mode with only one drive.
 	The mirror is told to forget drives that are not currently
 	connected:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror forget gm0</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Any old metadata should be cleared from the replacement
 	disk using the instructions in
 	<xref linkend="geom-mirror-metadata"/>.  Then the replacement
 	disk, <filename>ada4</filename> for this example, is inserted
 	into the mirror:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gmirror insert gm0 /dev/ada4</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Resynchronization begins when the new drive is inserted
 	into the mirror.  This process of copying mirror data to a new
 	drive can take a while.  Performance of the mirror will be
 	greatly reduced during the copy, so inserting new drives is
 	best done when there is low demand on the computer.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Progress can be monitored with <command>gmirror
 	  status</command>, which shows drives that are being
 	synchronized and the percentage of completion.  During
 	resynchronization, the status will be
 	<computeroutput>DEGRADED</computeroutput>, changing to
 	<computeroutput>COMPLETE</computeroutput> when the process is
 	finished.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-raid3">
     <info>
 
-      <title><acronym>RAID</acronym>3 - 位元級分散儲存與獨立奇偶校驗</title>
+      <title><acronym>RAID</acronym>3 - 位元級串連與獨立奇偶校驗</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Mark</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gladman</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Daniel</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gerzo</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Based on documentation by </contrib>
 	</author>
 
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	    <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>RAID3</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>RAID</acronym>3 is a method used to combine several
       disk drives into a single volume with a dedicated parity disk.
       In a <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 system, data is split up into a
       number of bytes that are written across all the drives in the
       array except for one disk which acts as a dedicated parity disk.
       This means that disk reads from a <acronym>RAID</acronym>3
       implementation access all disks in the array.  Performance can
       be enhanced by using multiple disk controllers.  The
       <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 array provides a fault tolerance of 1
       drive, while providing a capacity of 1 - 1/n times the total
       capacity of all drives in the array, where n is the number of
       hard drives in the array.  Such a configuration is mostly
       suitable for storing data of larger sizes such as multimedia
       files.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">At least 3 physical hard drives are required to build a
       <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 array.  Each disk must be of the same
       size, since <acronym>I/O</acronym> requests are interleaved to
       read or write to multiple disks in parallel.  Also, due to the
       nature of <acronym>RAID</acronym>3, the number of drives must be
       equal to 3, 5, 9, 17, and so on, or 2^n + 1.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to create a software
       <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 on a FreeBSD system.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">While it is theoretically possible to boot from a
 	<acronym>RAID</acronym>3 array on FreeBSD, that configuration is
 	uncommon and is not advised.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>建立 Dedicated <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 陣列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, support for <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 is
 	implemented by the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid3</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> <acronym>GEOM</acronym>
 	class.  Creating a dedicated <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 array on
 	FreeBSD requires the following steps.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">First, load the <filename>geom_raid3.ko</filename>
 	    kernel module by issuing one of the following
 	    commands:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid3 load</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">or:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload geom_raid3</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Ensure that a suitable mount point exists.  This
 	    command creates a new directory to use as the mount
 	    point:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir <replaceable>/multimedia</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Determine the device names for the disks which will be
 	    added to the array, and create the new
 	    <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 device.  The final device listed
 	    will act as the dedicated parity disk.  This example uses
 	    three unpartitioned <acronym>ATA</acronym> drives:
 	    <filename><replaceable>ada1</replaceable></filename> and
 	    <filename><replaceable>ada2</replaceable></filename> for
 	    data, and
 	    <filename><replaceable>ada3</replaceable></filename> for
 	    parity.</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid3 label -v gr0 /dev/ada1 /dev/ada2 /dev/ada3</userinput>
 Metadata value stored on /dev/ada1.
 Metadata value stored on /dev/ada2.
 Metadata value stored on /dev/ada3.
 Done.</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Partition the newly created <filename>gr0</filename>
 	    device and put a <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system on
 	    it:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart create -s GPT /dev/raid3/gr0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart add -t freebsd-ufs /dev/raid3/gr0</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -j /dev/raid3/gr0p1</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Many numbers will glide across the screen, and after a
 	    bit of time, the process will be complete.  The volume has
 	    been created and is ready to be mounted:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/raid3/gr0p1 /multimedia/</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>RAID</acronym>3 array is now ready to
 	    use.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Additional configuration is needed to retain this setup
 	across system reboots.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>geom_raid3.ko</filename> module must be
 	    loaded before the array can be mounted.  To automatically
 	    load the kernel module during system initialization, add
 	    the following line to
 	    <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">geom_raid3_load="YES"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The following volume information must be added to
 	    <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> in order to
 	    automatically mount the array's file system during the
 	    system boot process:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/raid3/gr0p1	/multimedia	ufs	rw	2	2</programlisting>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-graid">
     <info>
       <title>軟體 <acronym>RAID</acronym> 裝置</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Warren</firstname>
 	    <surname>Block</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Software RAID Devices</primary>
       <secondary>Hardware-assisted RAID</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Some motherboards and expansion cards add some simple
       hardware, usually just a <acronym>ROM</acronym>, that allows the
       computer to boot from a <acronym>RAID</acronym> array.  After
       booting, access to the <acronym>RAID</acronym> array is handled
       by software running on the computer's main processor.  This
       <quote>hardware-assisted software
 	<acronym>RAID</acronym></quote> gives <acronym>RAID</acronym>
       arrays that are not dependent on any particular operating
       system, and which are functional even before an operating system
       is loaded.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Several levels of <acronym>RAID</acronym> are supported,
       depending on the hardware in use.  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a
       complete list.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> requires the <filename>geom_raid.ko</filename>
       kernel module, which is included in the
       <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel starting with FreeBSD 9.1.
       If needed, it can be loaded manually with
       <command>graid load</command>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-creating">
       <title>建立陣列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Software <acronym>RAID</acronym> devices often have a menu
 	that can be entered by pressing special keys when the computer
 	is booting.  The menu can be used to create and delete
 	<acronym>RAID</acronym> arrays.  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can also create
 	arrays directly from the command line.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>graid label</command> is used to create a new
 	array.  The motherboard used for this example has an Intel
 	software <acronym>RAID</acronym> chipset, so the Intel
 	metadata format is specified.  The new array is given a label
 	of <filename>gm0</filename>, it is a mirror
 	(<acronym>RAID1</acronym>), and uses drives
 	<filename>ada0</filename> and
 	<filename>ada1</filename>.</para>
 
       <caution>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some space on the drives will be overwritten when they
 	  are made into a new array.  Back up existing data
 	  first!</para>
       </caution>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid label Intel gm0 RAID1 ada0 ada1</userinput>
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Array Intel-a29ea104 created.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Disk ada0 state changed from NONE to ACTIVE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Subdisk gm0:0-ada0 state changed from NONE to ACTIVE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Disk ada1 state changed from NONE to ACTIVE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Subdisk gm0:1-ada1 state changed from NONE to ACTIVE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Array started.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Volume gm0 state changed from STARTING to OPTIMAL.
 Intel-a29ea104 created
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Provider raid/r0 for volume gm0 created.</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A status check shows the new mirror is ready for
 	use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid status</userinput>
    Name   Status  Components
 raid/r0  OPTIMAL  ada0 (ACTIVE (ACTIVE))
                   ada1 (ACTIVE (ACTIVE))</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The array device appears in
 	<filename>/dev/raid/</filename>.  The first array is called
 	<filename>r0</filename>.  Additional arrays, if present, will
 	be <filename>r1</filename>, <filename>r2</filename>, and so
 	on.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> menu on some of these devices
 	can create arrays with special characters in their names.  To
 	avoid problems with those special characters, arrays are given
 	simple numbered names like <filename>r0</filename>.  To show
 	the actual labels, like <filename>gm0</filename> in the
 	example above, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl kern.geom.raid.name_format=1</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-volumes">
       <title>多磁碟區</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some software <acronym>RAID</acronym> devices support
 	more than one <emphasis>volume</emphasis> on an array.
 	Volumes work like partitions, allowing space on the physical
 	drives to be split and used in different ways.  For example,
 	Intel software <acronym>RAID</acronym> devices support two
 	volumes.  This example creates a 40 G mirror for safely
 	storing the operating system, followed by a 20 G
 	<acronym>RAID0</acronym> (stripe) volume for fast temporary
 	storage:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid label -S 40G Intel gm0 RAID1 ada0 ada1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid add -S 20G gm0 RAID0</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Volumes appear as additional
 	<filename>r<replaceable>X</replaceable></filename> entries
 	in <filename>/dev/raid/</filename>.  An array with two volumes
 	will show <filename>r0</filename> and
 	<filename>r1</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the number of volumes supported by
 	different software <acronym>RAID</acronym> devices.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-converting">
-      <title>轉換單一磁碟為鏡射</title>
+      <title>轉換單一磁碟為鏡像</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Under certain specific conditions, it is possible to
 	convert an existing single drive to a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> array
 	without reformatting.  To avoid data loss during the
 	conversion, the existing drive must meet these minimum
 	requirements:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The drive must be partitioned with the
 	    <acronym>MBR</acronym> partitioning scheme.
 	    <acronym>GPT</acronym> or other partitioning schemes with
 	    metadata at the end of the drive will be overwritten and
 	    corrupted by the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> metadata.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">There must be enough unpartitioned and unused space at
 	    the end of the drive to hold the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> metadata.
 	    This metadata varies in size, but the largest occupies
 	    64 M, so at least that much free space is
 	    recommended.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the drive meets these requirements, start by making a
 	full backup.  Then create a single-drive mirror with that
 	drive:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid label Intel gm0 RAID1 ada0 NONE</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> metadata was written to the end of the drive
 	in the unused space.  A second drive can now be inserted into
 	the mirror:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid insert raid/r0 ada1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Data from the original drive will immediately begin to be
 	copied to the second drive.  The mirror will operate in
 	degraded status until the copy is complete.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-inserting">
       <title>插入新磁碟到陣列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Drives can be inserted into an array as replacements for
 	drives that have failed or are missing.  If there are no
 	failed or missing drives, the new drive becomes a spare.  For
 	example, inserting a new drive into a working two-drive mirror
 	results in a two-drive mirror with one spare drive, not a
 	three-drive mirror.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the example mirror array, data immediately begins to be
 	copied to the newly-inserted drive.  Any existing information
 	on the new drive will be overwritten.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid insert raid/r0 ada1</userinput>
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Disk ada1 state changed from NONE to ACTIVE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Subdisk gm0:1-ada1 state changed from NONE to NEW.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Subdisk gm0:1-ada1 state changed from NEW to REBUILD.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Subdisk gm0:1-ada1 rebuild start at 0.</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-removing">
       <title>從陣列移除磁碟</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Individual drives can be permanently removed from a
 	from an array and their metadata erased:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid remove raid/r0 ada1</userinput>
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Disk ada1 state changed from ACTIVE to OFFLINE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Subdisk gm0:1-[unknown] state changed from ACTIVE to NONE.
 GEOM_RAID: Intel-a29ea104: Volume gm0 state changed from OPTIMAL to DEGRADED.</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-stopping">
       <title>停止陣列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An array can be stopped without removing metadata from the
 	drives.  The array will be restarted when the system is
 	booted.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid stop raid/r0</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-status">
       <title>檢查陣列狀態</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Array status can be checked at any time.  After a drive
 	was added to the mirror in the example above, data is being
 	copied from the original drive to the new drive:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid status</userinput>
    Name    Status  Components
 raid/r0  DEGRADED  ada0 (ACTIVE (ACTIVE))
                    ada1 (ACTIVE (REBUILD 28%))</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some types of arrays, like <literal>RAID0</literal> or
 	<literal>CONCAT</literal>, may not be shown in the status
 	report if disks have failed.  To see these partially-failed
 	arrays, add <option>-ga</option>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid status -ga</userinput>
           Name  Status  Components
 Intel-e2d07d9a  BROKEN  ada6 (ACTIVE (ACTIVE))</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-deleting">
       <title>刪除陣列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Arrays are destroyed by deleting all of the volumes from
 	them.  When the last volume present is deleted, the array is
 	stopped and metadata is removed from the drives:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid delete raid/r0</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="geom-graid-unexpected">
       <title>刪除預期之外的陣列</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Drives may unexpectedly contain <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> metadata,
 	either from previous use or manufacturer testing.
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will detect these drives and create an array,
 	interfering with access to the individual drive.  To remove
 	the unwanted metadata:</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Boot the system.  At the boot menu, select
 	    <literal>2</literal> for the loader prompt.  Enter:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en">OK <userinput>set kern.geom.raid.enable=0</userinput>
 OK <userinput>boot</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The system will boot with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    disabled.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Back up all data on the affected drive.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">As a workaround, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> array detection
 	    can be disabled by adding</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">kern.geom.raid.enable=0</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">to <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To permanently remove the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>graid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> metadata
 	    from the affected drive, boot a FreeBSD installation
 	    <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> or memory stick, and select
 	    <literal>Shell</literal>.  Use <command>status</command>
 	    to find the name of the array, typically
 	    <literal>raid/r0</literal>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid status</userinput>
    Name   Status  Components
 raid/r0  OPTIMAL  ada0 (ACTIVE (ACTIVE))
                   ada1 (ACTIVE (ACTIVE))</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Delete the volume by name:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>graid delete raid/r0</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If there is more than one volume shown, repeat the
 	    process for each volume.  After the last array has been
 	    deleted, the volume will be destroyed.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Reboot and verify data, restoring from backup if
 	    necessary.  After the metadata has been removed, the
 	    <literal>kern.geom.raid.enable=0</literal> entry in
 	    <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> can also be
 	    removed.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-ggate">
     <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>GEOM</acronym> Gate Network</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>GEOM</acronym> provides a simple mechanism for
       providing remote access to devices such as disks,
       <acronym>CD</acronym>s, and file systems through the use of the
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym> Gate network daemon,
       <application>ggated</application>.  The system with the device
       runs the server daemon which handles requests made by clients
       using <application>ggatec</application>.  The devices should not
       contain any sensitive data as the connection between the client
       and the server is not encrypted.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Similar to <acronym>NFS</acronym>, which is discussed in
       <xref linkend="network-nfs"/>, <application>ggated</application>
       is configured using an exports file.  This file specifies which
       systems are permitted to access the exported resources and what
       level of access they are offered.  For example, to give the
       client <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.5</systemitem>
       read and write access to the fourth slice on the first
       <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disk, create
       <filename>/etc/gg.exports</filename> with this line:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">192.168.1.5 RW /dev/da0s4d</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before exporting the device, ensure it is not currently
       mounted.  Then, start <application>ggated</application>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ggated</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Several options are available for specifying an alternate
       listening port or changing the default location of the exports
       file.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ggated</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To access the exported device on the client machine, first
       use <command>ggatec</command> to specify the
       <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the server and the device name
       of the exported device.  If successful, this command will
       display a <literal>ggate</literal> device name to mount.  Mount
       that specified device name on a free mount point.  This example
       connects to the <filename>/dev/da0s4d</filename> partition on
       <literal>192.168.1.1</literal>, then mounts
       <filename>/dev/ggate0</filename> on
       <filename>/mnt</filename>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ggatec create -o rw 192.168.1.1 /dev/da0s4d</userinput>
 ggate0
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/ggate0 /mnt</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The device on the server may now be accessed through
       <filename>/mnt</filename> on the client.  For more details about
       <command>ggatec</command> and a few usage examples, refer to
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ggatec</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">The mount will fail if the device is currently mounted on
 	either the server or any other client on the network.  If
 	simultaneous access is needed to network resources, use
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> instead.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When the device is no longer needed, unmount it with
       <command>umount</command> so that the resource is available to
       other clients.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-glabel">
     <title>磁碟裝置標籤</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Disk Labels</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">During system initialization, the FreeBSD kernel creates
       device nodes as devices are found.  This method of probing for
       devices raises some issues.  For instance, what if a new disk
       device is added via <acronym>USB</acronym>?  It is likely that
       a flash device may be handed the device name of
       <filename>da0</filename> and the original
       <filename>da0</filename> shifted to
       <filename>da1</filename>.  This will cause issues mounting
       file systems if they are listed in
       <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> which may also prevent the
       system from booting.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">One solution is to chain <acronym>SCSI</acronym> devices
       in order so a new device added to the <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
       card will be issued unused device numbers.  But what about
       <acronym>USB</acronym> devices which may replace the primary
       <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disk?  This happens because
       <acronym>USB</acronym> devices are usually probed before the
       <acronym>SCSI</acronym> card.  One solution is to only insert
       these devices after the system has been booted.  Another method
       is to use only a single <acronym>ATA</acronym> drive and never
       list the <acronym>SCSI</acronym> devices in
       <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A better solution is to use <command>glabel</command> to
       label the disk devices and use the labels in
       <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  Because
       <command>glabel</command> stores the label in the last sector of
       a given provider, the label will remain persistent across
       reboots.  By using this label as a device, the file system may
       always be mounted regardless of what device node it is accessed
       through.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>glabel</command> can create both transient and
 	permanent labels.  Only permanent labels are consistent across
 	reboots.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>glabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on the
 	differences between labels.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>標籤類型與範例</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Permanent labels can be a generic or a file system label.
 	Permanent file system labels can be created with
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>newfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  These types of labels are
 	created in a sub-directory of <filename>/dev</filename>, and
 	will be named according to the file system type.  For example,
 	<acronym>UFS</acronym>2 file system labels will be created in
 	<filename>/dev/ufs</filename>.  Generic permanent labels can
 	be created with <command>glabel label</command>.  These are
 	not file system specific and will be created in
 	<filename>/dev/label</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Temporary labels are destroyed at the next reboot.  These
 	labels are created in <filename>/dev/label</filename> and are
 	suited to experimentation.  A temporary label can be created
 	using <command>glabel create</command>.</para>
 
 <!-- XXXTR: How do you create a file system label without running newfs
 	    or when there is no newfs (e.g.: cd9660)? -->
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To create a permanent label for a
 	<acronym>UFS</acronym>2 file system without destroying any
 	data, issue the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tunefs -L <replaceable>home</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/da3</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A label should now exist in <filename>/dev/ufs</filename>
 	which may be added to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/ufs/home		/home            ufs     rw              2      2</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The file system must not be mounted while attempting
 	  to run <command>tunefs</command>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now the file system may be mounted:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /home</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">From this point on, so long as the
 	<filename>geom_label.ko</filename> kernel module is loaded at
 	boot with <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> or the
 	<literal>GEOM_LABEL</literal> kernel option is present,
 	the device node may change without any ill effect on the
 	system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">File systems may also be created with a default label
 	by using the <option>-L</option> flag with
 	<command>newfs</command>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>newfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	more information.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following command can be used to destroy the
 	label:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>glabel destroy home</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following example shows how to label the partitions of
 	a boot disk.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>在開機磁碟標記分割區標籤</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">By permanently labeling the partitions on the boot disk,
 	  the system should be able to continue to boot normally, even
 	  if the disk is moved to another controller or transferred to
 	  a different system.  For this example, it is assumed that a
 	  single <acronym>ATA</acronym> disk is used, which is
 	  currently recognized by the system as
 	  <filename>ad0</filename>.  It is also assumed that the
 	  standard FreeBSD partition scheme is used, with
 	  <filename>/</filename>,
 	  <filename>/var</filename>,
 	  <filename>/usr</filename> and
 	  <filename>/tmp</filename>, as
 	  well as a swap partition.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Reboot the system, and at the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> prompt,
 	  press <keycap>4</keycap> to boot into single user mode.
 	  Then enter the following commands:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>glabel label rootfs /dev/ad0s1a</userinput>
 GEOM_LABEL: Label for provider /dev/ad0s1a is label/rootfs
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>glabel label var /dev/ad0s1d</userinput>
 GEOM_LABEL: Label for provider /dev/ad0s1d is label/var
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>glabel label usr /dev/ad0s1f</userinput>
 GEOM_LABEL: Label for provider /dev/ad0s1f is label/usr
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>glabel label tmp /dev/ad0s1e</userinput>
 GEOM_LABEL: Label for provider /dev/ad0s1e is label/tmp
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>glabel label swap /dev/ad0s1b</userinput>
 GEOM_LABEL: Label for provider /dev/ad0s1b is label/swap
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>exit</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The system will continue with multi-user boot.  After
 	  the boot completes, edit <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> and
 	  replace the conventional device names, with their respective
 	  labels.  The final <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> will
 	  look like this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device                Mountpoint      FStype  Options         Dump    Pass#
 /dev/label/swap         none            swap    sw              0       0
 /dev/label/rootfs       /               ufs     rw              1       1
 /dev/label/tmp          /tmp            ufs     rw              2       2
 /dev/label/usr          /usr            ufs     rw              2       2
 /dev/label/var          /var            ufs     rw              2       2</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The system can now be rebooted.  If everything went
 	  well, it will come up normally and <command>mount</command>
 	  will show:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount</userinput>
 /dev/label/rootfs on / (ufs, local)
 devfs on /dev (devfs, local)
 /dev/label/tmp on /tmp (ufs, local, soft-updates)
 /dev/label/usr on /usr (ufs, local, soft-updates)
 /dev/label/var on /var (ufs, local, soft-updates)</screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>glabel</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> class
 	supports a label type for <acronym>UFS</acronym> file
 	systems, based on the unique file system id,
 	<literal>ufsid</literal>.  These labels may be found in
 	<filename>/dev/ufsid</filename> and are
 	created automatically during system startup.  It is possible
 	to use <literal>ufsid</literal> labels to mount partitions
 	using <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>.  Use <command>glabel
 	  status</command> to receive a list of file systems and their
 	corresponding <literal>ufsid</literal> labels:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>glabel status</userinput>
                   Name  Status  Components
 ufsid/486b6fc38d330916     N/A  ad4s1d
 ufsid/486b6fc16926168e     N/A  ad4s1f</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the above example, <filename>ad4s1d</filename>
 	represents <filename>/var</filename>,
 	while <filename>ad4s1f</filename> represents
 	<filename>/usr</filename>.
 	Using the <literal>ufsid</literal> values shown, these
 	partitions may now be mounted with the following entries in
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/ufsid/486b6fc38d330916        /var        ufs        rw        2      2
 /dev/ufsid/486b6fc16926168e        /usr        ufs        rw        2      2</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Any partitions with <literal>ufsid</literal> labels can be
 	mounted in this way, eliminating the need to manually create
 	permanent labels, while still enjoying the benefits of device
 	name independent mounting.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="geom-gjournal">
     <title>UFS Journaling 透過 <acronym>GEOM</acronym></title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>GEOM</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Journaling</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Support for journals on
       <acronym>UFS</acronym> file systems is available on FreeBSD.  The
       implementation is provided through the <acronym>GEOM</acronym>
       subsystem and is configured using <command>gjournal</command>.
       Unlike other file system journaling implementations, the
       <command>gjournal</command> method is block based and not
       implemented as part of the file system.  It is a
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym> extension.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Journaling stores a log of file system transactions, such as
       changes that make up a complete disk write operation, before
       meta-data and file writes are committed to the disk.  This
       transaction log can later be replayed to redo file system
       transactions, preventing file system inconsistencies.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This method provides another mechanism to protect against
       data loss and inconsistencies of the file system.  Unlike Soft
       Updates, which tracks and enforces meta-data updates, and
       snapshots, which create an image of the file system, a log is
       stored in disk space specifically for this task.  For better
       performance, the journal may be stored on another disk.  In this
       configuration, the journal provider or storage device should be
       listed after the device to enable journaling on.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel provides support for
       <command>gjournal</command>.  To automatically load the
       <filename>geom_journal.ko</filename> kernel module at boot time,
       add the following line to
       <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">geom_journal_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If a custom kernel is used, ensure the following line is in
       the kernel configuration file:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">options	GEOM_JOURNAL</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once the module is loaded, a journal can be created on a new
       file system using the following steps.  In this example,
       <filename>da4</filename> is a new <acronym>SCSI</acronym>
       disk:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gjournal load</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gjournal label /dev/<replaceable>da4</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This will load the module and create a
       <filename>/dev/da4.journal</filename> device node on
       <filename>/dev/da4</filename>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system may now be created on
       the journaled device, then mounted on an existing mount
       point:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs -O 2 -J /dev/<replaceable>da4</replaceable>.journal</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /dev/<replaceable>da4</replaceable>.journal <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">In the case of several slices, a journal will be created
 	for each individual slice.  For instance, if
 	<filename>ad4s1</filename> and <filename>ad4s2</filename> are
 	both slices, then <command>gjournal</command> will create
 	<filename>ad4s1.journal</filename> and
 	<filename>ad4s2.journal</filename>.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Journaling may also be enabled on current file systems by
       using <command>tunefs</command>.  However,
       <emphasis>always</emphasis> make a backup before attempting to
       alter an existing file system.  In most cases,
       <command>gjournal</command> will fail if it is unable to create
       the journal, but this does not protect against data loss
       incurred as a result of misusing <command>tunefs</command>.
       Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gjournal</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tunefs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
       information about these commands.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to journal the boot disk of a FreeBSD system.
       Refer to the article <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/gjournal-desktop">Implementing UFS
 	Journaling on a Desktop PC</link> for detailed
       instructions.</para>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="zfs">
 
   <info>
     <title>Z 檔案系統 (<acronym>ZFS</acronym>)</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Allan</firstname>
 	  <surname>Jude</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Benedict</firstname>
 	  <surname>Reuschling</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Warren</firstname>
 	  <surname>Block</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Written by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">The <emphasis>Z File System</emphasis>, or
     <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, is an advanced file system designed to
     overcome many of the major problems found in previous
     designs.</para>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">Originally developed at <trademark>Sun</trademark>, ongoing open source
     <acronym>ZFS</acronym> development has moved to the <link xlink:href="http://open-zfs.org">OpenZFS Project</link>.</para>
 
   <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> has three major design goals:</para>
 
   <itemizedlist>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">Data integrity: All data includes a
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-checksum">checksum</link> of the data.
 	When data is written, the checksum is calculated and written
 	along with it.  When that data is later read back, the
 	checksum is calculated again.  If the checksums do not match,
 	a data error has been detected.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> will
 	attempt to automatically correct errors when data redundancy
 	is available.</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">Pooled storage: physical storage devices are added to a
 	pool, and storage space is allocated from that shared pool.
 	Space is available to all file systems, and can be increased
 	by adding new storage devices to the pool.</para>
     </listitem>
 
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">Performance: multiple caching mechanisms provide increased
 	performance.  <link linkend="zfs-term-arc">ARC</link> is an
 	advanced memory-based read cache.  A second level of
 	disk-based read cache can be added with
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-l2arc">L2ARC</link>, and disk-based
 	synchronous write cache is available with
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-zil">ZIL</link>.</para>
     </listitem>
   </itemizedlist>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">A complete list of features and terminology is shown in
     <xref linkend="zfs-term"/>.</para>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-differences">
     <title>什麼使 <acronym>ZFS</acronym> 與眾不同</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> is significantly different from any
       previous file system because it is more than just a file system.
       Combining the traditionally separate roles of volume manager and
       file system provides <acronym>ZFS</acronym> with unique
       advantages.  The file system is now aware of the underlying
       structure of the disks.  Traditional file systems could only be
       created on a single disk at a time.  If there were two disks
       then two separate file systems would have to be created.  In a
       traditional hardware <acronym>RAID</acronym> configuration, this
       problem was avoided by presenting the operating system with a
       single logical disk made up of the space provided by a number of
       physical disks, on top of which the operating system placed a
       file system.  Even in the case of software
       <acronym>RAID</acronym> solutions like those provided by
       <acronym>GEOM</acronym>, the <acronym>UFS</acronym> file system
       living on top of the <acronym>RAID</acronym> transform believed
       that it was dealing with a single device.
       <acronym>ZFS</acronym>'s combination of the volume manager and
       the file system solves this and allows the creation of many file
       systems all sharing a pool of available storage.  One of the
       biggest advantages to <acronym>ZFS</acronym>'s awareness of the
       physical layout of the disks is that existing file systems can
       be grown automatically when additional disks are added to the
       pool.  This new space is then made available to all of the file
       systems.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> also has a number of different
       properties that can be applied to each file system, giving many
       advantages to creating a number of different file systems and
       datasets rather than a single monolithic file system.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-quickstart">
     <title>快速入門指南</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There is a startup mechanism that allows FreeBSD to mount
       <acronym>ZFS</acronym> pools during system initialization.  To
       enable it, add this line to
       <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">zfs_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Then start the service:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service zfs start</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The examples in this section assume three
       <acronym>SCSI</acronym> disks with the device names
       <filename><replaceable>da0</replaceable></filename>,
       <filename><replaceable>da1</replaceable></filename>, and
       <filename><replaceable>da2</replaceable></filename>.  Users
       of <acronym>SATA</acronym> hardware should instead use
       <filename><replaceable>ada</replaceable></filename> device
       names.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-quickstart-single-disk-pool">
       <title>單磁碟儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To create a simple, non-redundant pool using a single
 	disk device:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool create <replaceable>example</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/da0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To view the new pool, review the output of
 	<command>df</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df</userinput>
 Filesystem  1K-blocks    Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a   2026030  235230  1628718    13%    /
 devfs               1       1        0   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1d  54098308 1032846 48737598     2%    /usr
 example      17547136       0 17547136     0%    /example</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This output shows that the <literal>example</literal> pool
 	has been created and mounted.  It is now accessible as a file
 	system.  Files can be created on it and users can browse
 	it:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /example</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>touch testfile</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls -al</userinput>
 total 4
 drwxr-xr-x   2 root  wheel    3 Aug 29 23:15 .
 drwxr-xr-x  21 root  wheel  512 Aug 29 23:12 ..
 -rw-r--r--   1 root  wheel    0 Aug 29 23:15 testfile</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">However, this pool is not taking advantage of any
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> features.  To create a dataset on this
 	pool with compression enabled:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create example/compressed</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set compression=gzip example/compressed</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>example/compressed</literal> dataset is now a
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> compressed file system.  Try copying
 	some large files to
 	<filename>/example/compressed</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Compression can be disabled with:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set compression=off example/compressed</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To unmount a file system, use
 	<command>zfs umount</command> and then verify with
 	<command>df</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs umount example/compressed</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df</userinput>
 Filesystem  1K-blocks    Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a   2026030  235232  1628716    13%    /
 devfs               1       1        0   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1d  54098308 1032864 48737580     2%    /usr
 example      17547008       0 17547008     0%    /example</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To re-mount the file system to make it accessible again,
 	use <command>zfs mount</command> and verify with
 	<command>df</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs mount example/compressed</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df</userinput>
 Filesystem         1K-blocks    Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a          2026030  235234  1628714    13%    /
 devfs                      1       1        0   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1d         54098308 1032864 48737580     2%    /usr
 example             17547008       0 17547008     0%    /example
 example/compressed  17547008       0 17547008     0%    /example/compressed</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The pool and file system may also be observed by viewing
 	the output from <command>mount</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount</userinput>
 /dev/ad0s1a on / (ufs, local)
 devfs on /dev (devfs, local)
 /dev/ad0s1d on /usr (ufs, local, soft-updates)
 example on /example (zfs, local)
 example/compressed on /example/compressed (zfs, local)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After creation, <acronym>ZFS</acronym> datasets can be
 	used like any file systems.  However, many other features are
 	available which can be set on a per-dataset basis.  In the
 	example below, a new file system called
 	<literal>data</literal> is created.  Important files will be
 	stored here, so it is configured to keep two copies of each
 	data block:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create example/data</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set copies=2 example/data</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is now possible to see the data and space utilization
 	by issuing <command>df</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df</userinput>
 Filesystem         1K-blocks    Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a          2026030  235234  1628714    13%    /
 devfs                      1       1        0   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1d         54098308 1032864 48737580     2%    /usr
 example             17547008       0 17547008     0%    /example
 example/compressed  17547008       0 17547008     0%    /example/compressed
 example/data        17547008       0 17547008     0%    /example/data</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Notice that each file system on the pool has the same
 	amount of available space.  This is the reason for using
 	<command>df</command> in these examples, to show that the file
 	systems use only the amount of space they need and all draw
 	from the same pool.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> eliminates
 	concepts such as volumes and partitions, and allows multiple
 	file systems to occupy the same pool.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To destroy the file systems and then destroy the pool as
 	it is no longer needed:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs destroy example/compressed</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs destroy example/data</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool destroy example</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-quickstart-raid-z">
       <title xml:lang="en">RAID-Z</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Disks fail.  One method of avoiding data loss from disk
 	failure is to implement <acronym>RAID</acronym>.
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> supports this feature in its pool
 	design.  <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> pools require three or more
 	disks but provide more usable space than mirrored
 	pools.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example creates a <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> pool,
 	specifying the disks to add to the pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool create storage raidz da0 da1 da2</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><trademark>Sun</trademark> recommends that the number of devices used in a
 	  <acronym>RAID</acronym>-Z configuration be between three and
 	  nine.  For environments requiring a single pool consisting
 	  of 10 disks or more, consider breaking it up into smaller
 	  <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> groups.  If only two disks are
 	  available and redundancy is a requirement, consider using a
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> mirror.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>zpool</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	  more details.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The previous example created the
 	<literal>storage</literal> zpool.  This example makes a new
 	file system called <literal>home</literal> in that
 	pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create storage/home</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Compression and keeping extra copies of directories
 	and files can be enabled:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set copies=2 storage/home</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set compression=gzip storage/home</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To make this the new home directory for users, copy the
 	user data to this directory and create the appropriate
 	symbolic links:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp -rp /home/* /storage/home</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm -rf /home /usr/home</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s /storage/home /home</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ln -s /storage/home /usr/home</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Users data is now stored on the freshly-created
 	<filename>/storage/home</filename>.  Test by adding a new user
 	and logging in as that user.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Try creating a file system snapshot which can be rolled
 	back later:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot storage/home@08-30-08</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Snapshots can only be made of a full file system, not a
 	single directory or file.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>@</literal> character is a delimiter between
 	the file system name or the volume name.  If an important
 	directory has been accidentally deleted, the file system can
 	be backed up, then rolled back to an earlier snapshot when the
 	directory still existed:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rollback storage/home@08-30-08</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To list all available snapshots, run
 	<command>ls</command> in the file system's
 	<filename>.zfs/snapshot</filename> directory.  For example, to
 	see the previously taken snapshot:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /storage/home/.zfs/snapshot</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to write a script to perform regular
 	snapshots on user data.  However, over time, snapshots can
 	consume a great deal of disk space.  The previous snapshot can
 	be removed using the command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs destroy storage/home@08-30-08</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After testing, <filename>/storage/home</filename> can be
 	made the real <filename>/home</filename> using this
 	command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set mountpoint=/home storage/home</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Run <command>df</command> and <command>mount</command> to
 	confirm that the system now treats the file system as the real
 	<filename>/home</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount</userinput>
 /dev/ad0s1a on / (ufs, local)
 devfs on /dev (devfs, local)
 /dev/ad0s1d on /usr (ufs, local, soft-updates)
 storage on /storage (zfs, local)
 storage/home on /home (zfs, local)
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df</userinput>
 Filesystem   1K-blocks    Used    Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 /dev/ad0s1a    2026030  235240  1628708    13%    /
 devfs                1       1        0   100%    /dev
 /dev/ad0s1d   54098308 1032826 48737618     2%    /usr
 storage       26320512       0 26320512     0%    /storage
 storage/home  26320512       0 26320512     0%    /home</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This completes the <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym>
 	configuration.  Daily status updates about the file systems
 	created can be generated as part of the nightly
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> runs.  Add this line to
 	<filename>/etc/periodic.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">daily_status_zfs_enable="YES"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-quickstart-recovering-raid-z">
       <title>復原 <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Every software <acronym>RAID</acronym> has a method of
 	monitoring its <literal>state</literal>.  The status of
 	<acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> devices may be viewed with this
 	command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status -x</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If all pools are
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-online">Online</link> and everything
 	is normal, the message shows:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">all pools are healthy</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If there is an issue, perhaps a disk is in the
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-offline">Offline</link> state, the
 	pool state will look similar to:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">  pool: storage
  state: DEGRADED
 status: One or more devices has been taken offline by the administrator.
 	Sufficient replicas exist for the pool to continue functioning in a
 	degraded state.
 action: Online the device using 'zpool online' or replace the device with
 	'zpool replace'.
  scrub: none requested
 config:
 
 	NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
 	storage     DEGRADED     0     0     0
 	  raidz1    DEGRADED     0     0     0
 	    da0     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da1     OFFLINE      0     0     0
 	    da2     ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This indicates that the device was previously taken
 	offline by the administrator with this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool offline storage da1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now the system can be powered down to replace
 	<filename>da1</filename>.  When the system is back online,
 	the failed disk can replaced in the pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool replace storage da1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">From here, the status may be checked again, this time
 	without <option>-x</option> so that all pools are
 	shown:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status storage</userinput>
  pool: storage
  state: ONLINE
  scrub: resilver completed with 0 errors on Sat Aug 30 19:44:11 2008
 config:
 
 	NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
 	storage     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	  raidz1    ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da0     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da1     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da2     ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, everything is normal.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-quickstart-data-verification">
       <title>資料檢驗</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> uses checksums to verify the
 	integrity of stored data.  These are enabled automatically
 	upon creation of file systems.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Checksums can be disabled, but it is
 	  <emphasis>not</emphasis> recommended!  Checksums take very
 	  little storage space and provide data integrity.  Many
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> features will not work properly with
 	  checksums disabled.  There is no noticeable performance gain
 	  from disabling these checksums.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Checksum verification is known as
 	<emphasis>scrubbing</emphasis>.  Verify the data integrity of
 	the <literal>storage</literal> pool with this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool scrub storage</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The duration of a scrub depends on the amount of data
 	stored.  Larger amounts of data will take proportionally
 	longer to verify.  Scrubs are very <acronym>I/O</acronym>
 	intensive, and only one scrub is allowed to run at a time.
 	After the scrub completes, the status can be viewed with
 	<command>status</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status storage</userinput>
  pool: storage
  state: ONLINE
  scrub: scrub completed with 0 errors on Sat Jan 26 19:57:37 2013
 config:
 
 	NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
 	storage     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	  raidz1    ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da0     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da1     ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    da2     ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The completion date of the last scrub operation is
 	displayed to help track when another scrub is required.
 	Routine scrubs help protect data from silent corruption and
 	ensure the integrity of the pool.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>zfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>zpool</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for other
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> options.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-zpool">
     <title><command>zpool</command> 管理</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> administration is divided between two
       main utilities.  The <command>zpool</command> utility controls
       the operation of the pool and deals with adding, removing,
       replacing, and managing disks.  The
       <link linkend="zfs-zfs"><command>zfs</command></link> utility
       deals with creating, destroying, and managing datasets,
       both <link linkend="zfs-term-filesystem">file systems</link> and
       <link linkend="zfs-term-volume">volumes</link>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-create">
       <title>建立與摧毀儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Creating a <acronym>ZFS</acronym> storage pool
 	(<emphasis>zpool</emphasis>) involves making a number of
 	decisions that are relatively permanent because the structure
 	of the pool cannot be changed after the pool has been created.
 	The most important decision is what types of vdevs into which
 	to group the physical disks.  See the list of
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-vdev">vdev types</link> for details
 	about the possible options.  After the pool has been created,
 	most vdev types do not allow additional disks to be added to
 	the vdev.  The exceptions are mirrors, which allow additional
 	disks to be added to the vdev, and stripes, which can be
 	upgraded to mirrors by attaching an additional disk to the
 	vdev.  Although additional vdevs can be added to expand a
 	pool, the layout of the pool cannot be changed after pool
 	creation.  Instead, the data must be backed up and the
 	pool destroyed and recreated.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a simple mirror pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool create <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> mirror <replaceable>/dev/ada1</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada2</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1    ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2    ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Multiple vdevs can be created at once.  Specify multiple
 	groups of disks separated by the vdev type keyword,
 	<literal>mirror</literal> in this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool create <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> mirror <replaceable>/dev/ada1</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada2</replaceable> mirror <replaceable>/dev/ada3</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada4</replaceable></userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1    ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2    ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-1  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada3    ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada4    ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Pools can also be constructed using partitions rather than
 	whole disks.  Putting <acronym>ZFS</acronym> in a separate
 	partition allows the same disk to have other partitions for
 	other purposes.  In particular, partitions with bootcode and
 	file systems needed for booting can be added.  This allows
 	booting from disks that are also members of a pool.  There is
 	no performance penalty on FreeBSD when using a partition rather
 	than a whole disk.  Using partitions also allows the
 	administrator to <emphasis>under-provision</emphasis> the
 	disks, using less than the full capacity.  If a future
 	replacement disk of the same nominal size as the original
 	actually has a slightly smaller capacity, the smaller
 	partition will still fit, and the replacement disk can still
 	be used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-vdev-raidz">RAID-Z2</link> pool using
 	partitions:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool create <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> raidz2 <replaceable>/dev/ada0p3</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada1p3</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada2p3</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada3p3</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada4p3</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada5p3</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           raidz2-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada3p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada4p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada5p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A pool that is no longer needed can be destroyed so that
 	the disks can be reused.  Destroying a pool involves first
 	unmounting all of the datasets in that pool.  If the datasets
 	are in use, the unmount operation will fail and the pool will
 	not be destroyed.  The destruction of the pool can be forced
 	with <option>-f</option>, but this can cause undefined
 	behavior in applications which had open files on those
 	datasets.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-attach">
       <title>加入與移除裝置</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are two cases for adding disks to a zpool: attaching
 	a disk to an existing vdev with
 	<command>zpool attach</command>, or adding vdevs to the pool
 	with <command>zpool add</command>.  Only some
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-vdev">vdev types</link> allow disks to
 	be added to the vdev after creation.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A pool created with a single disk lacks redundancy.
 	Corruption can be detected but
 	not repaired, because there is no other copy of the data.
 
 	The <link linkend="zfs-term-copies">copies</link> property may
 	be able to recover from a small failure such as a bad sector,
 	but does not provide the same level of protection as mirroring
 	or <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym>.  Starting with a pool consisting
 	of a single disk vdev, <command>zpool attach</command> can be
 	used to add an additional disk to the vdev, creating a mirror.
 	<command>zpool attach</command> can also be used to add
 	additional disks to a mirror group, increasing redundancy and
 	read performance.  If the disks being used for the pool are
 	partitioned, replicate the layout of the first disk on to the
 	second, <command>gpart backup</command> and
 	<command>gpart restore</command> can be used to make this
 	process easier.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Upgrade the single disk (stripe) vdev
 	<replaceable>ada0p3</replaceable> to a mirror by attaching
 	<replaceable>ada1p3</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           ada0p3    ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool attach <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> <replaceable>ada0p3</replaceable> <replaceable>ada1p3</replaceable></userinput>
 Make sure to wait until resilver is done before rebooting.
 
 If you boot from pool 'mypool', you may need to update
 boot code on newly attached disk 'ada1p3'.
 
 Assuming you use GPT partitioning and 'da0' is your new boot disk
 you may use the following command:
 
         gpart bootcode -b /boot/pmbr -p /boot/gptzfsboot -i 1 da0
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/pmbr -p /boot/gptzfsboot -i 1 <replaceable>ada1</replaceable></userinput>
 bootcode written to ada1
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
 status: One or more devices is currently being resilvered.  The pool will
         continue to function, possibly in a degraded state.
 action: Wait for the resilver to complete.
   scan: resilver in progress since Fri May 30 08:19:19 2014
         527M scanned out of 781M at 47.9M/s, 0h0m to go
         527M resilvered, 67.53% done
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0  (resilvering)
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: resilvered 781M in 0h0m with 0 errors on Fri May 30 08:15:58 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When adding disks to the existing vdev is not an option,
 	as for <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym>, an alternative method is to
 	add another vdev to the pool.  Additional vdevs provide higher
 	performance, distributing writes across the vdevs.  Each vdev
 	is responsible for providing its own redundancy.  It is
 	possible, but discouraged, to mix vdev types, like
 	<literal>mirror</literal> and <literal>RAID-Z</literal>.
 	Adding a non-redundant vdev to a pool containing mirror or
 	<acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> vdevs risks the data on the entire
 	pool.  Writes are distributed, so the failure of the
 	non-redundant disk will result in the loss of a fraction of
 	every block that has been written to the pool.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Data is striped across each of the vdevs.  For example,
 	with two mirror vdevs, this is effectively a
 	<acronym>RAID</acronym> 10 that stripes writes across two sets
 	of mirrors.  Space is allocated so that each vdev reaches 100%
 	full at the same time.  There is a performance penalty if the
 	vdevs have different amounts of free space, as a
 	disproportionate amount of the data is written to the less
 	full vdev.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When attaching additional devices to a boot pool, remember
 	to update the bootcode.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Attach a second mirror group (<filename>ada2p3</filename>
 	and <filename>ada3p3</filename>) to the existing
 	mirror:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: resilvered 781M in 0h0m with 0 errors on Fri May 30 08:19:35 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool add <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> mirror <replaceable>ada2p3</replaceable> <replaceable>ada3p3</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/pmbr -p /boot/gptzfsboot -i 1 <replaceable>ada2</replaceable></userinput>
 bootcode written to ada2
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/pmbr -p /boot/gptzfsboot -i 1 <replaceable>ada3</replaceable></userinput>
 bootcode written to ada3
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: scrub repaired 0 in 0h0m with 0 errors on Fri May 30 08:29:51 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-1  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada3p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Currently, vdevs cannot be removed from a pool, and disks
 	can only be removed from a mirror if there is enough remaining
 	redundancy.  If only one disk in a mirror group remains, it
 	ceases to be a mirror and reverts to being a stripe, risking
 	the entire pool if that remaining disk fails.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Remove a disk from a three-way mirror group:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: scrub repaired 0 in 0h0m with 0 errors on Fri May 30 08:29:51 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool detach <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> <replaceable>ada2p3</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: scrub repaired 0 in 0h0m with 0 errors on Fri May 30 08:29:51 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-status">
       <title>檢查儲存池狀態</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Pool status is important.  If a drive goes offline or a
 	read, write, or checksum error is detected, the corresponding
 	error count increases.  The <command>status</command> output
 	shows the configuration and status of each device in the pool
 	and the status of the entire pool.  Actions that need to be
 	taken and details about the last <link linkend="zfs-zpool-scrub"><command>scrub</command></link>
 	are also shown.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: scrub repaired 0 in 2h25m with 0 errors on Sat Sep 14 04:25:50 2013
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           raidz2-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada3p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada4p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada5p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-clear">
       <title>清除錯誤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When an error is detected, the read, write, or checksum
 	counts are incremented.  The error message can be cleared and
 	the counts reset with <command>zpool clear
 	  <replaceable>mypool</replaceable></command>.  Clearing the
 	error state can be important for automated scripts that alert
 	the administrator when the pool encounters an error.  Further
 	errors may not be reported if the old errors are not
 	cleared.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-replace">
       <title>替換運作中的裝置</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are a number of situations where it may be
 	desirable to replace one disk with a different disk.  When
 	replacing a working disk, the process keeps the old disk
 	online during the replacement.  The pool never enters a
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-degraded">degraded</link> state,
 	reducing the risk of data loss.
 	<command>zpool replace</command> copies all of the data from
 	the old disk to the new one.  After the operation completes,
 	the old disk is disconnected from the vdev.  If the new disk
 	is larger than the old disk, it may be possible to grow the
 	zpool, using the new space.  See <link linkend="zfs-zpool-online">Growing a Pool</link>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replace a functioning device in the pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool replace <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> <replaceable>ada1p3</replaceable> <replaceable>ada2p3</replaceable></userinput>
 Make sure to wait until resilver is done before rebooting.
 
 If you boot from pool 'zroot', you may need to update
 boot code on newly attached disk 'ada2p3'.
 
 Assuming you use GPT partitioning and 'da0' is your new boot disk
 you may use the following command:
 
         gpart bootcode -b /boot/pmbr -p /boot/gptzfsboot -i 1 da0
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>gpart bootcode -b /boot/pmbr -p /boot/gptzfsboot -i 1 <replaceable>ada2</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
 status: One or more devices is currently being resilvered.  The pool will
         continue to function, possibly in a degraded state.
 action: Wait for the resilver to complete.
   scan: resilver in progress since Mon Jun  2 14:21:35 2014
         604M scanned out of 781M at 46.5M/s, 0h0m to go
         604M resilvered, 77.39% done
 config:
 
         NAME             STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool           ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0       ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3       ONLINE       0     0     0
             replacing-1  ONLINE       0     0     0
               ada1p3     ONLINE       0     0     0
               ada2p3     ONLINE       0     0     0  (resilvering)
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: resilvered 781M in 0h0m with 0 errors on Mon Jun  2 14:21:52 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-resilver">
       <title>處理故障裝置</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When a disk in a pool fails, the vdev to which the disk
 	belongs enters the
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-degraded">degraded</link> state.  All
 	of the data is still available, but performance may be reduced
 	because missing data must be calculated from the available
 	redundancy.  To restore the vdev to a fully functional state,
 	the failed physical device must be replaced.
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> is then instructed to begin the
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-resilver">resilver</link> operation.
 	Data that was on the failed device is recalculated from
 	available redundancy and written to the replacement device.
 	After completion, the vdev returns to
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-online">online</link> status.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the vdev does not have any redundancy, or if multiple
 	devices have failed and there is not enough redundancy to
 	compensate, the pool enters the
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-faulted">faulted</link> state.  If a
 	sufficient number of devices cannot be reconnected to the
 	pool, the pool becomes inoperative and data must be restored
 	from backups.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When replacing a failed disk, the name of the failed disk
 	is replaced with the <acronym>GUID</acronym> of the device.
 	A new device name parameter for
 	<command>zpool replace</command> is not required if the
 	replacement device has the same device name.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replace a failed disk using
 	<command>zpool replace</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: DEGRADED
 status: One or more devices could not be opened.  Sufficient replicas exist for
         the pool to continue functioning in a degraded state.
 action: Attach the missing device and online it using 'zpool online'.
    see: http://illumos.org/msg/ZFS-8000-2Q
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME                    STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool                  DEGRADED     0     0     0
           mirror-0              DEGRADED     0     0     0
             ada0p3              ONLINE       0     0     0
             316502962686821739  UNAVAIL      0     0     0  was /dev/ada1p3
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool replace <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> <replaceable>316502962686821739</replaceable> <replaceable>ada2p3</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: DEGRADED
 status: One or more devices is currently being resilvered.  The pool will
         continue to function, possibly in a degraded state.
 action: Wait for the resilver to complete.
   scan: resilver in progress since Mon Jun  2 14:52:21 2014
         641M scanned out of 781M at 49.3M/s, 0h0m to go
         640M resilvered, 82.04% done
 config:
 
         NAME                        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool                      DEGRADED     0     0     0
           mirror-0                  DEGRADED     0     0     0
             ada0p3                  ONLINE       0     0     0
             replacing-1             UNAVAIL      0     0     0
               15732067398082357289  UNAVAIL      0     0     0  was /dev/ada1p3/old
               ada2p3                ONLINE       0     0     0  (resilvering)
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: resilvered 781M in 0h0m with 0 errors on Mon Jun  2 14:52:38 2014
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-scrub">
       <title>清潔儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is recommended that pools be
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-scrub">scrubbed</link> regularly,
 	ideally at least once every month.  The
 	<command>scrub</command> operation is very disk-intensive and
 	will reduce performance while running.  Avoid high-demand
 	periods when scheduling <command>scrub</command> or use <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-scrub_delay"><varname>vfs.zfs.scrub_delay</varname></link>
 	to adjust the relative priority of the
 	<command>scrub</command> to prevent it interfering with other
 	workloads.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool scrub <replaceable>mypool</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
   scan: scrub in progress since Wed Feb 19 20:52:54 2014
         116G scanned out of 8.60T at 649M/s, 3h48m to go
         0 repaired, 1.32% done
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           raidz2-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada0p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada1p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada2p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada3p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada4p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
             ada5p3  ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the event that a scrub operation needs to be cancelled,
 	issue <command>zpool scrub -s
 	  <replaceable>mypool</replaceable></command>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-selfheal">
       <title>自我修復</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The checksums stored with data blocks enable the file
 	system to <emphasis>self-heal</emphasis>.  This feature will
 	automatically repair data whose checksum does not match the
 	one recorded on another device that is part of the storage
 	pool.  For example, a mirror with two disks where one drive is
 	starting to malfunction and cannot properly store the data any
 	more.  This is even worse when the data has not been accessed
 	for a long time, as with long term archive storage.
 	Traditional file systems need to run algorithms that check and
 	repair the data like <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  These commands take time,
 	and in severe cases, an administrator has to manually decide
 	which repair operation must be performed.  When
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> detects a data block with a checksum
 	that does not match, it tries to read the data from the mirror
 	disk.  If that disk can provide the correct data, it will not
 	only give that data to the application requesting it, but also
 	correct the wrong data on the disk that had the bad checksum.
 	This happens without any interaction from a system
 	administrator during normal pool operation.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next example demonstrates this self-healing behavior.
 	A mirrored pool of disks <filename>/dev/ada0</filename> and
 	<filename>/dev/ada1</filename> is created.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool create <replaceable>healer</replaceable> mirror <replaceable>/dev/ada0</replaceable> <replaceable>/dev/ada1</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
   pool: healer
  state: ONLINE
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
     NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
     healer      ONLINE       0     0     0
       mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada0     ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada1     ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME     SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 healer   960M  92.5K   960M     0%  1.00x  ONLINE  -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some important data that to be protected from data errors
 	using the self-healing feature is copied to the pool.  A
 	checksum of the pool is created for later comparison.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /some/important/data /healer</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME     SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 healer   960M  67.7M   892M     7%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sha1 /healer &gt; checksum.txt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat checksum.txt</userinput>
 SHA1 (/healer) = 2753eff56d77d9a536ece6694bf0a82740344d1f</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Data corruption is simulated by writing random data to the
 	beginning of one of the disks in the mirror.  To prevent
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> from healing the data as soon as it is
 	detected, the pool is exported before the corruption and
 	imported again afterwards.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This is a dangerous operation that can destroy vital
 	  data.  It is shown here for demonstrational purposes only
 	  and should not be attempted during normal operation of a
 	  storage pool.  Nor should this intentional corruption
 	  example be run on any disk with a different file system on
 	  it.  Do not use any other disk device names other than the
 	  ones that are part of the pool.  Make certain that proper
 	  backups of the pool are created before running the
 	  command!</para>
       </warning>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool export <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dd if=/dev/random of=/dev/ada1 bs=1m count=200</userinput>
 200+0 records in
 200+0 records out
 209715200 bytes transferred in 62.992162 secs (3329227 bytes/sec)
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool import healer</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The pool status shows that one device has experienced an
 	error.  Note that applications reading data from the pool did
 	not receive any incorrect data.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	provided data from the <filename>ada0</filename> device with
 	the correct checksums.  The device with the wrong checksum can
 	be found easily as the <literal>CKSUM</literal> column
 	contains a nonzero value.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
     pool: healer
    state: ONLINE
   status: One or more devices has experienced an unrecoverable error.  An
           attempt was made to correct the error.  Applications are unaffected.
   action: Determine if the device needs to be replaced, and clear the errors
           using 'zpool clear' or replace the device with 'zpool replace'.
      see: http://www.sun.com/msg/ZFS-8000-9P
     scan: none requested
   config:
 
       NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
       healer      ONLINE       0     0     0
         mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
          ada0     ONLINE       0     0     0
          ada1     ONLINE       0     0     1
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The error was detected and handled by using the redundancy
 	present in the unaffected <filename>ada0</filename> mirror
 	disk.  A checksum comparison with the original one will reveal
 	whether the pool is consistent again.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sha1 /healer &gt;&gt; checksum.txt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat checksum.txt</userinput>
 SHA1 (/healer) = 2753eff56d77d9a536ece6694bf0a82740344d1f
 SHA1 (/healer) = 2753eff56d77d9a536ece6694bf0a82740344d1f</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The two checksums that were generated before and after the
 	intentional tampering with the pool data still match.  This
 	shows how <acronym>ZFS</acronym> is capable of detecting and
 	correcting any errors automatically when the checksums differ.
 	Note that this is only possible when there is enough
 	redundancy present in the pool.  A pool consisting of a single
 	device has no self-healing capabilities.  That is also the
 	reason why checksums are so important in
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> and should not be disabled for any
 	reason.  No <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or similar file system consistency
 	check program is required to detect and correct this and the
 	pool was still available during the time there was a problem.
 	A scrub operation is now required to overwrite the corrupted
 	data on <filename>ada1</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool scrub <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
   pool: healer
  state: ONLINE
 status: One or more devices has experienced an unrecoverable error.  An
             attempt was made to correct the error.  Applications are unaffected.
 action: Determine if the device needs to be replaced, and clear the errors
             using 'zpool clear' or replace the device with 'zpool replace'.
    see: http://www.sun.com/msg/ZFS-8000-9P
   scan: scrub in progress since Mon Dec 10 12:23:30 2012
         10.4M scanned out of 67.0M at 267K/s, 0h3m to go
         9.63M repaired, 15.56% done
 config:
 
     NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
     healer      ONLINE       0     0     0
       mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada0     ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada1     ONLINE       0     0   627  (repairing)
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The scrub operation reads data from
 	<filename>ada0</filename> and rewrites any data with an
 	incorrect checksum on <filename>ada1</filename>.  This is
 	indicated by the <literal>(repairing)</literal> output from
 	<command>zpool status</command>.  After the operation is
 	complete, the pool status changes to:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
   pool: healer
  state: ONLINE
 status: One or more devices has experienced an unrecoverable error.  An
         attempt was made to correct the error.  Applications are unaffected.
 action: Determine if the device needs to be replaced, and clear the errors
              using 'zpool clear' or replace the device with 'zpool replace'.
    see: http://www.sun.com/msg/ZFS-8000-9P
   scan: scrub repaired 66.5M in 0h2m with 0 errors on Mon Dec 10 12:26:25 2012
 config:
 
     NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
     healer      ONLINE       0     0     0
       mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada0     ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada1     ONLINE       0     0 2.72K
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After the scrub operation completes and all the data
 	has been synchronized from <filename>ada0</filename> to
 	<filename>ada1</filename>, the error messages can be
 	<link linkend="zfs-zpool-clear">cleared</link> from the pool
 	status by running <command>zpool clear</command>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool clear <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status <replaceable>healer</replaceable></userinput>
   pool: healer
  state: ONLINE
   scan: scrub repaired 66.5M in 0h2m with 0 errors on Mon Dec 10 12:26:25 2012
 config:
 
     NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
     healer      ONLINE       0     0     0
       mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada0     ONLINE       0     0     0
        ada1     ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The pool is now back to a fully working state and all the
 	errors have been cleared.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-online">
       <title>擴增儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The usable size of a redundant pool is limited by the
 	capacity of the smallest device in each vdev.  The smallest
 	device can be replaced with a larger device.  After completing
 	a <link linkend="zfs-zpool-replace">replace</link> or
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-resilver">resilver</link> operation,
 	the pool can grow to use the capacity of the new device.  For
 	example, consider a mirror of a 1 TB drive and a
 	2 TB drive.  The usable space is 1 TB.  When the
 	1 TB drive is replaced with another 2 TB drive, the
 	resilvering process copies the existing data onto the new
 	drive.  Because
 	both of the devices now have 2 TB capacity, the mirror's
 	available space can be grown to 2 TB.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Expansion is triggered by using
 	<command>zpool online -e</command> on each device.  After
 	expansion of all devices, the additional space becomes
 	available to the pool.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-import">
       <title>匯入與匯出儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Pools are <emphasis>exported</emphasis> before moving them
 	to another system.  All datasets are unmounted, and each
 	device is marked as exported but still locked so it cannot be
 	used by other disk subsystems.  This allows pools to be
 	<emphasis>imported</emphasis> on other machines, other
 	operating systems that support <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, and
 	even different hardware architectures (with some caveats, see
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>zpool</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>).  When a dataset has open files,
 	<command> zpool export -f</command> can be used to force the
 	export of a pool.  Use this with caution.  The datasets are
 	forcibly unmounted, potentially resulting in unexpected
 	behavior by the applications which had open files on those
 	datasets.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Export a pool that is not in use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool export mypool</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Importing a pool automatically mounts the datasets.  This
 	may not be the desired behavior, and can be prevented with
 	<command>zpool import -N</command>.
 	<command>zpool import -o</command> sets temporary properties
 	for this import only.
 	<command>zpool import altroot=</command> allows importing a
 	pool with a base mount point instead of the root of the file
 	system.  If the pool was last used on a different system and
 	was not properly exported, an import might have to be forced
 	with <command>zpool import -f</command>.
 	<command>zpool import -a</command> imports all pools that do
 	not appear to be in use by another system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">List all available pools for import:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool import</userinput>
    pool: mypool
      id: 9930174748043525076
   state: ONLINE
  action: The pool can be imported using its name or numeric identifier.
  config:
 
         mypool      ONLINE
           ada2p3    ONLINE</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Import the pool with an alternative root directory:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool import -o altroot=<replaceable>/mnt</replaceable> <replaceable>mypool</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 zfs list
 NAME                 USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool               110K  47.0G    31K  /mnt/mypool</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-upgrade">
       <title>升級儲存儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After upgrading FreeBSD, or if a pool has been imported from
 	a system using an older version of <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, the
 	pool can be manually upgraded to the latest version of
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> to support newer features.  Consider
 	whether the pool may ever need to be imported on an older
 	system before upgrading.  Upgrading is a one-way process.
 	Older pools can be upgraded, but pools with newer features
 	cannot be downgraded.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Upgrade a v28 pool to support
 	<literal>Feature Flags</literal>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
 status: The pool is formatted using a legacy on-disk format.  The pool can
         still be used, but some features are unavailable.
 action: Upgrade the pool using 'zpool upgrade'.  Once this is done, the
         pool will no longer be accessible on software that does not support feat
         flags.
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    ada0    ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    ada1    ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool upgrade</userinput>
 This system supports ZFS pool feature flags.
 
 The following pools are formatted with legacy version numbers and can
 be upgraded to use feature flags.  After being upgraded, these pools
 will no longer be accessible by software that does not support feature
 flags.
 
 VER  POOL
 ---  ------------
 28   mypool
 
 Use 'zpool upgrade -v' for a list of available legacy versions.
 Every feature flags pool has all supported features enabled.
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool upgrade mypool</userinput>
 This system supports ZFS pool feature flags.
 
 Successfully upgraded 'mypool' from version 28 to feature flags.
 Enabled the following features on 'mypool':
   async_destroy
   empty_bpobj
   lz4_compress
   multi_vdev_crash_dump</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The newer features of <acronym>ZFS</acronym> will not be
 	available until <command>zpool upgrade</command> has
 	completed.  <command>zpool upgrade -v</command> can be used to
 	see what new features will be provided by upgrading, as well
 	as which features are already supported.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Upgrade a pool to support additional feature flags:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool status</userinput>
   pool: mypool
  state: ONLINE
 status: Some supported features are not enabled on the pool. The pool can
         still be used, but some features are unavailable.
 action: Enable all features using 'zpool upgrade'. Once this is done,
         the pool may no longer be accessible by software that does not support
         the features. See zpool-features(7) for details.
   scan: none requested
 config:
 
         NAME        STATE     READ WRITE CKSUM
         mypool      ONLINE       0     0     0
           mirror-0  ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    ada0    ONLINE       0     0     0
 	    ada1    ONLINE       0     0     0
 
 errors: No known data errors
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool upgrade</userinput>
 This system supports ZFS pool feature flags.
 
 All pools are formatted using feature flags.
 
 
 Some supported features are not enabled on the following pools. Once a
 feature is enabled the pool may become incompatible with software
 that does not support the feature. See zpool-features(7) for details.
 
 POOL  FEATURE
 ---------------
 zstore
       multi_vdev_crash_dump
       spacemap_histogram
       enabled_txg
       hole_birth
       extensible_dataset
       bookmarks
       filesystem_limits
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool upgrade mypool</userinput>
 This system supports ZFS pool feature flags.
 
 Enabled the following features on 'mypool':
   spacemap_histogram
   enabled_txg
   hole_birth
   extensible_dataset
   bookmarks
   filesystem_limits</screen>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The boot code on systems that boot from a pool must be
 	  updated to support the new pool version.  Use
 	  <command>gpart bootcode</command> on the partition that
 	  contains the boot code.  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gpart</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	  information.</para>
       </warning>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-history">
       <title>顯示已記錄的儲存池歷史日誌</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Commands that modify the pool are recorded.  Recorded
 	actions include the creation of datasets, changing properties,
 	or replacement of a disk.  This history is useful for
 	reviewing how a pool was created and which user performed a
 	specific action and when.  History is not kept in a log file,
 	but is part of the pool itself.  The command to review this
 	history is aptly named
 	<command>zpool history</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool history</userinput>
 History for 'tank':
 2013-02-26.23:02:35 zpool create tank mirror /dev/ada0 /dev/ada1
 2013-02-27.18:50:58 zfs set atime=off tank
 2013-02-27.18:51:09 zfs set checksum=fletcher4 tank
 2013-02-27.18:51:18 zfs create tank/backup</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output shows <command>zpool</command> and
 	<command>zfs</command> commands that were executed on the pool
 	along with a timestamp.  Only commands that alter the pool in
 	some way are recorded.  Commands like
 	<command>zfs list</command> are not included.  When no pool
 	name is specified, the history of all pools is
 	displayed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>zpool history</command> can show even more
 	information when the options <option>-i</option> or
 	<option>-l</option> are provided.  <option>-i</option>
 	displays user-initiated events as well as internally logged
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> events.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool history -i</userinput>
 History for 'tank':
 2013-02-26.23:02:35 [internal pool create txg:5] pool spa 28; zfs spa 28; zpl 5;uts  9.1-RELEASE 901000 amd64
 2013-02-27.18:50:53 [internal property set txg:50] atime=0 dataset = 21
 2013-02-27.18:50:58 zfs set atime=off tank
 2013-02-27.18:51:04 [internal property set txg:53] checksum=7 dataset = 21
 2013-02-27.18:51:09 zfs set checksum=fletcher4 tank
 2013-02-27.18:51:13 [internal create txg:55] dataset = 39
 2013-02-27.18:51:18 zfs create tank/backup</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More details can be shown by adding <option>-l</option>.
 	History records are shown in a long format, including
 	information like the name of the user who issued the command
 	and the hostname on which the change was made.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool history -l</userinput>
 History for 'tank':
 2013-02-26.23:02:35 zpool create tank mirror /dev/ada0 /dev/ada1 [user 0 (root) on :global]
 2013-02-27.18:50:58 zfs set atime=off tank [user 0 (root) on myzfsbox:global]
 2013-02-27.18:51:09 zfs set checksum=fletcher4 tank [user 0 (root) on myzfsbox:global]
 2013-02-27.18:51:18 zfs create tank/backup [user 0 (root) on myzfsbox:global]</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output shows that the
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user created
 	the mirrored pool with disks
 	<filename>/dev/ada0</filename> and
 	<filename>/dev/ada1</filename>.  The hostname
 	<systemitem class="systemname">myzfsbox</systemitem> is also
 	shown in the commands after the pool's creation.  The hostname
 	display becomes important when the pool is exported from one
 	system and imported on another.  The commands that are issued
 	on the other system can clearly be distinguished by the
 	hostname that is recorded for each command.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Both options to <command>zpool history</command> can be
 	combined to give the most detailed information possible for
 	any given pool.  Pool history provides valuable information
 	when tracking down the actions that were performed or when
 	more detailed output is needed for debugging.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-iostat">
       <title>監視效能</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A built-in monitoring system can display pool
 	<acronym>I/O</acronym> statistics in real time.  It shows the
 	amount of free and used space on the pool, how many read and
 	write operations are being performed per second, and how much
 	<acronym>I/O</acronym> bandwidth is currently being utilized.
 	By default, all pools in the system are monitored and
 	displayed.  A pool name can be provided to limit monitoring to
 	just that pool.  A basic example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool iostat</userinput>
                capacity     operations    bandwidth
 pool        alloc   free   read  write   read  write
 ----------  -----  -----  -----  -----  -----  -----
 data         288G  1.53T      2     11  11.3K  57.1K</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To continuously monitor <acronym>I/O</acronym> activity, a
 	number can be specified as the last parameter, indicating a
 	interval in seconds to wait between updates.  The next
 	statistic line is printed after each interval.  Press
 	<keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
 	  <keycap>C</keycap>
 	</keycombo> to stop this continuous monitoring.
 	Alternatively, give a second number on the command line after
 	the interval to specify the total number of statistics to
 	display.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Even more detailed <acronym>I/O</acronym> statistics can
 	be displayed with <option>-v</option>.  Each device in the
 	pool is shown with a statistics line.  This is useful in
 	seeing how many read and write operations are being performed
 	on each device, and can help determine if any individual
 	device is slowing down the pool.  This example shows a
 	mirrored pool with two devices:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool iostat -v </userinput>
                             capacity     operations    bandwidth
 pool                     alloc   free   read  write   read  write
 -----------------------  -----  -----  -----  -----  -----  -----
 data                      288G  1.53T      2     12  9.23K  61.5K
   mirror                  288G  1.53T      2     12  9.23K  61.5K
     ada1                     -      -      0      4  5.61K  61.7K
     ada2                     -      -      1      4  5.04K  61.7K
 -----------------------  -----  -----  -----  -----  -----  -----</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zpool-split">
       <title>分割儲存儲存池</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A pool consisting of one or more mirror vdevs can be split
 	into two pools.  Unless otherwise specified, the last member
 	of each mirror is detached and used to create a new pool
 	containing the same data.  The operation should first be
 	attempted with <option>-n</option>.  The details of the
 	proposed operation are displayed without it actually being
 	performed.  This helps confirm that the operation will do what
 	the user intends.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-zfs">
     <title><command>zfs</command> 管理</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <command>zfs</command> utility is responsible for
       creating, destroying, and managing all <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
       datasets that exist within a pool.  The pool is managed using
       <link linkend="zfs-zpool"><command>zpool</command></link>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-create">
       <title>建立與摧毀資料集</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Unlike traditional disks and volume managers, space in
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> is <emphasis>not</emphasis>
 	preallocated.  With traditional file systems, after all of the
 	space is partitioned and assigned, there is no way to add an
 	additional file system without adding a new disk.  With
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym>, new file systems can be created at any
 	time.  Each <link linkend="zfs-term-dataset"><emphasis>dataset</emphasis></link>
 	has properties including features like compression,
 	deduplication, caching, and quotas, as well as other useful
 	properties like readonly, case sensitivity, network file
 	sharing, and a mount point.  Datasets can be nested inside
 	each other, and child datasets will inherit properties from
 	their parents.  Each dataset can be administered,
 	<link linkend="zfs-zfs-allow">delegated</link>,
 	<link linkend="zfs-zfs-send">replicated</link>,
 	<link linkend="zfs-zfs-snapshot">snapshotted</link>,
 	<link linkend="zfs-zfs-jail">jailed</link>, and destroyed as a
 	unit.  There are many advantages to creating a separate
 	dataset for each different type or set of files.  The only
 	drawbacks to having an extremely large number of datasets is
 	that some commands like <command>zfs list</command> will be
 	slower, and the mounting of hundreds or even thousands of
 	datasets can slow the FreeBSD boot process.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a new dataset and enable <link linkend="zfs-term-compression-lz4">LZ4
 	  compression</link> on it:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                  USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                781M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT           777M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default   777M  93.2G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp            176K  93.2G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr            616K  93.2G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home       184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/ports      144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src        144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var           1.20M  93.2G   608K  /var
 mypool/var/crash      148K  93.2G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log        178K  93.2G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail       144K  93.2G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/tmp        152K  93.2G   152K  /var/tmp
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create -o compress=lz4 <replaceable>mypool/usr/mydataset</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                 781M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT            777M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default    777M  93.2G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp             176K  93.2G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr             704K  93.2G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home        184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/mydataset  87.5K  93.2G  87.5K  /usr/mydataset
 mypool/usr/ports       144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src         144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var            1.20M  93.2G   610K  /var
 mypool/var/crash       148K  93.2G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log         178K  93.2G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail        144K  93.2G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/tmp         152K  93.2G   152K  /var/tmp</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Destroying a dataset is much quicker than deleting all
 	of the files that reside on the dataset, as it does not
 	involve scanning all of the files and updating all of the
 	corresponding metadata.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Destroy the previously-created dataset:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                 880M  93.1G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT            777M  93.1G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default    777M  93.1G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp             176K  93.1G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr             101M  93.1G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home        184K  93.1G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/mydataset   100M  93.1G   100M  /usr/mydataset
 mypool/usr/ports       144K  93.1G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src         144K  93.1G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var            1.20M  93.1G   610K  /var
 mypool/var/crash       148K  93.1G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log         178K  93.1G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail        144K  93.1G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/tmp         152K  93.1G   152K  /var/tmp
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs destroy <replaceable>mypool/usr/mydataset</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                  USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                781M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT           777M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default   777M  93.2G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp            176K  93.2G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr            616K  93.2G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home       184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/ports      144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src        144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var           1.21M  93.2G   612K  /var
 mypool/var/crash      148K  93.2G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log        178K  93.2G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail       144K  93.2G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/tmp        152K  93.2G   152K  /var/tmp</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In modern versions of <acronym>ZFS</acronym>,
 	<command>zfs destroy</command> is asynchronous, and the free
 	space might take several minutes to appear in the pool.  Use
 	<command>zpool get freeing
 	  <replaceable>poolname</replaceable></command> to see the
 	<literal>freeing</literal> property, indicating how many
 	datasets are having their blocks freed in the background.
 	If there are child datasets, like
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-snapshot">snapshots</link> or other
 	datasets, then the parent cannot be destroyed.  To destroy a
 	dataset and all of its children, use <option>-r</option> to
 	recursively destroy the dataset and all of its children.
 	Use <option>-n</option> <option>-v</option> to list datasets
 	and snapshots that would be destroyed by this operation, but
 	do not actually destroy anything.  Space that would be
 	reclaimed by destruction of snapshots is also shown.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-volume">
       <title>建立與摧毀磁碟區</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A volume is a special type of dataset.  Rather than being
 	mounted as a file system, it is exposed as a block device
 	under
 	<filename>/dev/zvol/<replaceable>poolname</replaceable>/<replaceable>dataset</replaceable></filename>.
 	This allows the volume to be used for other file systems, to
 	back the disks of a virtual machine, or to be exported using
 	protocols like <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> or
 	<acronym>HAST</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A volume can be formatted with any file system, or used
 	without a file system to store raw data.  To the user, a
 	volume appears to be a regular disk.  Putting ordinary file
 	systems on these <emphasis>zvols</emphasis> provides features
 	that ordinary disks or file systems do not normally have.  For
 	example, using the compression property on a 250 MB
 	volume allows creation of a compressed <acronym>FAT</acronym>
 	file system.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create -V 250m -o compression=on tank/fat32</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list tank</userinput>
 NAME USED AVAIL REFER MOUNTPOINT
 tank 258M  670M   31K /tank
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>newfs_msdos -F32 /dev/zvol/tank/fat32</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t msdosfs /dev/zvol/tank/fat32 /mnt</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df -h /mnt | grep fat32</userinput>
 Filesystem           Size Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
 /dev/zvol/tank/fat32 249M  24k  249M     0%   /mnt
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount | grep fat32</userinput>
 /dev/zvol/tank/fat32 on /mnt (msdosfs, local)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Destroying a volume is much the same as destroying a
 	regular file system dataset.  The operation is nearly
 	instantaneous, but it may take several minutes for the free
 	space to be reclaimed in the background.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-rename">
       <title>重新命名資料集</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The name of a dataset can be changed with
 	<command>zfs rename</command>.  The parent of a dataset can
 	also be changed with this command.  Renaming a dataset to be
 	under a different parent dataset will change the value of
 	those properties that are inherited from the parent dataset.
 	When a dataset is renamed, it is unmounted and then remounted
 	in the new location (which is inherited from the new parent
 	dataset).  This behavior can be prevented with
 	<option>-u</option>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Rename a dataset and move it to be under a different
 	parent dataset:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                 780M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT            777M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default    777M  93.2G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp             176K  93.2G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr             704K  93.2G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home        184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/mydataset  87.5K  93.2G  87.5K  /usr/mydataset
 mypool/usr/ports       144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src         144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var            1.21M  93.2G   614K  /var
 mypool/var/crash       148K  93.2G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log         178K  93.2G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail        144K  93.2G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/tmp         152K  93.2G   152K  /var/tmp
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rename <replaceable>mypool/usr/mydataset</replaceable> <replaceable>mypool/var/newname</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                  USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                780M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT           777M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default   777M  93.2G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp            176K  93.2G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr            616K  93.2G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home       184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/ports      144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src        144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var           1.29M  93.2G   614K  /var
 mypool/var/crash      148K  93.2G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log        178K  93.2G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail       144K  93.2G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/newname   87.5K  93.2G  87.5K  /var/newname
 mypool/var/tmp        152K  93.2G   152K  /var/tmp</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Snapshots can also be renamed like this.  Due to the
 	nature of snapshots, they cannot be renamed into a different
 	parent dataset.  To rename a recursive snapshot, specify
 	<option>-r</option>, and all snapshots with the same name in
 	child datasets with also be renamed.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t snapshot</userinput>
 NAME                                USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/newname@first_snapshot      0      -  87.5K  -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rename <replaceable>mypool/var/newname@first_snapshot</replaceable> <replaceable>new_snapshot_name</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t snapshot</userinput>
 NAME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/newname@new_snapshot_name      0      -  87.5K  -</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-set">
       <title>設定資料集屬性</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Each <acronym>ZFS</acronym> dataset has a number of
 	properties that control its behavior.  Most properties are
 	automatically inherited from the parent dataset, but can be
 	overridden locally.  Set a property on a dataset with
 	<command>zfs set
 	  <replaceable>property</replaceable>=<replaceable>value</replaceable>
 	  <replaceable>dataset</replaceable></command>.  Most
 	properties have a limited set of valid values,
 	<command>zfs get</command> will display each possible property
 	and valid values.  Most properties can be reverted to their
 	inherited values using <command>zfs inherit</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">User-defined properties can also be set.  They become part
 	of the dataset configuration and can be used to provide
 	additional information about the dataset or its contents.  To
 	distinguish these custom properties from the ones supplied as
 	part of <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, a colon (<literal>:</literal>)
 	is used to create a custom namespace for the property.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set <replaceable>custom</replaceable>:<replaceable>costcenter</replaceable>=<replaceable>1234</replaceable> <replaceable>tank</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get <replaceable>custom</replaceable>:<replaceable>costcenter</replaceable> <replaceable>tank</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME PROPERTY           VALUE SOURCE
 tank custom:costcenter  1234  local</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To remove a custom property, use
 	<command>zfs inherit</command> with <option>-r</option>.  If
 	the custom property is not defined in any of the parent
 	datasets, it will be removed completely (although the changes
 	are still recorded in the pool's history).</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs inherit -r <replaceable>custom</replaceable>:<replaceable>costcenter</replaceable> <replaceable>tank</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get <replaceable>custom</replaceable>:<replaceable>costcenter</replaceable> <replaceable>tank</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME    PROPERTY           VALUE              SOURCE
 tank    custom:costcenter  -                  -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get all <replaceable>tank</replaceable> | grep <replaceable>custom</replaceable>:<replaceable>costcenter</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-snapshot">
       <title>管理快照 (Snapshot)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><link linkend="zfs-term-snapshot">Snapshots</link> are one
 	of the most powerful features of <acronym>ZFS</acronym>.  A
 	snapshot provides a read-only, point-in-time copy of the
 	dataset.  With Copy-On-Write (<acronym>COW</acronym>),
 	snapshots can be created quickly by preserving the older
 	version of the data on disk.  If no snapshots exist, space is
 	reclaimed for future use when data is rewritten or deleted.
 	Snapshots preserve disk space by recording only the
 	differences between the current dataset and a previous
 	version.  Snapshots are allowed only on whole datasets, not on
 	individual files or directories.  When a snapshot is created
 	from a dataset, everything contained in it is duplicated.
 	This includes the file system properties, files, directories,
 	permissions, and so on.  Snapshots use no additional space
 	when they are first created, only consuming space as the
 	blocks they reference are changed.  Recursive snapshots taken
 	with <option>-r</option> create a snapshot with the same name
 	on the dataset and all of its children, providing a consistent
 	moment-in-time snapshot of all of the file systems.  This can
 	be important when an application has files on multiple
 	datasets that are related or dependent upon each other.
 	Without snapshots, a backup would have copies of the files
 	from different points in time.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Snapshots in <acronym>ZFS</acronym> provide a variety of
 	features that even other file systems with snapshot
 	functionality lack.  A typical example of snapshot use is to
 	have a quick way of backing up the current state of the file
 	system when a risky action like a software installation or a
 	system upgrade is performed.  If the action fails, the
 	snapshot can be rolled back and the system has the same state
 	as when the snapshot was created.  If the upgrade was
 	successful, the snapshot can be deleted to free up space.
 	Without snapshots, a failed upgrade often requires a restore
 	from backup, which is tedious, time consuming, and may require
 	downtime during which the system cannot be used.  Snapshots
 	can be rolled back quickly, even while the system is running
 	in normal operation, with little or no downtime.  The time
 	savings are enormous with multi-terabyte storage systems and
 	the time required to copy the data from backup.  Snapshots are
 	not a replacement for a complete backup of a pool, but can be
 	used as a quick and easy way to store a copy of the dataset at
 	a specific point in time.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="zfs-zfs-snapshot-creation">
 	<title>建立快照</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Snapshots are created  with <command>zfs snapshot
 	    <replaceable>dataset</replaceable>@<replaceable>snapshotname</replaceable></command>.
 	  Adding <option>-r</option> creates a snapshot recursively,
 	  with the same name on all child datasets.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Create a recursive snapshot of the entire pool:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t all</userinput>
 NAME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool                                 780M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT                            777M  93.2G   144K  none
 mypool/ROOT/default                    777M  93.2G   777M  /
 mypool/tmp                             176K  93.2G   176K  /tmp
 mypool/usr                             616K  93.2G   144K  /usr
 mypool/usr/home                        184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/ports                       144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/ports
 mypool/usr/src                         144K  93.2G   144K  /usr/src
 mypool/var                            1.29M  93.2G   616K  /var
 mypool/var/crash                       148K  93.2G   148K  /var/crash
 mypool/var/log                         178K  93.2G   178K  /var/log
 mypool/var/mail                        144K  93.2G   144K  /var/mail
 mypool/var/newname                    87.5K  93.2G  87.5K  /var/newname
 mypool/var/newname@new_snapshot_name      0      -  87.5K  -
 mypool/var/tmp                         152K  93.2G   152K  /var/tmp
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot -r <replaceable>mypool@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t snapshot</userinput>
 NAME                                        USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool@my_recursive_snapshot                   0      -   144K  -
 mypool/ROOT@my_recursive_snapshot              0      -   144K  -
 mypool/ROOT/default@my_recursive_snapshot      0      -   777M  -
 mypool/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot               0      -   176K  -
 mypool/usr@my_recursive_snapshot               0      -   144K  -
 mypool/usr/home@my_recursive_snapshot          0      -   184K  -
 mypool/usr/ports@my_recursive_snapshot         0      -   144K  -
 mypool/usr/src@my_recursive_snapshot           0      -   144K  -
 mypool/var@my_recursive_snapshot               0      -   616K  -
 mypool/var/crash@my_recursive_snapshot         0      -   148K  -
 mypool/var/log@my_recursive_snapshot           0      -   178K  -
 mypool/var/mail@my_recursive_snapshot          0      -   144K  -
 mypool/var/newname@new_snapshot_name           0      -  87.5K  -
 mypool/var/newname@my_recursive_snapshot       0      -  87.5K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot           0      -   152K  -</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Snapshots are not shown by a normal
 	  <command>zfs list</command> operation.  To list snapshots,
 	  <option>-t snapshot</option> is appended to
 	  <command>zfs list</command>.  <option>-t all</option>
 	  displays both file systems and snapshots.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Snapshots are not mounted directly, so path is shown in
 	  the <literal>MOUNTPOINT</literal> column.  There is no
 	  mention of available disk space in the
 	  <literal>AVAIL</literal> column, as snapshots cannot be
 	  written to after they are created.  Compare the snapshot
 	  to the original dataset from which it was created:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt all <replaceable>mypool/usr/home</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                                    USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/usr/home                         184K  93.2G   184K  /usr/home
 mypool/usr/home@my_recursive_snapshot      0      -   184K  -</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Displaying both the dataset and the snapshot together
 	  reveals how snapshots work in
 	  <link linkend="zfs-term-cow">COW</link> fashion.  They save
 	  only the changes (<emphasis>delta</emphasis>) that were made
 	  and not the complete file system contents all over again.
 	  This means that snapshots take little space when few changes
 	  are made.  Space usage can be made even more apparent by
 	  copying a file to the dataset, then making a second
 	  snapshot:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp <replaceable>/etc/passwd</replaceable> <replaceable>/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable>@<replaceable>after_cp</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt all <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/tmp                         206K  93.2G   118K  /var/tmp
 mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot    88K      -   152K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@after_cp                   0      -   118K  -</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The second snapshot contains only the changes to the
 	  dataset after the copy operation.  This yields enormous
 	  space savings.  Notice that the size of the snapshot
 	  <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable>
 	  also changed in the <literal>USED</literal>
 	  column to indicate the changes between itself and the
 	  snapshot taken afterwards.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="zfs-zfs-snapshot-diff">
 	<title>比對快照</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">ZFS provides a built-in command to compare the
 	  differences in content between two snapshots.  This is
 	  helpful when many snapshots were taken over time and the
 	  user wants to see how the file system has changed over time.
 	  For example, <command>zfs diff</command> lets a user find
 	  the latest snapshot that still contains a file that was
 	  accidentally deleted.  Doing this for the two snapshots that
 	  were created in the previous section yields this
 	  output:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt all <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/tmp                         206K  93.2G   118K  /var/tmp
 mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot    88K      -   152K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@after_cp                   0      -   118K  -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs diff <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 M       /var/tmp/
 +       /var/tmp/passwd</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The command lists the changes between the specified
 	  snapshot (in this case
 	  <literal><replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable></literal>)
 	  and the live file system.  The first column shows the
 	  type of change:</para>
 
 	<informaltable pgwide="1">
 	  <tgroup cols="2">
 	    <tbody valign="top">
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">+</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The path or file was added.</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">-</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The path or file was deleted.</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">M</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The path or file was modified.</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">R</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The path or file was renamed.</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Comparing the output with the table, it becomes clear
 	  that <filename><replaceable>passwd</replaceable></filename>
 	  was added after the snapshot
 	  <literal><replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable></literal>
 	  was created.  This also resulted in a modification to the
 	  parent directory mounted at
 	  <literal><replaceable>/var/tmp</replaceable></literal>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Comparing two snapshots is helpful when using the
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> replication feature to transfer a
 	  dataset to a different host for backup purposes.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Compare two snapshots by providing the full dataset name
 	  and snapshot name of both datasets:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /var/tmp/passwd /var/tmp/passwd.copy</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@diff_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs diff <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable> <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@diff_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 M       /var/tmp/
 +       /var/tmp/passwd
 +       /var/tmp/passwd.copy
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs diff <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable> <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@after_cp</replaceable></userinput>
 M       /var/tmp/
 +       /var/tmp/passwd</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A backup administrator can compare two snapshots
 	  received from the sending host and determine the actual
 	  changes in the dataset.  See the
 	  <link linkend="zfs-zfs-send">Replication</link> section for
 	  more information.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="zfs-zfs-snapshot-rollback">
 	<title>使用快照還原</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When at least one snapshot is available, it can be
 	  rolled back to at any time.  Most of the time this is the
 	  case when the current state of the dataset is no longer
 	  required and an older version is preferred.  Scenarios such
 	  as local development tests have gone wrong, botched system
 	  updates hampering the system's overall functionality, or the
 	  requirement to restore accidentally deleted files or
 	  directories are all too common occurrences.  Luckily,
 	  rolling back a snapshot is just as easy as typing
 	  <command>zfs rollback
 	    <replaceable>snapshotname</replaceable></command>.
 	  Depending on how many changes are involved, the operation
 	  will finish in a certain amount of time.  During that time,
 	  the dataset always remains in a consistent state, much like
 	  a database that conforms to ACID principles is performing a
 	  rollback.  This is happening while the dataset is live and
 	  accessible without requiring a downtime.  Once the snapshot
 	  has been rolled back, the dataset has the same state as it
 	  had when the snapshot was originally taken.  All other data
 	  in that dataset that was not part of the snapshot is
 	  discarded.  Taking a snapshot of the current state of the
 	  dataset before rolling back to a previous one is a good idea
 	  when some data is required later.  This way, the user can
 	  roll back and forth between snapshots without losing data
 	  that is still valuable.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In the first example, a snapshot is rolled back because
 	  of a careless <command>rm</command> operation that removes
 	  too much data than was intended.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt all <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/tmp                         262K  93.2G   120K  /var/tmp
 mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot    88K      -   152K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@after_cp               53.5K      -   118K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@diff_snapshot              0      -   120K  -
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls /var/tmp</userinput>
 passwd          passwd.copy
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>rm /var/tmp/passwd*</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls /var/tmp</userinput>
 vi.recover
 <prompt>%</prompt></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">At this point, the user realized that too many files
 	  were deleted and wants them back.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	  provides an easy way to get them back using rollbacks, but
 	  only when snapshots of important data are performed on a
 	  regular basis.  To get the files back and start over from
 	  the last snapshot, issue the command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rollback <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@diff_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls /var/tmp</userinput>
 passwd          passwd.copy     vi.recover</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The rollback operation restored the dataset to the state
 	  of the last snapshot.  It is also possible to roll back to a
 	  snapshot that was taken much earlier and has other snapshots
 	  that were created after it.  When trying to do this,
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> will issue this warning:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt snapshot <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 AME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot    88K      -   152K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@after_cp               53.5K      -   118K  -
 mypool/var/tmp@diff_snapshot              0      -   120K  -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rollback <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 cannot rollback to 'mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot': more recent snapshots exist
 use '-r' to force deletion of the following snapshots:
 mypool/var/tmp@after_cp
 mypool/var/tmp@diff_snapshot</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This warning means that snapshots exist between the
 	  current state of the dataset and the snapshot to which the
 	  user wants to roll back.  To complete the rollback, these
 	  snapshots must be deleted.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> cannot
 	  track all the changes between different states of the
 	  dataset, because snapshots are read-only.
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> will not delete the affected
 	  snapshots unless the user specifies <option>-r</option> to
 	  indicate that this is the desired action.  If that is the
 	  intention, and the consequences of losing all intermediate
 	  snapshots is understood, the command can be issued:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rollback -r <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt snapshot <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                                   USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool/var/tmp@my_recursive_snapshot     8K      -   152K  -
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls /var/tmp</userinput>
 vi.recover</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The output from <command>zfs list -t snapshot</command>
 	  confirms that the intermediate snapshots
 	  were removed as a result of
 	  <command>zfs rollback -r</command>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="zfs-zfs-snapshot-snapdir">
 	<title>自快照還原單一檔案</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Snapshots are mounted in a hidden directory under the
 	  parent dataset:
 	  <filename>.zfs/snapshots/<replaceable>snapshotname</replaceable></filename>.
 	  By default, these directories will not be displayed even
 	  when a standard <command>ls -a</command> is issued.
 	  Although the directory is not displayed, it is there
 	  nevertheless and can be accessed like any normal directory.
 	  The property named <literal>snapdir</literal> controls
 	  whether these hidden directories show up in a directory
 	  listing.  Setting the property to <literal>visible</literal>
 	  allows them to appear in the output of <command>ls</command>
 	  and other commands that deal with directory contents.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get snapdir <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME            PROPERTY  VALUE    SOURCE
 mypool/var/tmp  snapdir   hidden   default
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls -a /var/tmp</userinput>
 .               ..              passwd          vi.recover
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set snapdir=visible <replaceable>mypool/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls -a /var/tmp</userinput>
 .               ..              .zfs            passwd          vi.recover</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Individual files can easily be restored to a previous
 	  state by copying them from the snapshot back to the parent
 	  dataset.  The directory structure below
 	  <filename>.zfs/snapshot</filename> has a directory named
 	  exactly like the snapshots taken earlier to make it easier
 	  to identify them.  In the next example, it is assumed that a
 	  file is to be restored from the hidden
 	  <filename>.zfs</filename> directory by copying it from the
 	  snapshot that contained the latest version of the
 	  file:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm /var/tmp/passwd</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ls -a /var/tmp</userinput>
 .               ..              .zfs            vi.recover
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /var/tmp/.zfs/snapshot</userinput>
 after_cp                my_recursive_snapshot
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /var/tmp/.zfs/snapshot/<replaceable>after_cp</replaceable></userinput>
 passwd          vi.recover
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /var/tmp/.zfs/snapshot/<replaceable>after_cp/passwd</replaceable> <replaceable>/var/tmp</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When <command>ls .zfs/snapshot</command> was issued, the
 	  <literal>snapdir</literal> property might have been set to
 	  hidden, but it would still be possible to list the contents
 	  of that directory.  It is up to the administrator to decide
 	  whether these directories will be displayed.  It is possible
 	  to display these for certain datasets and prevent it for
 	  others.  Copying files or directories from this hidden
 	  <filename>.zfs/snapshot</filename> is simple enough.  Trying
 	  it the other way around results in this error:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp <replaceable>/etc/rc.conf</replaceable> /var/tmp/.zfs/snapshot/<replaceable>after_cp/</replaceable></userinput>
 cp: /var/tmp/.zfs/snapshot/after_cp/rc.conf: Read-only file system</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The error reminds the user that snapshots are read-only
 	  and cannot be changed after creation.  Files cannot be
 	  copied into or removed from snapshot directories because
 	  that would change the state of the dataset they
 	  represent.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Snapshots consume space based on how much the parent
 	  file system has changed since the time of the snapshot.  The
 	  <literal>written</literal> property of a snapshot tracks how
 	  much space is being used by the snapshot.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Snapshots are destroyed and the space reclaimed with
 	  <command>zfs destroy
 	    <replaceable>dataset</replaceable>@<replaceable>snapshot</replaceable></command>.
 	  Adding <option>-r</option> recursively removes all snapshots
 	  with the same name under the parent dataset.  Adding
 	  <option>-n -v</option> to the command displays a list of the
 	  snapshots that would be deleted and an estimate of how much
 	  space would be reclaimed without performing the actual
 	  destroy operation.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-clones">
       <title>管理複本 (Clone)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A clone is a copy of a snapshot that is treated more like
 	a regular dataset.  Unlike a snapshot, a clone is not read
 	only, is mounted, and can have its own properties.  Once a
 	clone has been created using <command>zfs clone</command>, the
 	snapshot it was created from cannot be destroyed.  The
 	child/parent relationship between the clone and the snapshot
 	can be reversed using <command>zfs promote</command>.  After a
 	clone has been promoted, the snapshot becomes a child of the
 	clone, rather than of the original parent dataset.  This will
 	change how the space is accounted, but not actually change the
 	amount of space consumed.  The clone can be mounted at any
 	point within the <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file system hierarchy,
 	not just below the original location of the snapshot.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To demonstrate the clone feature, this example dataset is
 	used:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -rt all <replaceable>camino/home/joe</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                    USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 camino/home/joe         108K   1.3G    87K  /usr/home/joe
 camino/home/joe@plans    21K      -  85.5K  -
 camino/home/joe@backup    0K      -    87K  -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A typical use for clones is to experiment with a specific
 	dataset while keeping the snapshot around to fall back to in
 	case something goes wrong.  Since snapshots cannot be
 	changed, a read/write clone of a snapshot is created.  After
 	the desired result is achieved in the clone, the clone can be
 	promoted to a dataset and the old file system removed.  This
 	is not strictly necessary, as the clone and dataset can
 	coexist without problems.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs clone <replaceable>camino/home/joe</replaceable>@<replaceable>backup</replaceable> <replaceable>camino/home/joenew</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /usr/home/joe*</userinput>
 /usr/home/joe:
 backup.txz     plans.txt
 
 /usr/home/joenew:
 backup.txz     plans.txt
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df -h /usr/home</userinput>
 Filesystem          Size    Used   Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 usr/home/joe        1.3G     31k    1.3G     0%    /usr/home/joe
 usr/home/joenew     1.3G     31k    1.3G     0%    /usr/home/joenew</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After a clone is created it is an exact copy of the state
 	the dataset was in when the snapshot was taken.  The clone can
 	now be changed independently from its originating dataset.
 	The only connection between the two is the snapshot.
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> records this connection in the property
 	<literal>origin</literal>.  Once the dependency between the
 	snapshot and the clone has been removed by promoting the clone
 	using <command>zfs promote</command>, the
 	<literal>origin</literal> of the clone is removed as it is now
 	an independent dataset.  This example demonstrates it:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get origin <replaceable>camino/home/joenew</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                  PROPERTY  VALUE                     SOURCE
 camino/home/joenew    origin    camino/home/joe@backup    -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs promote <replaceable>camino/home/joenew</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get origin <replaceable>camino/home/joenew</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME                  PROPERTY  VALUE   SOURCE
 camino/home/joenew    origin    -       -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After making some changes like copying
 	<filename>loader.conf</filename> to the promoted clone, for
 	example, the old directory becomes obsolete in this case.
 	Instead, the promoted clone can replace it.  This can be
 	achieved by two consecutive commands: <command>zfs
 	  destroy</command> on the old dataset and <command>zfs
 	  rename</command> on the clone to name it like the old
 	dataset (it could also get an entirely different name).</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp <replaceable>/boot/defaults/loader.conf</replaceable> <replaceable>/usr/home/joenew</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs destroy -f <replaceable>camino/home/joe</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs rename <replaceable>camino/home/joenew</replaceable> <replaceable>camino/home/joe</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls /usr/home/joe</userinput>
 backup.txz     loader.conf     plans.txt
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>df -h <replaceable>/usr/home</replaceable></userinput>
 Filesystem          Size    Used   Avail Capacity  Mounted on
 usr/home/joe        1.3G    128k    1.3G     0%    /usr/home/joe</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The cloned snapshot is now handled like an ordinary
 	dataset.  It contains all the data from the original snapshot
 	plus the files that were added to it like
 	<filename>loader.conf</filename>.  Clones can be used in
 	different scenarios to provide useful features to ZFS users.
 	For example, jails could be provided as snapshots containing
 	different sets of installed applications.  Users can clone
 	these snapshots and add their own applications as they see
 	fit.  Once they are satisfied with the changes, the clones can
 	be promoted to full datasets and provided to end users to work
 	with like they would with a real dataset.  This saves time and
 	administrative overhead when providing these jails.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-send">
       <title>備援</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Keeping data on a single pool in one location exposes
 	it to risks like theft and natural or human disasters.  Making
 	regular backups of the entire pool is vital.
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> provides a built-in serialization
 	feature that can send a stream representation of the data to
 	standard output.  Using this technique, it is possible to not
 	only store the data on another pool connected to the local
 	system, but also to send it over a network to another system.
 	Snapshots are the basis for this replication (see the section
 	on <link linkend="zfs-zfs-snapshot"><acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	  snapshots</link>).  The commands used for replicating data
 	are <command>zfs send</command> and
 	<command>zfs receive</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These examples demonstrate <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	replication with these two pools:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME    SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 backup  960M    77K   896M     0%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 mypool  984M  43.7M   940M     4%  1.00x  ONLINE  -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The pool named <replaceable>mypool</replaceable> is the
 	primary pool where data is written to and read from on a
 	regular basis.  A second pool,
 	<replaceable>backup</replaceable> is used as a standby in case
 	the primary pool becomes unavailable.  Note that this
 	fail-over is not done automatically by <acronym>ZFS</acronym>,
 	but must be manually done by a system administrator when
 	needed.  A snapshot is used to provide a consistent version of
 	the file system to be replicated.  Once a snapshot of
 	<replaceable>mypool</replaceable> has been created, it can be
 	copied to the <replaceable>backup</replaceable> pool.  Only
 	snapshots can be replicated.  Changes made since the most
 	recent snapshot will not be included.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>backup1</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t snapshot</userinput>
 NAME                    USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool@backup1             0      -  43.6M  -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now that a snapshot exists, <command>zfs send</command>
 	can be used to create a stream representing the contents of
 	the snapshot.  This stream can be stored as a file or received
 	by another pool.  The stream is written to standard output,
 	but must be redirected to a file or pipe or an error is
 	produced:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs send <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>backup1</replaceable></userinput>
 Error: Stream can not be written to a terminal.
 You must redirect standard output.</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To back up a dataset with <command>zfs send</command>,
 	redirect to a file located on the mounted backup pool.  Ensure
 	that the pool has enough free space to accommodate the size of
 	the snapshot being sent, which means all of the data contained
 	in the snapshot, not just the changes from the previous
 	snapshot.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs send <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>backup1</replaceable> &gt; <replaceable>/backup/backup1</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME    SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 backup  960M  63.7M   896M     6%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 mypool  984M  43.7M   940M     4%  1.00x  ONLINE  -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <command>zfs send</command> transferred all the data
 	in the snapshot called <replaceable>backup1</replaceable> to
 	the pool named <replaceable>backup</replaceable>.  Creating
 	and sending these snapshots can be done automatically with a
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> job.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Instead of storing the backups as archive files,
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> can receive them as a live file system,
 	allowing the backed up data to be accessed directly.  To get
 	to the actual data contained in those streams,
 	<command>zfs receive</command> is used to transform the
 	streams back into files and directories.  The example below
 	combines <command>zfs send</command> and
 	<command>zfs receive</command> using a pipe to copy the data
 	from one pool to another.  The data can be used directly on
 	the receiving pool after the transfer is complete.  A dataset
 	can only be replicated to an empty dataset.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>replica1</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs send -v <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>replica1</replaceable> | zfs receive <replaceable>backup/mypool</replaceable></userinput>
 send from @ to mypool@replica1 estimated size is 50.1M
 total estimated size is 50.1M
 TIME        SENT   SNAPSHOT
 
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME    SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 backup  960M  63.7M   896M     6%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 mypool  984M  43.7M   940M     4%  1.00x  ONLINE  -</screen>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="zfs-send-incremental">
 	<title>漸進式備份</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><command>zfs send</command> can also determine the
 	  difference between two snapshots and send only the
 	  differences between the two.  This saves disk space and
 	  transfer time.  For example:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>replica2</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t snapshot</userinput>
 NAME                    USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 mypool@replica1         5.72M      -  43.6M  -
 mypool@replica2             0      -  44.1M  -
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME    SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 backup  960M  61.7M   898M     6%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 mypool  960M  50.2M   910M     5%  1.00x  ONLINE  -</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A second snapshot called
 	  <replaceable>replica2</replaceable> was created.  This
 	  second snapshot contains only the changes that were made to
 	  the file system between now and the previous snapshot,
 	  <replaceable>replica1</replaceable>.  Using
 	  <command>zfs send -i</command> and indicating the pair of
 	  snapshots generates an incremental replica stream containing
 	  only the data that has changed.  This can only succeed if
 	  the initial snapshot already exists on the receiving
 	  side.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs send -v -i <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>replica1</replaceable> <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>@<replaceable>replica2</replaceable> | zfs receive <replaceable>/backup/mypool</replaceable></userinput>
 send from @replica1 to mypool@replica2 estimated size is 5.02M
 total estimated size is 5.02M
 TIME        SENT   SNAPSHOT
 
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME    SIZE  ALLOC   FREE    CAP  DEDUP  HEALTH  ALTROOT
 backup  960M  80.8M   879M     8%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 mypool  960M  50.2M   910M     5%  1.00x  ONLINE  -
 
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list</userinput>
 NAME                         USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 backup                      55.4M   240G   152K  /backup
 backup/mypool               55.3M   240G  55.2M  /backup/mypool
 mypool                      55.6M  11.6G  55.0M  /mypool
 
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs list -t snapshot</userinput>
 NAME                                         USED  AVAIL  REFER  MOUNTPOINT
 backup/mypool@replica1                       104K      -  50.2M  -
 backup/mypool@replica2                          0      -  55.2M  -
 mypool@replica1                             29.9K      -  50.0M  -
 mypool@replica2                                 0      -  55.0M  -</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The incremental stream was successfully transferred.
 	  Only the data that had changed was replicated, rather than
 	  the entirety of <replaceable>replica1</replaceable>.  Only
 	  the differences were sent, which took much less time to
 	  transfer and saved disk space by not copying the complete
 	  pool each time.  This is useful when having to rely on slow
 	  networks or when costs per transferred byte must be
 	  considered.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A new file system,
 	  <replaceable>backup/mypool</replaceable>, is available with
 	  all of the files and data from the pool
 	  <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>.  If <option>-P</option>
 	  is specified, the properties of the dataset will be copied,
 	  including compression settings, quotas, and mount points.
 	  When <option>-R</option> is specified, all child datasets of
 	  the indicated dataset will be copied, along with all of
 	  their properties.  Sending and receiving can be automated so
 	  that regular backups are created on the second pool.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="zfs-send-ssh">
 	<title>透過 <application>SSH</application> 傳送已加密的備份</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Sending streams over the network is a good way to keep a
 	  remote backup, but it does come with a drawback.  Data sent
 	  over the network link is not encrypted, allowing anyone to
 	  intercept and transform the streams back into data without
 	  the knowledge of the sending user.  This is undesirable,
 	  especially when sending the streams over the internet to a
 	  remote host.  <application>SSH</application> can be used to
 	  securely encrypt data send over a network connection.  Since
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> only requires the stream to be
 	  redirected from standard output, it is relatively easy to
 	  pipe it through <application>SSH</application>.  To keep the
 	  contents of the file system encrypted in transit and on the
 	  remote system, consider using <link xlink:href="http://wiki.freebsd.org/PEFS">PEFS</link>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A few settings and security precautions must be
 	  completed first.  Only the necessary steps required for the
 	  <command>zfs send</command> operation are shown here.  For
 	  more information on <application>SSH</application>, see
 	  <xref linkend="openssh"/>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This configuration is required:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Passwordless <application>SSH</application> access
 	      between sending and receiving host using
 	      <application>SSH</application> keys</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Normally, the privileges of the
 	      <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user are
 	      needed to send and receive streams.  This requires
 	      logging in to the receiving system as
 	      <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.
 	      However, logging in as
 	      <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> is
 	      disabled by default for security reasons.  The
 	      <link linkend="zfs-zfs-allow">ZFS Delegation</link>
 	      system can be used to allow a
 	      non-<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user
 	      on each system to perform the respective send and
 	      receive operations.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">On the sending system:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <command>zfs allow -u someuser send,snapshot <replaceable>mypool</replaceable></command></screen>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">To mount the pool, the unprivileged user must own
 	      the directory, and regular users must be allowed to
 	      mount file systems.  On the receiving system:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> sysctl vfs.usermount=1
 vfs.usermount: 0 -&gt; 1
 <prompt>#</prompt> echo vfs.usermount=1 &gt;&gt; /etc/sysctl.conf
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create <replaceable>recvpool/backup</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs allow -u <replaceable>someuser</replaceable> create,mount,receive <replaceable>recvpool/backup</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> chown <replaceable>someuser</replaceable> <replaceable>/recvpool/backup</replaceable></screen>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The unprivileged user now has the ability to receive and
 	  mount datasets, and the <replaceable>home</replaceable>
 	  dataset can be replicated to the remote system:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>zfs snapshot -r <replaceable>mypool/home</replaceable>@<replaceable>monday</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>zfs send -R <replaceable>mypool/home</replaceable>@<replaceable>monday</replaceable> | ssh <replaceable>someuser@backuphost</replaceable> zfs recv -dvu <replaceable>recvpool/backup</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A recursive snapshot called
 	  <replaceable>monday</replaceable> is made of the file system
 	  dataset <replaceable>home</replaceable> that resides on the
 	  pool <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>.  Then it is sent
 	  with <command>zfs send -R</command> to include the dataset,
 	  all child datasets, snaphots, clones, and settings in the
 	  stream.  The output is piped to the waiting
 	  <command>zfs receive</command> on the remote host
 	  <replaceable>backuphost</replaceable> through
 	  <application>SSH</application>.  Using a fully qualified
 	  domain name or IP address is recommended.  The receiving
 	  machine writes the data to the
 	  <replaceable>backup</replaceable> dataset on the
 	  <replaceable>recvpool</replaceable> pool.  Adding
 	  <option>-d</option> to <command>zfs recv</command>
 	  overwrites the name of the pool on the receiving side with
 	  the name of the snapshot.  <option>-u</option> causes the
 	  file systems to not be mounted on the receiving side.  When
 	  <option>-v</option> is included, more detail about the
 	  transfer is shown, including elapsed time and the amount of
 	  data transferred.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-quota">
       <title>資料集、使用者以及群組配額</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><link linkend="zfs-term-quota">Dataset quotas</link> are
 	used to restrict the amount of space that can be consumed
 	by a particular dataset.
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-refquota">Reference Quotas</link> work
 	in very much the same way, but only count the space
 	used by the dataset itself, excluding snapshots and child
 	datasets.  Similarly,
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-userquota">user</link> and
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-groupquota">group</link> quotas can be
 	used to prevent users or groups from using all of the
 	space in the pool or dataset.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enforce a dataset quota of 10 GB for
 	<filename>storage/home/bob</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set quota=10G storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enforce a reference quota of 10 GB for
 	<filename>storage/home/bob</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set refquota=10G storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To remove a quota of 10 GB for
 	<filename>storage/home/bob</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set quota=none storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The general format is
 	<literal>userquota@<replaceable>user</replaceable>=<replaceable>size</replaceable></literal>,
 	and the user's name must be in one of these formats:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>POSIX</acronym> compatible name such as
 	    <replaceable>joe</replaceable>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>POSIX</acronym> numeric ID such as
 	    <replaceable>789</replaceable>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>SID</acronym> name
 	    such as
 	    <replaceable>joe.bloggs@example.com</replaceable>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>SID</acronym>
 	    numeric ID such as
 	    <replaceable>S-1-123-456-789</replaceable>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For example, to enforce a user quota of 50 GB for the
 	user named <replaceable>joe</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set userquota@joe=50G</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To remove any quota:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set userquota@joe=none</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">User quota properties are not displayed by
 	  <command>zfs get all</command>.
 	  Non-<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> users can
 	  only see their own quotas unless they have been granted the
 	  <literal>userquota</literal> privilege.  Users with this
 	  privilege are able to view and set everyone's quota.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The general format for setting a group quota is:
 	<literal>groupquota@<replaceable>group</replaceable>=<replaceable>size</replaceable></literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To set the quota for the group
 	<replaceable>firstgroup</replaceable> to 50 GB,
 	use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set groupquota@firstgroup=50G</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To remove the quota for the group
 	<replaceable>firstgroup</replaceable>, or to make sure that
 	one is not set, instead use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set groupquota@firstgroup=none</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As with the user quota property,
 	non-<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> users can
 	only see the quotas associated with the groups to which they
 	belong.  However,
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> or a user with
 	the <literal>groupquota</literal> privilege can view and set
 	all quotas for all groups.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To display the amount of space used by each user on
 	a file system or snapshot along with any quotas, use
 	<command>zfs userspace</command>.  For group information, use
 	<command>zfs groupspace</command>.  For more information about
 	supported options or how to display only specific options,
 	refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>zfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Users with sufficient privileges, and
 	<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>, can list the
 	quota for <filename>storage/home/bob</filename> using:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get quota storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-reservation">
       <title>保留空間</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><link linkend="zfs-term-reservation">Reservations</link>
 	guarantee a minimum amount of space will always be available
 	on a dataset.  The reserved space will not be available to any
 	other dataset.  This feature can be especially useful to
 	ensure that free space is available for an important dataset
 	or log files.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The general format of the <literal>reservation</literal>
 	property is
 	<literal>reservation=<replaceable>size</replaceable></literal>,
 	so to set a reservation of 10 GB on
 	<filename>storage/home/bob</filename>, use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set reservation=10G storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To clear any reservation:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set reservation=none storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The same principle can be applied to the
 	<literal>refreservation</literal> property for setting a
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-refreservation">Reference
 	  Reservation</link>, with the general format
 	<literal>refreservation=<replaceable>size</replaceable></literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command shows any reservations or refreservations
 	that exist on <filename>storage/home/bob</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get reservation storage/home/bob</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get refreservation storage/home/bob</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-compression">
       <title>壓縮 (Compression)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> provides transparent compression.
 	Compressing data at the block level as it is written not only
 	saves space, but can also increase disk throughput.  If data
 	is compressed by 25%, but the compressed data is written to
 	the disk at the same rate as the uncompressed version,
 	resulting in an effective write speed of 125%.  Compression
 	can also be a great alternative to
 	<link linkend="zfs-zfs-deduplication">Deduplication</link>
 	because it does not require additional memory.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> offers several different
 	compression algorithms, each with different trade-offs.  With
 	the introduction of <acronym>LZ4</acronym> compression in
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> v5000, it is possible to enable
 	compression for the entire pool without the large performance
 	trade-off of other algorithms.  The biggest advantage to
 	<acronym>LZ4</acronym> is the <emphasis>early abort</emphasis>
 	feature.  If <acronym>LZ4</acronym> does not achieve at least
 	12.5% compression in the first part of the data, the block is
 	written uncompressed to avoid wasting CPU cycles trying to
 	compress data that is either already compressed or
 	uncompressible.  For details about the different compression
 	algorithms available in <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, see the
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-compression">Compression</link> entry
 	in the terminology section.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The administrator can monitor the effectiveness of
 	compression using a number of dataset properties.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs get used,compressratio,compression,logicalused <replaceable>mypool/compressed_dataset</replaceable></userinput>
 NAME        PROPERTY          VALUE     SOURCE
 mypool/compressed_dataset  used              449G      -
 mypool/compressed_dataset  compressratio     1.11x     -
 mypool/compressed_dataset  compression       lz4       local
 mypool/compressed_dataset  logicalused       496G      -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The dataset is currently using 449 GB of space (the
 	used property).  Without compression, it would have taken
 	496 GB of space (the <literal>logicallyused</literal>
 	property).  This results in the 1.11:1 compression
 	ratio.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Compression can have an unexpected side effect when
 	combined with
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-userquota">User Quotas</link>.
 	User quotas restrict how much space a user can consume on a
 	dataset, but the measurements are based on how much space is
 	used <emphasis>after compression</emphasis>.  So if a user has
 	a quota of 10 GB, and writes 10 GB of compressible
 	data, they will still be able to store additional data.  If
 	they later update a file, say a database, with more or less
 	compressible data, the amount of space available to them will
 	change.  This can result in the odd situation where a user did
 	not increase the actual amount of data (the
 	<literal>logicalused</literal> property), but the change in
 	compression caused them to reach their quota limit.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Compression can have a similar unexpected interaction with
 	backups.  Quotas are often used to limit how much data can be
 	stored to ensure there is sufficient backup space available.
 	However since quotas do not consider compression, more data
 	may be written than would fit with uncompressed
 	backups.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-deduplication">
       <title>去重複 (Deduplication)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When enabled,
 	<link linkend="zfs-term-deduplication">deduplication</link>
 	uses the checksum of each block to detect duplicate blocks.
 	When a new block is a duplicate of an existing block,
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> writes an additional reference to the
 	existing data instead of the whole duplicate block.
 	Tremendous space savings are possible if the data contains
 	many duplicated files or repeated information.  Be warned:
 	deduplication requires an extremely large amount of memory,
 	and most of the space savings can be had without the extra
 	cost by enabling compression instead.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To activate deduplication, set the
 	<literal>dedup</literal> property on the target pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set dedup=on <replaceable>pool</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Only new data being written to the pool will be
 	deduplicated.  Data that has already been written to the pool
 	will not be deduplicated merely by activating this option.  A
 	pool with a freshly activated deduplication property will look
 	like this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME  SIZE ALLOC  FREE CAP DEDUP HEALTH ALTROOT
 pool 2.84G 2.19M 2.83G  0% 1.00x ONLINE -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>DEDUP</literal> column shows the actual rate
 	of deduplication for the pool.  A value of
 	<literal>1.00x</literal> shows that data has not been
 	deduplicated yet.  In the next example, the ports tree is
 	copied three times into different directories on the
 	deduplicated pool created above.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 for d in dir1 dir2 dir3; do
 for&gt; mkdir $d &amp;&amp; cp -R /usr/ports $d &amp;
 for&gt; done</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Redundant data is detected and deduplicated:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zpool list</userinput>
 NAME SIZE  ALLOC FREE CAP DEDUP HEALTH ALTROOT
 pool 2.84G 20.9M 2.82G 0% 3.00x ONLINE -</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>DEDUP</literal> column shows a factor of
 	<literal>3.00x</literal>.  Multiple copies of the ports tree
 	data was detected and deduplicated, using only a third of the
 	space.  The potential for space savings can be enormous, but
 	comes at the cost of having enough memory to keep track of the
 	deduplicated blocks.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Deduplication is not always beneficial, especially when
 	the data on a pool is not redundant.
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> can show potential space savings by
 	simulating deduplication on an existing pool:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zdb -S <replaceable>pool</replaceable></userinput>
 Simulated DDT histogram:
 
 bucket              allocated                       referenced
 ______   ______________________________   ______________________________
 refcnt   blocks   LSIZE   PSIZE   DSIZE   blocks   LSIZE   PSIZE   DSIZE
 ------   ------   -----   -----   -----   ------   -----   -----   -----
      1    2.58M    289G    264G    264G    2.58M    289G    264G    264G
      2     206K   12.6G   10.4G   10.4G     430K   26.4G   21.6G   21.6G
      4    37.6K    692M    276M    276M     170K   3.04G   1.26G   1.26G
      8    2.18K   45.2M   19.4M   19.4M    20.0K    425M    176M    176M
     16      174   2.83M   1.20M   1.20M    3.33K   48.4M   20.4M   20.4M
     32       40   2.17M    222K    222K    1.70K   97.2M   9.91M   9.91M
     64        9     56K   10.5K   10.5K      865   4.96M    948K    948K
    128        2   9.50K      2K      2K      419   2.11M    438K    438K
    256        5   61.5K     12K     12K    1.90K   23.0M   4.47M   4.47M
     1K        2      1K      1K      1K    2.98K   1.49M   1.49M   1.49M
  Total    2.82M    303G    275G    275G    3.20M    319G    287G    287G
 
 dedup = 1.05, compress = 1.11, copies = 1.00, dedup * compress / copies = 1.16</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After <command>zdb -S</command> finishes analyzing the
 	pool, it shows the space reduction ratio that would be
 	achieved by activating deduplication.  In this case,
 	<literal>1.16</literal> is a very poor space saving ratio that
 	is mostly provided by compression.  Activating deduplication
 	on this pool would not save any significant amount of space,
 	and is not worth the amount of memory required to enable
 	deduplication.  Using the formula
 	<emphasis>ratio = dedup * compress / copies</emphasis>,
 	system administrators can plan the storage allocation,
 	deciding whether the workload will contain enough duplicate
 	blocks to justify the memory requirements.  If the data is
 	reasonably compressible, the space savings may be very good.
 	Enabling compression first is recommended, and compression can
 	also provide greatly increased performance.  Only enable
 	deduplication in cases where the additional savings will be
 	considerable and there is sufficient memory for the <link linkend="zfs-term-deduplication"><acronym>DDT</acronym></link>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-jail">
       <title><acronym>ZFS</acronym> 與 Jail</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>zfs jail</command> and the corresponding
 	<literal>jailed</literal> property are used to delegate a
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> dataset to a
 	<link linkend="jails">Jail</link>.
 	<command>zfs jail <replaceable>jailid</replaceable></command>
 	attaches a dataset to the specified jail, and
 	<command>zfs unjail</command> detaches it.  For the dataset to
 	be controlled from within a jail, the
 	<literal>jailed</literal> property must be set.  Once a
 	dataset is jailed, it can no longer be mounted on the
 	host because it may have mount points that would compromise
 	the security of the host.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-zfs-allow">
     <title>委託管理</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A comprehensive permission delegation system allows
       unprivileged users to perform <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
       administration functions.  For example, if each user's home
       directory is a dataset, users can be given permission to create
       and destroy snapshots of their home directories.  A backup user
       can be given permission to use replication features.  A usage
       statistics script can be allowed to run with access only to the
       space utilization data for all users.  It is even possible to
       delegate the ability to delegate permissions.  Permission
       delegation is possible for each subcommand and most
       properties.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-allow-create">
       <title xml:lang="en">Delegating Dataset Creation</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>zfs allow
 	  <replaceable>someuser</replaceable> create
 	  <replaceable>mydataset</replaceable></command> gives the
 	specified user permission to create child datasets under the
 	selected parent dataset.  There is a caveat: creating a new
 	dataset involves mounting it.  That requires setting the
 	FreeBSD <literal>vfs.usermount</literal> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
 	<literal>1</literal> to allow non-root users to mount a
 	file system.  There is another restriction aimed at preventing
 	abuse: non-<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	users must own the mountpoint where the file system is to be
 	mounted.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-zfs-allow-allow">
       <title xml:lang="en">Delegating Permission Delegation</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>zfs allow
 	  <replaceable>someuser</replaceable> allow
 	  <replaceable>mydataset</replaceable></command> gives the
 	specified user the ability to assign any permission they have
 	on the target dataset, or its children, to other users.  If a
 	user has the <literal>snapshot</literal> permission and the
 	<literal>allow</literal> permission, that user can then grant
 	the <literal>snapshot</literal> permission to other
 	users.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-advanced">
     <title>進階主題</title>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning">
       <title>調校</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are a number of tunables that can be adjusted to
 	make <acronym>ZFS</acronym> perform best for different
 	workloads.</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-arc_max" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.arc_max</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Maximum size of the <link linkend="zfs-term-arc"><acronym>ARC</acronym></link>.
 	    The default is all <acronym>RAM</acronym> less 1 GB,
 	    or one half of <acronym>RAM</acronym>, whichever is more.
 	    However, a lower value should be used if the system will
 	    be running any other daemons or processes that may require
 	    memory.  This value can only be adjusted at boot time, and
 	    is set in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-arc_meta_limit" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.arc_meta_limit</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Limit the portion of the
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-arc"><acronym>ARC</acronym></link>
 	    that can be used to store metadata.  The default is one
 	    fourth of <varname>vfs.zfs.arc_max</varname>.  Increasing
 	    this value will improve performance if the workload
 	    involves operations on a large number of files and
 	    directories, or frequent metadata operations, at the cost
 	    of less file data fitting in the <link linkend="zfs-term-arc"><acronym>ARC</acronym></link>.
 	    This value can only be adjusted at boot time, and is set
 	    in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-arc_min" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.arc_min</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Minimum size of the <link linkend="zfs-term-arc"><acronym>ARC</acronym></link>.
 	    The default is one half of
 	    <varname>vfs.zfs.arc_meta_limit</varname>.  Adjust this
 	    value to prevent other applications from pressuring out
 	    the entire <link linkend="zfs-term-arc"><acronym>ARC</acronym></link>.
 	    This value can only be adjusted at boot time, and is set
 	    in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-vdev-cache-size" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.vdev.cache.size</varname></emphasis>
 	    - A preallocated amount of memory reserved as a cache for
 	    each device in the pool.  The total amount of memory used
 	    will be this value multiplied by the number of devices.
 	    This value can only be adjusted at boot time, and is set
 	    in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-min-auto-ashift" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.min_auto_ashift</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Minimum <varname>ashift</varname> (sector size) that
 	    will be used automatically at pool creation time.  The
 	    value is a power of two.  The default value of
 	    <literal>9</literal> represents
 	    <literal>2^9 = 512</literal>, a sector size of 512 bytes.
 	    To avoid <emphasis>write amplification</emphasis> and get
 	    the best performance, set this value to the largest sector
 	    size used by a device in the pool.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Many drives have 4 KB sectors.  Using the default
 	    <varname>ashift</varname> of <literal>9</literal> with
 	    these drives results in write amplification on these
 	    devices.  Data that could be contained in a single
 	    4 KB write must instead be written in eight 512-byte
 	    writes.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> tries to read the native
 	    sector size from all devices when creating a pool, but
 	    many drives with 4 KB sectors report that their
 	    sectors are 512 bytes for compatibility.  Setting
 	    <varname>vfs.zfs.min_auto_ashift</varname> to
 	    <literal>12</literal> (<literal>2^12 = 4096</literal>)
 	    before creating a pool forces <acronym>ZFS</acronym> to
 	    use 4 KB blocks for best performance on these
 	    drives.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Forcing 4 KB blocks is also useful on pools where
 	    disk upgrades are planned.  Future disks are likely to use
 	    4 KB sectors, and <varname>ashift</varname> values
 	    cannot be changed after a pool is created.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In some specific cases, the smaller 512-byte block
 	    size might be preferable.  When used with 512-byte disks
 	    for databases, or as storage for virtual machines, less
 	    data is transferred during small random reads.  This can
 	    provide better performance, especially when using a
 	    smaller <acronym>ZFS</acronym> record size.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-prefetch_disable" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.prefetch_disable</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Disable prefetch.  A value of <literal>0</literal> is
 	    enabled and <literal>1</literal> is disabled.  The default
 	    is <literal>0</literal>, unless the system has less than
 	    4 GB of <acronym>RAM</acronym>.  Prefetch works by
 	    reading larger blocks than were requested into the
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-arc"><acronym>ARC</acronym></link>
 	    in hopes that the data will be needed soon.  If the
 	    workload has a large number of random reads, disabling
 	    prefetch may actually improve performance by reducing
 	    unnecessary reads.  This value can be adjusted at any time
 	    with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-vdev-trim_on_init" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.vdev.trim_on_init</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Control whether new devices added to the pool have the
 	    <literal>TRIM</literal> command run on them.  This ensures
 	    the best performance and longevity for
 	    <acronym>SSD</acronym>s, but takes extra time.  If the
 	    device has already been secure erased, disabling this
 	    setting will make the addition of the new device faster.
 	    This value can be adjusted at any time with
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-vdev-max_pending" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.vdev.max_pending</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Limit the number of pending I/O requests per device.
 	    A higher value will keep the device command queue full
 	    and may give higher throughput.  A lower value will reduce
 	    latency.  This value can be adjusted at any time with
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-top_maxinflight" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.top_maxinflight</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Maxmimum number of outstanding I/Os per top-level
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-vdev">vdev</link>.  Limits the
 	    depth of the command queue to prevent high latency.  The
 	    limit is per top-level vdev, meaning the limit applies to
 	    each <link linkend="zfs-term-vdev-mirror">mirror</link>,
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-vdev-raidz">RAID-Z</link>, or
 	    other vdev independently.  This value can be adjusted at
 	    any time with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-l2arc_write_max" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.l2arc_write_max</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Limit the amount of data written to the <link linkend="zfs-term-l2arc"><acronym>L2ARC</acronym></link>
 	    per second.  This tunable is designed to extend the
 	    longevity of <acronym>SSD</acronym>s by limiting the
 	    amount of data written to the device.  This value can be
 	    adjusted at any time with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-l2arc_write_boost" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.l2arc_write_boost</varname></emphasis>
 	    - The value of this tunable is added to <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-l2arc_write_max"><varname>vfs.zfs.l2arc_write_max</varname></link>
 	    and increases the write speed to the
 	    <acronym>SSD</acronym> until the first block is evicted
 	    from the <link linkend="zfs-term-l2arc"><acronym>L2ARC</acronym></link>.
 	    This <quote>Turbo Warmup Phase</quote> is designed to
 	    reduce the performance loss from an empty <link linkend="zfs-term-l2arc"><acronym>L2ARC</acronym></link>
 	    after a reboot.  This value can be adjusted at any time
 	    with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-scrub_delay" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.scrub_delay</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Number of ticks to delay between each I/O during a
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-scrub"><command>scrub</command></link>.
 	    To ensure that a <command>scrub</command> does not
 	    interfere with the normal operation of the pool, if any
 	    other <acronym>I/O</acronym> is happening the
 	    <command>scrub</command> will delay between each command.
 	    This value controls the limit on the total
 	    <acronym>IOPS</acronym> (I/Os Per Second) generated by the
 	    <command>scrub</command>.  The granularity of the setting
 	    is determined by the value of <varname>kern.hz</varname>
 	    which defaults to 1000 ticks per second.  This setting may
 	    be changed, resulting in a different effective
 	    <acronym>IOPS</acronym> limit.  The default value is
 	    <literal>4</literal>, resulting in a limit of:
 	    1000 ticks/sec / 4 =
 	    250 <acronym>IOPS</acronym>.  Using a value of
 	    <replaceable>20</replaceable> would give a limit of:
 	    1000 ticks/sec / 20 =
 	    50 <acronym>IOPS</acronym>.  The speed of
 	    <command>scrub</command> is only limited when there has
 	    been recent activity on the pool, as determined by <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-scan_idle"><varname>vfs.zfs.scan_idle</varname></link>.
 	    This value can be adjusted at any time with
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-resilver_delay" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.resilver_delay</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Number of milliseconds of delay inserted between
 	    each I/O during a
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-resilver">resilver</link>.  To
 	    ensure that a resilver does not interfere with the normal
 	    operation of the pool, if any other I/O is happening the
 	    resilver will delay between each command.  This value
 	    controls the limit of total <acronym>IOPS</acronym> (I/Os
 	    Per Second) generated by the resilver.  The granularity of
 	    the setting is determined by the value of
 	    <varname>kern.hz</varname> which defaults to 1000 ticks
 	    per second.  This setting may be changed, resulting in a
 	    different effective <acronym>IOPS</acronym> limit.  The
 	    default value is 2, resulting in a limit of:
 	    1000 ticks/sec / 2 =
 	    500 <acronym>IOPS</acronym>.  Returning the pool to
 	    an <link linkend="zfs-term-online">Online</link> state may
 	    be more important if another device failing could
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-faulted">Fault</link> the pool,
 	    causing data loss.  A value of 0 will give the resilver
 	    operation the same priority as other operations, speeding
 	    the healing process.  The speed of resilver is only
 	    limited when there has been other recent activity on the
 	    pool, as determined by <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-scan_idle"><varname>vfs.zfs.scan_idle</varname></link>.
 	    This value can be adjusted at any time with
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-scan_idle" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.scan_idle</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Number of milliseconds since the last operation before
 	    the pool is considered idle.  When the pool is idle the
 	    rate limiting for <link linkend="zfs-term-scrub"><command>scrub</command></link>
 	    and
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-resilver">resilver</link> are
 	    disabled.  This value can be adjusted at any time with
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:id="zfs-advanced-tuning-txg-timeout" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><varname>vfs.zfs.txg.timeout</varname></emphasis>
 	    - Maximum number of seconds between
 	    <link linkend="zfs-term-txg">transaction group</link>s.
 	    The current transaction group will be written to the pool
 	    and a fresh transaction group started if this amount of
 	    time has elapsed since the previous transaction group.  A
 	    transaction group my be triggered earlier if enough data
 	    is written.  The default value is 5 seconds.  A larger
 	    value may improve read performance by delaying
 	    asynchronous writes, but this may cause uneven performance
 	    when the transaction group is written.  This value can be
 	    adjusted at any time with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
 <!-- These sections will be added in the future
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-advanced-booting">
       <title>Booting Root on <acronym>ZFS</acronym> </title>
 
       <para></para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-advanced-beadm">
       <title><acronym>ZFS</acronym> Boot Environments</title>
 
       <para></para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-advanced-troubleshoot">
       <title>Troubleshooting</title>
 
       <para></para>
     </sect2>
 -->
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zfs-advanced-i386">
       <title>i386 上的 <acronym>ZFS</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some of the features provided by <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	are memory intensive, and may require tuning for maximum
 	efficiency on systems with limited
 	<acronym>RAM</acronym>.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>記憶體</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">As a bare minimum, the total system memory should be at
 	  least one gigabyte.  The amount of recommended
 	  <acronym>RAM</acronym> depends upon the size of the pool and
 	  which <acronym>ZFS</acronym> features are used.  A general
 	  rule of thumb is 1 GB of RAM for every 1 TB of
 	  storage.  If the deduplication feature is used, a general
 	  rule of thumb is 5 GB of RAM per TB of storage to be
 	  deduplicated.  While some users successfully use
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> with less <acronym>RAM</acronym>,
 	  systems under heavy load may panic due to memory exhaustion.
 	  Further tuning may be required for systems with less than
 	  the recommended RAM requirements.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>核心設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Due to the address space limitations of the
 	  <trademark>i386</trademark> platform, <acronym>ZFS</acronym> users on the
 	  <trademark>i386</trademark> architecture must add this option to a
 	  custom kernel configuration file, rebuild the kernel, and
 	  reboot:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">options        KVA_PAGES=512</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This expands the kernel address space, allowing
 	  the <varname>vm.kvm_size</varname> tunable to be pushed
 	  beyond the currently imposed limit of 1 GB, or the
 	  limit of 2 GB for <acronym>PAE</acronym>.  To find the
 	  most suitable value for this option, divide the desired
 	  address space in megabytes by four.  In this example, it
 	  is <literal>512</literal> for 2 GB.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>載入程式可調參數</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <filename>kmem</filename> address space can be
 	  increased on all FreeBSD architectures.  On a test system with
 	  1 GB of physical memory, success was achieved with
 	  these options added to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>, and the system
 	  restarted:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">vm.kmem_size="330M"
 vm.kmem_size_max="330M"
 vfs.zfs.arc_max="40M"
 vfs.zfs.vdev.cache.size="5M"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For a more detailed list of recommendations for
 	  <acronym>ZFS</acronym>-related tuning, see <link xlink:href="http://wiki.freebsd.org/ZFSTuningGuide"/>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-links">
     <title>其他資源</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://wiki.freebsd.org/ZFS">FreeBSD
 	    Wiki - <acronym>ZFS</acronym></link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://wiki.freebsd.org/ZFSTuningGuide">FreeBSD
 	    Wiki - <acronym>ZFS</acronym> Tuning</link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://wiki.illumos.org/display/illumos/ZFS">Illumos
 	    Wiki - <acronym>ZFS</acronym></link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19253-01/819-5461/index.html">Oracle
 	    Solaris <acronym>ZFS</acronym> Administration
 	    Guide</link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.solarisinternals.com/wiki/index.php/ZFS_Evil_Tuning_Guide"><acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	    Evil Tuning Guide</link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.solarisinternals.com/wiki/index.php/ZFS_Best_Practices_Guide"><acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	    Best Practices Guide</link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://calomel.org/zfs_raid_speed_capacity.html">Calomel
 	    Blog - <acronym>ZFS</acronym> Raidz Performance, Capacity
 	    and Integrity</link></para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="zfs-term">
     <title><acronym>ZFS</acronym> 特色與術語</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> is a fundamentally different file
       system because it is more than just a file system.
       <acronym>ZFS</acronym> combines the roles of file system and
       volume manager, enabling additional storage devices to be added
       to a live system and having the new space available on all of
       the existing file systems in that pool immediately.  By
       combining the traditionally separate roles,
       <acronym>ZFS</acronym> is able to overcome previous limitations
       that prevented <acronym>RAID</acronym> groups being able to
       grow.  Each top level device in a pool is called a
       <emphasis>vdev</emphasis>, which can be a simple disk or a
       <acronym>RAID</acronym> transformation such as a mirror or
       <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> array.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file
       systems (called <emphasis>datasets</emphasis>) each have access
       to the combined free space of the entire pool.  As blocks are
       allocated from the pool, the space available to each file system
       decreases.  This approach avoids the common pitfall with
       extensive partitioning where free space becomes fragmented
       across the partitions.</para>
 
     <informaltable pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="2">
 	<tbody valign="top">
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-pool" xml:lang="en">pool</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A storage <emphasis>pool</emphasis> is the most
 	      basic building block of <acronym>ZFS</acronym>.  A pool
 	      is made up of one or more vdevs, the underlying devices
 	      that store the data.  A pool is then used to create one
 	      or more file systems (datasets) or block devices
 	      (volumes).  These datasets and volumes share the pool of
 	      remaining free space.  Each pool is uniquely identified
 	      by a name and a <acronym>GUID</acronym>.  The features
 	      available are determined by the <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 	      version number on the pool.
 
 	      <note>
 		<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD 9.0 and 9.1 include support for
 		  <acronym>ZFS</acronym> version 28.  Later versions
 		  use <acronym>ZFS</acronym> version 5000 with feature
 		  flags.  The new feature flags system allows greater
 		  cross-compatibility with other implementations of
 		  <acronym>ZFS</acronym>.</para>
 	      </note>
 	    </entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-vdev" xml:lang="en">vdev Types</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A pool is made up of one or more vdevs, which
 	      themselves can be a single disk or a group of disks, in
 	      the case of a <acronym>RAID</acronym> transform.  When
 	      multiple vdevs are used, <acronym>ZFS</acronym> spreads
 	      data across the vdevs to increase performance and
 	      maximize usable space.
 
 	      <itemizedlist>
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-disk" xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Disk</emphasis>
 		    - The most basic type of vdev is a standard block
 		    device.  This can be an entire disk (such as
 		    <filename><replaceable>/dev/ada0</replaceable></filename>
 		    or
 		    <filename><replaceable>/dev/da0</replaceable></filename>)
 		    or a partition
 		    (<filename><replaceable>/dev/ada0p3</replaceable></filename>).
 		    On FreeBSD, there is no performance penalty for using
 		    a partition rather than the entire disk.  This
 		    differs from recommendations made by the Solaris
 		    documentation.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-file" xml:lang="en"><emphasis>File</emphasis>
 		    - In addition to disks, <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 		    pools can be backed by regular files, this is
 		    especially useful for testing and experimentation.
 		    Use the full path to the file as the device path
 		    in <command>zpool create</command>.  All vdevs must be
 		    at least 128 MB in size.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-mirror" xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Mirror</emphasis>
 		    - When creating a mirror, specify the
 		    <literal>mirror</literal> keyword followed by the
 		    list of member devices for the mirror.  A mirror
 		    consists of two or more devices, all data will be
 		    written to all member devices.  A mirror vdev will
 		    only hold as much data as its smallest member.  A
 		    mirror vdev can withstand the failure of all but
 		    one of its members without losing any data.</para>
 
 		  <note>
 		    <para xml:lang="en">A regular single disk vdev can be upgraded
 		      to a mirror vdev at any time with
 		      <command>zpool
 			<link linkend="zfs-zpool-attach">attach</link></command>.</para>
 		  </note>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-raidz" xml:lang="en"><emphasis><acronym>RAID-Z</acronym></emphasis>
 		    - <acronym>ZFS</acronym> implements
 		    <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym>, a variation on standard
 		    <acronym>RAID-5</acronym> that offers better
 		    distribution of parity and eliminates the
 		    <quote><acronym>RAID-5</acronym> write
 		    hole</quote> in which the data and parity
 		    information become inconsistent after an
 		    unexpected restart.  <acronym>ZFS</acronym>
 		    supports three levels of <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym>
 		    which provide varying levels of redundancy in
 		    exchange for decreasing levels of usable storage.
 		    The types are named <acronym>RAID-Z1</acronym>
 		    through <acronym>RAID-Z3</acronym> based on the
 		    number of parity devices in the array and the
 		    number of disks which can fail while the pool
 		    remains operational.</para>
 
 		  <para xml:lang="en">In a <acronym>RAID-Z1</acronym> configuration
 		    with four disks, each 1 TB, usable storage is
 		    3 TB and the pool will still be able to
 		    operate in degraded mode with one faulted disk.
 		    If an additional disk goes offline before the
 		    faulted disk is replaced and resilvered, all data
 		    in the pool can be lost.</para>
 
 		  <para xml:lang="en">In a <acronym>RAID-Z3</acronym> configuration
 		    with eight disks of 1 TB, the volume will
 		    provide 5 TB of usable space and still be
 		    able to operate with three faulted disks.  <trademark>Sun</trademark>
 		    recommends no more than nine disks in a single
 		    vdev.  If the configuration has more disks, it is
 		    recommended to divide them into separate vdevs and
 		    the pool data will be striped across them.</para>
 
 		  <para xml:lang="en">A configuration of two
 		    <acronym>RAID-Z2</acronym> vdevs consisting of 8
 		    disks each would create something similar to a
 		    <acronym>RAID-60</acronym> array.  A
 		    <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> group's storage capacity
 		    is approximately the size of the smallest disk
 		    multiplied by the number of non-parity disks.
 		    Four 1 TB disks in <acronym>RAID-Z1</acronym>
 		    has an effective size of approximately 3 TB,
 		    and an array of eight 1 TB disks in
 		    <acronym>RAID-Z3</acronym> will yield 5 TB of
 		    usable space.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-spare" xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Spare</emphasis>
 		    - <acronym>ZFS</acronym> has a special pseudo-vdev
 		    type for keeping track of available hot spares.
 		    Note that installed hot spares are not deployed
 		    automatically; they must manually be configured to
 		    replace the failed device using
 		    <command>zfs replace</command>.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-log" xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Log</emphasis>
 		    - <acronym>ZFS</acronym> Log Devices, also known
 		    as <acronym>ZFS</acronym> Intent Log (<link linkend="zfs-term-zil"><acronym>ZIL</acronym></link>)
 		    move the intent log from the regular pool devices
 		    to a dedicated device, typically an
 		    <acronym>SSD</acronym>.  Having a dedicated log
 		    device can significantly improve the performance
 		    of applications with a high volume of synchronous
 		    writes, especially databases.  Log devices can be
 		    mirrored, but <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym> is not
 		    supported.  If multiple log devices are used,
 		    writes will be load balanced across them.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:id="zfs-term-vdev-cache" xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Cache</emphasis>
 		    - Adding a cache vdev to a pool will add the
 		    storage of the cache to the <link linkend="zfs-term-l2arc"><acronym>L2ARC</acronym></link>.
 		    Cache devices cannot be mirrored.  Since a cache
 		    device only stores additional copies of existing
 		    data, there is no risk of data loss.</para>
 		</listitem>
 	      </itemizedlist></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-txg" xml:lang="en">Transaction Group
 	      (<acronym>TXG</acronym>)</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Transaction Groups are the way changed blocks are
 	      grouped together and eventually written to the pool.
 	      Transaction groups are the atomic unit that
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> uses to assert consistency.  Each
 	      transaction group is assigned a unique 64-bit
 	      consecutive identifier.  There can be up to three active
 	      transaction groups at a time, one in each of these three
 	      states:
 
 	      <itemizedlist>
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Open</emphasis> - When a new
 		    transaction group is created, it is in the open
 		    state, and accepts new writes.  There is always
 		    a transaction group in the open state, however the
 		    transaction group may refuse new writes if it has
 		    reached a limit.  Once the open transaction group
 		    has reached a limit, or the <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-txg-timeout"><varname>vfs.zfs.txg.timeout</varname></link>
 		    has been reached, the transaction group advances
 		    to the next state.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Quiescing</emphasis> - A short state
 		    that allows any pending operations to finish while
 		    not blocking the creation of a new open
 		    transaction group.  Once all of the transactions
 		    in the group have completed, the transaction group
 		    advances to the final state.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Syncing</emphasis> - All of the data
 		    in the transaction group is written to stable
 		    storage.  This process will in turn modify other
 		    data, such as metadata and space maps, that will
 		    also need to be written to stable storage.  The
 		    process of syncing involves multiple passes.  The
 		    first, all of the changed data blocks, is the
 		    biggest, followed by the metadata, which may take
 		    multiple passes to complete.  Since allocating
 		    space for the data blocks generates new metadata,
 		    the syncing state cannot finish until a pass
 		    completes that does not allocate any additional
 		    space.  The syncing state is also where
 		    <emphasis>synctasks</emphasis> are completed.
 		    Synctasks are administrative operations, such as
 		    creating or destroying snapshots and datasets,
 		    that modify the uberblock are completed.  Once the
 		    sync state is complete, the transaction group in
 		    the quiescing state is advanced to the syncing
 		    state.</para>
 		</listitem>
 	      </itemizedlist>
 
 	      All administrative functions, such as <link linkend="zfs-term-snapshot"><command>snapshot</command></link>
 	      are written as part of the transaction group.  When a
 	      synctask is created, it is added to the currently open
 	      transaction group, and that group is advanced as quickly
 	      as possible to the syncing state to reduce the
 	      latency of administrative commands.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-arc" xml:lang="en">Adaptive Replacement
 	      Cache (<acronym>ARC</acronym>)</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> uses an Adaptive Replacement
 	      Cache (<acronym>ARC</acronym>), rather than a more
 	      traditional Least Recently Used (<acronym>LRU</acronym>)
 	      cache.  An <acronym>LRU</acronym> cache is a simple list
 	      of items in the cache, sorted by when each object was
 	      most recently used.  New items are added to the top of
 	      the list.  When the cache is full, items from the
 	      bottom of the list are evicted to make room for more
 	      active objects.  An <acronym>ARC</acronym> consists of
 	      four lists; the Most Recently Used
 	      (<acronym>MRU</acronym>) and Most Frequently Used
 	      (<acronym>MFU</acronym>) objects, plus a ghost list for
 	      each.  These ghost lists track recently evicted objects
 	      to prevent them from being added back to the cache.
 	      This increases the cache hit ratio by avoiding objects
 	      that have a history of only being used occasionally.
 	      Another advantage of using both an
 	      <acronym>MRU</acronym> and <acronym>MFU</acronym> is
 	      that scanning an entire file system would normally evict
 	      all data from an <acronym>MRU</acronym> or
 	      <acronym>LRU</acronym> cache in favor of this freshly
 	      accessed content.  With <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, there is
 	      also an <acronym>MFU</acronym> that only tracks the most
 	      frequently used objects, and the cache of the most
 	      commonly accessed blocks remains.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-l2arc" xml:lang="en"><acronym>L2ARC</acronym></entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>L2ARC</acronym> is the second level
 	      of the <acronym>ZFS</acronym> caching system.  The
 	      primary <acronym>ARC</acronym> is stored in
 	      <acronym>RAM</acronym>.  Since the amount of
 	      available <acronym>RAM</acronym> is often limited,
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> can also use
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-vdev-cache">cache vdevs</link>.
 	      Solid State Disks (<acronym>SSD</acronym>s) are often
 	      used as these cache devices due to their higher speed
 	      and lower latency compared to traditional spinning
 	      disks.  <acronym>L2ARC</acronym> is entirely optional,
 	      but having one will significantly increase read speeds
 	      for files that are cached on the <acronym>SSD</acronym>
 	      instead of having to be read from the regular disks.
 	      <acronym>L2ARC</acronym> can also speed up <link linkend="zfs-term-deduplication">deduplication</link>
 	      because a <acronym>DDT</acronym> that does not fit in
 	      <acronym>RAM</acronym> but does fit in the
 	      <acronym>L2ARC</acronym> will be much faster than a
 	      <acronym>DDT</acronym> that must be read from disk.  The
 	      rate at which data is added to the cache devices is
 	      limited to prevent prematurely wearing out
 	      <acronym>SSD</acronym>s with too many writes.  Until the
 	      cache is full (the first block has been evicted to make
 	      room), writing to the <acronym>L2ARC</acronym> is
 	      limited to the sum of the write limit and the boost
 	      limit, and afterwards limited to the write limit.  A
 	      pair of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> values control these rate limits.
 	      <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-l2arc_write_max"><varname>vfs.zfs.l2arc_write_max</varname></link>
 	      controls how many bytes are written to the cache per
 	      second, while <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-l2arc_write_boost"><varname>vfs.zfs.l2arc_write_boost</varname></link>
 	      adds to this limit during the
 	      <quote>Turbo Warmup Phase</quote> (Write Boost).</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-zil" xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZIL</acronym></entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZIL</acronym> accelerates synchronous
 	      transactions by using storage devices like
 	      <acronym>SSD</acronym>s that are faster than those used
 	      in the main storage pool.  When an application requests
 	      a synchronous write (a guarantee that the data has been
 	      safely stored to disk rather than merely cached to be
 	      written later), the data is written to the faster
 	      <acronym>ZIL</acronym> storage, then later flushed out
 	      to the regular disks.  This greatly reduces latency and
 	      improves performance.  Only synchronous workloads like
 	      databases will benefit from a <acronym>ZIL</acronym>.
 	      Regular asynchronous writes such as copying files will
 	      not use the <acronym>ZIL</acronym> at all.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-cow" xml:lang="en">Copy-On-Write</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Unlike a traditional file system, when data is
 	      overwritten on <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, the new data is
 	      written to a different block rather than overwriting the
 	      old data in place.  Only when this write is complete is
 	      the metadata then updated to point to the new location.
 	      In the event of a shorn write (a system crash or power
 	      loss in the middle of writing a file), the entire
 	      original contents of the file are still available and
 	      the incomplete write is discarded.  This also means that
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> does not require a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	      after an unexpected shutdown.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-dataset" xml:lang="en">Dataset</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Dataset</emphasis> is the generic term
 	      for a <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file system, volume,
 	      snapshot or clone.  Each dataset has a unique name in
 	      the format
 	      <replaceable>poolname/path@snapshot</replaceable>.
 	      The root of the pool is technically a dataset as well.
 	      Child datasets are named hierarchically like
 	      directories.  For example,
 	      <replaceable>mypool/home</replaceable>, the home
 	      dataset, is a child of <replaceable>mypool</replaceable>
 	      and inherits properties from it.  This can be expanded
 	      further by creating
 	      <replaceable>mypool/home/user</replaceable>.  This
 	      grandchild dataset will inherit properties from the
 	      parent and grandparent.  Properties on a child can be
 	      set to override the defaults inherited from the parents
 	      and grandparents.  Administration of datasets and their
 	      children can be
 	      <link linkend="zfs-zfs-allow">delegated</link>.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-filesystem" xml:lang="en">File system</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A <acronym>ZFS</acronym> dataset is most often used
 	      as a file system.  Like most other file systems, a
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> file system is mounted somewhere
 	      in the systems directory hierarchy and contains files
 	      and directories of its own with permissions, flags, and
 	      other metadata.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-volume" xml:lang="en">Volume</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">In additional to regular file system datasets,
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> can also create volumes, which
 	      are block devices.  Volumes have many of the same
 	      features, including copy-on-write, snapshots, clones,
 	      and checksumming.  Volumes can be useful for running
 	      other file system formats on top of
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, such as <acronym>UFS</acronym>
 	      virtualization, or exporting <acronym>iSCSI</acronym>
 	      extents.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-snapshot" xml:lang="en">Snapshot</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">The
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-cow">copy-on-write</link>
 	      (<acronym>COW</acronym>) design of
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> allows for nearly instantaneous,
 	      consistent snapshots with arbitrary names.  After taking
 	      a snapshot of a dataset, or a recursive snapshot of a
 	      parent dataset that will include all child datasets, new
 	      data is written to new blocks, but the old blocks are
 	      not reclaimed as free space.  The snapshot contains
 	      the original version of the file system, and the live
 	      file system contains any changes made since the snapshot
 	      was taken.  No additional space is used.  As new data is
 	      written to the live file system, new blocks are
 	      allocated to store this data.  The apparent size of the
 	      snapshot will grow as the blocks are no longer used in
 	      the live file system, but only in the snapshot.  These
 	      snapshots can be mounted read only to allow for the
 	      recovery of previous versions of files.  It is also
 	      possible to
 	      <link linkend="zfs-zfs-snapshot">rollback</link> a live
 	      file system to a specific snapshot, undoing any changes
 	      that took place after the snapshot was taken.  Each
 	      block in the pool has a reference counter which keeps
 	      track of how many snapshots, clones, datasets, or
 	      volumes make use of that block.  As files and snapshots
 	      are deleted, the reference count is decremented.  When a
 	      block is no longer referenced, it is reclaimed as free
 	      space.  Snapshots can also be marked with a
 	      <link linkend="zfs-zfs-snapshot">hold</link>.  When a
 	      snapshot is held, any attempt to destroy it will return
 	      an <literal>EBUSY</literal> error.  Each snapshot can
 	      have multiple holds, each with a unique name.  The
 	      <link linkend="zfs-zfs-snapshot">release</link> command
 	      removes the hold so the snapshot can deleted.  Snapshots
 	      can be taken on volumes, but they can only be cloned or
 	      rolled back, not mounted independently.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-clone" xml:lang="en">Clone</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Snapshots can also be cloned.  A clone is a
 	      writable version of a snapshot, allowing the file system
 	      to be forked as a new dataset.  As with a snapshot, a
 	      clone initially consumes no additional space.  As
 	      new data is written to a clone and new blocks are
 	      allocated, the apparent size of the clone grows.  When
 	      blocks are overwritten in the cloned file system or
 	      volume, the reference count on the previous block is
 	      decremented.  The snapshot upon which a clone is based
 	      cannot be deleted because the clone depends on it.  The
 	      snapshot is the parent, and the clone is the child.
 	      Clones can be <emphasis>promoted</emphasis>, reversing
 	      this dependency and making the clone the parent and the
 	      previous parent the child.  This operation requires no
 	      additional space.  Because the amount of space used by
 	      the parent and child is reversed, existing quotas and
 	      reservations might be affected.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-checksum" xml:lang="en">Checksum</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Every block that is allocated is also checksummed.
 	      The checksum algorithm used is a per-dataset property,
 	      see <link linkend="zfs-zfs-set"><command>set</command></link>.
 	      The checksum of each block is transparently validated as
 	      it is read, allowing <acronym>ZFS</acronym> to detect
 	      silent corruption.  If the data that is read does not
 	      match the expected checksum, <acronym>ZFS</acronym> will
 	      attempt to recover the data from any available
 	      redundancy, like mirrors or <acronym>RAID-Z</acronym>).
 	      Validation of all checksums can be triggered with <link linkend="zfs-term-scrub"><command>scrub</command></link>.
 	      Checksum algorithms include:
 
 	      <itemizedlist>
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>fletcher2</literal></para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>fletcher4</literal></para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem>
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>sha256</literal></para>
 		</listitem>
 	      </itemizedlist>
 
 	      The <literal>fletcher</literal> algorithms are faster,
 	      but <literal>sha256</literal> is a strong cryptographic
 	      hash and has a much lower chance of collisions at the
 	      cost of some performance.  Checksums can be disabled,
 	      but it is not recommended.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-compression">壓縮 (Compression)</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Each dataset has a compression property, which
 	      defaults to off.  This property can be set to one of a
 	      number of compression algorithms.  This will cause all
 	      new data that is written to the dataset to be
 	      compressed.  Beyond a reduction in space used, read and
 	      write throughput often increases because fewer blocks
 	      are read or written.
 
 	      <itemizedlist>
 		<listitem xml:id="zfs-term-compression-lz4">
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><acronym>LZ4</acronym></emphasis> -
 		    Added in <acronym>ZFS</acronym> pool version
 		    5000 (feature flags), <acronym>LZ4</acronym> is
 		    now the recommended compression algorithm.
 		    <acronym>LZ4</acronym> compresses approximately
 		    50% faster than <acronym>LZJB</acronym> when
 		    operating on compressible data, and is over three
 		    times faster when operating on uncompressible
 		    data.  <acronym>LZ4</acronym> also decompresses
 		    approximately 80% faster than
 		    <acronym>LZJB</acronym>.  On modern
 		    <acronym>CPU</acronym>s, <acronym>LZ4</acronym>
 		    can often compress at over 500 MB/s, and
 		    decompress at over 1.5 GB/s (per single CPU
 		    core).</para>
 
 		  <note>
 		    <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>LZ4</acronym> compression is
 		      only available after FreeBSD 9.2.</para>
 		  </note>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem xml:id="zfs-term-compression-lzjb">
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><acronym>LZJB</acronym></emphasis> -
 		    The default compression algorithm.  Created by
 		    Jeff Bonwick (one of the original creators of
 		    <acronym>ZFS</acronym>).  <acronym>LZJB</acronym>
 		    offers good compression with less
 		    <acronym>CPU</acronym> overhead compared to
 		    <acronym>GZIP</acronym>.  In the future, the
 		    default compression algorithm will likely change
 		    to <acronym>LZ4</acronym>.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem xml:id="zfs-term-compression-gzip">
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><acronym>GZIP</acronym></emphasis> -
 		    A popular stream compression algorithm available
 		    in <acronym>ZFS</acronym>.  One of the main
 		    advantages of using <acronym>GZIP</acronym> is its
 		    configurable level of compression.  When setting
 		    the <literal>compress</literal> property, the
 		    administrator can choose the level of compression,
 		    ranging from <literal>gzip1</literal>, the lowest
 		    level of compression, to <literal>gzip9</literal>,
 		    the highest level of compression.  This gives the
 		    administrator control over how much
 		    <acronym>CPU</acronym> time to trade for saved
 		    disk space.</para>
 		</listitem>
 
 		<listitem xml:id="zfs-term-compression-zle">
 		  <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><acronym>ZLE</acronym></emphasis> -
 		    Zero Length Encoding is a special compression
 		    algorithm that only compresses continuous runs of
 		    zeros.  This compression algorithm is only useful
 		    when the dataset contains large blocks of
 		    zeros.</para>
 		</listitem>
 	      </itemizedlist></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-copies" xml:lang="en">Copies</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">When set to a value greater than 1, the
 	      <literal>copies</literal> property instructs
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> to maintain multiple copies of
 	      each block in the
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-filesystem">File System</link>
 	      or
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-volume">Volume</link>.  Setting
 	      this property on important datasets provides additional
 	      redundancy from which to recover a block that does not
 	      match its checksum.  In pools without redundancy, the
 	      copies feature is the only form of redundancy.  The
 	      copies feature can recover from a single bad sector or
 	      other forms of minor corruption, but it does not protect
 	      the pool from the loss of an entire disk.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-deduplication">去重複 (Deduplication)</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Checksums make it possible to detect duplicate
 	      blocks of data as they are written.  With deduplication,
 	      the reference count of an existing, identical block is
 	      increased, saving storage space.  To detect duplicate
 	      blocks, a deduplication table (<acronym>DDT</acronym>)
 	      is kept in memory.  The table contains a list of unique
 	      checksums, the location of those blocks, and a reference
 	      count.  When new data is written, the checksum is
 	      calculated and compared to the list.  If a match is
 	      found, the existing block is used.  The
 	      <acronym>SHA256</acronym> checksum algorithm is used
 	      with deduplication to provide a secure cryptographic
 	      hash.  Deduplication is tunable.  If
 	      <literal>dedup</literal> is <literal>on</literal>, then
 	      a matching checksum is assumed to mean that the data is
 	      identical.  If <literal>dedup</literal> is set to
 	      <literal>verify</literal>, then the data in the two
 	      blocks will be checked byte-for-byte to ensure it is
 	      actually identical.  If the data is not identical, the
 	      hash collision will be noted and the two blocks will be
 	      stored separately.  Because <acronym>DDT</acronym> must
 	      store the hash of each unique block, it consumes a very
 	      large amount of memory.  A general rule of thumb is
 	      5-6 GB of ram per 1 TB of deduplicated data).
 	      In situations where it is not practical to have enough
 	      <acronym>RAM</acronym> to keep the entire
 	      <acronym>DDT</acronym> in memory, performance will
 	      suffer greatly as the <acronym>DDT</acronym> must be
 	      read from disk before each new block is written.
 	      Deduplication can use <acronym>L2ARC</acronym> to store
 	      the <acronym>DDT</acronym>, providing a middle ground
 	      between fast system memory and slower disks.  Consider
 	      using compression instead, which often provides nearly
 	      as much space savings without the additional memory
 	      requirement.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-scrub" xml:lang="en">Scrub</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Instead of a consistency check like <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fsck</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	      <acronym>ZFS</acronym> has <command>scrub</command>.
 	      <command>scrub</command> reads all data blocks stored on
 	      the pool and verifies their checksums against the known
 	      good checksums stored in the metadata.  A periodic check
 	      of all the data stored on the pool ensures the recovery
 	      of any corrupted blocks before they are needed.  A scrub
 	      is not required after an unclean shutdown, but is
 	      recommended at least once every three months.  The
 	      checksum of each block is verified as blocks are read
 	      during normal use, but a scrub makes certain that even
 	      infrequently used blocks are checked for silent
 	      corruption.  Data security is improved, especially in
 	      archival storage situations.  The relative priority of
 	      <command>scrub</command> can be adjusted with <link linkend="zfs-advanced-tuning-scrub_delay"><varname>vfs.zfs.scrub_delay</varname></link>
 	      to prevent the scrub from degrading the performance of
 	      other workloads on the pool.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-quota" xml:lang="en">Dataset Quota</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> provides very fast and
 	      accurate dataset, user, and group space accounting in
 	      addition to quotas and space reservations.  This gives
 	      the administrator fine grained control over how space is
 	      allocated and allows space to be reserved for critical
 	      file systems.
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>ZFS</acronym> supports different types of
 		quotas: the dataset quota, the <link linkend="zfs-term-refquota">reference
 		  quota (<acronym>refquota</acronym>)</link>, the
 		<link linkend="zfs-term-userquota">user
 		  quota</link>, and the
 		<link linkend="zfs-term-groupquota">group
 		  quota</link>.</para>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Quotas limit the amount of space that a dataset
 		and all of its descendants, including snapshots of the
 		dataset, child datasets, and the snapshots of those
 		datasets, can consume.</para>
 
 	      <note>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Quotas cannot be set on volumes, as the
 		  <literal>volsize</literal> property acts as an
 		  implicit quota.</para>
 	      </note></entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-refquota" xml:lang="en">Reference
 	      Quota</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A reference quota limits the amount of space a
 	      dataset can consume by enforcing a hard limit.  However,
 	      this hard limit includes only space that the dataset
 	      references and does not include space used by
 	      descendants, such as file systems or snapshots.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-userquota" xml:lang="en">User
 	      Quota</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">User quotas are useful to limit the amount of space
 	      that can be used by the specified user.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-groupquota" xml:lang="en">Group
 	      Quota</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">The group quota limits the amount of space that a
 	      specified group can consume.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-reservation" xml:lang="en">Dataset
 	      Reservation</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">The <literal>reservation</literal> property makes
 	      it possible to guarantee a minimum amount of space for a
 	      specific dataset and its descendants.  If a 10 GB
 	      reservation is set on
 	      <filename>storage/home/bob</filename>, and another
 	      dataset tries to use all of the free space, at least
 	      10 GB of space is reserved for this dataset.  If a
 	      snapshot is taken of
 	      <filename>storage/home/bob</filename>, the space used by
 	      that snapshot is counted against the reservation.  The
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-refreservation"><literal>refreservation</literal></link>
 	      property works in a similar way, but it
 	      <emphasis>excludes</emphasis> descendants like
 	      snapshots.
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Reservations of any sort are useful in many
 		situations, such as planning and testing the
 		suitability of disk space allocation in a new system,
 		or ensuring that enough space is available on file
 		systems for audio logs or system recovery procedures
 		and files.</para>
 	    </entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-refreservation" xml:lang="en">Reference
 	      Reservation</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">The <literal>refreservation</literal> property
 	      makes it possible to guarantee a minimum amount of
 	      space for the use of a specific dataset
 	      <emphasis>excluding</emphasis> its descendants.  This
 	      means that if a 10 GB reservation is set on
 	      <filename>storage/home/bob</filename>, and another
 	      dataset tries to use all of the free space, at least
 	      10 GB of space is reserved for this dataset.  In
 	      contrast to a regular
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-reservation">reservation</link>,
 	      space used by snapshots and descendant datasets is not
 	      counted against the reservation.  For example, if a
 	      snapshot is taken of
 	      <filename>storage/home/bob</filename>, enough disk space
 	      must exist outside of the
 	      <literal>refreservation</literal> amount for the
 	      operation to succeed.  Descendants of the main data set
 	      are not counted in the <literal>refreservation</literal>
 	      amount and so do not encroach on the space set.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-resilver" xml:lang="en">Resilver</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">When a disk fails and is replaced, the new disk
 	      must be filled with the data that was lost.  The process
 	      of using the parity information distributed across the
 	      remaining drives to calculate and write the missing data
 	      to the new drive is called
 	      <emphasis>resilvering</emphasis>.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-online" xml:lang="en">Online</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A pool or vdev in the <literal>Online</literal>
 	      state has all of its member devices connected and fully
 	      operational.  Individual devices in the
 	      <literal>Online</literal> state are functioning
 	      normally.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-offline" xml:lang="en">Offline</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Individual devices can be put in an
 	      <literal>Offline</literal> state by the administrator if
 	      there is sufficient redundancy to avoid putting the pool
 	      or vdev into a
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-faulted">Faulted</link> state.
 	      An administrator may choose to offline a disk in
 	      preparation for replacing it, or to make it easier to
 	      identify.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-degraded" xml:lang="en">Degraded</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A pool or vdev in the <literal>Degraded</literal>
 	      state has one or more disks that have been disconnected
 	      or have failed.  The pool is still usable, but if
 	      additional devices fail, the pool could become
 	      unrecoverable.  Reconnecting the missing devices or
 	      replacing the failed disks will return the pool to an
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-online">Online</link> state
 	      after the reconnected or new device has completed the
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-resilver">Resilver</link>
 	      process.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:id="zfs-term-faulted" xml:lang="en">Faulted</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A pool or vdev in the <literal>Faulted</literal>
 	      state is no longer operational.  The data on it can no
 	      longer be accessed.  A pool or vdev enters the
 	      <literal>Faulted</literal> state when the number of
 	      missing or failed devices exceeds the level of
 	      redundancy in the vdev.  If missing devices can be
 	      reconnected, the pool will return to a
 	      <link linkend="zfs-term-online">Online</link> state.  If
 	      there is insufficient redundancy to compensate for the
 	      number of failed disks, then the contents of the pool
 	      are lost and must be restored from backups.</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="filesystems">
   <info>
     <title>其他檔案系統</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Written
 	by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="filesystems-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>File Systems</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>File Systems Support</primary>
       <see>File Systems</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">File systems are an integral part of any operating system.
       They allow users to upload and store files, provide access to
       data, and make hard drives useful.  Different operating systems
       differ in their native file system.  Traditionally, the native
       FreeBSD file system has been the Unix File System
       <acronym>UFS</acronym> which has been modernized as
       <acronym>UFS2</acronym>.  Since FreeBSD 7.0, the Z File System
       (<acronym>ZFS</acronym>) is also available as a native file
       system.  See <xref linkend="zfs"/> for more information.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In addition to its native file systems, FreeBSD supports a
       multitude of other file systems so that data from other
       operating systems can be accessed locally, such as data stored
       on locally attached <acronym>USB</acronym> storage devices,
       flash drives, and hard disks.  This includes support for the
       <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> Extended File System (<acronym>EXT</acronym>) and the
       Reiser file system.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are different levels of FreeBSD support for the various
       file systems.  Some require a kernel module to be loaded and
       others may require a toolset to be installed.  Some non-native
       file system support is full read-write while others are
       read-only.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The difference between native and supported file
 	  systems.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Which file systems are supported by FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to enable, configure, access, and make use of
 	  non-native file systems.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Understand <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> and
 	  <link linkend="basics">FreeBSD basics</link>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Be familiar with the basics of <link linkend="kernelconfig">kernel configuration and
 	    compilation</link>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Feel comfortable <link linkend="ports">installing
 	    software</link> in FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Have some familiarity with <link linkend="disks">disks</link>, storage, and device names in
 	  FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="filesystems-linux">
     <title><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 檔案系統</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides built-in support for several <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> file
       systems.  This section demonstrates how to load support for and
       how to mount the supported <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> file systems.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>ext2</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Kernel support for ext2 file systems has
 	been available since FreeBSD 2.2.  In FreeBSD 8.x and
 	earlier, the code is licensed under the
 	<acronym>GPL</acronym>.  Since FreeBSD 9.0, the code has
 	been rewritten and is now <acronym>BSD</acronym>
 	licensed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ext2fs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver allows the FreeBSD kernel to both
 	read and write to ext2 file systems.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">
 	  This driver can also be used to access ext3 and ext4 file
 	  systems.  However, ext3 journaling and extended attributes
 	  are not supported.  Support for ext4 is read-only.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To access an ext file system, first
 	load the kernel loadable module:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload ext2fs</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, mount the ext volume by specifying its FreeBSD
 	partition name and an existing mount point.  This example
 	mounts <filename>/dev/ad1s1</filename> on
 	<filename>/mnt</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t ext2fs <replaceable>/dev/ad1s1</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title xml:lang="en">ReiserFS</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides read-only support for The Reiser file
 	system, ReiserFS.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To load the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>reiserfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload reiserfs</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, to mount a ReiserFS volume located on
 	<filename>/dev/ad1s1</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t reiserfs <replaceable>/dev/ad1s1</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <!--
   <sect1>
     <title>Device File System</title>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1>
     <title>DOS and NTFS File Systems</title>
     <para>This is a good section for those who transfer files, using
       USB devices, from Windows to FreeBSD and vice-versa.  My camera,
       and many other cameras I have seen default to using FAT16.  There
       is (was?) a kde utility, I think called kamera, that could be used
       to access camera devices.  A section on this would be useful.</para>
 
     <para>XXXTR: Though!  The disks chapter, covers a bit of this and
       devfs under it's USB devices.  It leaves a lot to be desired though,
       see:
 http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/usb-disks.html
       It may be better to flesh out that section a bit more.  Add the
       word "camera" to it so that others can easily notice.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1>
     <title>Linux EXT File System</title>
 
     <para>Probably NOT as useful as the other two, but it requires
       knowledge of the existence of the tools.  Which are hidden in
       the ports collection.  Most Linux guys would probably only use
       Linux, BSD guys would be smarter and use NFS.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1>
     <title>HFS</title>
 
     <para>I think this is the file system used on Apple OSX.  There are
       tools in the ports collection, and with Apple being a big
       FreeBSD supporter and user of our technologies, surely there
       is enough cross over to cover this?</para>
   </sect1>
   -->
 
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="virtualization">
 
   <info>
     <title>虛擬化</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	  <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Allan</firstname>
 	  <surname>Jude</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>bhyve section by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>虛擬化軟體可以讓同一台機器得以同時執行多種作業系統。在 <acronym>PC</acronym> 上的這類軟體系統通常涉及的角色有執行虛擬化軟體的主端 (Host) 作業系統以及數個安裝在其中的客端 (Guest) 作業系統。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>主端作業系統及客端作業系統的差別。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark>-based <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 電腦安裝 FreeBSD 。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 使用 <application>Virtual PC</application> 安裝 FreeBSD。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何以 FreeBSD 作為客端安裝在 <application>bhyve</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何調校 FreeBSD 系統來取得虛擬化的最佳效能。</para>
       </listitem>
 
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解<link linkend="basics"><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 與 FreeBSD 的基礎</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>知道如何<link linkend="bsdinstall">安裝 FreeBSD</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>知道如何<link linkend="advanced-networking">設定網路連線</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>知道如何<link linkend="ports">安裝其他第三方軟體</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-guest-parallels">
     <title>在 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 的 <application>Parallels</application> 安裝 FreeBSD 為客端</title>
 
     <para><trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 的 <application>Parallels Desktop</application> 是一套商業軟體可在 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 為基礎的 <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 的 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> 10.4.6 或更新版本上執行。 該軟體完全支援使用 FreeBSD 作為客端作業系統。 在 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 裝好 <application>Parallels</application> 後，使用者必先完成虛擬機器的設定後才可安裝想使用的客端作業系統。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-guest-parallels-install">
       <title>在 Parallels/<trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 安裝 FreeBSD</title>
 
       <para>在 <application>Parallels</application> 上安裝 FreeBSD 的第一步是建立供安裝 FreeBSD 使用的新虛擬機器。提示出現後請選擇 <guimenu>Guest OS Type</guimenu> 為 <guimenuitem>FreeBSD</guimenuitem>：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd1"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>根據您對此虛擬 FreeBSD 作業系統的規畫選擇合理的磁碟及記憶體空間，對大多數在 <application>Parallels</application> 下的 FreeBSD 使用來講 4GB 的磁碟空間與 512MB 的 RAM 便足夠：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd2"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd3"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd4"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd5"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>選擇網路類型以及網路介面：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd6"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd7"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>儲存並完成設定：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd8"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd9"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>在 FreeBSD 虛擬機器新增後，就可以繼續以其安裝 FreeBSD。 安裝方面，比較好的作法是使用官方的 FreeBSD <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> 或者是自官方 <acronym>FTP</acronym> 站下載的 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 映像檔。 複製適合的 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 映像檔到 <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 檔案系統本地端或放入 <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> 到 <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 的 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 磁碟機。在 FreeBSD <application>Parallels</application> 視窗的右下角點選磁碟圖示後會出現一個視窗，可用來建立虛擬機器內的 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 磁碟機與磁碟上 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 檔案或實際 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 磁碟機的關聯。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd11"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>建立與 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 來源的關聯後，點選重新開機圖示重新開啟 FreeBSD 虛擬機器。<application>Parallels</application> 會重新開機進入一個特殊的 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 畫面並檢查是否有 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym>。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd10"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>在此處會找到 FreeBSD 安裝媒體並開始正常的 FreeBSD 安裝程序。完成安裝，但不要在此時嘗試設定 <application>Xorg</application>。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd12"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>當安裝完成後，重新開機將會進入新安裝的 FreeBSD 虛擬機器。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/parallels-freebsd13"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-guest-parallels-configure">
       <title>在 <application>Parallels</application> 設定 FreeBSD</title>
 
       <para>在成功將 FreeBSD 安裝到 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 的 <application>Parallels</application> 後，有數個設定步驟要完成來最佳化系統在虛擬機器上的運作。</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <title>設定 Boot Loader 變數</title>
 
 	  <para>最重要的一個步驟是減少 <option>kern.hz</option> 參數來減少 FreeBSD 在 <application>Parallels</application> 環境下對 CPU 的使用率。加入以下行到 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 來完成這個動作：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">kern.hz=100</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>若沒有完成此設定，閒置的 FreeBSD <application>Parallels</application> 客端將會消耗掉單一處理器的 <trademark class="registered">iMac</trademark> 將近 15% 的 CPU。完成此更改後使用率會減至接近 5%。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title>建立新核心設定檔</title>
 
 	  <para>所有的 SCSI, FireWire 及 USB 裝置可以從自訂的核心設定檔中移除。<application>Parallels</application> 提供的虛擬網路卡使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ed</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式，所以除了 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ed</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>miibus</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 外的所有網路裝置可以自核心中移除。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title>設定網路</title>
 
 	  <para>最基本的網路設定是使用 DHCP 來讓虛擬機器連線到與主端 <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 相同的區域網路，這可以透過加入 <literal>ifconfig_ed0="DHCP"</literal> 到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 來完成。更進階的網路設定在 <xref linkend="advanced-networking"/> 中描述。</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-guest-virtualpc">
     <title>在 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 的 <application>Virtual PC</application> 安裝 FreeBSD 為客端</title>
 
     <para>給 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 使用的 <application>Virtual PC</application> 是一套可免費下載的 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> 軟體產品，請參考此網站取得<link xlink:href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/downloads/virtualpc/sysreq.mspx">系統需求</link>。<application>Virtual PC</application> 在 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 上安裝完成之後，使用者可以設定一台虛擬機器然後安裝想要的客端作業系統。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-guest-virtualpc-install">
       <title>在 <application>Virtual PC</application> 安裝 FreeBSD </title>
 
       <para>安裝 FreeBSD 到 <application>Virtual PC</application> 的第一個步驟是建立新的虛擬機器來安裝 FreeBSD。當提示畫面出現時，請選擇 <guimenuitem>Create a virtual machine</guimenuitem>：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd1"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd2"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>當提示畫面出現時，選擇 <guimenuitem>Operating system</guimenuitem> 為 <guimenuitem>Other</guimenuitem>：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd3"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>然後，根據您對此虛擬 FreeBSD 作業系統的規畫選擇合理的磁碟及記憶體空間，對大多數在 <application>Virtual PC</application> 下的 FreeBSD 使用來講 4GB 的磁碟空間與 512MB 的 RAM 便足夠：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd4"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd5"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>儲存並完成設定：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd6"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>選擇 FreeBSD 虛擬機器然後點選 <guimenu>Settings</guimenu>，接著設定網路類型及網路介面卡：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd7"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd8"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 虛擬機器建立完成之後，便可安裝 FreeBSD 到該虛擬機器。安裝最好使用官方 FreeBSD <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> 或使用自官方 <acronym>FTP</acronym> 站下載的 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 映像檔。複製適當的 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 映像檔到本地 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 檔案系統或插入 <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> 到 <acronym>CD</acronym> 磁碟機，然後雙擊點選 FreeBSD 虛擬機器來開機。接著，點選 <guimenu>CD</guimenu> 並在 <application>Virtual PC</application> 視窗選擇 <guimenu>Capture ISO Image...</guimenu>，這將會顯示一個視窗可以建立虛擬機器中的 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 與 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 檔或磁碟或實體 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 磁碟機之間的關聯。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd9"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd10"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>建立與 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 來源的關聯後，點選 <guimenu>Action</guimenu> 及 <guimenu>Reset</guimenu> 重新開機 FreeBSD 虛擬機器。<application>Virtual PC</application> 會重新開始並進入特殊的 <acronym>BIOS</acronym> 來做 <acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 的第一次檢查。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd11"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>在這個情況下會找到 FreeBSD 安裝媒體然後開始正常的 FreeBSD 安裝。接著繼續安裝，但此時請不要嘗試設定 <application>Xorg</application>。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd12"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>當安裝完成之後，記得退出 <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> 或釋放 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 映像檔。最後，重新開機進入新安裝的 FreeBSD 虛擬機器。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/virtualpc-freebsd13"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-guest-virtualpc-configure">
       <title>在 <application>Virtual PC</application> 設定 FreeBSD</title>
 
       <para>在成功將 FreeBSD 安裝到 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 的 <application>Virtual PC</application> 後，有數個設定步驟要完成來最佳化系統在虛擬機器上的運作。</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <title>設定 Boot Loader 變數</title>
 
 	  <para>最重要的一個步驟是減少 <option>kern.hz</option>，來減少 FreeBSD 在 <application>Virtual PC</application> 環境下 CPU 的使用量。這可以透過加入下列幾行到 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 來完成：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">kern.hz=100</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>若沒有完成此設定，閒置的 FreeBSD <application>Virtual PC</application> 客端 OS 會消耗掉單一處理器的電腦 40% 的 CPU。完成此更改後使用率會減至接近 3%。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title>建立新核心設定檔</title>
 
 	  <para>所有的 SCSI, FireWire 及 USB 裝置可以從自訂的核心設定檔中移除。<application>Virtual PC</application> 提供的虛擬網路卡使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>de</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式，所以除了 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>de</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>miibus</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 外的所有網路裝置可以自核心中移除。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title>設定網路</title>
 
 	  <para>最基本的網路設定是使用 DHCP 來讓虛擬機器連線到與主端 <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 相同的區域網路，這可以透過加入 <literal>ifconfig_de0="DHCP"</literal> 到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 來完成。更進階的網路設定在 <xref linkend="advanced-networking"/> 中描述。</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-guest-vmware">
     <title>在 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> 的 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 安裝 FreeBSD 為客端</title>
 
     <para><application>VMware Fusion</application> 是一套商業軟體可在 <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> 為基礎的 <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 的 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> 10.4.9 或更新版本上執行。 該軟體完全支援使用 FreeBSD 作為客端作業系統。 在 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 裝好 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 後，使用者必先完成虛擬機器的設定後才可安裝想使用的客端作業系統。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-guest-vmware-install">
       <title>在 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 安裝 FreeBSD</title>
 
       <para>第一個步驟是啟動 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 載入 Virtual Machine Library，點選 <guimenuitem>New</guimenuitem> 建立虛擬機器：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd01"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>這個動做會載入 New Virtual Machine Assistant，點選 <guimenuitem>Continue</guimenuitem> 繼續：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd02"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>選擇 <guimenuitem>Operating System</guimenuitem> 為 <guimenuitem>Other</guimenuitem> 以及在 <guimenu>Version</guimenu> 提示出現時選擇 <guimenuitem>FreeBSD</guimenuitem> 或 <guimenuitem>FreeBSD 64-bit</guimenuitem>：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd03"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>選擇虛擬機器要使用的名稱以及要儲存目錄位置：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd04"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>選擇虛擬機器的 Virtual Hard Disk 大小：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd05"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>選擇安裝虛擬機器的方式，可從 <acronym>ISO</acronym> 映像檔或從 <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym>：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd06"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>點選 <guimenuitem>Finish</guimenuitem> 接著虛擬機器會開機：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd07"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>照往常方式安裝 FreeBSD：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd08"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>安裝完成後，可以修改虛擬機器的設定，例如記憶體使用量：</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para>虛擬機器的 System Hardware 設定無法在虛擬機器執行時修改。</para>
       </note>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd09"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>虛擬機器要使用的 CPU 數量：</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd10"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para><acronym>CD-ROM</acronym> 裝置的狀態，正常情況 <acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym>/<acronym>ISO</acronym> 在不需要時會中斷與虛擬機器的連線。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd11"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>最後一件事是更改虛擬機器連線到網路的方式，要允許除了主端以外的機器連線到虛擬機器，請選擇 <guimenuitem>Connect directly to the physical network (Bridged)</guimenuitem>。否則會偏好使用 <guimenuitem>Share the host's internet connection (NAT)</guimenuitem> 來讓虛擬機器可以存取網際網路，但外部網路無法連線到虛擬機器。</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="virtualization/vmware-freebsd12"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para>在修改設定之後，開機進入新安裝的 FreeBSD 虛擬機器。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-guest-vmware-configure">
       <title>在 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 設定 FreeBSD</title>
 
       <para>在成功將 FreeBSD 安裝到 <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark> X 的 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 後，有數個設定步驟要完成來最佳化系統在虛擬機器上的運作。</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <title>設定 Boot Loader 變數</title>
 
 	  <para>最重要的一個步驟是減少 <option>kern.hz</option>，來減少 FreeBSD 在 <application>VMware Fusion</application> 環境下 CPU 的使用量。這可以透過加入下列幾行到 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 來完成：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">kern.hz=100</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>若沒有完成此設定，閒置的 FreeBSD <application>VMware Fusion</application> 客端將會消耗掉單一處理器的 <trademark class="registered">iMac</trademark> 將近 15% 的 CPU。完成此更改後使用率會減至接近 5%。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title>建立新核心設定檔</title>
 
 	  <para>所有的 SCSI, FireWire 及 USB 裝置可以從自訂的核心設定檔中移除。<application>VMware Fusion</application> 提供的虛擬網路卡使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>em</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式，所以除了 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>em</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 外的所有網路裝置可以自核心中移除。</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title>設定網路</title>
 
 	  <para>最基本的網路設定是使用 DHCP 來讓虛擬機器連線到與主端 <trademark class="registered">Mac</trademark> 相同的區域網路，這可以透過加入 <literal>ifconfig_em0="DHCP"</literal> 到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 來完成。更進階的網路設定在 <xref linkend="advanced-networking"/> 中描述。</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-guest-virtualbox-guest-additions">
     <title>安裝 <trademark>VirtualBox</trademark> Guest Additions 於 FreeBSD 客端</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD works well as a guest in
       <application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>.  The virtualization
       software is available for most common operating systems,
       including FreeBSD itself.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application> guest additions
       provide support for:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Clipboard sharing.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Mouse pointer integration.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Host time synchronization.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Window scaling.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Seamless mode.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">These commands are run in the FreeBSD guest.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">First, install the
       <package>emulators/virtualbox-ose-additions</package> package
       or port in the FreeBSD guest.  This will install the port:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/emulators/virtualbox-ose-additions &amp;&amp; make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Add these lines to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">vboxguest_enable="YES"
 vboxservice_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntpdate</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used, disable host
       time synchronization:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">vboxservice_flags="--disable-timesync"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>Xorg</application> will automatically recognize
       the <literal>vboxvideo</literal> driver.  It can also be
       manually entered in
       <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "Device"
 	Identifier "Card0"
 	Driver "vboxvideo"
 	VendorName "InnoTek Systemberatung GmbH"
 	BoardName "VirtualBox Graphics Adapter"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To use the <literal>vboxmouse</literal> driver, adjust the
       mouse section in <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">Section "InputDevice"
 	Identifier "Mouse0"
 	Driver "vboxmouse"
 EndSection</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HAL</acronym> users should create the following
       <filename>/usr/local/etc/hal/fdi/policy/90-vboxguest.fdi</filename>
       or copy it from
       <filename>/usr/local/share/hal/fdi/policy/10osvendor/90-vboxguest.fdi</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?&gt;
 &lt;!--
 # Sun VirtualBox
 # Hal driver description for the vboxmouse driver
 # $Id: chapter.xml,v 1.33 2012-03-17 04:53:52 eadler Exp $
 
 	Copyright (C) 2008-2009 Sun Microsystems, Inc.
 
 	This file is part of VirtualBox Open Source Edition (OSE, as
 	available from http://www.virtualbox.org. This file is free software;
 	you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU
 	General Public License (GPL) as published by the Free Software
 	Foundation, in version 2 as it comes in the "COPYING" file of the
 	VirtualBox OSE distribution. VirtualBox OSE is distributed in the
 	hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY of any kind.
 
 	Please contact Sun Microsystems, Inc., 4150 Network Circle, Santa
 	Clara, CA 95054 USA or visit http://www.sun.com if you need
 	additional information or have any questions.
 --&gt;
 &lt;deviceinfo version="0.2"&gt;
   &lt;device&gt;
     &lt;match key="info.subsystem" string="pci"&gt;
       &lt;match key="info.product" string="VirtualBox guest Service"&gt;
         &lt;append key="info.capabilities" type="strlist"&gt;input&lt;/append&gt;
 	&lt;append key="info.capabilities" type="strlist"&gt;input.mouse&lt;/append&gt;
         &lt;merge key="input.x11_driver" type="string"&gt;vboxmouse&lt;/merge&gt;
 	&lt;merge key="input.device" type="string"&gt;/dev/vboxguest&lt;/merge&gt;
       &lt;/match&gt;
     &lt;/match&gt;
   &lt;/device&gt;
 &lt;/deviceinfo&gt;</programlisting>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-host-virtualbox">
     <title>以 FreeBSD 作為主端安裝 <application>VirtualBox</application> </title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application> is an actively
       developed, complete virtualization package, that is available
       for most operating systems including <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Mac OS</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>
       and FreeBSD.  It is equally capable of running <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> or
       <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>-like guests.  It is released as open source software, but
       with closed-source components available in a separate extension
       pack.  These components include support for USB 2.0 devices.
       More information may be found on the <link xlink:href="http://www.virtualbox.org/wiki/Downloads"><quote>Downloads</quote>
 	page of the <application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>
 	wiki</link>.  Currently, these extensions are not available
       for FreeBSD.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-virtualbox-install">
       <title>安裝 <trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application> is available as a
 	FreeBSD package or port in
 	<package>emulators/virtualbox-ose</package>.  The port can be
 	installed using these commands:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/emulators/virtualbox-ose</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">One useful option in the port's configuration menu is the
 	<literal>GuestAdditions</literal> suite of programs.  These
 	provide a number of useful features in guest operating
 	systems, like mouse pointer integration (allowing the mouse to
 	be shared between host and guest without the need to press a
 	special keyboard shortcut to switch) and faster video
 	rendering, especially in <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> guests.  The guest
 	additions are available in the <guimenu>Devices</guimenu>
 	menu, after the installation of the guest is finished.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A few configuration changes are needed before
 	<application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application> is started for the
 	first time.  The port installs a kernel module in
 	<filename>/boot/modules</filename> which
 	must be loaded into the running kernel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload vboxdrv</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To ensure the module is always loaded after a reboot,
 	add this line to
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">vboxdrv_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To use the kernel modules that allow bridged or host-only
 	networking, add this line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and reboot the
 	computer:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">vboxnet_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <systemitem class="groupname">vboxusers</systemitem>
 	group is created during installation of
 	<application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>.  All users that need
 	access to <application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application> will have to
 	be added as members of this group.  <command>pw</command> can
 	be used to add new members:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod vboxusers -m <replaceable>yourusername</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default permissions for
 	<filename>/dev/vboxnetctl</filename> are restrictive and need
 	to be changed for bridged networking:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chown root:vboxusers /dev/vboxnetctl</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 0660 /dev/vboxnetctl</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To make this permissions change permanent, add these
 	lines to <filename>/etc/devfs.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">own     vboxnetctl root:vboxusers
 perm    vboxnetctl 0660</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To launch <application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>,
 	type from a <application>Xorg</application> session:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>VirtualBox</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more information on configuring and using
 	<application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>, refer to the
 	<link xlink:href="http://www.virtualbox.org">official
 	  website</link>.  For FreeBSD-specific information and
 	troubleshooting instructions, refer to the <link xlink:href="http://wiki.FreeBSD.org/VirtualBox">relevant
 	  page in the FreeBSD wiki</link>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-virtualbox-usb-support">
       <title><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark> USB 支援</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to be able to read and write to USB devices,
 	users need to be members of
 	<systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw groupmod operator -m <replaceable>jerry</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, add the following to
 	<filename>/etc/devfs.rules</filename>, or create this file if
 	it does not exist yet:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">[system=10]
 add path 'usb/*' mode 0660 group operator</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To load these new rules, add the following to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">devfs_system_ruleset="system"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, restart devfs:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service devfs restart</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">USB can now be enabled in the guest operating system.  USB
 	devices should be visible in the <trademark>VirtualBox</trademark>
 	preferences.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-virtualbox-host-dvd-cd-access">
       <title><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark> Host <acronym>DVD</acronym>/<acronym>CD</acronym> 存取</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Access to the host
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym>/<acronym>CD</acronym> drives from
 	guests is achieved through the sharing of the physical drives.
 	Within <trademark>VirtualBox</trademark>, this is set up from the Storage window in
 	the Settings of the virtual machine.  If needed, create an
 	empty <acronym>IDE</acronym>
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> device first.
 	Then choose the Host Drive from the popup menu for the virtual
 	<acronym>CD</acronym>/<acronym>DVD</acronym> drive selection.
 	A checkbox labeled <literal>Passthrough</literal> will appear.
 	This allows the virtual machine to use the hardware directly.
 	For example, audio <acronym>CD</acronym>s or the burner will
 	only function if this option is selected.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HAL</acronym> needs to run for
 	<application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym>/<acronym>CD</acronym> functions to
 	work, so enable it in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and
 	start it if it is not already running:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hald_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service hald start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order for users to be able to use
 	<application><trademark>VirtualBox</trademark></application>
 	<acronym>DVD</acronym>/<acronym>CD</acronym> functions, they
 	need access to <filename>/dev/xpt0</filename>,
 	<filename>/dev/cd<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>, and
 	<filename>/dev/pass<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>.
 	This is usually achieved by making the user a member of
 	<systemitem class="groupname">operator</systemitem>.
 	Permissions to these devices have to be corrected by adding
 	these lines to <filename>/etc/devfs.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">perm cd* 0660
 perm xpt0 0660
 perm pass* 0660</programlisting>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service devfs restart</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="virtualization-host-bhyve">
     <title>以 FreeBSD 作為主端安裝 <application>bhyve</application>  </title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <application>bhyve</application>
       <acronym>BSD</acronym>-licensed hypervisor became part of the
       base system with FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE.  This hypervisor supports a
       number of guests, including FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and many <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark>
       distributions.  Currently, <application>bhyve</application> only
       supports a serial console and does not emulate a graphical
       console.  Virtualization offload features of newer
       <acronym>CPU</acronym>s are used to avoid the legacy methods of
       translating instructions and manually managing memory
       mappings.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <application>bhyve</application> design requires a
       processor that supports <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> Extended Page Tables
       (<acronym>EPT</acronym>) or <trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> Rapid Virtualization Indexing
       (<acronym>RVI</acronym>) or Nested Page Tables
       (<acronym>NPT</acronym>).  Hosting <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> guests or FreeBSD guests
       with more than one <acronym>vCPU</acronym> requires
       <acronym>VMX</acronym> unrestricted mode support
       (<acronym>UG</acronym>).  Most newer processors, specifically
       the <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> <trademark>Core</trademark> i3/i5/i7 and <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> <trademark>Xeon</trademark>
       E3/E5/E7, support these features.  <acronym>UG</acronym> support
       was introduced with Intel's Westmere micro-architecture.  For a
       complete list of <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> processors that support
       <acronym>EPT</acronym>, refer to <link xlink:href="http://ark.intel.com/search/advanced?s=t&amp;ExtendedPageTables=true"/>.
       <acronym>RVI</acronym> is found on the third generation and
       later of the <trademark>AMD Opteron</trademark> (Barcelona) processors.  The easiest
       way to tell if a processor supports
       <application>bhyve</application> is to run
       <command>dmesg</command> or look in
       <filename>/var/run/dmesg.boot</filename> for the
       <literal>POPCNT</literal> processor feature flag on the
       <literal>Features2</literal> line for <trademark class="registered">AMD</trademark> processors or
       <literal>EPT</literal> and <literal>UG</literal> on the
       <literal>VT-x</literal> line for <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> processors.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-prep">
       <title>準備主端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first step to creating a virtual machine in
 	<application>bhyve</application> is configuring the host
 	system.  First, load the <application>bhyve</application>
 	kernel module:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload vmm</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, create a <filename>tap</filename> interface for the
 	network device in the virtual machine to attach to.  In order
 	for the network device to participate in the network, also
 	create a bridge interface containing the
 	<filename>tap</filename> interface and the physical interface
 	as members.  In this example, the physical interface is
 	<replaceable>igb0</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>tap0</replaceable> create</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.link.tap.up_on_open=1</userinput>
 net.link.tap.up_on_open: 0 -&gt; 1
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>bridge0</replaceable> create</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>bridge0</replaceable> addm <replaceable>igb0</replaceable> addm <replaceable>tap0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>bridge0</replaceable> up</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-freebsd">
       <title>建立 FreeBSD 客端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a file to use as the virtual disk for the guest
 	machine.  Specify the size and name of the virtual
 	disk:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>truncate -s <replaceable>16G</replaceable> <replaceable>guest.img</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Download an installation image of FreeBSD to install:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>fetch <replaceable>ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/ISO-IMAGES/10.2/FreeBSD-10.2-RELEASE-amd64-bootonly.iso</replaceable></userinput>
 FreeBSD-10.2-RELEASE-amd64-bootonly.iso       100% of  230 MB  570 kBps 06m17s</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD comes with an example script for running a virtual
 	machine in <application>bhyve</application>.  The script will
 	start the virtual machine and run it in a loop, so it will
 	automatically restart if it crashes.  The script takes a
 	number of options to control the configuration of the machine:
 	<option>-c</option> controls the number of virtual CPUs,
 	<option>-m</option> limits the amount of memory available to
 	the guest, <option>-t</option> defines which
 	<filename>tap</filename> device to use, <option>-d</option>
 	indicates which disk image to use, <option>-i</option> tells
 	<application>bhyve</application> to boot from the
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> image instead of the disk, and
 	<option>-I</option> defines which <acronym>CD</acronym> image
 	to use.  The last parameter is the name of the virtual
 	machine, used to track the running machines.  This example
 	starts the virtual machine in installation mode:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sh /usr/share/examples/bhyve/vmrun.sh -c <replaceable>4</replaceable> -m <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> -t <replaceable>tap0</replaceable> -d <replaceable>guest.img</replaceable> -i -I <replaceable>FreeBSD-10.0-RELEASE-amd64-bootonly.iso</replaceable> <replaceable>guestname</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The virtual machine will boot and start the installer.
 	After installing a system in the virtual machine, when the
 	system asks about dropping in to a shell at the end of the
 	installation, choose <guibutton>Yes</guibutton>.  A small
 	change needs to be made to make the system start with a serial
 	console.  Edit <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and replace the
 	existing <literal>ttyu0</literal> line with:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ttyu0   "/usr/libexec/getty 3wire"   xterm  on secure</programlisting>
 
       <note><para xml:lang="en">Beginning with FreeBSD 9.3-RELEASE and
 	10.1-RELEASE the console is configured
 	automatically.</para></note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Reboot the virtual machine.  While rebooting the virtual
 	machine causes <application>bhyve</application> to exit, the
 	<filename>vmrun.sh</filename> script runs
 	<command>bhyve</command> in a loop and will automatically
 	restart it.  When this happens, choose the reboot option from
 	the boot loader menu in order to escape the loop.  Now the
 	guest can be started from the virtual disk:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sh /usr/share/examples/bhyve/vmrun.sh -c <replaceable>4</replaceable> -m <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> -t <replaceable>tap0</replaceable> -d <replaceable>guest.img</replaceable> <replaceable>guestname</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-linux">
       <title>建立 <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> 客端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to boot operating systems other than FreeBSD, the
 	<package>sysutils/grub2-bhyve</package> port must be first
 	installed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, create a file to use as the virtual disk for the
 	guest machine:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>truncate -s <replaceable>16G</replaceable> <replaceable>linux.img</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Starting a virtual machine with
 	<application>bhyve</application> is a two step process.  First
 	a kernel must be loaded, then the guest can be started.  The
 	<trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> kernel is loaded with
 	<package>sysutils/grub2-bhyve</package>.  Create a
 	<filename>device.map</filename> that
 	<application>grub</application> will use to map the virtual
 	devices to the files on the host system:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">(hd0) ./linux.img
 (cd0) ./somelinux.iso</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <package>sysutils/grub2-bhyve</package> to load the
 	<trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> kernel from the <acronym>ISO</acronym> image:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>grub-bhyve -m device.map -r cd0 -M <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> <replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will start grub.  If the installation
 	<acronym>CD</acronym> contains a
 	<filename>grub.cfg</filename>, a menu will be displayed.
 	If not, the <literal>vmlinuz</literal> and
 	<literal>initrd</literal> files must be located and loaded
 	manually:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">grub&gt; <userinput>ls</userinput>
 (hd0) (cd0) (cd0,msdos1) (host)
 grub&gt; <userinput>ls (cd0)/isolinux</userinput>
 boot.cat boot.msg grub.conf initrd.img isolinux.bin isolinux.cfg memtest
 splash.jpg TRANS.TBL vesamenu.c32 vmlinuz
 grub&gt; <userinput>linux (cd0)/isolinux/vmlinuz</userinput>
 grub&gt; <userinput>initrd (cd0)/isolinux/initrd.img</userinput>
 grub&gt; <userinput>boot</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now that the <trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> kernel is loaded, the guest can be
 	started:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bhyve -A -H -P -s 0:0,hostbridge -s 1:0,lpc -s 2:0,virtio-net,<replaceable>tap1</replaceable> -s 3:0,virtio-blk,<replaceable>./linux.img</replaceable> \
     -s 4:0,ahci-cd,<replaceable>./somelinux.iso</replaceable> -l com1,stdio -c <replaceable>4</replaceable> -m <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> <replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The system will boot and start the installer.  After
 	installing a system in the virtual machine, reboot the virtual
 	machine.  This will cause <application>bhyve</application> to
 	exit.  The instance of the virtual machine needs to be
 	destroyed before it can be started again:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bhyvectl --destroy --vm=<replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now the guest can be started directly from the virtual
 	disk.  Load the kernel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>grub-bhyve -m device.map -r hd0,msdos1 -M <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> <replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput>
 grub&gt; <userinput>ls</userinput>
 (hd0) (hd0,msdos2) (hd0,msdos1) (cd0) (cd0,msdos1) (host)
 (lvm/VolGroup-lv_swap) (lvm/VolGroup-lv_root)
 grub&gt; <userinput>ls (hd0,msdos1)/</userinput>
 lost+found/ grub/ efi/ System.map-2.6.32-431.el6.x86_64 config-2.6.32-431.el6.x
 86_64 symvers-2.6.32-431.el6.x86_64.gz vmlinuz-2.6.32-431.el6.x86_64
 initramfs-2.6.32-431.el6.x86_64.img
 grub&gt; <userinput>linux (hd0,msdos1)/vmlinuz-2.6.32-431.el6.x86_64 root=/dev/mapper/VolGroup-lv_root</userinput>
 grub&gt; <userinput>initrd (hd0,msdos1)/initramfs-2.6.32-431.el6.x86_64.img</userinput>
 grub&gt; <userinput>boot</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Boot the virtual machine:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bhyve -A -H -P -s 0:0,hostbridge -s 1:0,lpc -s 2:0,virtio-net,<replaceable>tap1</replaceable> \
     -s 3:0,virtio-blk,<replaceable>./linux.img</replaceable> -l com1,stdio -c <replaceable>4</replaceable> -m <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> <replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">Linux</trademark> will now boot in the virtual machine and
 	eventually present you with the login prompt.  Login and use
 	the virtual machine.  When you are finished, reboot the
 	virtual machine to exit <application>bhyve</application>.
 	Destroy the virtual machine instance:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bhyvectl --destroy --vm=<replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-zfs">
       <title>在 <application>bhyve</application> Guests 使用 <acronym>ZFS</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <acronym>ZFS</acronym> is available on the host
 	machine, using <acronym>ZFS</acronym> volumes
 	instead of disk image files can provide significant
 	performance benefits for the guest <acronym>VMs</acronym>.  A
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> volume can be created by:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs create -V<replaceable>16G</replaceable> -o volmode=dev <replaceable>zroot/linuxdisk0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When starting the <acronym>VM</acronym>, specify the
 	<acronym>ZFS</acronym> volume as the disk drive:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bhyve -A -H -P -s 0:0,hostbridge -s 1:0,lpc -s 2:0,virtio-net,<replaceable>tap1</replaceable> -s3:0,virtio-blk,<replaceable>/dev/zvol/zroot/linuxdisk0</replaceable> \
     -l com1,<replaceable>stdio</replaceable> -c <replaceable>4</replaceable> -m <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> <replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-nmdm">
       <title>虛擬機器 Console</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is advantageous to wrap the
 	<application>bhyve</application> console in a session
 	management tool such as <package>sysutils/tmux</package> or
 	<package>sysutils/screen</package> in order to detach and
 	reattach to the console.  It is also possible to have the
 	console of <application>bhyve</application> be a null modem
 	device that can be accessed with <command>cu</command>.  To do
 	this, load the <filename>nmdm</filename> kernel module and
 	replace <option>-l com1,stdio</option> with
 	<option>-l com1,/dev/nmdm0A</option>.  The
 	<filename>/dev/nmdm</filename> devices are created
 	automatically as needed, where each is a pair, corresponding
 	to the two ends of the null modem cable
 	(<filename>/dev/nmdm0A</filename> and
 	<filename>/dev/nmdm0B</filename>).  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>nmdm</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	information.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload nmdm</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>bhyve -A -H -P -s 0:0,hostbridge -s 1:0,lpc -s 2:0,virtio-net,<replaceable>tap1</replaceable> -s 3:0,virtio-blk,<replaceable>./linux.img</replaceable> \
     -l com1,<replaceable>/dev/nmdm0A</replaceable> -c <replaceable>4</replaceable> -m <replaceable>1024M</replaceable> <replaceable>linuxguest</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cu -l <replaceable>/dev/nmdm0B</replaceable></userinput>
 Connected
 
 Ubuntu 13.10 handbook ttyS0
 
 handbook login:</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-managing">
       <title>管理虛擬機器</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A device node is created in <filename role="directory">/dev/vmm</filename> for each virtual
 	machine.  This allows the administrator to easily see a list
 	of the running virtual machines:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ls -al /dev/vmm</userinput>
 total 1
 dr-xr-xr-x   2 root  wheel    512 Mar 17 12:19 ./
 dr-xr-xr-x  14 root  wheel    512 Mar 17 06:38 ../
 crw-------   1 root  wheel  0x1a2 Mar 17 12:20 guestname
 crw-------   1 root  wheel  0x19f Mar 17 12:19 linuxguest
 crw-------   1 root  wheel  0x1a1 Mar 17 12:19 otherguest</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A specified virtual machine can be destroyed using
 	<command>bhyvectl</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> bhyvectl --destroy --vm=<replaceable>guestname</replaceable></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="virtualization-bhyve-onboot">
       <title>Persistent 設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to configure the system to start
 	<application>bhyve</application> guests at boot time, the
 	following configurations must be made in the specified
 	files:</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename></title>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">net.link.tap.up_on_open=1</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename></title>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">vmm_load="YES"
 nmdm_load="YES"
 if_bridge_load="YES"
 if_tap_load="YES"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename></title>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">cloned_interfaces="<replaceable>bridge0</replaceable> <replaceable>tap0</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_bridge0="addm <replaceable>igb0</replaceable> addm <replaceable>tap0</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 <!--
   Note:  There is no working/end-user ready Xen support for FreeBSD as of 07-2010.
          Hide all information regarding Xen under FreeBSD.
 
     <sect2 id="virtualization-other">
       <title>Other Virtualization Options</title>
 
       <para>There is ongoing work in getting
 	<application>&xen;</application>
 	to work as a host environment on &os;.</para>
     </sect2>
 -->
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="l10n">
   <info>
     <title>在地化 - <acronym>i18n</acronym>/<acronym>L10n</acronym> 使用與安裝</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Andrey</firstname><surname>Chernov</surname></personname><contrib>Contributed
 	by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Michael
 	C.</firstname><surname>Wu</surname></personname><contrib>Rewritten
 	by </contrib></author>
       <!-- 30 Nv 2000 -->
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="l10n-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 計劃的使用者及貢獻者分佈在世界各地，也因此 FreeBSD 支援多語系，讓使用者可以使用非英文語言來檢視、輸入或處理資料。使用者可以選擇大多數主要語言，包含但不限於以下語言：中文、德文、日文、韓文、法文、俄文及越南文。</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>internationalization</primary>
 	<see>localization</see>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>在地化</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para><literal>國際化</literal> (Internationalization) 一詞可以縮寫為 <acronym>i18n</acronym>，即  第一個字母到最後一個字母間的字母數量。<acronym>L10n</acronym> 也使用同樣的命名規則，但源自 <literal>在地化</literal> (Localization)。 <acronym>i18n</acronym>/<acronym>L10n</acronym> 的方法、協定及應用程式讓使用者可以自己選擇使用的語言。</para>
 
     <para>本章會討論 FreeBSD 的國際化及在地化功能。在閱讀本章之後，您會了解：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>語系名稱如何組成。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定登入 Shell 的語系。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 Console 給非英文語言的使用者。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如果設定 <application>Xorg</application> 使用不同語言。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何找到支援 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 的應用程式。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>那裡可以找到更多設定特定語言的資訊。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem><para>了解如何 <link linkend="ports">安裝其他第三方應用程式</link>。</para></listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="using-localization">
     <title>使用語系</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>locale</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para>語系設定值由三個元件所組成：語言代號、城市代號及編碼。語系名稱組成的方式如下：</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en"><replaceable>LanguageCode</replaceable>_<replaceable>CountryCode</replaceable>.<replaceable>Encoding</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>language codes</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>country codes</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para><replaceable>LanguageCode</replaceable> 與 <replaceable>CountryCode</replaceable> 用來表示城市及特定語言。<xref linkend="locale-lang-country"/> 提供了幾個 <replaceable>LanguageCode</replaceable>_<replaceable>CountryCode</replaceable> 的範例：</para>
 
       <table xml:id="locale-lang-country" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>常用語言及城市代碼</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>語言代號_城市代號</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">en_US</entry>
 	      <entry>英文，美國</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ru_RU</entry>
 	      <entry>俄文，俄國</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">zh_TW</entry>
 	      <entry>繁體中文，台灣</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para>完整可用的語系清單可用以下指令查詢：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>locale -a | more</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>查詢目前使用的語系設定：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>locale</userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>encodings</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>ASCII</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para>語言特定的字元集如 ISO8859-1, ISO8859-15, KOI8-R 及 CP437 在 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>multibyte</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> 有詳細說明。可用的字元集可在 <link xlink:href="http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets">IANA Registry</link> 查詢。</para>
 
       <para>某些語言，如中文或日文，無法使用 <acronym>ASCII</acronym> 字元表示，會需要使用寬 (Wide) 字元或多位元組 (Multibyte) 字元來擴充的語言編碼。EUC 與 Big5 即是使用寬子元或多位元組字元的例子。舊的應用程式會誤判這些字元為控制字元，新的應用程式則通常可以辨識這些字元，依實作的需要，使用者可能需要開啟寬字元或多位元組字元支援或者使用正確的字元設定來編譯應用程式。</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para>FreeBSD 使用 Xorg 相容的語系編碼。</para>
       </note>
 
       <para>本節剩餘的部份將說明各種在 FreeBSD 系統上設定語系的方法。下一節將會探討如何尋找以及編譯使用 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 支援的應用程式。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="setting-locale">
       <title>設定登入 Shell 的語系</title>
 
       <para>語系設定可在使用者的 <filename>~/.login_conf</filename> 或使用者的 Shell 的啟動檔設定：<filename>~/.profile</filename>, <filename>~/.bashrc</filename> 或 <filename>~/.cshrc</filename>。</para>
 
       <para>有兩個環境變數需要設定：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><envar>LANG</envar> 用來設定語系<indexterm>
 	    <primary>POSIX</primary></indexterm></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MIME</primary></indexterm>
 
 	  <para><envar>MM_CHARSET</envar> 用來設定應用程式所使用的 <acronym>MIME</acronym> 字元集</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>除了使用者的 Shell 設定外，這些變數也應針對特定應用程式設定以及 <application>Xorg</application> 設定。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>locale</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>login class</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para>兩種可以完成所需變數設定的方法有：<link linkend="login-class">登入類別 (Login class)</link> 法 (較建議) 及 <link linkend="startup-file">啟動檔 (Startup file) </link> 法。以下兩節將示範如何使用這兩個方法。</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="login-class">
 	<title>登入類別 (Login Class) 法</title>
 
 	<para>第一種方式，同時也是建議使用的方法，它可以對任何可能的 Shell 設定需要的語系及 MIME 字元集變數。此設定也可由每位使用者自行設定或者由超級管理者為所有使用者設定。</para>
 
 	<para>以下精簡範例示範在一個使用者的家目錄中的 <filename>.login_conf</filename> 設定 Latin-1 編碼使用的兩個環境變數：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">me:\
 	:charset=ISO-8859-1:\
 	:lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:</programlisting>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Traditional Chinese</primary>
 	  <secondary>BIG-5 encoding</secondary></indexterm>
 
 	<para>以下使用者的 <filename>~/.login_conf</filename> 範例設定了繁體中文於 BIG-5 編碼使用到的環境變數。有一部份應用程式無法正確處理中文、日文及韓文的語系變數，因此需要額外多做一些設定：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">#Users who do not wish to use monetary units or time formats
 #of Taiwan can manually change each variable
 me:\
 	:lang=zh_TW.Big5:\
 	:setenv=LC_ALL=zh_TW.Big5,LC_COLLATE=zh_TW.Big5,LC_CTYPE=zh_TW.Big5,LC_MESSAGES=zh_TW.Big5,LC_MONETARY=zh_TW.Big5,LC_NUMERIC=zh_TW.Big5,LC_TIME=zh_TW.Big5:\
 	:charset=big5:\
 	:xmodifiers="@im=gcin": #Set gcin as the XIM Input Server</programlisting>
 
 	<para>或者，超級使用者可以設定所有系統使用者的語系。以下在 <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> 中的變數可用來設定語系及 <acronym>MIME</acronym> 字元集：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en"><replaceable>language_name</replaceable>|<replaceable>Account Type Description</replaceable>:\
 	:charset=<replaceable>MIME_charset</replaceable>:\
 	:lang=<replaceable>locale_name</replaceable>:\
 	:tc=default:</programlisting>
 
 	<para>若套用之前的 Latin-1 編碼範例如下：</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">german|German Users Accounts:\
 	:charset=ISO-8859-1:\
 	:lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:\
 	:tc=default:</programlisting>
 
 	<para>請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>login.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 以取得更多有關這些變數的詳細資訊。</para>
 
 	<para>每次編輯 <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> 之後，請記得要執行以下指令來更新登入類別的能力資料庫(Capability database)：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf</userinput></screen>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title>變更登入類別的工具</title>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary><command>vipw</command></primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para>除了手動編輯 <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename> 之外，尚有需多工具可用來為新建立的使用者設定語系。</para>
 
 	  <para>當使用 <command>vipw</command> 來新增使用者時，可指定 <replaceable>language</replaceable> 來設定語系：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">user:password:1111:11:<replaceable>language</replaceable>:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh</programlisting>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary><command>adduser</command></primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>login class</primary></indexterm>
 
 	  <para>當使用 <command>adduser</command> 來新增使用者時，可對所有使用者或指定的使用者事先設定預設的語言。</para>
 
 	  <para>若所有新的使用者都使用同樣的語言，可在 <filename>/etc/adduser.conf</filename> 設定 <literal>defaultclass=<replaceable>language</replaceable></literal>。</para>
 
 	  <para>要在建立使用者時覆蓋預設的設定，可在出現此提示時輸入需要的語系：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>Enter login class: default []:</prompt></screen>
 
 	  <para>或執行 <command>adduser</command> 時指定語系：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>adduser -class <replaceable>language</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary><command>pw</command></primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para>若使用 <command>pw</command> 來新增使用者，則可指定語系如下：</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw useradd <replaceable>user_name</replaceable> -L <replaceable>language</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 	  </sect4>
 	</sect3>
 
 	<sect3 xml:id="startup-file">
 	  <title>Shell 啟動檔 (Startup File) 法</title>
 
 	  <para>第二種方法，較不建議使用，因每一種使用到的 Shell 都需要手動設定，而每一種 Shell 都有不同的設定檔以及語法。例如將一位使用者的 <command>sh</command> shell 設定為德語，需要將下列行加到 <filename>~/.profile</filename>，若要設定給使用該 Shell 的所有使用者則必須將下列行加到 <filename>/etc/profile</filename> 或 <filename>/usr/share/skel/dot.profile</filename>：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en"><envar>LANG</envar>=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export <envar>LANG</envar>
 <envar>MM_CHARSET</envar>=ISO-8859-1; export <envar>MM_CHARSET</envar></programlisting>
 
 	  <para>然而，在 <command>csh</command> shell 所使用的設定檔名稱及語法不同。同樣的設定需加入下列行至 <filename>~/.csh.login</filename>, <filename>/etc/csh.login</filename> 或 <filename>/usr/share/skel/dot.login</filename>：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">setenv <envar>LANG</envar> de_DE.ISO8859-1
 setenv <envar>MM_CHARSET</envar> ISO-8859-1</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>更複雜一點的情況，<application>Xorg</application> 的 <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename> 語系設定會依使用的 Shell 而有所不同。第一個例子是針對 <command>sh</command> shell 而第二個則是針對 <command>csh</command> shell：</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en"><envar>LANG</envar>=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export <envar>LANG</envar></programlisting>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">setenv <envar>LANG</envar> de_DE.ISO8859-1</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="setting-console">
       <title>Console 設定</title>
 
       <para>已有許多語系的字型可在 Console 使用，要查看可用的字型清單，可輸入 <command>ls /usr/share/syscons/fonts</command>。要設定 Console 的字型，可在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 指定去掉 <filename>.fnt</filename> 字尾的字型名稱 <replaceable>font_name</replaceable>：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">font8x16=<replaceable>font_name</replaceable>
 font8x14=<replaceable>font_name</replaceable>
 font8x8=<replaceable>font_name</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>keymap</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>screenmap</primary></indexterm>
       <para>鍵盤對應表 (Keymap) 及螢幕對應表 (Screenmap) 用可加入下行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 來設定：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">scrnmap=<replaceable>screenmap_name</replaceable>
 keymap=<replaceable>keymap_name</replaceable>
 keychange="<replaceable>fkey_number sequence</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para>要查看可用的螢幕對應表，可輸入 <command>ls /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps</command>。在設定螢幕對應表 <replaceable>screenmap_name</replaceable> 時請去掉 <filename>.scm</filename> 字尾。在 VGA Adapter 的字型字元矩陣擴充位元 8 到位元 9 時會需要使用螢幕對應表與相關的字型對應來解決，因此若螢幕字型使用位元 8 的欄位，字母會移出虛擬繪圖區 (Pseudographics area)。</para>
 
       <para>要查看可用的鍵盤對應表，可輸入 <command>ls /usr/share/syscons/keymaps</command>。在設定鍵盤對應表 <replaceable>keymap_name</replaceable> 時請去掉 <filename>.kbd</filename> 字尾。若要不重開機測試鍵盤對應用可使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kbdmap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
 
       <para><literal>keychange</literal> 項目用在當功能鍵序列無法定義在鍵盤對應表時，可設定對應選擇終對機類型的功能鍵。</para>
 
       <para>接下來，在 <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> 為所有虛擬終端機項目設定正確的 Console 終端機類型。<xref linkend="locale-charset"/> 摘要了可用的終端機類型：</para>
 
       <table xml:id="locale-charset" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>已定義供特定字元集使用的終端機類型</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>字元集</entry>
 	      <entry>終端機類型</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ISO8859-1 or ISO8859-15</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25l1</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ISO8859-2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25l2</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ISO8859-7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25l7</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">KOI8-R</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25r</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">KOI8-U</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25u</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>CP437 (VGA 預設值)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">US-ASCII</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>cons25w</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>moused</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>對於使用寬字元或多位元組字元的語言，需從 Ports 套件集安裝支援該語言的 Console。 可用的 Ports 摘要在 <xref linkend="locale-console"/>。安裝完成之後，請參考 Port 的 <filename>pkg-message</filename> 或操作手冊來取得設定及使用說明。</para>
+      <para>對於使用寬字元或多位元組字元的語言，需從 Port 套件集安裝支援該語言的 Console。 可用的 Port 摘要在 <xref linkend="locale-console"/>。安裝完成之後，請參考 Port 的 <filename>pkg-message</filename> 或操作手冊來取得設定及使用說明。</para>
 
       <table xml:id="locale-console" frame="none" pgwide="1">
-	<title>Ports 套件集中可用的 Console</title>
+	<title>Port 套件集中可用的 Console</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>語言</entry>
 	      <entry>Port 位置</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>繁體中文 (BIG-5)</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/big5con</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文/日文/韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/cce</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文/日文/韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/zhcon</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/kon2</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/kon2-14dot</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/kon2-16dot</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para>若在 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 有開啟 <application>moused</application>，可能會需要額外的設定。預設 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syscons</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 驅動程式的滑鼠游標會佔用字元集 <literal>0xd0</literal>-<literal>0xd3</literal> 的範圍，若語言有使用到此範圍，可加入以下行到 <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> 來移動游標的範圍：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">mousechar_start=3</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Xorg 設定</title>
 
-      <para><xref linkend="x11"/> 會說明如何安裝並設定 <application>Xorg</application>。當要設定 <application>Xorg</application> 在地化時，可從 FreeBSD Ports 套件集中取得其他可用的字型及輸入法。應用程式特定的 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 設定像是字型與選單，可以在 <filename>~/.Xresources</filename> 中調校且可允許使用者在圖型化應用程式選單檢視其所選擇的語言。</para>
+      <para><xref linkend="x11"/> 會說明如何安裝並設定 <application>Xorg</application>。當要設定 <application>Xorg</application> 在地化時，可從 FreeBSD Port 套件集中取得其他可用的字型及輸入法。應用程式特定的 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 設定像是字型與選單，可以在 <filename>~/.Xresources</filename> 中調校且可允許使用者在圖型化應用程式選單檢視其所選擇的語言。</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>X Input Method (XIM)</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para>X 輸入法 (X Input Method, <acronym>XIM</acronym>) 協定是 <application>Xorg</application> 針對輸入非英語字元的標準。<xref linkend="locale-xim"/> 摘要了在 FreeBSD 套件集中可用的輸入法應用程式。也可使用其他如 Fcitx 及 Uim 應用程式。</para>
 
       <table xml:id="locale-xim" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>可用的輸入法</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>語言</entry>
 	      <entry>輸入法</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/gcin</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/ibus-chewing</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/ibus-pinyin</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/oxim</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/scim-fcitx</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/scim-pinyin</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>中文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>chinese/scim-tables</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/ibus-anthy</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/ibus-mozc</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/ibus-skk</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/im-ja</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/kinput2</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-anthy</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-canna</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-honoka</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-honoka-plugin-romkan</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-honoka-plugin-wnn</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-prime</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-skk</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-tables</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-tomoe</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/scim-uim</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/skkinput</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/skkinput3</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>日文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>japanese/uim-anthy</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>korean/ibus-hangul</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>korean/imhangul</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>korean/nabi</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>korean/scim-hangul</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>韓文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>korean/scim-tables</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>越南文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>vietnamese/xvnkb</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>越南文</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><package>vietnamese/x-unikey</package></entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
     </sect2>
 <!--
 Comment out for now. If needed, can be added as note in new Printing chapter.
     <sect2>
       <title>Printer Setup</title>
 
       <para>Some single C chars character sets are hardware coded
 	into printers.  Wide or multibyte character sets require
 	special setup using a utility such as
 	<application>apsfilter</application>.  Documents can be
 	converted to &postscript; or PDF formats using language
 	specific converters.</para>
     </sect2>
 Not sure where to put this section, perhaps as a note in the File system chapter?
     <sect2>
       <title>Kernel and File Systems</title>
 
       <para>The &os; fast filesystem (<acronym>FFS</acronym>) is 8-bit
 	clean, so it can be used with any single C chars character
 	set.  However, character set names are not stored in the
 	filesystem as it is raw 8-bit and does not understand encoding
 	order.  Officially, <acronym>FFS</acronym> does not support
 	any form of wide or multibyte character sets.  However, some
 	wide or multibyte character sets have independent patches for
 	enabling support on <acronym>FFS</acronym>.  Refer to the
 	respective languages' web sites for more information and the
 	patch files.</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>DOS</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm><primary>Unicode</primary></indexterm>
       <para>&os;'s support for the &ms-dos; filesystem has the
 	configurable ability to convert between &ms-dos;, Unicode
 	character sets, and chosen &os; filesystem character sets.
 	Refer to &man.mount.msdosfs.8; for details.</para>
     </sect2>
         -->
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="l10n-compiling">
     <title>尋找 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 應用程式</title>
 
     <para><acronym>i18n</acronym> 應用程式會使用 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 工具包做為程式庫開發。這讓開發人員可以寫一個簡單的檔案並翻譯顯示的選單及文字至各種語言。</para>
 
-    <para><link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/ports/index.html">FreeBSD Ports 套件集</link>中含有許多內建支援寬字元或多位元組字元的應用程式可支援各種語言。該類型的應用程式在名稱上會註明 <literal>i18n</literal> 以易於辨識。雖然如此，但不一定支援您所需要的語言。</para>
+    <para><link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/ports/index.html">FreeBSD Port 套件集</link>中含有許多內建支援寬字元或多位元組字元的應用程式可支援各種語言。該類型的應用程式在名稱上會註明 <literal>i18n</literal> 以易於辨識。雖然如此，但不一定支援您所需要的語言。</para>
 
-    <para>有一部份應用程式可以使用指定的字元集來編譯。通常會在 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 中設定，或者傳送參數給 <application>configure</application>。請參考各 FreeBSD Ports 原始碼中的 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 說明文件以取得更多有關需要的設定值資訊或 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 來了解在編譯時有那些可以使用的編譯選項。</para>
+    <para>有一部份應用程式可以使用指定的字元集來編譯。通常會在 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 中設定，或者傳送參數給 <application>configure</application>。請參考各 FreeBSD Port 原始碼中的 <acronym>i18n</acronym> 說明文件以取得更多有關需要的設定值資訊或 Port 的 <filename>Makefile</filename> 來了解在編譯時有那些可以使用的編譯選項。</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="lang-setup">
     <title>特定語言的語系設定</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section provides configuration examples for localizing
       a FreeBSD system for the Russian language.  It then provides some
       additional resources for localizing other languages.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ru-localize">
       <info>
 	<title>俄語 (KOI8-R 編碼)</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Andrey</firstname><surname>Chernov</surname></personname><contrib>Originally
 	    contributed by </contrib></author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>localization</primary>
 	<secondary>Russian</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section shows the specific settings needed to
 	localize a FreeBSD system for the Russian language.  Refer to
 	<link linkend="using-localization">Using Localization</link>
 	for a more complete description of each type of
 	setting.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To set this locale for the login shell, add the following
 	lines to each user's
 	<filename>~/.login_conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">me:My Account:\
 	:charset=KOI8-R:\
 	:lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure the console, add the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">keymap="ru.koi8-r"
 scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866"
 font8x16="cp866b-8x16"
 font8x14="cp866-8x14"
 font8x8="cp866-8x8"
 mousechar_start=3</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For each <literal>ttyv</literal> entry in
 	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, use
 	<literal>cons25r</literal> as the terminal type.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>printers</primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure printing, a special output filter is needed
 	to convert from KOI8-R to CP866 since most printers with
 	Russian characters come with hardware code page CP866.  FreeBSD
 	includes a default filter for this purpose,
 	<filename>/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt</filename>.  To use this
 	filter, add this entry to
 	<filename>/etc/printcap</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">lp|Russian local line printer:\
 	:sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\
 	:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>printcap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a more detailed
 	explanation.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure support for Russian filenames in mounted
 	<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark> file systems, include <option>-L</option> and the
 	locale name when adding an entry to
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
      <programlisting xml:lang="en">/dev/ad0s2      /dos/c  msdos   rw,-Lru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_msdosfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more details.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure Russian fonts for
 	<application>Xorg</application>, install the
 	<package>x11-fonts/xorg-fonts-cyrillic</package> package.
 	Then, check the <literal>"Files"</literal> section in
 	<filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.  The following line
 	must be added <emphasis>before</emphasis> any other
 	<literal>FontPath</literal> entries:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">FontPath   "/usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Additional Cyrillic fonts are available in the Ports
 	Collection.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the
 	<literal>"Keyboard"</literal> section of
 	<filename>/etc/xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Option "XkbLayout"   "us,ru"
 Option "XkbOptions"  "grp:toggle"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Make sure that <literal>XkbDisable</literal> is
 	commented out in that file.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For <literal>grp:toggle</literal> use
 	<keycap>Right Alt</keycap>, for
 	<literal>grp:ctrl_shift_toggle</literal> use <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>Shift</keycap></keycombo>.
 	For <literal>grp:caps_toggle</literal> use
 	<keycap>CapsLock</keycap>.  The old
 	<keycap>CapsLock</keycap> function is still available in LAT
 	mode only using <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Shift</keycap><keycap>CapsLock</keycap></keycombo>.
 	<literal>grp:caps_toggle</literal> does not work in
 	<application>Xorg</application> for some unknown
 	reason.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the keyboard has <quote><trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark></quote> keys, and
 	some non-alphabetical keys are mapped incorrectly, add the
 	following line to <filename>/etc/xorg.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">Option "XkbVariant" ",winkeys"</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with
 	  non-localized applications.  Minimally localized
 	  applications should call a <function>XtSetLanguageProc
 	    (NULL, NULL, NULL);</function> function early in the
 	  program.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">See <uri xlink:href="http://koi8.pp.ru/xwin.html">http://koi8.pp.ru/xwin.html</uri>
 	for more instructions on localizing
 	<application>Xorg</application> applications.  For more
 	general information about KOI8-R encoding, refer to <uri xlink:href="http://koi8.pp.ru/">http://koi8.pp.ru/</uri>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>其他特定語言資源</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section lists some additional resources for
 	configuring other locales.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>localization</primary>
 	<secondary>Traditional Chinese</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>localization</primary>
 	<secondary>German</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>localization</primary>
 	<secondary>Greek</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>localization</primary>
 	<secondary>Japanese</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>localization</primary>
 	<secondary>Korean</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Traditional Chinese for Taiwan</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD-Taiwan Project has a Chinese HOWTO for FreeBSD
 	      at <uri xlink:href="http://netlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw/~statue/freebsd/zh-tut/">http://netlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw/~statue/freebsd/zh-tut/</uri>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
-	  <term xml:lang="en">German Language Localization for All ISO 8859-1
-	    Languages</term>
-
-	  <listitem>
-	    <para xml:lang="en">A
-	      tutorial on using umlauts on FreeBSD is
-	      available in German at <uri xlink:href="http://user.cs.tu-berlin.de/~eserte/FreeBSD/doc/umlaute/umlaute.html">http://user.cs.tu-berlin.de/~eserte/FreeBSD/doc/umlaute/umlaute.html</uri>.</para>
-	  </listitem>
-	</varlistentry>
-
-	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Greek Language Localization</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A complete article on Greek support in FreeBSD
 	      is available <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/el_GR.ISO8859-7/articles/greek-language-support/index.html">here</link>,
 	      in Greek only, as part of the official FreeBSD Greek
 	      documentation.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Japanese and Korean Language Localization</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">For Japanese, refer to <uri xlink:href="http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/</uri>,
 	      and for Korean, refer to <uri xlink:href="http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/</uri>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Non-English FreeBSD Documentation</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Some FreeBSD contributors have translated parts of the
 	      FreeBSD documentation to other languages.  They are
 	      available through links on the <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/index.html">FreeBSD web
 		site</link> or in
 	      <filename>/usr/share/doc</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="updating-upgrading">
 
   <info>
     <title>更新與升級 FreeBSD</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	  <surname>Mock</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Restructured, reorganized, and parts updated
 	  by </contrib>
       </author>
       <!-- Mar 2000 -->
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Jordan</firstname>
 	  <surname>Hubbard</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Original work by </contrib>
       </author>
 
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Poul-Henning</firstname>
 	  <surname>Kamp</surname>
 	</personname>
       </author>
 
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>John</firstname>
 	  <surname>Polstra</surname>
 	</personname>
       </author>
 
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Nik</firstname>
 	  <surname>Clayton</surname>
 	</personname>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="updating-upgrading-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 在每次的發佈之間持續在開發。有些人喜歡官方發佈的版本，有些人則喜歡持續同步使用最新的開發版本。雖然如此，即使是官方發佈的版本仍時常會有安全性與其他緊急修復的更新。無論使用哪種版本，FreeBSD 都提供所有必要的工具來讓系統保持最新版，而且可以輕易升級不同版本。本章將說明如何追蹤開發版本的系統及保持 FreeBSD 系統維持新版的基本工具。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用 <application>freebsd-update</application>, <application>Subversion</application> 來讓 FreeBSD 系統保持新版。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何比對已安裝系統與已知原始複本間的狀態。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para>如何使用 <application>Subversion</application> 或說明文件 Ports 來維持已安裝的文件為新版。</para>
+	<para>如何使用 <application>Subversion</application> 或說明文件 Port 來維持已安裝的文件為新版。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>兩種開發分支間的差異：FreeBSD-STABLE 與 FreeBSD-CURRENT。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何重新編譯及重新安裝整個基礎系統 (Base system)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>正確的設定網路連線 (<xref linkend="advanced-networking"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何安裝其他第三方軟體 (<xref linkend="ports"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <note>
       <para>本章會經常使用 <command>svn</command> 來取得與更新 FreeBSD 原始碼。要使用該指令請先安裝 <package>devel/subversion</package> Port 或套件。</para>
     </note>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="updating-upgrading-freebsdupdate">
     <info>
       <title>FreeBSD 更新</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Colin</firstname>
 	    <surname>Percival</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Based on notes provided by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Updating and Upgrading</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>freebsd-update</primary>
       <see>updating-upgrading</see>
     </indexterm>
 
-    <para>即時套用安全性更新與升級作業系統到新的發行版本對管理一個持續運作的系統是重要的。FreeBSD 內含可以執行這兩項任務的工具程式，叫做 <command>freebsd-update</command>。</para>
+    <para>即時套用安全性更新並升級到新發佈的作業系統對管理一個持續運作的系統是重要的。FreeBSD 內含可以執行這兩項任務的工具程式，叫做 <command>freebsd-update</command>。</para>
 
     <para>這個工具程式支援使用 Binary 對 FreeBSD 做安全性與和錯誤更新，不需要手動編譯和安裝修補 (Patch) 或新核心。目前由安全性團隊提供支援的 Binary 更新可用於所有的架構和發行版。支援的發行版清單及各自的支援期限列於 <uri xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/security/">http://www.FreeBSD.org/security/</uri>。</para>
 
-    <para>這個工具程式也支援升級作業系統到次要的發行版本以及升級到另一個發行版分支。在升級到新的發行版本前，需先查看該版本的發行公告，因為發行公告中包含了該發行版本的相關重要資訊。發行公告可自 <uri xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/">http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/</uri> 取得。</para>
+    <para>這個工具程式也支援升級作業系統到次要的發佈版以及升級到另一個發佈版分支。在升級到新的發佈版本前，需先查看該版本的發佈公告，因為發行公告中包含了該發行版本的相關重要資訊。發行公告可自 <uri xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/">http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/</uri> 取得。</para>
 
     <note>
       <para>如果有使用 <command>crontab</command> 來執行 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>freebsd-update</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>，則必須在升級作業系統前先關閉。</para>
     </note>
 
     <para>本節將說明 <command>freebsd-update</command> 使用的設定檔， 示範如何套用安全性修補及如何升級到主要或次要的作業系統發行版，並討論升級作業系統的需要考量的事項。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="freebsdupdate-config-file">
       <title>設定檔</title>
 
       <para><command>freebsd-update</command> 預設的設定檔不需變更即可運作。 部份使用者可能會想要調校位於 <filename>/etc/freebsd-update.conf</filename> 的預設設定檔來對程序有更好的控制。該設定檔中的註解均有說明可用的選項，但以下幾個項目可能需要進一步的說明：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Components of the base system which should be kept updated.
 Components world kernel</programlisting>
 
       <para>這個參數控制 FreeBSD 要保持最新版本的部份。 預設是更新整個基礎系統 (Base system) 和核心。 可指定個別元件，例如：<literal>src/base</literal> 或 <literal>src/sys</literal>。 雖然如此，最好的選項是維持預設值，因為更改指定特定項目時需列出每一個需要的項目。時間一久可能會因為原始碼和 Binary 檔案沒有更新而造成慘重的後果。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Paths which start with anything matching an entry in an IgnorePaths
 # statement will be ignored.
 IgnorePaths /boot/kernel/linker.hints</programlisting>
 
       <para>要保持特定的目錄在更新過程不被更動，例如 <filename>/bin</filename> 或 <filename>/sbin</filename>，可以將他們的路徑加到此敘述中。 這個選項可以防止 <command>freebsd-update</command> 覆蓋本地的修改。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Paths which start with anything matching an entry in an UpdateIfUnmodified
 # statement will only be updated if the contents of the file have not been
 # modified by the user (unless changes are merged; see below).
 UpdateIfUnmodified /etc/ /var/ /root/ /.cshrc /.profile</programlisting>
 
       <para>這個選項只會更新特定目錄中未修改的設定檔。任何使用者修改的檔案都不會自動更新。 有另一個選項 <literal>KeepModifiedMetadata</literal> 可讓 <command>freebsd-update</command> 在合併時儲存使用者做的變更。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># When upgrading to a new FreeBSD release, files which match MergeChanges
 # will have any local changes merged into the version from the new release.
 MergeChanges /etc/ /var/named/etc/ /boot/device.hints</programlisting>
 
       <para>列出 <command>freebsd-update</command> 應嘗試合併的設定檔目錄。 檔案合併程序是指一系列類似 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 做的 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>diff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 修補動作， 但是選項比較少。 合併的動作包含接受、開啟編輯器，或讓 <command>freebsd-update</command> 中止。 如果有疑慮，請先備份 <filename>/etc</filename>，然後再接受合併。 更多關於 <command>mergemaster</command> 的資訊， 參見 <xref linkend="mergemaster"/>。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Directory in which to store downloaded updates and temporary
 # files used by FreeBSD Update.
 # WorkDir /var/db/freebsd-update</programlisting>
 
       <para>這個目錄是所有修補檔和暫存檔的存放處。當使用者進行版本升級時，這個位置應該要有至少 1GB 的可用磁碟空間。</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># When upgrading between releases, should the list of Components be
 # read strictly (StrictComponents yes) or merely as a list of components
 # which *might* be installed of which FreeBSD Update should figure out
 # which actually are installed and upgrade those (StrictComponents no)?
 # StrictComponents no</programlisting>
 
       <para>當這個選項設定為 <literal>yes</literal> 時，<command>freebsd-update</command> 將會假設 <literal>Components</literal> 清單已完成，將不會對清單之外的項目做變更。 實際上 <command>freebsd-update</command> 會將嘗試更新每一個屬於 <literal>Components</literal> 清單中的檔案。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="freebsdupdate-security-patches">
       <title>套用安全性修補</title>
 
       <para>套用 FreeBSD 安全性修補的過程已經被簡化，讓系統管理員可使用 <command>freebsd-update</command> 來保持系統更新。更多有關 FreeBSD 安全性報告的資訊可以參考 <xref linkend="security-advisories"/>。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD 安全性修補可以使用以下指令下載並安裝。 第一個指令會偵測是否有可用的修補，如果有，將列出若執行修補後會變更的檔案清單。第二個指令將會套用修補。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update fetch</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update install</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>如果更新套用了任何核心修補，系統將會需要重新開機以使用修補過的核心。如果修補套用在任何執行中的 Binary，受影響的應用程式應重新啟動來使用修補過的 Binary 版本。</para>
 
       <para>加入以下項目至 <filename>/etc/crontab</filename> 可設定系統每天自動檢查更新一次：</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">@daily                                  root    freebsd-update cron</programlisting>
 
       <para>如果有新的修補，該程式會會自動下載，但不會執行。<systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> 使用者會收到電子郵件通知複查該修補並手動執行 <command>freebsd-update install</command> 安裝。</para>
 
       <para>如果有發生任何錯誤，<command>freebsd-update</command> 可以使用以下指令還原最後所做的變更：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update rollback</userinput>
 Uninstalling updates... done.</screen>
 
       <para>再次強調，若核心或任何核心模組有做過修改應重新啟動系統，以及任何受影響的 Binary 應重新執行。</para>
 
       <para>只有 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心可使用 <command>freebsd-update</command> 自動更新。 如果有安裝自訂的核心，在 <command>freebsd-update</command> 完成安裝更新後，需要重新編譯和重新安裝。 雖然如此，如果 <filename>/boot/GENERIC</filename> 存在，<command>freebsd-update</command> 仍會偵測並更新 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心，即使該核心並非目前系統正在執行的核心。</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para>隨時在 <filename>/boot/GENERIC</filename> 保留一份 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心的複本將有助於診斷各種問題及執行版本升級。請參考 <xref linkend="freebsd-update-custom-kernel-9x"/> 來了解有關如何取得 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心的複本說明。</para>
       </note>
 
       <para>除非在 <filename>/etc/freebsd-update.conf</filename> 的預設設定檔被修改，否則 <command>freebsd-update</command> 將會安裝更新後的核心原始碼和其餘的更新，可依平常的方式執行重新編譯與重新安裝核心。</para>
 
       <para>以 <command>freebsd-update</command> 發行的更新並非總是會更新核心。若核心的原始碼沒有被 <command>freebsd-update install</command> 修改則不需要重新編譯自訂的核心。雖然如此 <command>freebsd-update</command> 總是會更新 <filename>/usr/src/sys/conf/newvers.sh</filename>，目前修補的版本如 <command>uname -r</command> 執行結果中的 <literal>-p</literal> 數字，便是由該檔取得。即使沒有做任何其他變更，重新編譯自訂核心可讓 <command>uname</command> 準確的回報系統目前的修補版本。當維護多個系統時這會特別有用，因其可讓你快速評估每個系統安裝的更新。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="freebsdupdate-upgrade">
       <title>執行主要及次要版號升級</title>
 
-      <para>從 FreeBSD 的次要版本升級到另一個版本，例如從 FreeBSD 9.0 到 FreeBSD 9.1, 叫作 <firstterm>次要版本</firstterm>更新。 <firstterm>主要版本</firstterm>更新發生在當 FreeBSD 從一個主要版本升級到主要版本升級到另一個主要版本時，例如從 FreeBSD 9.X 到 FreeBSD 10.X。 兩種更新都可以透過提供 <command>freebsd-update</command> 目標的發行版本來執行。</para>
+      <para>從 FreeBSD 的次要版本升級到另一個版本，例如從 FreeBSD 9.0 到 FreeBSD 9.1, 叫作 <firstterm>次要版本 (Minor version)</firstterm> 更新。 <firstterm>主要版本 (Major version)</firstterm> 更新發生在當 FreeBSD 從一個主要版本升級到主要版本升級到另一個主要版本時，例如從 FreeBSD 9.X 到 FreeBSD 10.X。 兩種更新都可以透過提供 <command>freebsd-update</command> 目標的發佈版本來執行。</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para>如果系統正在執行自訂的核心，請在開始升級前，確定有保留一份 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心的複本在 <filename>/boot/GENERIC</filename>。 請參考 <xref linkend="freebsd-update-custom-kernel-9x"/> 關於如何取得 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心複本的說明。</para>
       </note>
 
       <para>在 FreeBSD 9.0 系統執行以下指令，將會把系統升級至 FreeBSD 9.1：</para>
 
        <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update -r 9.1-RELEASE upgrade</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>收到這個指令後，<command>freebsd-update</command> 會開始評估設定檔和目前的系統來收集升級所需的資訊。 螢幕會顯示偵測到或沒偵測到的元件清單。例如：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Looking up update.FreeBSD.org mirrors... 1 mirrors found.
 Fetching metadata signature for 9.0-RELEASE from update1.FreeBSD.org... done.
 Fetching metadata index... done.
 Inspecting system... done.
 
 The following components of FreeBSD seem to be installed:
 kernel/smp src/base src/bin src/contrib src/crypto src/etc src/games
 src/gnu src/include src/krb5 src/lib src/libexec src/release src/rescue
 src/sbin src/secure src/share src/sys src/tools src/ubin src/usbin
 world/base world/info world/lib32 world/manpages
 
 The following components of FreeBSD do not seem to be installed:
 kernel/generic world/catpages world/dict world/doc world/games
 world/proflibs
 
 Does this look reasonable (y/n)? <userinput>y</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>此時，<command>freebsd-update</command> 將會嘗試下載所有升級需要的檔案。 在某些情況，會詢問使用者一些關於要安裝什麼或要如何繼續。</para>
 
       <para>當使用自訂核心，上述的步驟將會產生如下的警告：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">WARNING: This system is running a "<replaceable>MYKERNEL</replaceable>" kernel, which is not a
 kernel configuration distributed as part of FreeBSD 9.0-RELEASE.
 This kernel will not be updated: you MUST update the kernel manually
 before running "/usr/sbin/freebsd-update install"</screen>
 
       <para>這時的警告可以安全地忽略，升級過程將會使用更新過的 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心來進行。</para>
 
       <para>所有的修補都下載到本地系統之後， 將會開始套用更新。這個過程可能會花點時間，取決於機器的速度和工作量。設定檔將會被合併。 合併的過程中當檔案被合併或是手動合併畫面上出現編輯器時需要使用者操作。 每一個成功合併的結果將會顯示給使用者並繼續程序，失敗或忽略合併將會使程序中斷。使用者可能想要備份 <filename>/etc</filename> 並稍後手動合併重要的檔案，例如：<filename>master.passwd</filename> 或 <filename>group</filename>。</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para>所有的修補與合併動作會在另一個目錄進行，並不會直接修改。當成功套用所有修補，所有設定檔已合併且過程順利，使用者可使用以下指令將變更安裝到磁碟：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update install</userinput></screen>
       </note>
 
       <para>核心與核心模組會先修補，若系統正在執行自訂的核心，使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>nextboot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來設定下次開機使用更新過的 <filename>/boot/GENERIC</filename>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>nextboot -k GENERIC</userinput></screen>
 
       <warning>
 	<para>若機器在遠端進行更新，請在使用 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心重新開機前，請確定該核心含有所有系統所需的驅動程式以正常開機並連線至網路。特別是在執行的自訂核心有使用到由核心模組提供內建功能，請確定將這些模組已暫時使用 <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> 設定檔載入到 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心。建議關閉非必須的服務和磁碟與網路掛載直到升級程序完成。</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para>機器現在應使用更新過的核心重新開機：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>shutdown -r now</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>一旦系統重新上線，使用以下指令繼續 <command>freebsd-update</command>。 由於程序的狀態已被儲存，<command>freebsd-update</command> 不會重頭開始，但會進行下一個階段並移除所有舊的共用程式庫和目標檔。</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update install</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para>取決於是否有任何程式庫版本編號衝突，也可能只有兩個而不是三個安裝階段。</para>
       </note>
 
-      <para>升級程序現在完成了。如果所做的是主要的版本升級，則需依 <xref linkend="freebsdupdate-portsrebuild"/> 的說明重新安裝所有的 Ports 和套件。</para>
+      <para>升級程序現在完成了。如果所做的是主要的版本升級，則需依 <xref linkend="freebsdupdate-portsrebuild"/> 的說明重新安裝所有的 Port 和套件。</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="freebsd-update-custom-kernel-9x">
 	<title>在 FreeBSD 9.X 及之後版本自訂核心</title>
 
 	<para>在使用 <command>freebsd-update</command> 前，請確定已有 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心的複本於 <filename>/boot/GENERIC</filename>。若只編譯過一次自訂核心，那麼 <filename>/boot/kernel.old</filename> 就是 <literal>GENERIC</literal> 核心，只需要將該目錄重新命名為 <filename>/boot/kernel</filename>。</para>
 
 	<para>若有編譯自訂核心過超過一次，或已經不曉得編譯自訂核心的次數，則需取得與目前作業系統版本相符的 <literal>GENERIC</literal> 核心複本。若可直接操作實體系統，則可以從安裝媒體取得 <literal>GENERIC</literal> 核心複本：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount /cdrom</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /cdrom/usr/freebsd-dist</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar -C/ -xvf kernel.txz boot/kernel/kernel</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>或者，可以從原始碼重新編譯 <literal>GENERIC</literal> 核心：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make kernel __MAKE_CONF=/dev/null SRCCONF=/dev/null</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>這個核心要被 <command>freebsd-update</command> 認做 <literal>GENERIC</literal> 核心，<filename>GENERIC</filename> 設定檔必須不能做任何修改，也建議在編譯核心時不要使用其他特殊選項。</para>
 
 	<para><command>freebsd-update</command> 僅需要 <filename>/boot/GENERIC</filename> 存在便可，因此不須重新開機進入 <filename>GENERIC</filename>。</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="freebsdupdate-portsrebuild">
 	<title>主要版號升級後的套件升級</title>
 
-	<para>一般來說，已安裝的應用程式在次要版本升級仍可沒問題的正常執行。但主要版本升級會採用不同的應用程式 Binary 介面 (Application Binary Interfaces, <acronym>ABI</acronym>s)，會導致大部份第三方應用程式無法正常執行。 因此在主要版本升級後，需要升及所有已安裝的套件和 Ports，套件可以使用 <command>pkg upgrade</command> 來升級，而 Ports 則需使用 <package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 工具。</para>
+	<para>一般來說，已安裝的應用程式在次要版本升級仍可沒問題的正常執行。但主要版本升級會採用不同的應用程式 Binary 介面 (Application Binary Interfaces, <acronym>ABI</acronym>s)，會導致大部份第三方應用程式無法正常執行。 因此在主要版本升級後，需要升及所有已安裝的套件和 Port，套件可以使用 <command>pkg upgrade</command> 來升級，而 Port 則需使用 <package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 工具。</para>
 
 	<para>強制升級所有已安裝的套件會使用檔案庫中新版本的套件來取得目前套件，即使該版號沒有增加。由於在升級 FreeBSD 主要版本時會變更 ABI 版本，因此這是必要動作。強制升級可以執行以下指令來完成：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg-static upgrade -f</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>重新編譯所有已安裝的應用程式可以執行以下指令來完成：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster -af</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>這個指令會在安裝每個應用程式有可設定選項時顯示設定畫面，並會等待使用者操作該畫面，要避免這種情況並使用預設的設定選項，可在上述指令加上 <option>-G</option> 參數。</para>
 
 	<para>完成軟體升級後，最後需執行 <command>freebsd-update</command> 來完成最後的升級動作：</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update install</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>若有使用臨時 <filename>GENERIC</filename> 核心，便應在此時依據 <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/> 的說明編譯並安裝新的自訂核心。</para>
 
 	<para>重新開機使用新的 FreeBSD 版本後，升級程序便正式完成。</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="freebsdupdate-system-comparison">
       <title>比對系統狀態</title>
 
       <para>已安裝的 FreeBSD 版本狀態可以使用 <command>freebsd-update IDS</command> 與另一個已知良好的複本來做比對測試。 這個指令會評估目前版本的系統工具，程式庫和設定檔，可做為內建的入侵偵測系統來使用 (Intrusion Detection System, <acronym>IDS</acronym>)。</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para>這個指令並非用來取代真正的 <acronym>IDS</acronym>，如 <package>security/snort</package>。由於 <command>freebsd-update</command> 儲存在磁碟上，被竄改的可能性是顯而易見的，雖然這個可能性會因使用 <varname>kern.securelevel</varname> 以及將 <command>freebsd-update</command> 在不使用時以唯讀儲存而降低，最好的解決方案是能夠與安全的磁碟，如 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 或儲存在外部的 <acronym>USB</acronym> 磁碟裝置比對系統。替代的方式是使用內建工具的 <acronym>IDS</acronym> 功能，在 <xref linkend="security-ids"/> 有詳細說明。</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para>要開始比對，需指定輸出的檔案來儲存結果：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>freebsd-update IDS &gt;&gt; outfile.ids</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>系統將會開始檢查並且會產生相當長的檔案清單，內容包含發行版本已知的與目前安裝版本的 <acronym>SHA256</acronym> 雜湊值會儲存到指定的輸出檔。</para>
+      <para>系統將會開始檢查並且會產生相當長的檔案清單，內容包含發佈版本已知的與目前安裝版本的 <acronym>SHA256</acronym> 雜湊值會儲存到指定的輸出檔。</para>
 
-      <para>清單中的項目會相當的多，但輸出的格式可以很簡單的用來分析。例如，要取得與發行版本不同的檔案清單，可使用以下指令：</para>
+      <para>清單中的項目會相當的多，但輸出的格式可以很簡單的用來分析。例如，要取得與發佈版本不同的檔案清單，可使用以下指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat outfile.ids | awk '{ print $1 }' | more</userinput>
 /etc/master.passwd
 /etc/motd
 /etc/passwd
 /etc/pf.conf</screen>
 
       <para>實際的檔案會更多，此範例的輸出已精簡。部份檔案可能本來就會被修改。例如 <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> 在新增使用者到系統時會被修改，核心模組也有可能因使用 <command>freebsd-update</command> 更新而有所不同。要排除特定的檔案或目錄可將這些檔案或目錄加入到 <filename>/etc/freebsd-update.conf</filename> 中的 <literal>IDSIgnorePaths</literal> 選項。</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="updating-upgrading-documentation">
     <title>更新文件集</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Updating and Upgrading</primary></indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Documentation</primary>
       <see>Updating and Upgrading</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>文件是 FreeBSD 作業系統不可或缺的一部份。在最新版本的 FreeBSD 文件可在 FreeBSD 網站 (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/">http://www.freebsd.org/doc/</link>) 取得的同時，也可很簡單的取得 FreeBSD 網站、使用手冊、<acronym>FAQ</acronym> 及文章的本地複本。</para>
 
-    <para>本節將說明如何使用原始碼與 FreeBSD Ports 套件集來取得最新版本 FreeBSD 文件本地複本。</para>
+    <para>本節將說明如何使用原始碼與 FreeBSD Port 套件集來取得最新版本 FreeBSD 文件本地複本。</para>
 
     <para>要取得編輯與提出修正文件相關的資訊請參考 FreeBSD 文件計畫入門書 (<link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/zh_TW.UTF-8/books/fdp-primer">http://www.freebsd.org/doc/zh_TW.UTF-8/books/fdp-primer/</link>)。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="updating-installed-documentation">
       <title>自原始碼更新說明文件</title>
 
       <para>從原始碼重新編譯 FreeBSD 文件需要一些不屬於 FreeBSD 基礎系統的工具。需要的工具包括 <application>svn</application> 可透過由 FreeBSD 文件計劃所開發的 <package>textproc/docproj</package> 套件或 Port 安裝。</para>
 
       <para>安裝完成之後，可使用 <application>svn</application> 來取得乾淨的文件原始碼複本：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn checkout https://svn.FreeBSD.org/doc/head /usr/doc</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>第一次下載文件原始碼需要一些時間，請耐心等候執行完畢。</para>
 
       <para>往後更新文件原始碼可執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn update /usr/doc</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>下載最新的文件原始碼到 <filename>/usr/doc</filename> 之後，便完成要更新已安裝文件的準備動作。</para>
 
       <para>完整更新所有可用的語言可以執行：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/doc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>若只想要更新特定語言，可對 <filename>/usr/doc</filename> 中特定語言的子目錄執行 <command>make</command>：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>另一個更新文件的方式是在 <filename>/usr/doc</filename> 或特定的語言子目錄下執行此指令：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make update</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>要指定安裝的輸出格式可使用 <varname>FORMATS</varname> 來設定：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/doc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make FORMATS='html html-split' install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>有數個選項可更新部份文件或只編譯特定翻譯來簡化更新程序。這些選項可在 <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> 設為系統全域的預設選項，或是透過指令傳送給 <command>make</command>。</para>
 
       <para>選項有：</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><varname>DOC_LANG</varname></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>要編譯與安裝的語言及編碼清單，例如 <literal>en_US.ISO8859-1</literal> 代表英語文件。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><varname>FORMATS</varname></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>要編譯的輸出格式清單，目前支援 <literal>html</literal>, <literal>html-split</literal>, <literal>txt</literal>, <literal>ps</literal> 以及 <literal>pdf</literal>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><varname>DOCDIR</varname></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>要安裝文件的位置，預設為 <filename>/usr/share/doc</filename>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para>要取得更多可做為 FreeBSD 系統全域選項的 <command>make</command> 變數，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>make.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>。</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="doc-ports-install-package">
       <info>
-	<title>自 Ports 更新說明文件</title>
+	<title>自 Port 更新說明文件</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	      <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Based on the work of </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Updating and Upgrading</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>documentation package</primary>
 	<see>Updating and Upgrading</see>
       </indexterm>
 
-      <para>前一節介紹了由原始碼更新 FreeBSD 文件的方法，本節將說明使用 Ports 套件集的替代方法，可由以下方式達成：</para>
+      <para>前一節介紹了由原始碼更新 FreeBSD 文件的方法，本節將說明使用 Port 套件集的替代方法，可由以下方式達成：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>安裝事先編譯好的文件套件，無須在本地編譯任何東西或安裝文件工具集。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
-	  <para>使用 Ports 框架來編譯文件原始碼，可讓取得與編譯文件的步驟更簡單。</para>
+	  <para>使用 Port 框架來編譯文件原始碼，可讓取得與編譯文件的步驟更簡單。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
-      <para>這個更新 FreeBSD 文件的方法，會使用到一系列由文件工程團隊 <email>doceng@FreeBSD.org</email> 每月更新的文件 Ports 與套件。這些套件列於 FreeBSD Ports 套件集的 docs 分類下 (<link xlink:href="http://www.freshports.org/docs/">http://www.freshports.org/docs/</link>)。</para>
+      <para>這個更新 FreeBSD 文件的方法，會使用到一系列由文件工程團隊 <email>doceng@FreeBSD.org</email> 每月更新的文件 Port 與套件。這些套件列於 FreeBSD Port 套件集的 docs 分類下 (<link xlink:href="http://www.freshports.org/docs/">http://www.freshports.org/docs/</link>)。</para>
 
-      <para>文件 Ports 的組織方式如下：</para>
+      <para>文件 Port 的組織方式如下：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><package>misc/freebsd-doc-en</package> 套件或 Port 會安裝所有英語的文件。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><package>misc/freebsd-doc-all</package> 套件或 Port 會安裝所有可用語言的文件。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>每個翻譯語言都有套件與 Port，如 <package>misc/freebsd-doc-hu</package> 為匈牙利語文件。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>當使用 Binary 套件時，會安裝指定語言 FreeBSD 文件的所有可用格式。例如以下指令會安裝最新的匈牙利語文件套件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install hu-freebsd-doc</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
-	<para>套件使用的名稱格式與 Ports 的名稱不同：<literal><replaceable>lang</replaceable>-freebsd-doc</literal>，其中 <replaceable>lang</replaceable> 是語言代碼的縮寫，例如 <literal>hu</literal> 代表匈牙利語，<literal>zh_cn</literal> 代表簡體中文。</para>
+	<para>套件使用的名稱格式與 Port 的名稱不同：<literal><replaceable>lang</replaceable>-freebsd-doc</literal>，其中 <replaceable>lang</replaceable> 是語言代碼的縮寫，例如 <literal>hu</literal> 代表匈牙利語，<literal>zh_cn</literal> 代表簡體中文。</para>
       </note>
 
       <para>要指定文件的格式，需以編譯 Port 來代替安裝套件。例如要編譯並安裝英語文件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/misc/freebsd-doc-en</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para>Ports 提供設定選單來指定要編譯與安裝的格式，預設為分頁的 <acronym>HTML</acronym>　(類似 <uri xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org">http://www.FreeBSD.org</uri> 使用的格式) 以及 <acronym>PDF</acronym>。</para>
+      <para>Port 提供設定選單來指定要編譯與安裝的格式，預設為分頁的 <acronym>HTML</acronym>　(類似 <uri xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org">http://www.FreeBSD.org</uri> 使用的格式) 以及 <acronym>PDF</acronym>。</para>
 
-      <para>此外，編譯文件 Ports 時也可指定數個 <command>make</command> 選項，包括：</para>
+      <para>此外，編譯文件 Port 時也可指定數個 <command>make</command> 選項，包括：</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><varname>WITH_HTML</varname></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>編譯一份文件使用一個 HTML 檔的 HTML 格式。格式化後的文件會儲存至名稱為 <filename>article.html</filename> 或 <filename>book.html</filename> 的檔案。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><varname>WITH_PDF</varname></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>格式化的文件會儲存至名稱為 <filename>article.pdf</filename> 或 <filename>book.pdf</filename> 的檔案。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><varname>DOCBASE</varname></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para>指定要安裝文件的位置，預設為 <filename>/usr/local/share/doc/freebsd</filename>。</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para>以下範例使用變數來安裝 <acronym>PDF</acronym> 的匈牙利語文件到特定目錄：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> cd /usr/ports/misc/freebsd-doc-hu
 <prompt>#</prompt> make -DWITH_PDF DOCBASE=share/doc/freebsd/hu install clean</screen>
 
-      <para>文件套件或 Ports 可以依 <xref linkend="ports"/> 的說明更新。例如以下指令會使用 <package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 更新已安裝的匈牙利語文件：</para>
+      <para>文件套件或 Port 可以依 <xref linkend="ports"/> 的說明更新。例如以下指令會使用 <package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> 更新已安裝的匈牙利語文件：</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>portmaster -PP hu-freebsd-doc</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="current-stable">
     <title>追蹤開發分支</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>-CURRENT</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>-STABLE</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 有兩個開發分支：FreeBSD-CURRENT 及 FreeBSD-STABLE。</para>
 
     <para>本節將說明每個分支及其的特定使用者，也會說明如何在各別分支維持系統為最新版。</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="current">
       <title>使用 FreeBSD-CURRENT</title>
 
       <para>FreeBSD-CURRENT 是 FreeBSD 開發的 <quote>最前線</quote>，FreeBSD-CURRENT 的使用者需具備較強的技術能力。技術能力較弱的使用者應改追蹤 FreeBSD-STABLE 開發分支。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD-CURRENT 是 FreeBSD 最新的原始碼，其中包括正在進行的開發工作、實驗性的變更以及不一定會在下一個官方發行版出現的過渡機制。 雖然 FreeBSD 開發者每天編譯 FreeBSD-CURRENT 原始碼，但仍可能有短暫時間原始碼是無法編譯的。雖然這些問題會儘快被解決，但是無論 FreeBSD-CURRENT 帶來災難或是新功能，同步原始碼時都要考量這個問題。</para>
 
       <para>FreeBSD-CURRENT 主要給下以三種族群：</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>致力於開發某一部份原始碼樹的 FreeBSD 社群成員。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>FreeBSD 社群成員中活耀的測試人員。 他們願意花時間解決問題，對 FreeBSD 的變更及大方向提出專業建議並送交修補。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>隨時關注的使用者，使用目前原始碼做為參考用途，或是偶爾提供意見或貢獻原始碼。</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
 
       <para><emphasis>不應</emphasis>將 FreeBSD-CURRENT 當做下一個發行版前取得新功能的快速途徑，因為尚未發行的功能並未被完整測試，很可能有問題。這也不是一個快速取得問題修正的方式，因為任何已知的問題修正有可能產生新的問題。 使用 FreeBSD-CURRENT 不在 <quote>官方支援</quote> 的範圍內。</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>-CURRENT</primary> <secondary>使用</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para>若要追蹤 FreeBSD-CURRENT：</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>加入 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">freebsd-current</link> 和 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-head">svn-src-head</link> 郵遞論壇。這是 <emphasis>重要</emphasis> 的，是為了要了解目前人們對於系統目前狀態的評論並接收有關 FreeBSD-CURRENT 目前狀態的重要公告。</para>
 
 	  <para><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-head">svn-src-head</link> 郵遞論壇會記錄每一次修改的提交項目，以及可能產生的副作用的相關資訊。</para>
 
 	  <para>要加入這兩個郵遞論壇，請前往 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo">http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo</link> 點選要訂閱的郵遞論壇，並依照網頁指示的步驟操作。要追蹤整個原始碼樹，不單只有 FreeBSD-CURRENT 的變更，可訂閱 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-all">svn-src-all</link> 郵遞論壇。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>同步 FreeBSD-CURRENT 原始碼。 通常會使用 <link linkend="svn">svn</link> 自列於 <xref linkend="svn-mirrors"/> 中的其中一個 Subversion 鏡像站的 <literal>head</literal> 分支中取出 -CURRENT 的程式碼。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>考量到檔案庫的大小，部份使用者選擇只同步他們有興趣或貢獻修補的部份原始碼。然而， 計劃要從原始碼編譯整個作業系統的使用者須下載 <emphasis>全部</emphasis> 的 FreeBSD-CURRENT，不可只有選擇的部份。</para>
 
 	  <para>編譯 FreeBSD-CURRENT <indexterm>
 	      <primary>-CURRENT</primary>
 		<secondary>compiling</secondary>
 	    </indexterm> 前，請仔細地閱讀 <filename>/usr/src/Makefile</filename> 並依照 <xref linkend="makeworld"/> 的指示操作。 閱讀 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">FreeBSD-CURRENT 郵遞論壇</link> 以及 <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> 來了解升級的相關資訊，有時會含有升級下一個發行版的必要資訊。</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>積極！很鼓勵 FreeBSD-CURRENT 使用者發表他們對加強哪些功能或是修復哪些錯誤的建議。 如果您在建議時能附上相關程式碼的話， 那真是太棒了！</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
     </sect2>
+
+    <sect2 xml:id="stable">
+      <title>使用 FreeBSD-STABLE</title>
+
+      <para>主要發行版便是使用 FreeBSD-STABLE 這個開發分支所產生。變更進入這個分支的速度比較慢，並假設這些變更已經先在 FreeBSD-CURRENT 測試過。但這 <emphasis>仍然</emphasis> 是一個開發分支，而且 FreeBSD-STABLE 的原始碼在任何時候都有可能不適合一般的使用。它只是另一個開發分支，並非專門提供給終端使用者使用。若沒有替代資源可供測試的使用者應該改使用最新的 FreeBSD 發行版。</para>
+
+      <para>有興趣追蹤或對 FreeBSD 開發流程貢獻的人，尤其是對 FreeBSD 接下來的發行版相關內容有興趣的人，應該考慮追蹤 FreeBSD-STABLE。</para>
+
+      <para>儘管 FreeBSD-STABLE 分支應該在任何時候均能正確編譯、執行，但是並不保証不會有問題。因為使用 FreeBSD-STABLE 的人比 FreeBSD-CURRENT 多，有時無可避免地會在 FreeBSD-STABLE 發現在 FreeBSD-CURRENT 並非顯而易見的錯誤和極端的狀況。也因此，我們並不建議盲目追蹤 FreeBSD-STABLE。 特別重要的是 <emphasis>不要</emphasis> 在尚未使用開發或測試環境對程式碼做完整的測試之前，升級任何上線的伺服器為 FreeBSD-STABLE。</para>
+
+      <para>若要追蹤 FreeBSD-STABLE：</para>
+
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	<primary>-STABLE</primary>
+	  <secondary>using</secondary>
+      </indexterm>
+      <orderedlist>
+	<listitem>
+	  <para>加入 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-stable">freebsd-stable</link> 郵遞論壇來隨時瞭解 FreeBSD-STABLE 編譯的相依關係或是任何其他需特別注意的議題。開發者在評估一些有爭議的修正或更新時，也會先在這裡發信公告，讓使用者有機會可以對提案的更改提出問題。</para>
+
+	  <para>加入 <application>svn</application> 相關郵遞論壇來追蹤該分支的修訂。 例如，要追蹤 9-STABLE 分支的使用者應該加入 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-9">svn-src-stable-9</link> 郵遞論壇。這個郵遞論壇會記錄每一次修改的提交項目，以及可能產生的副作用的相關資訊。</para>
+
+	  <para>要加入這兩個郵遞論壇，請前往 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo">http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo</link> 點選要訂閱的郵遞論壇，並依照網頁指示的步驟操作。要追蹤整個原始碼樹，不單只有 FreeBSD-CURRENT 的變更，可訂閱 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-all">svn-src-all</link> 郵遞論壇。</para>
+	</listitem>
+
+	<listitem>
+	  <para>要安裝新的 FreeBSD-STABLE 系統， 可從 <link linkend="mirrors">FreeBSD 鏡像站</link> 或從 FreeBSD-STABLE 每個月的快照 (Snapshot) 來安裝最新的 FreeBSD-STABLE 發行版。請參考 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/snapshots/">www.freebsd.org/snapshots</link> 來取得更多有關快照的資訊。</para>
+
+	  <para>要編譯或升級已經安裝的 FreeBSD 系統至 FreeBSD-STABLE，可使用 <link linkend="svn">svn</link> <indexterm>
+		<primary>Subversion</primary>
+	      </indexterm> 來取得欲安裝分支的原始碼。分支的名稱列在 <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/releng/">www.freebsd.org/releng</link>，例如 <literal>stable/9</literal>。</para>
+	</listitem>
+
+	<listitem>
+	  <para>在編譯或升級到 FreeBSD-STABLE <indexterm>
+	      <primary>-STABLE</primary>
+		<secondary>compiling</secondary>
+	    </indexterm> 之前 ， 請仔細閱讀 <filename>/usr/src/Makefile</filename> 並依照 <xref linkend="makeworld"/> 的指示操作。閱讀 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-stable">FreeBSD-STABLE 郵遞論壇</link> 以及 <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> 來了解升級的相關資訊，有時會含有升級下一個發行版的必要資訊。</para>
+	</listitem>
+      </orderedlist>
+    </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
-  <sect1 xml:id="updating-src">
-    <title xml:lang="en">Updating FreeBSD from Source</title>
+  <sect1 xml:id="synching">
+    <title>同步原始碼</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">Updating FreeBSD from source offers some advantages over binary
-      updates.  Code can be built with options to take advantage of
-      specific hardware.  Parts of the base system can be built with
-      non-default settings, or left out entirely where they are not
-      needed or desired.  The build process takes longer to update a
-      system than binary updates, but allows complete customization to
-      produce a tailored version of FreeBSD</para>
+    <para>有多許方法可以更新 FreeBSD 的原始碼，本節將說明主要的方法 <application>Subversion</application>。</para>
 
-    <sect2 xml:id="updating-src-quick-start">
-      <title>快速開始</title>
+    <warning>
+      <para>雖然有可能只更新部份原始碼樹，但是正式支援的更新步驟是更新整個樹並重新編譯所有在使用者空間 (User space) 中的程式，例如在 <filename>/bin</filename> 和 <filename>/sbin</filename> 中的程式及核心原始碼。只更新部份的原始碼樹，例如：只更新核心或使用者空間的程式的做法經常會導致編譯錯誤、核心錯誤或資料損毀的問題。</para>
+    </warning>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">This is a quick reference for the typical steps used to
-	update FreeBSD by building from source.  Later sections describe
-	the process in more detail.</para>
+    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+      <primary>Subversion</primary>
+    </indexterm>
 
+    <para xml:lang="en"><application>Subversion</application> uses the
+      <emphasis>pull</emphasis> model of updating sources.  The user,
+      or a <command>cron</command> script, invokes the
+      <command>svn</command> program which updates the local version
+      of the source.  <application>Subversion</application> is the
+      preferred method for updating local source trees as updates are
+      up-to-the-minute and the user controls when updates are
+      downloaded.  It is easy to restrict updates to specific files or
+      directories and the requested updates are generated on the fly
+      by the server.  How to synchronize source using
+      <application>Subversion</application> is described in <xref linkend="svn"/>.</para>
+
+    <para xml:lang="en">If a user inadvertently wipes out portions of the local
+      archive, <application>Subversion</application> will detect and
+      rebuild the damaged portions during an update.</para>
+  </sect1>
+
+  <sect1 xml:id="makeworld">
+    <title>重新編譯 World</title>
+
+    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+      <primary>Rebuilding <quote>world</quote></primary>
+    </indexterm>
+    <para>當本地的原始碼樹已與特定版本的 FreeBSD 如 FreeBSD-STABLE 或 FreeBSD-CURRENT 同步以後，便可使用原始碼樹來重新編譯系統。這個程序即為重新編譯 World。</para>
+
+    <para>在重新編譯 World <emphasis>之前</emphasis>，請確定已完成以下工作：</para>
+
+    <procedure>
+      <title>編譯 World <emphasis>之前</emphasis> 要完成的工作</title>
+
+      <step>
+	<para>備份所有重要的資料到另一個系統或可卸除的媒體，檢查備份的完整性並在手中保留一份可開機的安裝媒體。如何強調都不足夠說明在重新編譯系統 <emphasis>之前</emphasis> 備份系統的重要性。即便重新編譯 World 已變成簡單的一件事，也難免會有原始碼樹失誤導致系統無法開機的時候。您可能永遠都用不上備份，但最好確保安全而非後悔。</para>
+      </step>
+
+      <step>
+	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>mailing list</primary></indexterm>
+	<para>回顧最近 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-stable">freebsd-stable</link> 或 <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">freebsd-current</link> 中的項目，依您所追蹤的分支決定。注意任何已知的問題以及會被影響的系統。若已知的問題影響您已同步的原始碼版本，請等候表明問題已被解決的 <quote>全部解決 (all clear)</quote> 公告發佈，然後重新同步原始碼並確認本地的原始碼版本已含有所需的修正。</para>
+      </step>
+
+      <step>
+	<para>閱讀 <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> 了解該版本的原始碼是否有必要的額外步驟要完成。 這個檔案中會包含有關潛藏問題的重要資訊，並且可能會要求執行某些指令。大多升級需要完成指定的額外步驟，例如：在安裝新 World 前重新命名或刪除指定檔案，這些步驟會列在檔案最後，明確說明目前建議的升級順序。若 <filename>UPDATING</filename> 中有與本章相矛盾的步驟，請以 <filename>UPDATING</filename> 為準並應遵循其內容。</para>
+      </step>
+    </procedure>
+
+    <warning>
+      <title>不要使用 <command>make world</command></title>
+
+      <para>部份舊版的文件建議使用 <command>make world</command>。然而該指令跳過了部份重要的步驟，應僅供專家使用。大多數的情況使用 <command>make world</command> 都是錯的，並應使用此處說明的程序。</para>
+    </warning>
+
+    <sect2 xml:id="canonical-build">
+      <title>流程概述</title>
+
+      <para>編譯 World 流程會假設您是依照 <xref linkend="synching"/> 指示取得最近版本的原始碼來升級舊版的 FreeBSD。</para>
+
+      <para>在 FreeBSD，<quote>world</quote> 一詞包含了核心，核心系統 Binary，程式庫，原始碼以及內建的編譯器。這些元件編譯與安裝的順序非常重要。</para>
+
+      <para>舉例來說，舊的編譯器可能有問題而無法編譯新的核心。新的核心需使用新的編譯器來編譯，因此新的編譯器必需先編譯，但在新核心編譯前並不一定要安裝。</para>
+
+      <para>新的 World 可能需要使用新的核心功能，所以必須在新的 World 安裝之前先安裝新的核心。舊的 World 也可能在新的核心上無法正常執行，所以必須在新的核心安裝完之後
+馬上安裝新的 World。</para>
+
+      <para>有一部份設定必須在新的 World 安裝前變更，但其他的部份在之前變更則可能會破壞舊的 World。因此會使用到兩種不同的設定升級步驟。大部份情況，更新程序只會取代或新增檔案，不會刪除已存在的舊檔案。當這可能會造成問題時 <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> 便會說明需要手動刪除的檔案以及操作的步驟。</para>
+
+      <para>這些問題會影響接下來的建議升級順序。</para>
+
+      <note>
+	<para>將執行 <command>make</command> 的輸出儲存到檔案是不錯的辦法，若發生錯誤時，便可複製錯誤訊息張貼到 FreeBSD 郵遞論壇。</para>
+
+	<para>最簡單的方式是使用 <command>script</command> 並透過參數指定要儲存所有輸出的檔案名稱。請不要儲存輸出到 <filename>/tmp</filename>，因這個目錄可能在下次重新開機後被清除。儲存檔案最好的地方是 <filename>/var/tmp</filename>。在重新編譯 World 之前執行這個指令，並在流程完成後輸入 <userinput>exit</userinput>：</para>
+
+	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>script <replaceable>/var/tmp/mw.out</replaceable></userinput>
+Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out</screen>
+      </note>
+
       <procedure>
-	<step xml:id="updating-src-quick-start-preparing">
-	  <title xml:lang="en">Preparing</title>
+	<title>編譯 World 流程概述</title>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">Check <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> for any
-	    manual steps that are required before or after a
-	    source update.</para>
+	<para>編譯 World 流程中使用的指令應依此處指定的順序執行。本節將摘要各指令的功能。</para>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">The very first time a source update is to be done on
-	    a particular computer, run</para>
+	<step>
+	  <para>若編譯 World 流程先前已在系統執行過，先前編譯的結果可能遺留在 <filename>/usr/obj</filename>。要加速新的編譯 World 流程及節省處理相依問題的時間，若此目錄存在，請移除此目錄：</para>
 
-	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>etcupdate extract</userinput></screen>
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chflags -R noschg /usr/obj/*</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm -rf /usr/obj</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
 
-	  <para xml:lang="en">This creates a checkpoint for later comparison and
-	    merging of system settings.</para>
+	<step>
+	  <para>編譯新的編譯器及一些相關工具，然後使用新的編譯器編譯新的 World。編譯的結果會儲存到 <filename>/usr/obj</filename>。</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make buildworld</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
-	  <title xml:lang="en">Update and Build</title>
+	  <para>使用在 <filename>/usr/obj</filename> 中的新編譯器來編譯新的核心，來確保不會發生編譯器與核心不相容的問題。因某些記憶體結構可能有修改，這個步驟是必要的，若核心與原始碼的版本不同，<command>ps</command> 及 <command>top</command> 這類的程式會無法運作。</para>
 
-	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn update /usr/src</userinput>  <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-svnup"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>          <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-cd"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -j<replaceable>4</replaceable> buildworld</userinput>  <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-buildworld"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -j<replaceable>4</replaceable> kernel</userinput>      <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-kernel"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installworld</userinput>    <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-installworld"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>etcupdate</userinput>            <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-etcupdate"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>shutdown -r now</userinput>      <co xml:id="updating-src-qs-shutdown"/></screen>
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make buildkernel</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
 
-	  <calloutlist>
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-svnup">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Get the latest version of the source.  See
-		<xref linkend="updating-src-obtaining-src"/> for
-		more information on obtaining and updating
-		source.</para>
-	    </callout>
+	<step>
+	  <para>安裝新的核心與新的核心模組，讓開機時可以使用新的核心。這個指令可在多使用者模式執行，除非 <varname>kern.securelevel</varname> 設定在 <literal>1</literal> 以上 <emphasis>且</emphasis> 在核心 Binary 有設定 <literal>noschg</literal> 或類似的旗標 (Flag)，請先讓系統進入單使用者模式。請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>init</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得有關 <varname>kern.securelevel</varname>  的詳細資訊以及 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chflags</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 取得有關各種檔案旗標的詳細資訊。</para>
 
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-cd">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Go to the source directory.</para>
-	    </callout>
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installkernel</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
 
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-buildworld">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Compile the world, everything except the
-		kernel.</para>
-	    </callout>
+	<step>
+	  <para>讓系統進入單使用者模組來減少升級任何已在執行中的 Binary 所產生的問題，同樣也可減少在新核心上執行舊 World 的問題。</para>
 
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-kernel">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Compile the kernel.</para>
-	    </callout>
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>shutdown now</userinput></screen>
 
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-installworld">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Install the world.</para>
-	    </callout>
+	  <para>進入單使用者模式後，若系統磁碟格式為 UFS 請執行以下指令：</para>
 
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-etcupdate">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Update and merge configuration files in
-		<filename>/etc/</filename>.</para>
-	    </callout>
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -u /</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -a -t ufs</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>swapon -a</userinput></screen>
 
-	    <callout arearefs="updating-src-qs-shutdown">
-	      <para xml:lang="en">Restart the system to use the newly-built world
-		and kernel.</para>
-	    </callout>
-	  </calloutlist>
+	  <para>若系統磁碟格式為 ZFS，則需執行以下兩個指令。此範例假設 zpool 名稱為 <literal>zroot</literal>：</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs set readonly=off zroot</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>zfs mount -a</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>選用：若想要使用 US 英文以外的鍵盤對應表，可以使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kbdmap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 來變更：</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kbdmap</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>接著，不論那一種檔案系統，若 <acronym>CMOS</acronym> 時鐘設定為本地時間 (若 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>date</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> 顯示不正確的時間與時區)，請執行：</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>adjkerntz -i</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>重新編譯 World 不會直接更新某些目錄中的設定檔，如 <filename>/etc</filename>, <filename>/var</filename> 以及 <filename>/usr</filename>。接下來的步驟是更新一部份的設定檔到 <filename>/etc</filename> 來準備安裝新的 World。以下指令只會比對影響 <buildtarget>installworld</buildtarget> 是否成功執行的必要檔案。例如，這個步驟會可能會加入新版 FreeBSD 的新群組、系統帳號或啟動 Script。為了讓 <buildtarget>installworld</buildtarget> 步驟可以使用任何新的系統帳號、群組與 Script，這是個必要的步驟。請參考 <xref linkend="mergemaster"/> 來取得更多有關此指令的詳細操作說明：</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mergemaster -p</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>從 <filename>/usr/obj</filename> 安裝新 World 與系統 Binary。</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installworld</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>更新任何剩下的設定檔。</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mergemaster -iF</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>刪除任何過時的檔案。這很重要，因為若檔案遺留在磁碟上可能會造成問題。</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make delete-old</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>現在需要完整重新啟動來載入新的核心、新的 World 與新的設定檔。</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>reboot</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
+
+	<step>
+	  <para>確認所有已安裝的 Port 在舊的程式庫移除前已依照 <xref linkend="ports-upgrading"/> 的說明重新編譯。當重新編譯完成後，移除過時的程式庫來避免與新的程式庫發生衝突。有關此步驟更詳細的說明請參考 <xref linkend="make-delete-old"/>。</para>
+
+	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make delete-old-libs</userinput></screen>
+	</step>
       </procedure>
+
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>single-user mode</primary></indexterm>
+
+      <para>若系統允許停機一小段時間，請考慮以單使用者模式編譯系統來替代在多使用者模組編譯系統，然後進入單使用者模式來完成安裝。重新安裝系統會觸及到很多重要的系統檔案，所有的標準系統 Binary、程式庫以及引用檔。在執行中的系統更換這些檔案，特別是有使用者在使用時，是自找麻煩。</para>
     </sect2>
 
-    <sect2 xml:id="updating-src-preparing">
-      <title xml:lang="en">Preparing for a Source Update</title>
+    <sect2 xml:id="src-updating">
+      <title>設定檔</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Read <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename>.  Any manual
-	steps that must be performed before or after an update are
-	described in this file.</para>
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	<primary><filename>make.conf</filename></primary>
+      </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">If this is the first time that a source update has been
-	done on this computer, run
-	<command>etcupdate extract</command> to create a snap of
-	system settings for later update and merging.  This step only
-	needs to be done once.</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">This build world process uses several configuration
+	files.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>Makefile</filename> located in
+	<filename>/usr/src</filename> describes how the programs that
+	comprise FreeBSD should be built and the order in which they
+	should be built.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">The options available to <command>make</command> are
+	described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>make.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and some common examples are
+	included in
+	<filename>/usr/share/examples/etc/make.conf</filename>.  Any
+	options which are added to <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>
+	will control the how <command>make</command> runs and builds
+	programs.  These options take effect every time
+	<command>make</command> is used, including compiling
+	applications from the Ports Collection, compiling custom C
+	programs, or building the FreeBSD operating system.  Changes to
+	some settings can have far-reaching and potentially surprising
+	effects.  Read the comments in both locations and keep in mind
+	that the defaults have been chosen for a combination of
+	performance and safety.</para>
+
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	<primary><filename>src.conf</filename></primary>
+      </indexterm>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">How the operating system is built from source code is
+	controlled by <filename>/etc/src.conf</filename>.  Unlike
+	<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, the contents of
+	<filename>/etc/src.conf</filename> only take effect when the
+	FreeBSD operating system itself is being built.  Descriptions of
+	the many options available for this file are shown in
+	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>src.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Be cautious about disabling seemingly
+	unneeded kernel modules and build options.  Sometimes there
+	are unexpected or subtle interactions.</para>
     </sect2>
 
-    <sect2 xml:id="updating-src-obtaining-src">
-      <title xml:lang="en">Updating the Source</title>
+    <sect2 xml:id="make-buildworld">
+      <title>變數與目標</title>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD source code is located in
-	<filename>/usr/src/</filename>.  The preferred method of
-	updating this source is through the
-	<application>Subversion</application> version control system.
-	Verify that the source code is under version control:</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">The general format for using <command>make</command> is as
+	follows:</para>
 
-      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn info /usr/src</userinput>
-Path: /usr/src
-Working Copy Root Path: /usr/src
-...</screen>
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -<replaceable>x</replaceable> -D<replaceable>VARIABLE</replaceable> <replaceable>target</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">This indicates that <filename>/usr/src/</filename>
-	is under version control and can be updated with
-	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>svn</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">In this example,
+	<option>-<replaceable>x</replaceable></option> is an option
+	passed to <command>make</command>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>make</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
+	examples of the available options.</para>
 
-      <screen xml:id="synching" xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn update /usr/src</userinput></screen>
+      <para xml:lang="en">To pass a variable, specify the variable name with
+	<option>-D<replaceable>VARIABLE</replaceable></option>.  The
+	behavior of the <filename>Makefile</filename> is controlled by
+	variables.  These can either be set in
+	<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> or they can be specified
+	when using <command>make</command>.  For example, this
+	variable specifies that profiled libraries should not be
+	built:</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">The update process can take some time if the directory has
-	not been updated recently.  After it finishes, the source code
-	is up to date and the build process described in the next
-	section can begin.</para>
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -DNO_PROFILE <replaceable>target</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
-      <note xml:id="updating-src-obtaining-src-checkout">
-	<title xml:lang="en">Obtaining the Source</title>
+      <para xml:lang="en">It corresponds with this setting in
+	<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>:</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">If the output says
-	  <literal>'/usr/src' is not a working copy</literal>, the
-	  files	there are missing or were installed with a different
-	  method.  A new checkout of the source is required.</para>
+      <programlisting xml:lang="en">NO_PROFILE=    true     #    Avoid compiling profiled libraries</programlisting>
 
-	<table xml:id="updating-src-obtaining-src-repopath">
-	  <title xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Versions and Repository Paths</title>
+      <para xml:lang="en">The <replaceable>target</replaceable> tells
+	<command>make</command> what to do and the
+	<filename>Makefile</filename> defines the available targets.
+	Some targets are used by the build process to break out the
+	steps necessary to rebuild the system into a number of
+	sub-steps.</para>
 
-	  <tgroup cols="2">
-	    <thead>
-	      <row>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><command>uname -r</command> Output</entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en">Repository Path</entry>
-	      </row>
-	    </thead>
+      <para xml:lang="en">Having separate options is useful for two reasons.  First,
+	it allows for a build that does not affect any components of a
+	running system.  Because of this,
+	<buildtarget xml:lang="en">buildworld</buildtarget> can be safely run on a
+	machine running in multi-user mode.  It is still recommended
+	that <buildtarget xml:lang="en">installworld</buildtarget> be run in part in
+	single-user mode, though.</para>
 
-	    <tbody>
-	      <row>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal><replaceable>X.Y</replaceable>-RELEASE</literal></entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>base/releng/</literal><replaceable>X</replaceable></entry>
-	      </row>
+      <para xml:lang="en">Secondly, it allows <acronym>NFS</acronym> mounts to be
+	used to upgrade multiple machines on a network, as described
+	in <xref linkend="small-lan"/>.</para>
 
-	      <row>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal><replaceable>X.Y</replaceable>-STABLE</literal></entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>base/stable/</literal><replaceable>X</replaceable></entry>
-	      </row>
+      <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to specify <option>-j</option> which will
+	cause <command>make</command> to spawn several simultaneous
+	processes.  Since much of the compiling process is
+	<acronym>I/O</acronym>-bound rather than
+	<acronym>CPU</acronym>-bound, this is useful on both single
+	<acronym>CPU</acronym> and multi-<acronym>CPU</acronym>
+	machines.</para>
 
-	      <row>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal><replaceable>X</replaceable>-CURRENT</literal></entry>
-		<entry xml:lang="en"><literal>base/head/</literal></entry>
-	      </row>
-	    </tbody>
-	  </tgroup>
-	</table>
+      <para xml:lang="en">On a single-<acronym>CPU</acronym> machine, run the
+	following command to have up to 4 processes running at any one
+	time.  Empirical evidence posted to the mailing lists shows
+	this generally gives the best performance benefit.</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Determine which version of FreeBSD is being used with
-	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>uname</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -j4 buildworld</userinput></screen>
 
-	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>uname -r</userinput>
-10.3-RELEASE</screen>
+      <para xml:lang="en">On a multi-<acronym>CPU</acronym> machine, try values
+	between <literal>6</literal> and <literal>10</literal> to see
+	how they speed things up.</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Based on
-	  <xref linkend="updating-src-obtaining-src-repopath"/>, the
-	  source used to update <literal>10.3-RELEASE</literal> has a
-	  repository path of <literal>base/releng/10</literal>.  That
-	  is used in the checkout of source:</para>
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	<primary>rebuilding <quote>world</quote></primary>
+	<secondary>timings</secondary>
+      </indexterm>
 
-        <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mv /usr/src /usr/src.bak</userinput>  <co xml:id="updating-src-obtaining-src-mv"/>
-<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn checkout https://svn.freebsd.org/base/<replaceable>releng/10</replaceable> /usr/src</userinput>  <co xml:id="updating-src-obtaining-src-checkout-cmd"/></screen>
+      <note>
+	<para xml:lang="en">If any variables were specified to <command>make
+	    buildworld</command>, specify the same variables to
+	  <command>make installworld</command>.  However,
+	  <option>-j</option> must <emphasis>never</emphasis> be used
+	  with <buildtarget xml:lang="en">installworld</buildtarget>.</para>
 
-	<calloutlist>
-	  <callout arearefs="updating-src-obtaining-src-mv">
-	    <para xml:lang="en">Move the old directory out of the way.  If there are
-	      no local modifications in this directory, it can be
-	      deleted.</para>
-	  </callout>
+	<para xml:lang="en">For example, if this command was used:</para>
 
-	  <callout arearefs="updating-src-obtaining-src-checkout-cmd">
-	    <para xml:lang="en">The path from
-	      <xref linkend="updating-src-obtaining-src-repopath"/> is
-	      added to the repository <acronym>URL</acronym>.  The
-	      third parameter is the destination directory for the
-	      source code on the local system.</para>
-	  </callout>
-	</calloutlist>
+	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -DNO_PROFILE buildworld</userinput></screen>
+
+	<para xml:lang="en">Install the results with:</para>
+
+	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -DNO_PROFILE installworld</userinput></screen>
+
+	<para xml:lang="en">Otherwise, the second command will try to install
+	  profiled libraries that were not built during the
+	  <command>make buildworld</command> phase.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
-    <sect2 xml:id="updating-src-building">
-      <title xml:lang="en">Building and Installing from Source</title>
+    <sect2 xml:id="mergemaster">
+      <info>
+	<title>合併設定檔</title>
 
-      <para xml:id="makeworld" xml:lang="en">The <emphasis>world</emphasis>, or all
-	of the operating system except the kernel, is compiled.  This
-	is done first to provide up-to-date tools to build the kernel.
-	Then the kernel itself is built.</para>
+	<authorgroup>
+	  <author xml:lang="en">
+	    <personname>
+	      <firstname>Tom</firstname>
+	      <surname>Rhodes</surname>
+	    </personname>
+	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
+	  </author>
+	</authorgroup>
+      </info>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Increasing the number of build jobs on multi-core
-	processors can improve build speed.  Determine the number of
-	cores with <command>sysctl hw.ncpu</command>.  Processors
-	vary, as do the build systems used with different versions of
-	FreeBSD, so testing is the only sure method to tell how a
-	different number of jobs affects the build speed.  For a
-	starting point, consider values between half and double the
-	number of cores.</para>
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	<primary>
+	  <command>mergemaster</command>
+	</primary>
+      </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Describe other go-fast options like NO_CLEAN here.
-	Preferably avoid having different sections for different
-	versions of FreeBSD.</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mergemaster</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> Bourne script to aid
+	in determining the differences between the configuration files
+	in <filename>/etc</filename>, and the configuration files in
+	<filename>/usr/src/etc</filename>.  This is the recommended
+	solution for keeping the system configuration files up to date
+	with those located in the source tree.</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">For a completely clean build, delete the temporary object
-	directory before building with
-	<command>rm -rf /usr/obj</command>.</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">Before using <command>mergemaster</command>, it is
+	recommended to first copy the existing
+	<filename>/etc</filename> somewhere safe.  Include
+	<option>-R</option> which does a recursive copy and
+	<option>-p</option> which preserves times and the ownerships
+	on files:</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Custom kernels and sample build for them.</para>
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp -Rp /etc /etc.old</userinput></screen>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Building only the kernel, sample.</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">When run, <command>mergemaster</command> builds a
+	temporary root environment, from <filename>/</filename> down,
+	and populates it with various system configuration files.
+	Those files are then compared to the ones currently installed
+	in the system.  Files that differ will be shown in
+	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>diff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> format, with the <option>+</option> sign
+	representing added or modified lines, and <option>-</option>
+	representing lines that will be either removed completely or
+	replaced with a new file.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>diff</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
+	information about how file differences are shown.</para>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">We should only show recommended, most-common make targets
-	here.  Do we need to document buildkernel/installkernel
-	here?</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">Next, <command>mergemaster</command> will display each
+	file that differs, and present options to: delete the new
+	file, referred to as the temporary file, install the temporary
+	file in its unmodified state, merge the temporary file with
+	the currently installed file, or view the results
+	again.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Choosing to delete the temporary file will tell
+	<command>mergemaster</command> to keep the current file
+	unchanged and to delete the new version.  This option is not
+	recommended.  To get help at any time, type
+	<keycap>?</keycap> at the <command>mergemaster</command>
+	prompt.  If the user chooses to skip a file, it will be
+	presented again after all other files have been dealt
+	with.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Choosing to install the unmodified temporary file will
+	replace the current file with the new one.  For most
+	unmodified files, this is the best option.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Choosing to merge the file will present a text editor, and
+	the contents of both files.  The files can be merged by
+	reviewing both files side by side on the screen, and choosing
+	parts from both to create a finished product.  When the files
+	are compared side by side, <keycap>l</keycap> selects the left
+	contents and <keycap>r</keycap> selects contents from the
+	right.  The final output will be a file consisting of both
+	parts, which can then be installed.  This option is
+	customarily used for files where settings have been modified
+	by the user.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Choosing to view the results again will redisplay the file
+	differences.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">After <command>mergemaster</command> is done with the
+	system files, it will prompt for other options.  It may prompt
+	to rebuild the password file and will finish up with an option
+	to remove left-over temporary files.</para>
+<!--
+Probably not needed as changes should be minimal and mergemaster does
+a good job of merging.
+	<tip>
+	  <title>Name the New Root Directory
+	    (<filename>/var/tmp/root</filename>)
+	    with a Time Stamp, so You Can Easily Compare Differences
+	    Between Versions</title>
+
+	  <para>Frequently rebuilding world entails frequently
+	    updating <filename>/etc</filename>
+	    as well, which can be a bit of a chore.</para>
+
+	  <para>To speed up this process, use the following
+	    procedure to keep a copy of the last set of changed files
+	    that were merged into <filename>/etc</filename>.</para>
+
+	  <procedure>
+	    <step>
+	      <para>Make the world as normal.  When updating
+		<filename>/etc</filename> and the
+		other directories, give the target directory a name
+		based on the current date:</para>
+
+	      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir /var/tmp/root-20130214</userinput>
+&prompt.root; <userinput>cd /usr/src/etc</userinput>
+&prompt.root; <userinput>make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-20130214 \
+    distrib-dirs distribution</userinput></screen>
+	    </step>
+
+	    <step>
+	      <para>Merge in the changes from this directory as
+		outlined above.  <emphasis>Do not</emphasis> remove
+		the <filename>/var/tmp/root-20130214</filename>
+		directory when you have finished.</para>
+	    </step>
+
+	    <step>
+	      <para>After downloading the latest version of the
+		source and remaking it, follow step 1.  Create a new
+		directory, which reflects the new date.  This example
+		uses
+		<filename>/var/tmp/root-20130221</filename>.</para>
+	    </step>
+
+	    <step>
+	      <para>Use &man.diff.1; to see the differences that have
+		been made in the intervening week by creating a
+		recursive diff between the two directories:</para>
+
+	      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd /var/tmp</userinput>
+&prompt.root; <userinput>diff -r root-20130214 root-20130221</userinput></screen>
+
+	      <para>Typically, this will be a much smaller set of
+		differences than those between
+		<filename>/var/tmp/root-20130221/etc</filename> and
+		<filename>/etc</filename>.  Because the set of
+		differences is smaller, it is easier to migrate those
+		changes across into <filename>/etc</filename>.</para>
+	    </step>
+
+	    <step>
+	      <para>When finished, remove the older of the two
+		<filename>/var/tmp/root-*</filename>
+		directories:</para>
+
+	      <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>rm -rf /var/tmp/root-20130214</userinput></screen>
+	    </step>
+
+	    <step>
+	      <para>Repeat this process whenever merging
+		in changes to <filename>/etc</filename>.</para>
+	    </step>
+	  </procedure>
+
+	  <para>Use &man.date.1; to automate the generation of the
+	    directory names:</para>
+
+	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"`</userinput></screen>
+	</tip>
+	-->
     </sect2>
 
-    <sect2 xml:id="updating-src-completing">
-      <title xml:lang="en">Completing the Update</title>
+    <sect2 xml:id="make-delete-old">
+      <info>
+	<title>刪除過時的檔案及程式庫</title>
 
-      <!-- "mergemaster" is an existing anchor target -->
-      <para xml:id="mergemaster" xml:lang="en">Merge the contents of
-	<filename>/etc/</filename> with
-	<command>etcupdate</command> or
-	<command>mergemaster -Ui</command>.</para>
+	<authorgroup>
+	  <author xml:lang="en">
+	    <personname>
+	      <firstname>Anton</firstname>
+	      <surname>Shterenlikht</surname>
+	    </personname>
+	    <contrib>Based on notes provided by </contrib>
+	  </author>
+	</authorgroup>
+      </info>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Check for outdated files and libraries with
-	<command>make check-old</command> and
-	<command>make check-old-libs</command>.</para>
+      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+	<primary>Deleting obsolete files and directories</primary>
+      </indexterm>
 
-      <para xml:lang="en">Restart the computer with
-	<command>shutdown -r now</command>.</para>
+      <para xml:lang="en">As a part of the FreeBSD development lifecycle, files and
+	their contents occasionally become obsolete.  This may be
+	because functionality is implemented elsewhere, the version
+	number of the library has changed, or it was removed from the
+	system entirely.  These obsoleted files, libraries, and
+	directories should be removed when updating the system.
+	This ensures that the system is not cluttered with old files
+	which take up unnecessary space on the storage and backup
+	media.  Additionally, if the old library has a security or
+	stability issue, the system should be updated to the newer
+	library to keep it safe and to prevent crashes caused by the
+	old library.  Files, directories, and libraries which are
+	considered obsolete are listed in
+	<filename>/usr/src/ObsoleteFiles.inc</filename>.  The
+	following instructions should be used to remove obsolete files
+	during the system upgrade process.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">After the <command>make installworld</command> and the
+	subsequent <command>mergemaster</command> have finished
+	successfully, check for obsolete files and libraries:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make check-old</userinput></screen>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">If any obsolete files are found, they can be deleted using
+	the following command:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make delete-old</userinput></screen>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">A prompt is displayed before deleting each obsolete file.
+	To skip the prompt and let the system remove these files
+	automatically, use
+	<varname>BATCH_DELETE_OLD_FILES</varname>:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -DBATCH_DELETE_OLD_FILES delete-old</userinput></screen>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">The same goal can be achieved by piping these commands
+	through <command>yes</command>:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>yes|make delete-old</userinput></screen>
+
+      <warning>
+	<title xml:lang="en">Warning</title>
+
+	<para xml:lang="en">Deleting obsolete files will break applications that
+	  still depend on those obsolete files.  This is especially
+	  true for old libraries.  In most cases, the programs, ports,
+	  or libraries that used the old library need to be recompiled
+	  before <command>make delete-old-libs</command> is
+	  executed.</para>
+      </warning>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Utilities for checking shared library dependencies include
+	<package>sysutils/libchk</package> and
+	<package>sysutils/bsdadminscripts</package>.</para>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Obsolete shared libraries can conflict with newer
+	libraries, causing messages like these:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en">/usr/bin/ld: warning: libz.so.4, needed by /usr/local/lib/libtiff.so, may conflict with libz.so.5
+/usr/bin/ld: warning: librpcsvc.so.4, needed by /usr/local/lib/libXext.so, may conflict with librpcsvc.so.5</screen>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">To solve these problems, determine which port installed
+	the library:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg which /usr/local/lib/libtiff.so</userinput>
+  /usr/local/lib/libtiff.so was installed by package tiff-3.9.4
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg which /usr/local/lib/libXext.so</userinput>
+  /usr/local/lib/libXext.so was installed by package libXext-1.1.1,1</screen>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">Then deinstall, rebuild, and reinstall the port.  To
+	automate this process,
+	<package>ports-mgmt/portmaster</package> can be used.  After
+	all ports are rebuilt and no longer use the old libraries,
+	delete the old libraries using the following command:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make delete-old-libs</userinput></screen>
+
+      <para xml:lang="en">If something goes wrong, it is easy to rebuild a
+	particular piece of the system.  For example, if
+	<filename>/etc/magic</filename> was accidentally deleted as
+	part of the upgrade or merge of <filename>/etc</filename>,
+	<command>file</command> will stop working.  To fix this,
+	run:</para>
+
+      <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make all install</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
+
+    <sect2 xml:id="updating-questions">
+      <title>常見問題</title>
+
+      <variablelist>
+	<varlistentry>
+	  <term>每個變更是否都需要重新編譯 World?</term>
+
+	  <listitem>
+	    <para xml:lang="en">It depends upon the nature of the change.  For
+	      example, if <application>svn</application> only shows
+	      the following files as being updated:</para>
+
+	    <screen xml:lang="en"><filename>src/games/cribbage/instr.c</filename>
+<filename>src/games/sail/pl_main.c</filename>
+<filename>src/release/sysinstall/config.c</filename>
+<filename>src/release/sysinstall/media.c</filename>
+<filename>src/share/mk/bsd.port.mk</filename></screen>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">it probably is not worth rebuilding the entire
+	      world.  Instead, go into the appropriate sub-directories
+	      and run <command>make all install</command>.  But if
+	      something major changes, such as
+	      <filename>src/lib/libc/stdlib</filename>, consider
+	      rebuilding world.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Some users rebuild world every fortnight and let
+	      changes accumulate over that fortnight.  Others only
+	      re-make those things that have changed and are careful
+	      to spot all the dependencies.  It all depends on how
+	      often a user wants to upgrade and whether they are
+	      tracking FreeBSD-STABLE or FreeBSD-CURRENT.</para>
+	  </listitem>
+	</varlistentry>
+
+	<varlistentry>
+	  <term>什麼會造成有很多信號 11<indexterm>
+	      <primary>signal 11</primary>
+	    </indexterm> (或其他信號) 錯誤的編譯失敗?</term>
+
+	  <listitem>
+	    <para xml:lang="en">This normally indicates a hardware problem.
+	      Building world is an effective way to stress test
+	      hardware, especially memory.  A sure indicator of a
+	      hardware issue is when <application>make</application>
+	      is restarted and it dies at a different point in the
+	      process.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">To resolve this error, swap out the components in
+	      the machine, starting with RAM, to determine which
+	      component is failing.</para>
+	  </listitem>
+	</varlistentry>
+
+	<varlistentry>
+	  <term>完成編譯後是可否移除 <filename>/usr/obj</filename>?</term>
+
+	  <listitem>
+	    <para xml:lang="en">This directory contains all the object files that
+	      were produced during the compilation phase.  Normally,
+	      one of the first steps in the <command>make
+		buildworld</command> process is to remove this
+	      directory and start afresh.  Keeping
+	      <filename>/usr/obj</filename> around when finished makes
+	      little sense, and its removal frees up a approximately
+	      2GB of disk space.</para>
+	  </listitem>
+	</varlistentry>
+
+	<varlistentry>
+	  <term>是否能繼續中斷的編譯?</term>
+
+	  <listitem>
+	    <para xml:lang="en">This depends on how far into the process the
+	      problem occurs.  In general, <command>make
+		buildworld</command> builds new copies of essential
+	      tools and the system libraries.  These tools and
+	      libraries are then installed, used to rebuild
+	      themselves, and are installed again.  The rest of the
+	      system is then rebuilt with the new system
+	      tools.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">During the last stage, it is fairly safe to run
+	      these commands as they will not undo the work of the
+	      previous <command>make buildworld</command>:</para>
+
+	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make -DNO_CLEAN all</userinput></screen>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">If this message appears:</para>
+
+	    <screen xml:lang="en">--------------------------------------------------------------
+Building everything..
+--------------------------------------------------------------</screen>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">in the <command>make buildworld</command> output,
+	      it is probably fairly safe to do so.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">If that message is not displayed, it is always
+	      better to be safe than sorry and to restart the build
+	      from scratch.</para>
+	  </listitem>
+	</varlistentry>
+
+	<varlistentry>
+	  <term>有可能加速編譯 World 的速度嗎?</term>
+
+	  <listitem>
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Several actions can speed up the build world
+	      process.  For example, the entire process can be run
+	      from single-user mode.  However, this will prevent users
+	      from having access to the system until the process is
+	      complete.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Careful file system design or the use of ZFS
+	      datasets can make a difference.  Consider putting
+	      <filename>/usr/src</filename> and
+	      <filename>/usr/obj</filename> on
+	      separate file systems.  If possible, place the file
+	      systems on separate disks on separate disk controllers.
+	      When mounting <filename>/usr/src</filename>, use
+	      <option>noatime</option> which prevents the file system
+	      from recording the file access time.  If <filename>/usr/src</filename> is not on its
+	      own file system, consider remounting <filename>/usr</filename> with
+	      <option>noatime</option>.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">The file system holding <filename>/usr/obj</filename> can be mounted
+	      or remounted with <option>async</option> so that disk
+	      writes happen asynchronously.  The write completes
+	      immediately, and the data is written to the disk a few
+	      seconds later.  This allows writes to be clustered
+	      together, and can provide a dramatic performance
+	      boost.</para>
+
+	    <warning>
+	      <para xml:lang="en">Keep in mind that this option makes the file
+		system more fragile.  With this option, there is an
+		increased chance that, should power fail, the file
+		system will be in an unrecoverable state when the
+		machine restarts.</para>
+
+	      <para xml:lang="en">If <filename>/usr/obj</filename> is the only
+		directory on this file system, this is not a problem.
+		If you have other, valuable data on the same file
+		system, ensure that there are verified backups before
+		enabling this option.</para>
+	    </warning>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Turn off profiling by setting
+	      <quote>NO_PROFILE=true</quote> in
+	      <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Pass <option>-j<replaceable>n</replaceable></option>
+	      to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>make</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to run multiple processes in parallel.
+	      This usually helps on both single- and multi-processor
+	      machines.</para>
+	  </listitem>
+	</varlistentry>
+
+	<varlistentry>
+	  <term>若發生錯誤時該怎麼辦?</term>
+
+	  <listitem>
+	    <para xml:lang="en">First, make absolutely sure that the environment has
+	      no extraneous cruft from earlier builds:</para>
+
+	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chflags -R noschg /usr/obj/usr</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rm -rf /usr/obj/usr</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make cleandir</userinput>
+<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make cleandir</userinput></screen>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Yes, <command>make cleandir</command> really should
+	      be run twice.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">Then, restart the whole process, starting with
+	      <command>make buildworld</command>.</para>
+
+	    <para xml:lang="en">If problems persist, send the error and the output
+	      of <command>uname -a</command> to <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-questions">FreeBSD general questions mailing list</link>.  Be
+	      prepared to answer other questions about the
+	      setup!</para>
+	  </listitem>
+	</varlistentry>
+      </variablelist>
+    </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="small-lan">
     <info>
       <title>多部機器追蹤</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Mike</firstname>
 	    <surname>Meyer</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>NFS</primary>
       <secondary>installing multiple machines</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When multiple machines need to track the same source tree,
       it is a waste of disk space, network bandwidth, and
       <acronym>CPU</acronym> cycles to have each system download the
       sources and rebuild everything.  The solution is to have one
       machine do most of the work, while the rest of the machines
       mount that work via <acronym>NFS</acronym>.  This section
       outlines a method of doing so.  For more information about using
       <acronym>NFS</acronym>, refer to <xref linkend="network-nfs"/>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">First, identify a set of machines which will run the same
       set of binaries, known as a <firstterm>build set</firstterm>.
       Each machine can have a custom kernel, but will run the same
       userland binaries.  From that set, choose a machine to be the
       <firstterm>build machine</firstterm> that the world and kernel
       are built on.  Ideally, this is a fast machine that has
       sufficient spare <acronym>CPU</acronym> to run <command>make
 	buildworld</command> and <command>make
 	buildkernel</command>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Select a machine to be the <firstterm>test
 	machine</firstterm>, which will test software updates before
       they are put into production.  This <emphasis>must</emphasis> be
       a machine that can afford to be down for an extended period of
       time.  It can be the build machine, but need not be.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">All the machines in this build set need to mount
       <filename>/usr/obj</filename> and <filename>/usr/src</filename>
       from the build machine via <acronym>NFS</acronym>.  For multiple
       build sets, <filename>/usr/src</filename> should be on one build
       machine, and <acronym>NFS</acronym> mounted on the rest.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Ensure that <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> and
       <filename>/etc/src.conf</filename> on all the machines in the
       build set agree with the build machine.  That means that the
       build machine must build all the parts of the base system that
       any machine in the build set is going to install.  Also, each
       build machine should have its kernel name set with
       <varname>KERNCONF</varname> in
       <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, and the build machine
       should list them all in its <varname>KERNCONF</varname>,
       listing its own kernel first.  The build machine must have the
       kernel configuration files for each machine in its <filename>/usr/src/sys/<replaceable>arch</replaceable>/conf</filename>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">On the build machine, build the kernel and world as
       described in <xref linkend="makeworld"/>, but do not install
       anything on the build machine.  Instead, install the built
       kernel on the test machine.  On the test machine, mount
       <filename>/usr/src</filename> and
       <filename>/usr/obj</filename> via <acronym>NFS</acronym>.  Then,
       run <command>shutdown now</command> to go to single-user mode in
       order to install the new kernel and world and run
       <command>mergemaster</command> as usual.  When done, reboot to
       return to normal multi-user operations.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">After verifying that everything on the test machine is
       working properly, use the same procedure to install the new
       software on each of the other machines in the build set.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The same methodology can be used for the ports tree.  The
       first step is to share <filename>/usr/ports</filename> via
       <acronym>NFS</acronym> to all the machines in the build set.  To
       configure <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> to share
       distfiles, set <varname>DISTDIR</varname> to a common shared
       directory that is writable by whichever user <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> is mapped to by the
       <acronym>NFS</acronym> mount.  Each machine should set
       <varname>WRKDIRPREFIX</varname> to a local build directory, if
       ports are to be built locally.  Alternately, if the build system
       is to build and distribute packages to the machines in the build
       set, set <varname>PACKAGES</varname> on the build system to a
       directory similar to <varname>DISTDIR</varname>.</para>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
 Recently I suggested to myself that this should become a profiling
 and debugging chapter, which covers things like ktrace(1) and
 using other debugging (like -x in shell scripts).  But then I
 realized that, over time and while DTrace becomes better supported,
 that might make this chapter too large.
 -->
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <!-- XXXTR: Should probably put links and resources here.  I'm
         nervous about this chapter as it may require a partial
 	re-write and large modification once DTrace is complete, but
 	at least we can get everyone started ... -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="dtrace">
   <info>
     <title xml:lang="en">DTrace</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Tom</firstname><surname>Rhodes</surname></personname><contrib>Written
 	by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dtrace-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DTrace</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>DTrace support</primary>
       <see>DTrace</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">DTrace, also known as Dynamic Tracing, was developed by
       <trademark>Sun</trademark> as a tool for locating performance bottlenecks in
       production and pre-production systems.  In addition to
       diagnosing performance problems, DTrace can be used to help
       investigate and debug unexpected behavior in both the FreeBSD
       kernel and in userland programs.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">DTrace is a remarkable profiling tool, with an impressive
       array of features for diagnosing system issues.  It may also be
       used to run pre-written scripts to take advantage of its
       capabilities.  Users can author their own utilities using the
       DTrace D Language, allowing them to customize their profiling
       based on specific needs.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD implementation provides full support for kernel
       DTrace and experimental support for userland DTrace.
       Userland DTrace allows users to perform function boundary
       tracing for userland programs using the <literal>pid</literal>
       provider, and to insert static probes into userland programs for
       later tracing.  Some ports, such as
       <package>databases/postgres-server</package> and
       <package>lang/php56</package> have a DTrace option to enable
       static probes.  FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE has reasonably good userland
       DTrace support, but it is not considered production ready.  In
       particular, it is possible to crash traced programs.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The official guide to DTrace is maintained by the Illumos
       project at <uri xlink:href="http://dtrace.org/guide">DTrace
 	Guide</uri>.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">What DTrace is and what features it provides.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Differences between the <trademark>Solaris</trademark> DTrace
 	  implementation and the one provided by FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to enable and use DTrace on FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 及 FreeBSD 基礎 (<xref linkend="basics"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Have some familiarity with security and how it pertains
 	  to FreeBSD (<xref linkend="security"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dtrace-implementation">
     <title>實作差異</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">While the DTrace in FreeBSD is similar to that found in
       <trademark>Solaris</trademark>, differences do exist.  The primary difference is that
       in FreeBSD, DTrace is implemented as a set of kernel modules and
       DTrace can not be used until the modules are loaded.  To load
       all of the necessary modules:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload dtraceall</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Beginning with FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE, the modules are
       automatically loaded when <command>dtrace</command> is
       run.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD uses the <literal>DDB_CTF</literal> kernel option to
       enable support for loading <acronym>CTF</acronym> data from
       kernel modules and the kernel itself.  <acronym>CTF</acronym> is
       the <trademark>Solaris</trademark> Compact C Type Format which encapsulates a reduced
       form of debugging information similar to
       <acronym>DWARF</acronym> and the venerable stabs.
       <acronym>CTF</acronym> data is added to binaries by the
       <command>ctfconvert</command> and <command>ctfmerge</command>
       build tools.  The <command>ctfconvert</command> utility parses
       <acronym>DWARF</acronym> <acronym>ELF</acronym> debug sections
       created by the compiler and <command>ctfmerge</command> merges
       <acronym>CTF</acronym> <acronym>ELF</acronym> sections from
       objects into either executables or shared libraries.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Some different providers exist for FreeBSD than for <trademark>Solaris</trademark>.
       Most notable is the <literal>dtmalloc</literal> provider, which
       allows tracing <function>malloc()</function> by type in the FreeBSD
       kernel.  Some of the providers found in <trademark>Solaris</trademark>, such as
       <literal>cpc</literal> and <literal>mib</literal>, are not
       present in FreeBSD.  These may appear in future versions of FreeBSD.
       Moreover, some of the providers available in both operating
       systems are not compatible, in the sense that their probes have
       different argument types.  Thus, <acronym>D</acronym> scripts
       written on <trademark>Solaris</trademark> may or may not work unmodified on FreeBSD, and
       vice versa.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Due to security differences, only <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> may use DTrace on FreeBSD.
       <trademark>Solaris</trademark> has a few low level security checks which do not yet
       exist in FreeBSD.  As such, the
       <filename>/dev/dtrace/dtrace</filename> is strictly limited to
       <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">DTrace falls under the Common Development and Distribution
       License (<acronym>CDDL</acronym>) license.  To view this license
       on FreeBSD, see
       <filename>/usr/src/cddl/contrib/opensolaris/OPENSOLARIS.LICENSE</filename>
       or view it online at <uri xlink:href="http://opensource.org/licenses/CDDL-1.0">http://opensource.org/licenses/CDDL-1.0</uri>.
       While a FreeBSD kernel with DTrace support is
       <acronym>BSD</acronym> licensed, the <acronym>CDDL</acronym> is
       used when the modules are distributed in binary form or the
       binaries are loaded.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dtrace-enable">
     <title>開啟 DTrace 支援</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD 9.2 and 10.0, DTrace support is built into the
       <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel.  Users of earlier versions
       of FreeBSD or who prefer to statically compile in DTrace support
       should add the following lines to a custom kernel configuration
       file and recompile the kernel using the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">options         KDTRACE_HOOKS
 options         DDB_CTF
 makeoptions	DEBUG=-g
 makeoptions	WITH_CTF=1</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Users of the AMD64 architecture should also add this
       line:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">options         KDTRACE_FRAME</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This option provides support for <acronym>FBT</acronym>.
       While DTrace will work without this option, there will be
       limited support for function boundary tracing.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once the FreeBSD system has rebooted into the new kernel, or
       the DTrace kernel modules have been loaded using
       <command>kldload dtraceall</command>, the system will need
       support for the Korn shell as the DTrace
       Toolkit has several utilities written in <command>ksh</command>.
       Make sure that the <package>shells/ksh93</package> package or
       port is installed.  It is also possible to run these tools under
       <package>shells/pdksh</package> or
       <package>shells/mksh</package>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Finally, install the current DTrace Toolkit,
       a collection of ready-made scripts
       for collecting system information.  There are scripts to check
       open files, memory, <acronym>CPU</acronym> usage, and a lot
       more.  FreeBSD 10
       installs a few of these scripts into
       <filename>/usr/share/dtrace</filename>.  On other FreeBSD versions,
       or to install the full
       DTrace Toolkit, use the
       <package>sysutils/DTraceToolkit</package> package or
       port.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">The scripts found in
 	<filename>/usr/share/dtrace</filename> have been specifically
 	ported to FreeBSD.  Not all of the scripts found in the DTrace
 	Toolkit will work as-is on FreeBSD and some scripts may require
 	some effort in order for them to work on FreeBSD.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The DTrace Toolkit includes many scripts in the special
       language of DTrace.  This language is called the D language
       and it is very similar to C++.  An in depth discussion of the
       language is beyond the scope of this document.  It is
       extensively discussed at <uri xlink:href="http://wikis.oracle.com/display/DTrace/Documentation">http://wikis.oracle.com/display/DTrace/Documentation</uri>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dtrace-using">
     <title>使用 DTrace</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">DTrace scripts consist of a list of one or more
       <firstterm>probes</firstterm>, or instrumentation points, where
       each probe is associated with an action.  Whenever the condition
       for a probe is met, the associated action is executed.  For
       example, an action may occur when a file is opened, a process is
       started, or a line of code is executed.  The action might be to
       log some information or to modify context variables.  The
       reading and writing of context variables allows probes to share
       information and to cooperatively analyze the correlation of
       different events.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To view all probes, the administrator can execute the
       following command:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dtrace -l | more</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Each probe has an <literal>ID</literal>, a
       <literal>PROVIDER</literal> (dtrace or fbt), a
       <literal>MODULE</literal>, and a
       <literal>FUNCTION NAME</literal>.    Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dtrace</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
       more information about this command.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The examples in this section provide an overview of how to
       use two of the fully supported scripts from the
       DTrace Toolkit: the
       <filename>hotkernel</filename> and
       <filename>procsystime</filename> scripts.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>hotkernel</filename> script is designed to
       identify which function is using the most kernel time.  It will
       produce output similar to the following:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/share/dtrace/toolkit</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>./hotkernel</userinput>
 Sampling... Hit Ctrl-C to end.</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">As instructed, use the
       <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>C</keycap>
       </keycombo> key combination to stop the process.  Upon
       termination, the script will display a list of kernel functions
       and timing information, sorting the output in increasing order
       of time:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en">kernel`_thread_lock_flags                                   2   0.0%
 0xc1097063                                                  2   0.0%
 kernel`sched_userret                                        2   0.0%
 kernel`kern_select                                          2   0.0%
 kernel`generic_copyin                                       3   0.0%
 kernel`_mtx_assert                                          3   0.0%
 kernel`vm_fault                                             3   0.0%
 kernel`sopoll_generic                                       3   0.0%
 kernel`fixup_filename                                       4   0.0%
 kernel`_isitmyx                                             4   0.0%
 kernel`find_instance                                        4   0.0%
 kernel`_mtx_unlock_flags                                    5   0.0%
 kernel`syscall                                              5   0.0%
 kernel`DELAY                                                5   0.0%
 0xc108a253                                                  6   0.0%
 kernel`witness_lock                                         7   0.0%
 kernel`read_aux_data_no_wait                                7   0.0%
 kernel`Xint0x80_syscall                                     7   0.0%
 kernel`witness_checkorder                                   7   0.0%
 kernel`sse2_pagezero                                        8   0.0%
 kernel`strncmp                                              9   0.0%
 kernel`spinlock_exit                                       10   0.0%
 kernel`_mtx_lock_flags                                     11   0.0%
 kernel`witness_unlock                                      15   0.0%
 kernel`sched_idletd                                       137   0.3%
 0xc10981a5                                              42139  99.3%</screen>
 
     <!-- XXXTR: I attempted to use objdump and nm on /boot/kernel/kernel
         to find 0xc10981a5, but to no avail.  It would be nice to know
 	how we should look that up. -->
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This script will also work with kernel modules.  To use this
       feature, run the script with <option>-m</option>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>./hotkernel -m</userinput>
 Sampling... Hit Ctrl-C to end.
 ^C
 MODULE                                                  COUNT   PCNT
 0xc107882e                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc10e6aa4                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc1076983                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc109708a                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc1075a5d                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc1077325                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc108a245                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc107730d                                                  1   0.0%
 0xc1097063                                                  2   0.0%
 0xc108a253                                                 73   0.0%
 kernel                                                    874   0.4%
 0xc10981a5                                             213781  99.6%</screen>
 
     <!-- XXXTR: I was unable to match these up with output from
         kldstat and kldstat -v and grep.  Maybe I'm missing something
 	seriously obvious.  It is 5AM btw. -->
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>procsystime</filename> script captures and
       prints the system call time usage for a given process
       <acronym>ID</acronym> (<acronym>PID</acronym>) or process name.
       In the following example, a new instance of
       <filename>/bin/csh</filename> was spawned.  Then,
       <filename>procsystime</filename> was executed and remained
       waiting while a few commands were typed on the other incarnation
       of <command>csh</command>.  These are the results of this
       test:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>./procsystime -n csh</userinput>
 Tracing... Hit Ctrl-C to end...
 ^C
 
 Elapsed Times for processes csh,
 
          SYSCALL          TIME (ns)
           getpid               6131
        sigreturn               8121
            close              19127
            fcntl              19959
              dup              26955
          setpgid              28070
             stat              31899
        setitimer              40938
            wait4              62717
        sigaction              67372
      sigprocmask             119091
     gettimeofday             183710
            write             263242
           execve             492547
            ioctl             770073
            vfork            3258923
       sigsuspend            6985124
             read         3988049784</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">As shown, the <function>read()</function> system call used
       the most time in nanoseconds while the
       <function>getpid()</function> system call used the least amount
       of time.</para>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
   </part>
 
   <part xml:id="network-communication">
     <title>網路通訊</title>
 
     <partintro>
       <para>FreeBSD 是一種廣泛的被使用在高效能的網路伺服器中的作業系統，這些章節包含了：</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>序列通訊</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><acronym>PPP</acronym> 和在乙太網路使用 <acronym>PPP</acronym></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>電子郵件</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>執行網路伺服器</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>防火牆</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>其他的進階網路主題</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>這些章節是讓您在需要查資料的時候翻閱用的。 您不需要依照特定的順序來讀，也不需要將這些章節全部讀過之後才將 FreeBSD 用在網路環境下。</para>
     </partintro>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="serialcomms">
   <title>序列通訊</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="serial-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>serial communications</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 從最早的第一台 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 仰賴序列線路來讓使用者輸入與輸出以來一直都支援序列通訊，雖與每秒 10 個字元的序列印表機及鍵盤組成的終端機時代比起已改變很多。本章將說明幾種可在 FreeBSD 使用的序列通訊方式。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何連線終端機到 FreeBSD 系統。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何使用數據機撥號給遠端主機。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何允許遠端使用者透過數據機來登入 FreeBSD 系統。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何從序列 Console 啟動 FreeBSD 系統。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何 <link linkend="kernelconfig">設定並安裝自訂核心</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 <link linkend="basics"> FreeBSD 的權限與程序</link>。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>能夠取得要在 FreeBSD 使用的序列硬體的技術手冊。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="serial">
     <title>序列術語與硬體</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following terms are often used in serial
       communications:</para>
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>bps</acronym></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Bits per
 	    Second<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>bits-per-second</primary></indexterm>
 	    (<acronym>bps</acronym>) is the rate at which data is
 	    transmitted.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>DTE</acronym></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Data Terminal
 	    Equipment<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DTE</primary></indexterm>
 	    (<acronym>DTE</acronym>) is one of two endpoints in a
 	    serial communication.  An example would be a
 	    computer.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>DCE</acronym></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Data Communications
 	    Equipment<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DCE</primary></indexterm>
 	    (<acronym>DTE</acronym>) is the other endpoint in a
 	    serial communication.  Typically, it is a modem or serial
 	    terminal.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>RS-232</acronym></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The original standard which defined hardware serial
 	    communications.  It has since been renamed to
 	    <acronym>TIA-232</acronym>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When referring to communication data rates, this section
       does not use the term <firstterm>baud</firstterm>.  Baud refers
       to the number of electrical state transitions made in a period
       of time, while <acronym>bps</acronym> is the correct term to
       use.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To connect a serial terminal to a FreeBSD system, a serial port
       on the computer and the proper cable to connect to the serial
       device are needed.  Users who are already familiar with serial
       hardware and cabling can safely skip this section.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="term-cables-null">
       <title>序列線與埠</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are several different kinds of serial cables.  The
 	two most common types are null-modem cables and standard
 	<acronym>RS-232</acronym> cables.  The documentation for the
 	hardware should describe the type of cable required.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These two types of cables differ in how the wires are
 	connected to the connector.  Each wire represents a signal,
 	with the defined signals summarized in <xref linkend="serialcomms-signal-names"/>.  A standard serial
 	cable passes all of the <acronym>RS-232C</acronym> signals
 	straight through.  For example, the <quote>Transmitted
 	  Data</quote> pin on one end of the cable goes to the
 	<quote>Transmitted Data</quote> pin on the other end.  This is
 	the type of cable used to connect a modem to the FreeBSD system,
 	and is also appropriate for some terminals.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A null-modem cable switches the <quote>Transmitted
 	  Data</quote> pin of the connector on one end with the
 	<quote>Received Data</quote> pin on the other end.  The
 	connector can be either a <acronym>DB-25</acronym> or a
 	<acronym>DB-9</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A null-modem cable can be constructed using the pin
 	connections summarized in <xref linkend="nullmodem-db25"/>,
 	<xref linkend="nullmodem-db9"/>, and <xref linkend="nullmodem-db9-25"/>.  While the standard calls for
 	a straight-through pin 1 to pin 1 <quote>Protective
 	  Ground</quote> line, it is often omitted.  Some terminals
 	work using only pins 2, 3, and 7, while others require
 	different configurations.  When in doubt, refer to the
 	documentation for the hardware.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>null-modem cable</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="serialcomms-signal-names">
 	<title><acronym>RS-232C</acronym> 信號名稱</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry align="left">縮寫</entry>
 	      <entry align="left" xml:lang="en">Names</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>RD</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Received Data</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>TD</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Transmitted Data</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>DTR</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Data Terminal Ready</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>DSR</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Data Set Ready</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>DCD</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Data Carrier Detect</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>SG</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Signal Ground</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>RTS</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Request to Send</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>CTS</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Clear to Send</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="nullmodem-db25">
 	<title>DB-25 對 DB-25 Null-Modem 線</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="5">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry align="left">信號</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">針腳 #</entry>
 	      <entry/>
 	      <entry align="left">針腳 #</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">信號</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SG</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SG</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">TD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">TD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RTS</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">CTS</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">CTS</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RTS</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">20</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DSR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">20</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DCD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DSR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">20</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DCD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">20</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="nullmodem-db9">
 	<title>DB-9 對 DB-9 Null-Modem 線</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="5">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry align="left">信號</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">針腳 #</entry>
 	      <entry/>
 	      <entry align="left">針腳 #</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">信號</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">TD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">TD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DSR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">1</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DCD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SG</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SG</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DSR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DCD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">1</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RTS</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">CTS</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">CTS</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RTS</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1" xml:id="nullmodem-db9-25">
 	<title>DB-9 對 DB-25 Null-Modem 線</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="5">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry align="left">信號</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">針腳 #</entry>
 	      <entry/>
 	      <entry align="left">針腳 #</entry>
 	      <entry align="left">信號</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">2</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">TD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">TD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DSR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DCD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SG</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SG</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DSR</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">6</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">20</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DCD</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">1</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">20</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">DTR</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RTS</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">5</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">CTS</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">CTS</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">connects to</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">4</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">RTS</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When one pin at one end connects to a pair of pins at
 	  the other end, it is usually implemented with one short wire
 	  between the pair of pins in their connector and a long wire
 	  to the other single pin.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Serial ports are the devices through which data is
 	transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal.
 	Several kinds of serial ports exist.  Before purchasing or
 	constructing a cable, make sure it will fit the ports on the
 	terminal and on the FreeBSD system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Most terminals have <acronym>DB-25</acronym> ports.
 	Personal computers may have <acronym>DB-25</acronym> or
 	<acronym>DB-9</acronym> ports.  A multiport serial card may
 	have <acronym>RJ-12</acronym> or <acronym>RJ-45/</acronym>
 	ports.  See the documentation that accompanied the hardware
 	for specifications on the kind of port or visually verify the
 	type of port.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, each serial port is accessed through an entry in
 	<filename>/dev</filename>.  There are two different kinds of
 	entries:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Call-in ports are named
 	    <filename>/dev/ttyu<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>
 	    where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the port number,
 	    starting from zero.  If a terminal is connected to the
 	    first serial port (<filename>COM1</filename>), use
 	    <filename>/dev/ttyu0</filename> to refer to the terminal.
 	    If the terminal is on the second serial port
 	    (<filename>COM2</filename>), use
 	    <filename>/dev/ttyu1</filename>, and so forth.  Generally,
 	    the call-in port is used for terminals.  Call-in ports
 	    require that the serial line assert the <quote>Data
 	      Carrier Detect</quote> signal to work correctly.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Call-out ports are named
 	    <filename>/dev/cuau<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>
 	    on FreeBSD versions 10.x and higher and
 	    <filename>/dev/cuad<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>
 	    on FreeBSD versions 9.x and lower.  Call-out ports are
 	    usually not used for terminals, but are used for modems.
 	    The call-out port can be used if the serial cable or the
 	    terminal does not support the <quote>Data Carrier
 	      Detect</quote> signal.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD also provides initialization devices
 	(<filename>/dev/ttyu<replaceable>N</replaceable>.init</filename>
 	and
 	<filename>/dev/cuau<replaceable>N</replaceable>.init</filename>
 	or
 	<filename>/dev/cuad<replaceable>N</replaceable>.init</filename>)
 	and locking devices
 	(<filename>/dev/ttyu<replaceable>N</replaceable>.lock</filename>
 	and
 	<filename>/dev/cuau<replaceable>N</replaceable>.lock</filename>
 	or
 	<filename>/dev/cuad<replaceable>N</replaceable>.lock</filename>).
 	The initialization devices are used to initialize
 	communications port parameters each time a port is opened,
 	such as <literal>crtscts</literal> for modems which use
 	<literal>RTS/CTS</literal> signaling for flow control.  The
 	locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent
 	users or programs changing certain parameters.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>termios</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>stty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for information
 	on terminal settings, locking and initializing devices, and
 	setting terminal options, respectively.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="serial-hw-config">
       <title>序列埠設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, FreeBSD supports four serial ports which are
 	commonly known as <filename>COM1</filename>,
 	<filename>COM2</filename>, <filename>COM3</filename>, and
 	<filename>COM4</filename>.  FreeBSD also supports dumb multi-port
 	serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016,
 	as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those
 	made by Digiboard.  However, the default kernel only looks for
 	the standard <filename>COM</filename> ports.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To see if the system recognizes the serial ports, look for
 	system boot messages that start with
 	<literal>uart</literal>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>grep uart /var/run/dmesg.boot</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the system does not recognize all of the needed serial
 	ports, additional entries can be added to
 	<filename>/boot/device.hints</filename>.  This file already
 	contains <literal>hint.uart.0.*</literal> entries for
 	<filename>COM1</filename> and <literal>hint.uart.1.*</literal>
 	entries for <filename>COM2</filename>.  When adding a port
 	entry for <filename>COM3</filename> use
 	<literal>0x3E8</literal>, and for <filename>COM4</filename>
 	use <literal>0x2E8</literal>.  Common <acronym>IRQ</acronym>
 	addresses are <literal>5</literal> for
 	<filename>COM3</filename> and <literal>9</literal> for
 	<filename>COM4</filename>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><filename>ttyu</filename></primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><filename>cuau</filename></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To determine the default set of terminal
 	<acronym>I/O</acronym> settings used by the port, specify its
 	device name.  This example determines the settings for the
 	call-in port on <filename>COM2</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>stty -a -f /dev/<replaceable>ttyu1</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">System-wide initialization of serial devices is controlled
 	by <filename>/etc/rc.d/serial</filename>.  This file affects
 	the default settings of serial devices.  To change the
 	settings for a device, use <command>stty</command>.  By
 	default, the changed settings are in effect until the device
 	is closed and when the device is reopened, it goes back to the
 	default set.  To permanently change the default set, open and
 	adjust the settings of the initialization device.  For
 	example, to turn on <option>CLOCAL</option> mode, 8 bit
 	communication, and <option>XON/XOFF</option> flow control for
 	<filename>ttyu5</filename>, type:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>stty -f /dev/ttyu5.init clocal cs8 ixon ixoff</userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>rc files</primary>
 	<secondary><filename>rc.serial</filename></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To prevent certain settings from being changed by an
 	application, make adjustments to the locking device.  For
 	example, to lock the speed of <filename>ttyu5</filename> to
 	57600 bps, type:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>stty -f /dev/ttyu5.lock 57600</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now, any application that opens <filename>ttyu5</filename>
 	and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with
 	57600 bps.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="term">
     <info>
       <title>終端機</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Sean</firstname>
 	    <surname>Kelly</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib> <!--in July 1996 -->
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>terminals</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access
       a FreeBSD system when not at the computer's console or on a
       connected network.  This section describes how to use terminals
       with FreeBSD.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The original <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> systems did not have consoles.  Instead,
       users logged in and ran programs through terminals that were
       connected to the computer's serial ports.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The ability to establish a login session on a serial port
       still exists in nearly every <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>-like operating system
       today, including FreeBSD.  By using a terminal attached to an
       unused serial port, a user can log in and run any text program
       that can normally be run on the console or in an
       <command>xterm</command> window.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Many terminals can be attached to a FreeBSD system.  An older
       spare computer can be used as a terminal wired into a more
       powerful computer running FreeBSD.  This can turn what might
       otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful
       multiple-user system.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD supports three types of terminals:</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Dumb terminals</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Dumb terminals are specialized hardware that connect
 	    to computers over serial lines.  They are called
 	    <quote>dumb</quote> because they have only enough
 	    computational power to display, send, and receive text.
 	    No programs can be run on these devices.  Instead, dumb
 	    terminals connect to a computer that runs the needed
 	    programs.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by
 	    many manufacturers, and just about any kind will work with
 	    FreeBSD.  Some high-end terminals can even display graphics,
 	    but only certain software packages can take advantage of
 	    these advanced features.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where
 	    workers do not need access to graphical
 	    applications.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Computers Acting as Terminals</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Since a dumb terminal has just enough ability to
 	    display, send, and receive text, any spare computer can
 	    be a dumb terminal.  All that is needed is the proper
 	    cable and some <firstterm>terminal emulation</firstterm>
 	    software to run on the computer.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This configuration can be useful.  For example, if one
 	    user is busy working at the FreeBSD system's console, another
 	    user can do some text-only work at the same time from a
 	    less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to
 	    the FreeBSD system.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">There are at least two utilities in the base-system of
 	    FreeBSD that can be used to work through a serial connection:
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cu</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tip</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For example, to connect from a client system that runs
 	    FreeBSD to the serial connection of another system:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cu -l <replaceable>serial-port-device</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Replace <replaceable>serial-port-device</replaceable>
 	    with the device name of the connected serial port.  These
 	    device files are called
 	    <filename>/dev/cuau<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>
 	    on FreeBSD versions 10.x and higher and
 	    <filename>/dev/cuad<replaceable>N</replaceable></filename>
 	    on FreeBSD versions 9.x and lower.  In either case,
 	    <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the serial port number,
 	    starting from zero.  This means that
 	    <filename>COM1</filename> is
 	    <filename>/dev/cuau0</filename> or
 	    <filename>/dev/cuad0</filename> in FreeBSD.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Additional programs are available through the Ports
 	    Collection, such as
 	    <package>comms/minicom</package>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">X Terminals</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of
 	    terminal available.  Instead of connecting to a serial
 	    port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet.
 	    Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they
 	    can display any <application>Xorg</application>
 	    application.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This chapter does not cover the setup, configuration,
 	    or use of X terminals.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="term-config">
       <title>終端機設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to configure a FreeBSD system to
 	enable a login session on a serial terminal.  It assumes that
 	the system recognizes the serial port to which the terminal is
 	connected and that the terminal is connected with the correct
 	cable.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <command>init</command> reads
 	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and starts a
 	<command>getty</command> process on the available terminals.
 	The <command>getty</command> process is responsible for
 	reading a login name and starting the <command>login</command>
 	program.  The ports on the FreeBSD system which allow logins are
 	listed in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.  For example, the
 	first virtual console, <filename>ttyv0</filename>, has an
 	entry in this file, allowing logins on the console.  This file
 	also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial
 	ports, and pseudo-ttys.  For a hardwired terminal, the serial
 	port's <filename>/dev</filename> entry is listed without the
 	<literal>/dev</literal> part.  For example,
 	<filename>/dev/ttyv0</filename> is listed as
 	<literal>ttyv0</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> configures
 	support for the first four serial ports,
 	<filename>ttyu0</filename> through
 	<filename>ttyu3</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ttyu0   "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600"   dialup  off secure
 ttyu1   "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600"   dialup  off secure
 ttyu2   "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600"   dialup  off secure
 ttyu3   "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600"   dialup  off secure</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When attaching a terminal to one of those ports, modify
 	the default entry to set the required speed and terminal type,
 	to turn the device <literal>on</literal> and, if needed, to
 	change the port's <literal>secure</literal> setting.  If the
 	terminal is connected to another port, add an entry for the
 	port.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="ex-etc-ttys"/> configures two terminals in
 	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.  The first entry configures a
 	Wyse-50 connected to <filename>COM2</filename>.  The second
 	entry configures an old computer running
 	<application>Procomm</application> terminal software emulating
 	a VT-100 terminal.  The computer is connected to the sixth
 	serial port on a multi-port serial card.</para>
 
       <example xml:id="ex-etc-ttys">
 	<title>設定終端機項目</title>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ttyu1<co xml:id="co-ttys-line1col1"/>  "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400"<co xml:id="co-ttys-line1col2"/>  wy50<co xml:id="co-ttys-line1col3"/>  on<co xml:id="co-ttys-line1col4"/>  insecure<co xml:id="co-ttys-line1col5"/>
 ttyu5   "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200"  vt100  on insecure</programlisting>
 
 	<calloutlist>
 	  <callout arearefs="co-ttys-line1col1">
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The first field specifies the device name of the
 	      serial terminal.</para>
 	  </callout>
 
 	  <callout arearefs="co-ttys-line1col2">
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The second field tells <command>getty</command> to
 	      initialize and open the line, set the line speed, prompt
 	      for a user name, and then execute the
 	      <command>login</command> program.  The optional
 	      <firstterm>getty type</firstterm> configures
 	      characteristics on the terminal line, like
 	      <acronym>bps</acronym> rate and parity.  The available
 	      getty types are listed in
 	      <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.  In almost all
 	      cases, the getty types that start with
 	      <literal>std</literal> will work for hardwired terminals
 	      as these entries ignore parity.  There is a
 	      <literal>std</literal> entry for each
 	      <acronym>bps</acronym> rate from 110 to 115200.  Refer
 	      to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>gettytab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When setting the getty type, make sure to match the
 	      communications settings used by the terminal.  For this
 	      example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at
 	      38400 bps.  The computer uses no parity and
 	      connects at 19200 bps.</para>
 	  </callout>
 
 	  <callout arearefs="co-ttys-line1col3">
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The third field is the type of terminal.  For
 	      dial-up ports, <literal>unknown</literal> or
 	      <literal>dialup</literal> is typically used since users
 	      may dial up with practically any type of terminal or
 	      software.  Since the terminal type does not change for
 	      hardwired terminals, a real terminal type from
 	      <filename>/etc/termcap</filename> can be specified.  For
 	      this example, the Wyse-50 uses the real terminal type
 	      while the computer running
 	      <application>Procomm</application> is set to emulate a
 	      VT-100.</para>
 	  </callout>
 
 	  <callout arearefs="co-ttys-line1col4">
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The fourth field specifies if the port should be
 	      enabled.  To enable logins on this port, this field must
 	      be set to <literal>on</literal>.</para>
 	  </callout>
 
 	  <callout arearefs="co-ttys-line1col5">
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The final field is used to specify whether the port
 	      is secure.  Marking a port as <literal>secure</literal>
 	      means that it is trusted enough to allow <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> to login from that
 	      port.  Insecure ports do not allow <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> logins.  On an
 	      insecure port, users must login from unprivileged
 	      accounts and then use <command>su</command> or a similar
 	      mechanism to gain superuser privileges, as described in
 	      <xref linkend="users-superuser"/>.  For security
 	      reasons, it is recommended to change this setting to
 	      <literal>insecure</literal>.</para>
 	  </callout>
 	</calloutlist>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After making any changes to
 	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, send a SIGHUP (hangup) signal
 	to the <command>init</command> process to force it to re-read
 	its configuration file:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kill -HUP 1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <command>init</command> is always the first process
 	run on a system, it always has a process <acronym>ID</acronym>
 	of <literal>1</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in
 	place, and the terminals are powered up, a
 	<command>getty</command> process should now be running on each
 	terminal and login prompts should be available on each
 	terminal.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="term-debug">
       <title>連線疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Even with the most meticulous attention to detail,
 	something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal.
 	Here is a list of common symptoms and some suggested
 	fixes.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If no login prompt appears, make sure the terminal is
 	plugged in and powered up.  If it is a personal computer
 	acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal
 	emulation software on the correct serial port.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the
 	terminal and the FreeBSD computer.  Make sure it is the right
 	kind of cable.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the
 	<acronym>bps</acronym> rate and parity settings.  For a video
 	display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness
 	controls are turned up.  If it is a printing terminal, make
 	sure paper and ink are in good supply.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <command>ps</command> to make sure that a
 	<command>getty</command> process is running and serving the
 	terminal.  For example, the following listing shows that a
 	<command>getty</command> is running on the second serial port,
 	<filename>ttyu1</filename>, and is using the
 	<literal>std.38400</literal> entry in
 	<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ps -axww|grep ttyu</userinput>
 22189  d1  Is+    0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyu1</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If no <command>getty</command> process is running, make
 	sure the port is enabled in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.
 	Remember to run <command>kill -HUP 1</command> after modifying
 	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <command>getty</command> process is running but the
 	terminal still does not display a login prompt, or if it
 	displays a prompt but will not accept typed input, the
 	terminal or cable may not support hardware handshaking.  Try
 	changing the entry in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> from
 	<literal>std.38400</literal> to
 	<literal>3wire.38400</literal>, then run <command>kill -HUP
 	  1</command> after modifying <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.
 	The <literal>3wire</literal> entry is similar to
 	<literal>std</literal>, but ignores hardware handshaking.  The
 	baud rate may need to be reduced or software flow control
 	enabled when using <literal>3wire</literal> to prevent buffer
 	overflows.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If garbage appears instead of a login prompt, make sure
 	the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the <acronym>bps</acronym> rate
 	and parity settings.  Check the <command>getty</command>
 	processes to make sure the correct
 	<replaceable>getty</replaceable> type is in use.  If not, edit
 	<filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and run <command>kill
 	  -HUP 1</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If characters appear doubled and the password appears when
 	typed, switch the terminal, or the terminal emulation
 	software, from <quote>half duplex</quote> or <quote>local
 	  echo</quote> to <quote>full duplex.</quote></para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dialup">
     <info>
       <title>撥入服務</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Guy</firstname>
 	    <surname>Helmer</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Sean</firstname>
 	    <surname>Kelly</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Additions by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>dial-in service</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Configuring a FreeBSD system for dial-in service is similar to
       configuring terminals, except that modems are used instead of
       terminal devices.  FreeBSD supports both external and internal
       modems.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">External modems are more convenient because they often can
       be configured via parameters stored in non-volatile
       <acronym>RAM</acronym> and they usually provide lighted
       indicators that display the state of important
       <acronym>RS-232</acronym> signals, indicating whether the modem
       is operating properly.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Internal modems usually lack non-volatile
       <acronym>RAM</acronym>, so their configuration may be limited to
       setting <acronym>DIP</acronym> switches.  If the internal modem
       has any signal indicator lights, they are difficult to view when
       the system's cover is in place.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>modem</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When using an external modem, a proper cable is needed.  A
       standard <acronym>RS-232C</acronym> serial cable should
       suffice.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD needs the <acronym>RTS</acronym> and
       <acronym>CTS</acronym> signals for flow control at speeds above
       2400 bps, the <acronym>CD</acronym> signal to detect when a
       call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the
       <acronym>DTR</acronym> signal to reset the modem after a session
       is complete.  Some cables are wired without all of the needed
       signals, so if a login session does not go away when the line
       hangs up, there may be a problem with the cable.  Refer to <xref linkend="term-cables-null"/> for more information about these
       signals.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Like other <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the
       hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a
       line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a
       call.  FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for
       status reports from the modem.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD supports the <acronym>NS8250</acronym>,
       <acronym>NS16450</acronym>, <acronym>NS16550</acronym>, and
       <acronym>NS16550A</acronym>-based <acronym>RS-232C</acronym>
       (<acronym>CCITT</acronym> V.24) communications interfaces.  The
       8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers.  The 16550
       device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better
       system performance.  Bugs in plain 16550 devices prevent the use
       of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A devices if possible.
       Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the
       operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices,
       16550A-based serial interface cards are preferred.  If the
       system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load,
       16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate
       communications.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The rest of this section demonstrates how to configure a
       modem to receive incoming connections, how to communicate with
       the modem, and offers some troubleshooting tips.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="dialup-ttys">
       <title>數據機設定</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>getty</primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">As with terminals, <command>init</command> spawns a
 	<command>getty</command> process for each configured serial
 	port used for dial-in connections.  When a user dials the
 	modem's line and the modems connect, the <quote>Carrier
 	  Detect</quote> signal is reported by the modem.  The kernel
 	notices that the carrier has been detected and instructs
 	<command>getty</command> to open the port and display a
 	<prompt>login:</prompt> prompt at the specified initial line
 	speed.  In a typical configuration, if garbage characters are
 	received, usually due to the modem's connection speed being
 	different than the configured speed, <command>getty</command>
 	tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable
 	characters.  After the user enters their login name,
 	<command>getty</command> executes <command>login</command>,
 	which completes the login process by asking for the user's
 	password and then starting the user's shell.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><command>/usr/bin/login</command></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems.
 	One configuration method is to set the modems and systems so
 	that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the
 	dial-in <acronym>RS-232</acronym> interface runs at a locked
 	speed.  The benefit of this configuration is that the remote
 	user always sees a system login prompt immediately.  The
 	downside is that the system does not know what a user's true
 	data rate is, so full-screen programs like
 	<application>Emacs</application> will not adjust their
 	screen-painting methods to make their response better for
 	slower connections.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The second method is to configure the
 	<acronym>RS-232</acronym> interface to vary its speed based on
 	the remote user's connection speed.  Because
 	<command>getty</command> does not understand any particular
 	modem's connection speed reporting, it gives a
 	<prompt>login:</prompt> message at an initial speed and
 	watches the characters that come back in response.  If the
 	user sees junk, they should press <keycap>Enter</keycap> until
 	they see a recognizable prompt.  If the data rates do not
 	match, <command>getty</command> sees anything the user types
 	as junk, tries the next speed, and gives the
 	<prompt>login:</prompt> prompt again.  This procedure normally
 	only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good
 	prompt.  This login sequence does not look as clean as the
 	locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection
 	should receive better interactive response from full-screen
 	programs.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When locking a modem's data communications rate at a
 	particular speed, no changes to
 	<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> should be needed.  However,
 	for a matching-speed configuration, additional entries may be
 	required in order to define the speeds to use for the modem.
 	This example configures a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top
 	interface speed of 19.2 Kbps using 8-bit, no parity
 	connections.  It configures <command>getty</command> to start
 	the communications rate for a V.32bis connection at
 	19.2 Kbps, then cycles through 9600 bps,
 	2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to
 	19.2 Kbps.  Communications rate cycling is implemented
 	with the <literal>nx=</literal> (next table) capability.  Each
 	line uses a <literal>tc=</literal> (table continuation) entry
 	to pick up the rest of the settings for a particular data
 	rate.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#
 # Additions for a V.32bis Modem
 #
 um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\
         :nx=V19200:tc=std.300:
 un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
         :nx=V300:tc=std.1200:
 uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
         :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400:
 up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\
         :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600:
 uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\
         :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For a 28.8 Kbps modem, or to take advantage of
 	compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, use a higher
 	communications rate, as seen in this example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#
 # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem
 # Starting at 57.6 Kbps
 #
 vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\
         :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300:
 vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\
         :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200:
 vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\
         :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400:
 vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\
         :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600:
 vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\
         :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For a slow <acronym>CPU</acronym> or a heavily loaded
 	system without 16550A-based serial ports, this configuration
 	may produce <errorname>sio</errorname>
 	<quote>silo</quote> errors at 57.6 Kbps.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/etc/ttys</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The configuration of <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> is
 	similar to <xref linkend="ex-etc-ttys"/>, but a different
 	argument is passed to <command>getty</command> and
 	<literal>dialup</literal> is used for the terminal type.
 	Replace <replaceable>xxx</replaceable> with the process
 	<command>init</command> will run on the device:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ttyu0   "/usr/libexec/getty <replaceable>xxx</replaceable>"   dialup on</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>dialup</literal> terminal type can be
 	changed.  For example, setting <literal>vt102</literal> as the
 	default terminal type allows users to use
 	<acronym>VT102</acronym> emulation on their remote
 	systems.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For a locked-speed configuration, specify the speed with
 	a valid type listed in <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.
 	This example is for a modem whose port speed is locked at
 	19.2 Kbps:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ttyu0   "/usr/libexec/getty std.<replaceable>19200</replaceable>"   dialup on</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In a matching-speed configuration, the entry needs to
 	reference the appropriate beginning <quote>auto-baud</quote>
 	entry in <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.  To continue the
 	example for a matching-speed modem that starts at
 	19.2 Kbps, use this entry:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ttyu0   "/usr/libexec/getty V19200"   dialup on</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After editing <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, wait until
 	the modem is properly configured and connected before
 	signaling <command>init</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kill -HUP 1</userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>rc files</primary>
 	<secondary><filename>rc.serial</filename></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">High-speed modems, like <acronym>V.32</acronym>,
 	<acronym>V.32bis</acronym>, and <acronym>V.34</acronym>
 	modems, use hardware (<literal>RTS/CTS</literal>) flow
 	control.  Use <command>stty</command> to set the hardware flow
 	control flag for the modem port.  This example sets the
 	<varname>crtscts</varname> flag on <filename>COM2</filename>'s
 	dial-in and dial-out initialization devices:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>stty -f /dev/ttyu1.init crtscts</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>stty -f /dev/cuau1.init crtscts</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
 <!--
 Comment out for now. If this is still needed, the example should
 either be updated or the section modified to be more generic
 e.g. refer to the modem's manual
     <sect2>
       <title>Modem Settings</title>
 
       <para>For a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in
 	non-volatile RAM, a terminal program such as
 	<command>tip</command> can be used to set the parameters.
 	Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as
 	the initial speed <command>getty</command> will use and
 	configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these
 	requirements:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><acronym>CD</acronym> asserted when connected.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><acronym>DTR</acronym> asserted for operation and
 	    dropping DTR hangs up the line and resets the
 	    modem.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><acronym>CTS</acronym> transmitted data flow
 	    control.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Disable <acronym>XON/XOFF</acronym> flow
 	    control.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para><acronym>RTS</acronym> received data flow
 	    control.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Quiet mode (no result codes).</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>No command echo.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>Read the documentation for the modem to find out
 	which commands and/or DIP switch settings are needed.</para>
 
       <para>For example, to set the above parameters on a &usrobotics;
 	&sportster; 14,400 external modem, give these commands to
 	the modem:</para>
 
       <programlisting>ATZ
 AT&amp;C1&amp;D2&amp;H1&amp;I0&amp;R2&amp;W</programlisting>
 
       <para>Other settings can be adjusted in the modem, such as
 	whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression.</para>
 
       <para>The &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external modem also
 	has some DIP switches that need to be set.  Other modems,
 	may need these settings:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 1: UP &mdash; DTR Normal</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 2: N/A (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result
 	    Codes)</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 3: UP &mdash; Suppress Result Codes</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 4: DOWN &mdash; No echo, offline
 	    commands</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 5: UP &mdash; Auto Answer</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 6: UP &mdash; Carrier Detect Normal</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 7: UP &mdash; Load NVRAM Defaults</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Switch 8: N/A (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode)</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dial-up
 	modems to avoid problems that can occur if
 	<command>getty</command> mistakenly gives a
 	<prompt>login:</prompt> prompt to a modem that is in command
 	mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result
 	code.  This sequence can result in an extended, silly
 	conversation between <command>getty</command> and the
 	modem.</para>
 
       <para>For a locked-speed configuration, configure the modem to
 	maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent
 	of the communications rate.  On a &usrobotics; &sportster;
 	14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the
 	modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the
 	commands:</para>
 
       <programlisting>ATZ
 AT&amp;B1&amp;W</programlisting>
 
       <para>For a variable-speed configuration, configure the modem
 	to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming
 	call rate.  On a &usrobotics; &sportster; 14,400 external
 	modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected
 	data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, while
 	allowing the serial port rate to vary for
 	non-error-corrected connections:</para>
 
       <programlisting>ATZ
 AT&amp;B2&amp;W</programlisting>
 
       <para>Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the
 	modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat
 	human-readable fashion.  On the &usrobotics; &sportster;
 	14,400 external modem, <command>ATI5</command> displays the
 	settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM.  To see the
 	true operating parameters of the modem, as influenced by the
 	modem's DIP switch settings, use <command>ATZ</command> and
 	then <command>ATI4</command>.</para>
 
       <para>For a different brand of modem, check the modem's manual
 	to see how to double-check the modem's configuration
 	parameters.</para>
     </sect2>
     -->
 
     <sect2>
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section provides a few tips for troubleshooting a
 	dial-up modem that will not connect to a FreeBSD system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Hook up the modem to the FreeBSD system and boot the system.
 	If the modem has status indication lights, watch to see
 	whether the modem's <acronym>DTR</acronym> indicator lights
 	when the <prompt>login:</prompt> prompt appears on the
 	system's console.  If it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD
 	has started a <command>getty</command> process on the
 	appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem
 	to accept a call.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the <acronym>DTR</acronym> indicator does not light,
 	login to the FreeBSD system through the console and type
 	<command>ps ax</command> to see if FreeBSD is running a
 	<command>getty</command> process on the correct port:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">  114 ??  I      0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 <replaceable>ttyu0</replaceable></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the second column contains a <literal>d0</literal>
 	instead of a <literal>??</literal> and the modem has not
 	accepted a call yet, this means that <command>getty</command>
 	has completed its open on the communications port.  This could
 	indicate a problem with the cabling or a misconfigured modem
 	because <command>getty</command> should not be able to open
 	the communications port until the carrier detect signal has
 	been asserted by the modem.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If no <command>getty</command> processes are waiting to
 	open the port, double-check that the entry for the port is
 	correct in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.  Also, check
 	<filename>/var/log/messages</filename> to see if there are
 	any log messages from <command>init</command> or
 	<command>getty</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, try dialing into the system.  Be sure to use 8 bits,
 	no parity, and 1 stop bit on the remote system.  If a prompt
 	does not appear right away, or the prompt shows garbage, try
 	pressing <keycap>Enter</keycap> about once per second.  If
 	there is still no <prompt>login:</prompt> prompt,
 	try sending a <command>BREAK</command>.  When using a
 	high-speed modem, try dialing again after locking the
 	dialing modem's interface speed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If there is still no <prompt>login:</prompt> prompt, check
 	<filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> again and double-check
 	that:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The initial capability name specified in the entry in
 	    <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> matches the name of a
 	    capability in <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Each <literal>nx=</literal> entry matches another
 	    <filename>gettytab</filename> capability name.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Each <literal>tc=</literal> entry matches another
 	    <filename>gettytab</filename> capability name.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make
 	sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when
 	<acronym>DTR</acronym> is asserted.  If the modem seems to be
 	configured correctly, verify that the
 	<acronym>DTR</acronym> line is asserted by checking the
 	modem's indicator lights.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If it still does not work, try sending an email
 	to the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-questions">FreeBSD general questions mailing list</link> describing the modem and the
 	problem.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="dialout">
     <title>撥出服務</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>dial-out service</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following are tips for getting the host to connect over
       the modem to another computer.  This is appropriate for
       establishing a terminal session with a remote host.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This kind of connection can be helpful to get a file on the
       Internet if there are problems using PPP.  If PPP is not
       working, use the terminal session to FTP the needed file.  Then
       use zmodem to transfer it to the machine.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="hayes-unsupported">
       <title>使用 Stock Hayes 數據機</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A generic Hayes dialer is built into
 	<command>tip</command>.  Use <literal>at=hayes</literal> in
 	<filename>/etc/remote</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of
 	the advanced features of newer modems messages like
 	<literal>BUSY</literal>, <literal>NO DIALTONE</literal>, or
 	<literal>CONNECT 115200</literal>.  Turn those messages off
 	when using <command>tip</command> with
 	<command>ATX0&amp;W</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The dial timeout for <command>tip</command> is 60
 	seconds.  The modem should use something less, or else
 	<command>tip</command> will think there is a communication
 	problem.  Try <command>ATS7=45&amp;W</command>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="direct-at">
       <title>使用 <literal>AT</literal> 指令</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><filename>/etc/remote</filename></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Create a <quote>direct</quote> entry in
 	<filename>/etc/remote</filename>.  For example, if the modem
 	is hooked up to the first serial port,
 	<filename>/dev/cuau0</filename>, use the following
 	line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">cuau0:dv=/dev/cuau0:br#19200:pa=none</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use the highest <acronym>bps</acronym> rate the modem
 	supports in the <literal>br</literal> capability.  Then, type
 	<command>tip cuau0</command> to connect to the modem.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Or, use <command>cu</command> as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> with the following
 	      command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cu -l<replaceable>line</replaceable> -s<replaceable>speed</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><replaceable>line</replaceable> is the serial port, such
 	as <filename>/dev/cuau0</filename>, and
 	<replaceable>speed</replaceable> is the speed, such as
 	<literal>57600</literal>.  When finished entering the AT
 	commands, type <command>~.</command> to exit.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="gt-failure">
       <title><literal>@</literal> 符號無法運作</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>@</literal> sign in the phone number
 	capability tells <command>tip</command> to look in
 	<filename>/etc/phones</filename> for a phone number.  But, the
 	<literal>@</literal> sign is also a special character in
 	capability files like <filename>/etc/remote</filename>, so it
 	needs to be escaped with a backslash:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pn=\@</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="dial-command-line">
       <title>從指令列撥號</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Put a <quote>generic</quote> entry in
 	<filename>/etc/remote</filename>.  For example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
         :dv=/dev/cuau0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
 tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
         :dv=/dev/cuau0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This should now work:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tip -115200 5551234</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Users who prefer <command>cu</command> over
 	<command>tip</command>, can use a generic
 	<literal>cu</literal> entry:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
         :dv=/dev/cuau1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">and type:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cu 5551234 -s 115200</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="set-bps">
       <title>設定 <acronym>bps</acronym> 率</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Put in an entry for <literal>tip1200</literal> or
 	<literal>cu1200</literal>, but go ahead and use whatever
 	<acronym>bps</acronym> rate is appropriate with the
 	<literal>br</literal> capability.
 	<command>tip</command> thinks a good default is 1200 bps
 	which is why it looks for a <literal>tip1200</literal> entry.
 	1200 bps does not have to be used, though.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="terminal-server">
       <title>透過終端伺服器存取多個主機</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Rather than waiting until connected and typing
 	<command>CONNECT <replaceable>host</replaceable></command>
 	each time, use <command>tip</command>'s <literal>cm</literal>
 	capability.  For example, these entries in
 	<filename>/etc/remote</filename> will let you type
 	<command>tip pain</command> or <command>tip muffin</command>
 	to connect to the hosts <systemitem>pain</systemitem> or
 	<systemitem>muffin</systemitem>, and <command>tip
 	  deep13</command> to connect to the terminal server.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
         :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
 muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
         :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
 deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
         :dv=/dev/cuau2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:</programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="tip-multiline">
       <title>在 <command>tip</command> 使用超過一行</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This is often a problem where a university has several
 	modem lines and several thousand students trying to use
 	them.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Make an entry in <filename>/etc/remote</filename> and use
 	<literal>@</literal> for the <literal>pn</literal>
 	capability:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">big-university:\
         :pn=\@:tc=dialout
 dialout:\
         :dv=/dev/cuau3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, list the phone numbers in
 	<filename>/etc/phones</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">big-university 5551111
 big-university 5551112
 big-university 5551113
 big-university 5551114</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>tip</command> will try each number in the listed
 	order, then give up.  To keep retrying, run
 	<command>tip</command> in a <literal>while</literal>
 	loop.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="multi-controlp">
       <title>使用強制字元</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
 	  <keycap>P</keycap>
 	</keycombo> is the default <quote>force</quote> character,
 	used to tell <command>tip</command> that the next character is
 	literal data.  The force character can be set to any other
 	character with the <command>~s</command> escape, which means
 	<quote>set a variable.</quote></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Type
 	<command>~sforce=<replaceable>single-char</replaceable></command>
 	followed by a newline.  <replaceable>single-char</replaceable>
 	is any single character.  If
 	<replaceable>single-char</replaceable> is left out, then the
 	force character is the null character, which is accessed by
 	typing
 	<keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>2</keycap>
 	</keycombo>
 	or <keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>Space</keycap>
 	</keycombo>.  A pretty good value for
 	<replaceable>single-char</replaceable> is
 	<keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Shift</keycap>
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
 	  <keycap>6</keycap>
 	</keycombo>, which is only used on some terminal
 	servers.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To change the force character, specify the following in
 	<filename>~/.tiprc</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">force=<replaceable>single-char</replaceable></programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="uppercase">
       <title>大寫字元</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This happens when
 	<keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
 	  <keycap>A</keycap>
 	</keycombo> is pressed, which is <command>tip</command>'s
 	<quote>raise character</quote>, specially designed for people
 	with broken caps-lock keys.  Use <command>~s</command> to set
 	<literal>raisechar</literal> to something reasonable.  It can
 	be set to be the same as the force character, if neither
 	feature is used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Here is a sample <filename>~/.tiprc</filename> for
 	<application>Emacs</application> users who need to type
 	<keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
 	  <keycap>2</keycap>
 	</keycombo> and <keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
 	  <keycap>A</keycap>
 	</keycombo>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">force=^^
 raisechar=^^</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>^^</literal> is
 	<keycombo action="simul">
 	  <keycap>Shift</keycap><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>6</keycap>
 	  </keycombo>.</para>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="tip-filetransfer">
       <title>使用 <command>tip</command> 傳輸檔案</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When talking to another <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>-like operating system,
 	files can be sent and received using <command>~p</command>
 	(put) and <command>~t</command> (take).  These commands run
 	<command>cat</command> and <command>echo</command> on the
 	remote system to accept and send files.  The syntax is:</para>
 
       <cmdsynopsis xml:lang="en">
 	<command>~p</command>
 	<arg choice="plain">local-file</arg>
 	<arg choice="opt">remote-file</arg>
       </cmdsynopsis>
 
       <cmdsynopsis xml:lang="en">
 	<command>~t</command>
 	<arg choice="plain">remote-file</arg>
 	<arg choice="opt">local-file</arg>
       </cmdsynopsis>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There is no error checking, so another protocol, like
 	zmodem, should probably be used.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="zmodem-tip">
       <title>在 <application>zmodem</application> 使用 <command>tip</command>?</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To receive files, start the sending program on the remote
 	end.  Then, type <command>~C rz</command> to begin receiving
 	them locally.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To send files, start the receiving program on the remote
 	end.  Then, type <command>~C sz
 	<replaceable>files</replaceable></command> to send them to the
 	remote system.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="serialconsole-setup">
     <info>
       <title>設定序列 Console</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Kazutaka</firstname>
 	    <surname>YOKOTA</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Bill</firstname>
 	    <surname>Paul</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Based on a document by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>serial console</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD has the ability to boot a system with a dumb
       terminal on a serial port as a console.  This configuration is
       useful for system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on
       machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and
       developers who want to debug the kernel or device
       drivers.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">As described in <xref linkend="boot"/>, FreeBSD employs a three
       stage bootstrap.  The first two stages are in the boot block
       code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the
       boot disk.  The boot block then loads and runs the boot loader
       as the third stage code.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In order to set up booting from a serial console, the boot
       block code, the boot loader code, and the kernel need to be
       configured.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="serialconsole-howto-fast">
       <title>快速序列 Console 設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section provides a fast overview of setting up the
 	serial console.  This procedure can be used when the dumb
 	terminal is connected to <filename>COM1</filename>.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Configuring a Serial Console on
 	  <filename>COM1</filename></title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Connect the serial cable to
 	    <filename>COM1</filename> and the controlling
 	    terminal.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To configure boot messages to display on the serial
 	    console, issue the following command as the
 	    superuser:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> echo 'console="comconsole"' &gt;&gt; /boot/loader.conf</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and change
 	    <literal>off</literal> to <literal>on</literal> and
 	    <literal>dialup</literal> to <literal>vt100</literal> for
 	    the <filename>ttyu0</filename> entry.  Otherwise, a
 	    password will not be required to connect via the serial
 	    console, resulting in a potential security hole.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Reboot the system to see if the changes took
 	    effect.</para>
 	</step>
 
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If a different configuration is required, see the next
 	section for a more in-depth configuration explanation.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="serialconsole-howto">
       <title>深入序列 Console 設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section provides a more detailed explanation of the
 	steps needed to setup a serial console in FreeBSD.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Configuring a Serial Console</title>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Prepare a serial cable.</para>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>null-modem cable</primary></indexterm>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use either a null-modem cable or a standard serial
 	    cable and a null-modem adapter.  See <xref linkend="term-cables-null"/> for a discussion on serial
 	    cables.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Unplug the keyboard.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Many systems probe for the keyboard during the
 	    Power-On Self-Test (<acronym>POST</acronym>) and will
 	    generate an error if the keyboard is not detected.  Some
 	    machines will refuse to boot until the keyboard is plugged
 	    in.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the computer complains about the error, but boots
 	    anyway, no further configuration is needed.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the computer refuses to boot without a keyboard
 	    attached, configure the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> so that it
 	    ignores this error.  Consult the motherboard's manual for
 	    details on how to do this.</para>
 
 	  <tip>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Try setting the keyboard to <quote>Not
 		installed</quote> in the <acronym>BIOS</acronym>.
 	      This setting tells the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> not to
 	      probe for a keyboard at power-on so it should not
 	      complain if the keyboard is absent.  If that option is
 	      not present in the <acronym>BIOS</acronym>, look for an
 	      <quote>Halt on Error</quote> option instead.  Setting
 	      this to <quote>All but Keyboard</quote> or to <quote>No
 		Errors</quote> will have the same effect.</para>
 	  </tip>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the system has a <trademark class="registered">PS/2</trademark> mouse, unplug it as well.
 	    <trademark class="registered">PS/2</trademark> mice share some hardware with the keyboard and
 	    leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe
 	    into thinking the keyboard is still there.</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">While most systems will boot without a keyboard,
 	      quite a few will not boot without a graphics adapter.
 	      Some systems can be configured to  boot with no graphics
 	      adapter by changing the <quote>graphics adapter</quote>
 	      setting in the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> configuration to
 	      <quote>Not installed</quote>.  Other systems do not
 	      support this option and will refuse to boot if there is
 	      no display hardware in the system.  With these machines,
 	      leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, even if it
 	      is just a junky mono board.  A monitor does not need to
 	      be attached.</para>
 	  </note>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Plug a dumb terminal, an old computer with a modem
 	    program, or the serial port on another <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> box into the
 	    serial port.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add the appropriate <literal>hint.sio.*</literal>
 	    entries to <filename>/boot/device.hints</filename> for the
 	    serial port.  Some multi-port cards also require kernel
 	    configuration options.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the
 	    required options and device hints for each supported
 	    serial port.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create <filename>boot.config</filename> in the root
 	    directory of the <literal>a</literal> partition on the
 	    boot drive.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This file instructs the boot block code how to boot
 	    the system.  In order to activate the serial console, one
 	    or more of the following options are needed.  When using
 	    multiple options, include them all on the same
 	    line:</para>
 
 	  <variablelist>
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><option>-h</option></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Toggles between the internal and serial
 		  consoles.  Use this to switch console devices.  For
 		  instance, to boot from the internal (video) console,
 		  use <option>-h</option> to direct the boot loader
 		  and the kernel to use the serial port as its console
 		  device.  Alternatively, to boot from the serial
 		  port, use <option>-h</option> to tell the boot
 		  loader and the kernel to use the video display as
 		  the console instead.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><option>-D</option></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Toggles between the single and dual console
 		  configurations.  In the single configuration, the
 		  console will be either the internal console (video
 		  display) or the serial port, depending on the state
 		  of <option>-h</option>.  In the dual console
 		  configuration, both the video display  and the
 		  serial port will become the console at the same
 		  time, regardless of the state of
 		  <option>-h</option>.  However, the dual console
 		  configuration takes effect only while the boot
 		  block is running.  Once the boot loader gets
 		  control, the console specified by
 		  <option>-h</option> becomes the only
 		  console.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><option>-P</option></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Makes the boot block probe the keyboard.  If no
 		  keyboard is found, the <option>-D</option> and
 		  <option>-h</option> options are automatically
 		  set.</para>
 
 		<note>
 		  <para xml:lang="en">Due to space constraints in the current
 		    version of the boot blocks, <option>-P</option> is
 		    capable of detecting extended keyboards only.
 		    Keyboards with less than 101 keys and without F11
 		    and F12 keys may not be detected.  Keyboards on
 		    some laptops may not be properly found because of
 		    this limitation.  If this is the case, do not use
 		    <option>-P</option>.</para>
 		</note>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 	  </variablelist>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use either <option>-P</option> to select the console
 	    automatically or <option>-h</option> to activate the
 	    serial console.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>boot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>boot.config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more details.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The options, except for <option>-P</option>, are
 	    passed to the boot loader.  The boot loader will
 	    determine whether the internal video or the serial port
 	    should become the console by examining the state of
 	    <option>-h</option>.  This means that if
 	    <option>-D</option> is specified but <option>-h</option>
 	    is not specified in <filename>/boot.config</filename>, the
 	    serial port can be used as the console only during the
 	    boot block as the boot loader will use the internal video
 	    display as the console.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Boot the machine.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When FreeBSD starts, the boot blocks echo the contents of
 	    <filename>/boot.config</filename> to the console.  For
 	    example:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en">/boot.config: -P
 Keyboard: no</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The second line appears only if <option>-P</option> is
 	    in <filename>/boot.config</filename> and indicates the
 	    presence or absence of the keyboard.  These messages go
 	    to either the serial or internal console, or both,
 	    depending on the option in
 	    <filename>/boot.config</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	    <tgroup cols="2">
 	      <thead>
 		<row>
 		  <entry align="left" xml:lang="en">Options</entry>
 		  <entry align="left" xml:lang="en">Message goes to</entry>
 		</row>
 	      </thead>
 
 	      <tbody>
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">none</entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">internal console</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-h</option></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">serial console</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-D</option></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">serial and internal consoles</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-Dh</option></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">serial and internal consoles</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-P</option>, keyboard present</entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">internal console</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><option>-P</option>, keyboard absent</entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">serial console</entry>
 		</row>
 	      </tbody>
 	    </tgroup>
 	  </informaltable>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">After the message, there will be a small pause before
 	    the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and
 	    before any further messages are printed to the console.
 	    Under normal circumstances, there is no need to interrupt
 	    the boot blocks, but one can do so in order to make sure
 	    things are set up correctly.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Press any key, other than <keycap>Enter</keycap>, at
 	    the console to interrupt the boot process.  The boot
 	    blocks will then prompt for further action:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en">&gt;&gt; FreeBSD/i386 BOOT
 Default: 0:ad(0,a)/boot/loader
 boot:</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Verify that the above message appears on either the
 	    serial or internal console, or both, according to the
 	    options in <filename>/boot.config</filename>.  If the
 	    message appears in the correct console, press
 	    <keycap>Enter</keycap> to continue the boot
 	    process.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If there is no prompt on the serial terminal,
 	    something is wrong with the settings.  Enter
 	    <option>-h</option> then <keycap>Enter</keycap> or
 	    <keycap>Return</keycap> to tell the boot block (and then
 	    the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port
 	    for the console.  Once the system is up, go back and check
 	    what went wrong.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">During the third stage of the boot process, one can still
 	switch between the internal console and the serial console by
 	setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader.
 	See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	information.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This line in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> or
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf.local</filename> configures the
 	  boot loader and the kernel to send their boot messages to
 	  the serial console, regardless of the options in
 	  <filename>/boot.config</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">console="comconsole"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">That line should be the first line of
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> so that boot messages
 	  are displayed on the serial console as early as
 	  possible.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If that line does not exist, or if it is set to
 	  <literal>console="vidconsole"</literal>, the boot loader and
 	  the kernel will use whichever console is indicated by
 	  <option>-h</option> in the boot block.  See
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>loader.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">At the moment, the boot loader has no option
 	  equivalent to <option>-P</option> in the boot block, and
 	  there is no provision to automatically select the internal
 	  console and the serial console based on the presence of the
 	  keyboard.</para>
       </note>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">While it is not required, it is possible to provide a
 	  <command>login</command> prompt over the serial line.  To
 	  configure this, edit the entry for the serial port in
 	  <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> using the instructions in
 	  <xref linkend="term-config"/>.  If the speed of the serial
 	  port has been changed, change <literal>std.9600</literal> to
 	  match the new setting.</para>
       </tip>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定使用更快的序列埠速度</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, the serial port settings are 9600 baud, 8
 	bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit.  To change the default
 	console speed, use one of the following options:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> and set
 	    <varname>BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED</varname> to the new
 	    console speed.  Then, recompile and install the boot
 	    blocks and the boot loader:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /sys/boot</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make clean</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the serial console is configured in some other way
 	    than by booting with <option>-h</option>, or if the serial
 	    console used by the kernel is different from the one used
 	    by the boot blocks, add the following option, with the
 	    desired speed, to a custom kernel configuration file and
 	    compile a new kernel:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">options CONSPEED=<replaceable>19200</replaceable></programlisting>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add the
 	    <option>-S<replaceable>19200</replaceable></option> boot
 	    option to <filename>/boot.config</filename>, replacing
 	    <replaceable>19200</replaceable> with the speed to
 	    use.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add the following options to
 	    <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  Replace
 	    <replaceable>115200</replaceable> with the speed to
 	    use.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">boot_multicons="YES"
 boot_serial="YES"
 comconsole_speed="<replaceable>115200</replaceable>"
 console="comconsole,vidconsole"</programlisting>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="serialconsole-ddb">
       <title>從序列線路 (Serial Line) 進入 DDB 除錯程式</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure the ability to drop into the kernel debugger
 	from the serial console, add the following options to a custom
 	kernel configuration file and compile the kernel using the
 	instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.  Note that
 	while this is useful for remote diagnostics, it is also
 	dangerous if a spurious BREAK is generated on the serial port.
 	Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ddb</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ddb</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information
 	about the kernel debugger.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER
 options DDB</programlisting>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="ppp-and-slip">
   <!--
   <chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	<surname>Mock</surname>
 	<contrib>Restructured, reorganized, and updated by in Mar 2000</contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
 
   <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>PPP</acronym></title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ppp-and-slip-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:id="ppp-ppp" xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>FreeBSD 支援點對點 (Point-to-Point, <acronym>PPP</acronym>) 通訊協定，可透過撥號數據機用來建立網路或網際網路連線。本章將說明如何設定在 FreeBSD 中以數據機為基礎的通訊服務。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定、使用 <acronym>PPP</acronym> 連線及排除問題。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定在乙太網路 (Ethernet) 上的 <acronym>PPP</acronym> (<acronym>PPPoE</acronym>)。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定在 <acronym>ATM</acronym> 上的 <acronym>PPP</acronym> (<acronym>PPPoA</acronym>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>over Ethernet</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>熟悉基本網路術語。</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解撥號連線及 <acronym>PPP</acronym> 的基礎及目的。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="userppp">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  <contrib>Updated and enhanced by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Brian</firstname>
 	  <surname>Somers</surname>
 	  <contrib>Originally contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Nik</firstname>
 	  <surname>Clayton</surname>
 	  <contrib>With input from </contrib>
 	</author>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Dirk</firstname>
 	  <surname>Fr&ouml;mberg</surname>
 	</author>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Peter</firstname>
 	  <surname>Childs</surname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
 
     <title>設定 <acronym>PPP</acronym></title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides built-in support for managing dial-up
       <acronym>PPP</acronym> connections using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The
       default FreeBSD kernel provides support for
       <filename>tun</filename> which is used to interact with a
       modem hardware.  Configuration is performed by editing at least
       one configuration file, and configuration files containing
       examples are provided.  Finally, <command>ppp</command> is
       used to start and manage connections.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In order to use a <acronym>PPP</acronym> connection, the
       following items are needed:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A dial-up account with an Internet Service Provider
 	  (<acronym>ISP</acronym>).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A dial-up modem.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The dial-up number for the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The login name and password assigned by the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>IP</acronym> address of one or more
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> servers.  Normally, the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym> provides these addresses.  If it did
 	  not, FreeBSD can be configured to use
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> negotiation.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">If any of the required information is missing, contact
       the <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following information may be supplied by the
       <acronym>ISP</acronym>, but is not necessary:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the default
 	  gateway.  If this information is unknown, the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym> will automatically provide the
 	  correct value during connection setup.  When configuring
 	  <acronym>PPP</acronym> on FreeBSD, this address is referred to
 	  as <literal>HISADDR</literal>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The subnet mask.  If the <acronym>ISP</acronym> has not
 	  provided one, <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.255</systemitem> will be used
 	  in the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> configuration file.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<indexterm xml:id="ppp-static-ip" xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>static <acronym>IP</acronym> address</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the <acronym>ISP</acronym> has assigned a static
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address and hostname, it should be
 	  input into the configuration file.  Otherwise, this
 	  information will be automatically provided during
 	  connection setup.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The rest of this section demonstrates how to configure FreeBSD
       for common <acronym>PPP</acronym> connection scenarios.  The
       required configuration file is
       <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> and additional files and
       examples are available in
       <filename>/usr/share/examples/ppp/</filename>.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Throughout this section, many of the file examples
 	display line numbers.  These line numbers have been added to
 	make it easier to follow the discussion and are not meant to
 	be placed in the actual file.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When editing a configuration file, proper indentation is
 	important.  Lines that end in a <literal>:</literal> start in
 	the first column (beginning of the line) while all other lines
 	should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="userppp-staticIP">
       <title>基礎設定</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>PPP</primary>
 	  <secondary>with static <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	    addresses</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to configure a <acronym>PPP</acronym> connection,
 	first edit <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> with the
 	dial-in information for the <acronym>ISP</acronym>.  This file
 	is described as follows:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">1     default:
 2       set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command
 3       ident user-ppp VERSION
 4       set device /dev/cuau0
 5       set speed 115200
 6       set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \
 7                 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\T TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT"
 8       set timeout 180
 9       enable dns
 10
 11    provider:
 12      set phone "(123) 456 7890"
 13      set authname foo
 14      set authkey bar
 15      set timeout 300
 16      set ifaddr <replaceable>x.x.x.x</replaceable>/0 <replaceable>y.y.y.y</replaceable>/0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0
 17      add default HISADDR</programlisting>
 
 	  <variablelist>
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 1:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Identifies the <literal>default</literal> entry.
 		  Commands in this entry (lines 2 through 9) are
 		  executed automatically when <command>ppp</command>
 		  is run.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 2:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Enables verbose logging parameters for testing
 		  the connection.  Once the configuration is working
 		  satisfactorily, this line should be reduced
 		  to:</para>
 
 		  <programlisting xml:lang="en">set log phase tun</programlisting>
 
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 3:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Displays the version of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to the
 		  <acronym>PPP</acronym> software running on the other
 		  side of the  connection.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 4:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Identifies the device to which the modem is
 		  connected, where  <filename>COM1</filename> is
 		  <filename>/dev/cuau0</filename> and
 		  <filename>COM2</filename> is
 		  <filename>/dev/cuau1</filename>.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 5:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Sets the connection speed.  If
 		  <literal>115200</literal> does not work on an older
 		  modem, try <literal>38400</literal> instead.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Lines 6 &amp; 7:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">The dial string written as an expect-send
 		  syntax.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 		  information.</para>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en">Note that this command continues onto the next
 		  line for readability.  Any command in
 		  <filename>ppp.conf</filename> may do this if the
 		  last character on the line is
 		  <literal>\</literal>.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 8:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Sets the idle timeout for the link in
 		  seconds.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 9:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Instructs the peer to confirm the
 		  <acronym>DNS</acronym> settings.  If the local
 		  network is running its own <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 		  server, this line should be commented out, by adding
 		  a <literal>#</literal> at the beginning of the line,
 		  or removed.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 10:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">A blank line for readability.  Blank lines are
 		  ignored by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 11:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Identifies an entry called
 		  <literal>provider</literal>.  This could be changed
 		  to the name of the <acronym>ISP</acronym> so that
 		  <option>load
 		    <replaceable>ISP</replaceable></option> can be
 		  used to start the connection.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 12:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Use the phone number for the
 		  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.  Multiple phone numbers may
 		  be specified using the colon (<literal>:</literal>)
 		  or pipe character (<literal>|</literal>) as a
 		  separator.  To rotate through the numbers, use a
 		  colon.  To always attempt to dial the first number
 		  first and only use the other numbers if the first
 		  number fails, use the pipe character.  Always
 		  enclose the entire set of phone numbers between
 		  quotation marks (<literal>"</literal>) to prevent
 		  dialing failures.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Lines 13 &amp; 14:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Use the user name and password for the
 		  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 15:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Sets the default idle timeout in seconds for the
 		  connection.  In this example, the connection will be
 		  closed automatically after 300 seconds of
 		  inactivity.  To prevent a timeout, set this value to
 		  zero.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 16:</term>
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Sets the interface addresses.  The values used
 		  depend upon whether a static <acronym>IP</acronym>
 		  address has been obtained from the
 		  <acronym>ISP</acronym> or if it  instead negotiates
 		  a dynamic <acronym>IP</acronym> address during
 		  connection.</para>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en">If the  <acronym>ISP</acronym> has allocated a
 		  static <acronym>IP</acronym> address and default
 		  gateway, replace <replaceable>x.x.x.x</replaceable>
 		  with the static  <acronym>IP</acronym> address and
 		  replace <replaceable>y.y.y.y</replaceable> with the
 		  <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the default
 		  gateway.  If the <acronym>ISP</acronym> has only
 		  provided a static <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 		  without a gateway address, replace
 		  <replaceable>y.y.y.y</replaceable> with <systemitem class="netmask">10.0.0.2/0</systemitem>.</para>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en">If the <acronym>IP</acronym> address changes
 		  whenever a connection is made, change this line to
 		  the following value.  This tells <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to use
 		  the <acronym>IP</acronym> Configuration Protocol
 		  (<acronym>IPCP</acronym>) to negotiate a dynamic
 		  <acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0</programlisting>
 
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 17:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Keep this line as-is as it adds a default route
 		  to the gateway.  The <literal>HISADDR</literal> will
 		  automatically be replaced with the gateway address
 		  specified on line 16.  It is important that this
 		  line appears after line 16.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 	  </variablelist>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Depending upon whether <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is started
 	    manually or automatically, a
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename> may also need to
 	    be created which contains the following lines.  This file
 	    is required when running <command>ppp</command> in
 	    <option>-auto</option> mode.  This file is used after the
 	    connection has been established.  At this point, the
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> address will have been assigned and
 	    it is now be possible to add the routing table entries.
 	    When creating this file, make sure that
 	    <replaceable>provider</replaceable> matches the value
 	    demonstrated in line 11 of
 	    <filename>ppp.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">provider:
       add default HISADDR</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This file is also needed when the default gateway
 	  address is <quote>guessed</quote> in a static
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address configuration.  In this case,
 	  remove line 17 from <filename>ppp.conf</filename> and
 	  create <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename> with the
 	  above two lines.  More examples for this file can be found
 	  in <filename>/usr/share/examples/ppp/</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">By default, <command>ppp</command> must be
 	  run as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.
 	  To change this default, add the account of the user
 	  who should run <command>ppp</command> to the <systemitem class="groupname">network</systemitem> group in
 	  <filename>/etc/group</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then, give the user access to one or more entries in
 	  <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> with
 	  <command>allow</command>.  For example, to give
 	  <systemitem class="username">fred</systemitem> and
 	  <systemitem class="username">mary</systemitem>
 	  permission to only the <literal>provider:</literal> entry,
 	  add this line to the <literal>provider:</literal>
 	  section:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">allow users <replaceable>fred mary</replaceable></programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To give the specified users access to all entries, put
 	  that line in the <literal>default</literal> section
 	  instead.</para>
       </sect2>
 
     <?ignore <sect2>
 	  <title>Receiving Incoming Calls</title>
 
 	  <indexterm>
 	    <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
 	    <secondary>receiving incoming calls</secondary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para>When configuring &man.ppp.8; to receive incoming calls
 	    on a machine connected to a Local Area Network
 	    (<acronym>LAN</acronym>), decide if packets should be
 	    forwarded to the <acronym>LAN</acronym>.  If so, allocate
 	    the connecting system an <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	    from the <acronym>LAN</acronym>'s subnet, and add the
 	    <command>enable proxy</command> line to
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.
 	    Also, confirm that <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>
 	    contains the following line:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>gateway_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>Refer to &man.ppp.8; and
 	    <filename>/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample</filename>
 	    for more details.  The following steps will also be
 	    required:</para>
 
 	  <procedure>
 	    <step>
 	      <para>Create an entry in
 		<filename>/etc/passwd</filename> (using the
 		&man.vipw.8; program).</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para>Create a profile in this users home directory that
 		runs <command>ppp -direct direct-server</command> or
 		similar.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para>Create an entry in
 		<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.  The
 		<filename>direct-server</filename> example should
 		suffice.</para>
 	    </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para>Create an entry in
 		<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>.</para>
 	    </step>
 	  </procedure>
 	</sect2>
 
 	  <title><acronym>PPP</acronym> Shells for Dynamic
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> Users</title>
 
 	  <indexterm>
 	    <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym> shells</primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para>Create a file called
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp-shell</filename> containing the
 	    following:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>#!/bin/sh
 IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'`
 CALLEDAS="$IDENT"
 TTY=`tty`
 
 if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then
         IDENT=`basename $TTY`
 fi
 
 echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY"
 echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT"
 
 exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>This script should be executable.  Now make a
 	    symbolic link called <filename>ppp-dialup</filename> to
 	    this script using the following commands:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>Use this script as the
 	    <emphasis>shell</emphasis> for all of dial-up users.  This
 	    is an example from <filename>/etc/passwd</filename> for a
 	    dial-up <acronym>PPP</acronym>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting>pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup</programlisting>
 
 	    <para>Create a <filename
 		>/home/ppp</filename> directory that
 	      is world readable containing the following 0 byte
 	      files:</para>
 
 	    <screen>-r--r--r--   1 root     wheel           0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin
 -r--r--r--   1 root     wheel           0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts</screen>
 
 	    <para>which prevents <filename>/etc/motd</filename> from
 	      being displayed.</para>
 	  </sect2>
 	  <sect2>
 	    <title><acronym>PPP</acronym> Shells for Static
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> Users</title>
 
 	    <indexterm>
 	      <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym> shells</primary>
 	    </indexterm>
 
 	    <para>Create <filename>ppp-shell</filename> as
 	      above, and for each account with statically assigned
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym>s create a symbolic link to
 	      <filename>ppp-shell</filename>.</para>
 
 	    <para>For example, to route /24 CIDR networks for the
 	      dial-up customers <username>fred</username>,
 	      <username>sam</username>, and
 	      <username>mary</username>, type:</para>
 
 	    <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary</userinput></screen>
 
 	    <para>Each of these users dial-up accounts should have
 	      their shell set to the symbolic link created above (for
 	      example, <username>mary</username>'s shell should be
 	      <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp-mary</filename>).</para>
 	  </sect2>
 
 	  <sect2>
 	    <title>Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for
 	      Dynamic <acronym>IP</acronym> Users</title>
 
 	    <para>Ensure that <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>
 	      contains something along the lines of:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting>default:
   set debug phase lcp chat
   set timeout 0
 
 ttyu0:
   set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255
   enable proxy
 
 ttyu1:
   set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255
   enable proxy</programlisting>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para>The indenting is important.</para>
 	    </note>
 
 	    <para>The <literal>default:</literal> section is loaded
 	      for each session.  For each dial-up line enabled in
 	      <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> create an entry similar
 	      to the one for <literal>ttyu0:</literal> above.  Each
 	      line should get a unique <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	      from the pool of <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses for
 	      dynamic users.</para>
 	  </sect2>
 
 	  <sect2>
 	    <title>Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for
 	      Static <acronym>IP</acronym> Users</title>
 
 	    <para>Along with the contents of the sample
 	      <filename>/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>
 	      above, add a section for each of the statically assigned
 	      dial-up users:.</para>
 
 	    <programlisting>fred:
   set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255
 
 sam:
   set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255
 
 mary:
   set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255</programlisting>
 
 	    <para>The file <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>
 	      should also contain routing information for each static
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> user if required.  The line below
 	      would add a route for the <hostid
 		role="ipaddr">203.14.101.0/24</hostid> network via the
 	      client's ppp link.</para>
 
 	    <programlisting>fred:
   add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
 
 sam:
   add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
 
 mary:
   add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR</programlisting>
 	</sect2>
 	?>
 
 	<sect2>
 	  <title>進階設定</title>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>DNS</primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>NetBIOS</primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
 	    <secondary>Microsoft extensions</secondary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and
 	    NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To enable these extensions with
 	    <acronym>PPP</acronym> version 1.x, the following lines
 	    might be added to the relevant section of
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">enable msext
 set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
 set nbns 203.14.100.5</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">And for <acronym>PPP</acronym> version 2 and
 	    above:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">accept dns
 set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
 set nbns 203.14.100.5</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This will tell the clients the primary and secondary
 	    name server addresses, and a NetBIOS nameserver
 	    host.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In version 2 and above, if the <literal>set
 	      dns</literal> line is omitted,
 	    <acronym>PPP</acronym> will use the values found in
 	    <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	<sect3 xml:id="userppp-PAPnCHAP">
 	  <title>PAP 與 CHAP 認證</title>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>PAP</primary></indexterm>
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>CHAP</primary></indexterm>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>ISP</acronym>s set their system up so
 	    that the authentication part of the connection is done
 	    using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms.
 	    If this is the case, the <acronym>ISP</acronym> will not
 	    give a <prompt>login:</prompt> prompt at connection, but
 	    will start talking <acronym>PPP</acronym>
 	    immediately.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not
 	    normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent
 	    as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a
 	    serial line only.  There is not much room for crackers
 	    to <quote>eavesdrop</quote>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The following
 	    alterations must be made:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">13      set authname <replaceable>MyUserName</replaceable>
 14      set authkey <replaceable>MyPassword</replaceable>
 15      set login</programlisting>
 
 	  <variablelist>
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 13:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">This line specifies the PAP/CHAP user name.
 		  Insert the correct value for
 		  <replaceable>MyUserName</replaceable>.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 14:</term>
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">This line specifies the PAP/CHAP
 		  password<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>password</primary></indexterm>.
 		  Insert the correct value for
 		  <replaceable>MyPassword</replaceable>.  You may
 		  want to add an additional line, such as:</para>
 
 		<programlisting xml:lang="en">16      accept PAP</programlisting>
 
 		<para>或</para>
 
 		<programlisting xml:lang="en">16      accept CHAP</programlisting>
 
 		<para xml:lang="en">to make it obvious that this is the intention,
 		  but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by
 		  default.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">Line 15:</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>ISP</acronym> will not normally
 		  require a login to the server when using PAP or
 		  CHAP.  Therefore, disable the <quote>set
 		    login</quote> string.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 	  </variablelist>
 	</sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="userppp-nat">
 	<title>使用 <acronym>PPP</acronym> 網路位址轉譯功能</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary><secondary>NAT</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">PPP has ability to use internal NAT without kernel
 	  diverting capabilities.  This functionality may be enabled
 	  by the following line in
 	  <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">nat enable yes</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, NAT may be enabled by command-line
 	  option <literal>-nat</literal>.  There is also
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> knob named
 	  <literal>ppp_nat</literal>, which is enabled by
 	  default.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When using this feature, it may be useful to include
 	  the following <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> options
 	  to enable incoming connections forwarding:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:ftp ftp
 nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:http http</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">or do not trust the outside at all</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">nat deny_incoming yes</programlisting>
       </sect3>
       </sect2>
 
       <sect2 xml:id="userppp-final">
 	<title>最終系統設定</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary><secondary>configuration</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">While <command>ppp</command> is now configured,
 	  some edits still need to be made to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Working from the top down in this file, make sure the
 	  <literal>hostname=</literal> line is set:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="foo.example.com"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the <acronym>ISP</acronym> has supplied a static
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address and name, use this name as the
 	  host name.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Look for the <literal>network_interfaces</literal>
 	  variable.  To configure the system to dial the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym> on demand, make sure the
 	  <filename>tun0</filename> device is added to the list,
 	  otherwise remove it.</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">network_interfaces="lo0 tun0"
 ifconfig_tun0=</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>ifconfig_tun0</literal> variable should
 	    be empty, and a file called
 	    <filename>/etc/start_if.tun0</filename> should be created.
 	    This file should contain the line:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">ppp -auto mysystem</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This script is executed at network configuration time,
 	    starting the ppp daemon in automatic mode.  If this
 	    machine acts as a gateway, consider including
 	    <option>-alias</option>.  Refer to the manual page for
 	    further details.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Make sure that the router program is set to
 	  <literal>NO</literal> with the following line in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">router_enable="NO"</programlisting>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><application>routed</application></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is important that the <command>routed</command>
 	  daemon is not started, as <command>routed</command> tends
 	  to delete the default routing table entries created by
 	  <command>ppp</command>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is probably a good idea to ensure that the
 	  <literal>sendmail_flags</literal> line does not include the
 	  <option>-q</option> option, otherwise
 	  <command>sendmail</command> will attempt to do a network
 	  lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine
 	  to dial out.  You may try:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">sendmail_flags="-bd"</programlisting>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><application>sendmail</application></primary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The downside is that <command>sendmail</command> is
 	  forced to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link.
 	  To automate this, include <command>!bg</command> in
 	  <filename>ppp.linkup</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">1     provider:
 2       delete ALL
 3       add 0 0 HISADDR
 4       !bg sendmail -bd -q30m</programlisting>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>SMTP</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">An alternative is to set up a
 	  <quote>dfilter</quote> to block SMTP traffic.  Refer to the
 	  sample files for further details.</para>
       </sect2>
 
       <sect2>
 	<title>使用 <command>ppp</command></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">All that is left is to reboot the machine.  After
 	  rebooting, either type:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ppp</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">and then <command>dial provider</command> to start the
 	  <acronym>PPP</acronym> session, or, to configure
 	  <command>ppp</command> to establish sessions automatically
 	  when there is outbound traffic and
 	  <filename>start_if.tun0</filename> does not exist,
 	  type:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ppp -auto provider</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to talk to the <command>ppp</command>
 	    program while it is running in the background, but only
 	    if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up.  To do
 	    this, add the following line to the configuration:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">set server /var/run/ppp-tun<replaceable>%d</replaceable> DiagnosticPassword 0177</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This will tell PPP to listen to the specified
 	  <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> domain socket, asking clients for the specified
 	  password before allowing access.  The
 	  <literal>%d</literal> in the name is replaced with the
 	  <filename>tun</filename> device number that is in
 	  use.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once a socket has been set up, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pppctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate
 	  the running program.</para>
       </sect2>
 
 	<sect2 xml:id="userppp-mgetty">
 	  <title>設定撥入服務</title>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary><command>mgetty</command></primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>AutoPPP</primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>LCP</primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="dialup"/> provides a good description
 	    on enabling dial-up services using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>getty</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">An alternative to <command>getty</command> is
 	    <package>comms/mgetty+sendfax</package>
 	    port), a smarter version of <command>getty</command>
 	    designed with dial-up lines in mind.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The advantages of using <command>mgetty</command> is
 	    that it actively <emphasis>talks</emphasis> to modems,
 	    meaning if port is turned off in
 	    <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> then the modem will not
 	    answer the phone.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Later versions of <command>mgetty</command> (from
 	    0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of
 	    <acronym>PPP</acronym> streams, allowing clients
 	    scriptless access to the server.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <link xlink:href="http://mgetty.greenie.net/doc/mgetty_toc.html">http://mgetty.greenie.net/doc/mgetty_toc.html</link>
 	    for more information on <command>mgetty</command>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">By default the <package>comms/mgetty+sendfax</package>
 	    port comes with the <literal>AUTO_PPP</literal> option
 	    enabled allowing <command>mgetty</command> to detect the
 	    LCP phase of <acronym>PPP</acronym> connections and
 	    automatically spawn off a ppp shell.  However, since the
 	    default login/password sequence does not occur it is
 	    necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or
 	    CHAP.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This section assumes the user has successfully
 	    compiled, and installed the
 	    <package>comms/mgetty+sendfax</package> port on his
 	    system.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Ensure that
 	    <filename>/usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config</filename>
 	    has the following:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">/AutoPPP/ -     - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This tells <command>mgetty</command> to run
 	    <filename>ppp-pap-dialup</filename> for detected
 	    <acronym>PPP</acronym> connections.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create an executable file called
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup</filename> containing
 	    the following:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For each dial-up line enabled in
 	    <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, create a corresponding
 	    entry in <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.  This
 	    will happily co-exist with the definitions we created
 	    above.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">pap:
   enable pap
   set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40
   enable proxy</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Each user logging in with this method will need to
 	    have a username/password in
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.secret</filename>, or
 	    alternatively add the following option to authenticate
 	    users via PAP from
 	    <filename>/etc/passwd</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">enable passwdauth</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To assign some users a static <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	    number, specify the number as the third argument in
 	    <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.secret</filename>.  See
 	    <filename>/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample</filename>
 	    for examples.</para>
 	</sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="ppp-troubleshoot">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by in June 2003</contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title><acronym>PPP</acronym> 連線疑難排解</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>troubleshooting</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section covers a few issues which may arise when
       using <acronym>PPP</acronym> over a modem connection.  Some
       <acronym>ISP</acronym>s present the
       <literal>ssword</literal> prompt while others present
       <literal>password</literal>.  If the <command>ppp</command>
       script is not written accordingly, the login attempt will
       fail.  The most common way to debug <command>ppp</command>
       connections is by connecting manually as described in this
       section.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>檢查裝置節點</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using a custom kernel, make sure to include the
 	following line in the kernel configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device   uart</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <filename>uart</filename> device is already
 	included in the <literal>GENERIC</literal> kernel, so no
 	additional steps are necessary in this case.  Just
 	check the <command>dmesg</command> output for the modem
 	device with:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dmesg | grep uart</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This should display some pertinent output about the
 	<filename>uart</filename> devices.  These are the COM
 	ports we need.  If the modem acts like a standard serial port,
 	it should be listed on <filename>uart1</filename>, or
 	<filename>COM2</filename>.  If so, a kernel rebuild is not
 	required.  When matching up, if the modem is on
 	<filename>uart1</filename>, the modem device would be
 	<filename>/dev/cuau1</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>手動連線</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Connecting to the Internet by manually controlling
 	<command>ppp</command> is quick, easy, and a great way to
 	debug a connection or just get information on how the
 	<acronym>ISP</acronym> treats <command>ppp</command> client
 	connections.  Lets start <application>PPP</application> from
 	the command line.  Note that in all of our examples we will
 	use <emphasis>example</emphasis> as the hostname of the
 	machine running <application>PPP</application>.  To start
 	<command>ppp</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ppp</userinput></screen>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ppp ON example&gt; <userinput>set device /dev/cuau1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This second command sets the modem device to
 	<filename>cuau1</filename>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ppp ON example&gt; <userinput>set speed 115200</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This sets the connection speed to
 	115,200 <acronym>kbps</acronym>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ppp ON example&gt; <userinput>enable dns</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This tells <command>ppp</command> to configure the
 	resolver and add the nameserver lines to
 	<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>.  If
 	<command>ppp</command> cannot determine the hostname, it can
 	manually be set later.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ppp ON example&gt; <userinput>term</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This switches to <quote>terminal</quote> mode in order to
 	manually control the modem.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">deflink: Entering terminal mode on <filename class="devicefile">/dev/cuau1</filename>
 type '~h' for help</programlisting>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>at</userinput>
 OK
 <userinput>atdt<replaceable>123456789</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Use <command>at</command> to initialize the modem, then
 	use <command>atdt</command> and the number for the
 	<acronym>ISP</acronym> to begin the dial in process.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">CONNECT</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Confirmation of the connection, if we are going to have
 	any connection problems, unrelated to hardware, here is where
 	we will attempt to resolve them.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ISP Login:<userinput>myusername</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this prompt, return the prompt with the username that
 	was provided by the <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ISP Pass:<userinput>mypassword</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this prompt, reply with the password that was provided
 	by the <acronym>ISP</acronym>.  Just like logging into FreeBSD,
 	the password will not echo.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Shell or PPP:<userinput>ppp</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Depending on the <acronym>ISP</acronym>, this prompt
 	might not appear.  If it does, it is asking whether to use a
 	shell on the provider or to start
 	<command>ppp</command>.  In this example,
 	<command>ppp</command> was selected in order to establish an
 	Internet connection.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Ppp ON example&gt;</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Notice that in this example the first <option>p</option>
 	has been capitalized.  This shows that we have successfully
 	connected to the <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">PPp ON example&gt;</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">We have successfully authenticated with our
 	<acronym>ISP</acronym> and are waiting for the assigned
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">PPP ON example&gt;</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">We have made an agreement on an <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address and successfully completed our connection.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">PPP ON example&gt;<userinput>add default HISADDR</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Here we add our default route, we need to do this before
 	we can talk to the outside world as currently the only
 	established connection is with the peer.  If this fails due to
 	existing routes, put a bang character
 	<literal>!</literal> in front of the <option>add</option>.
 	Alternatively, set this before making the actual
 	connection and it will negotiate a new route
 	accordingly.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If everything went good we should now have an active
 	connection to the Internet, which could be thrown into the
 	background using <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap>
 	  <keycap>z</keycap></keycombo> If <command>PPP</command>
 	returns to <command>ppp</command> then the connection has bee
 	lost.  This is good to know because it shows the connection
 	status.  Capital P's represent a connection to the
 	<acronym>ISP</acronym> and lowercase p's show that the
 	connection has been lost.</para>
       </sect2>
 
       <sect2>
 	<title>除錯</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If a connection cannot be established, turn hardware
 	  flow <acronym>CTS/RTS</acronym> to off using <option>set
 	    ctsrts off</option>.  This is mainly the case when
 	  connected to some <application>PPP</application>-capable
 	  terminal servers, where <application>PPP</application> hangs
 	  when it tries to write data to the communication link, and
 	  waits for a Clear To Send (<acronym>CTS</acronym>) signal
 	  which may never come.  When using this option, include
 	  <option>set accmap</option> as it may be required to defeat
 	  hardware dependent on passing certain characters from end to
 	  end, most of the time XON/XOFF.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	  more information on this option and how it is used.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">An older modem may need <option>set parity
 	    even</option>.  Parity is set at none be default, but is
 	  used for error checking with a large increase in traffic,
 	  on older modems.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>PPP</application> may not return to the
 	  command mode, which is usually a negotiation error where the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym> is waiting for negotiating to begin.
 	  At this point, using  <command>~p</command> will force ppp
 	  to start sending the configuration information.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If a login prompt never appears, <acronym>PAP</acronym>
 	  or <acronym>CHAP</acronym> authentication is most likely
 	  required.  To use <acronym>PAP</acronym> or
 	  <acronym>CHAP</acronym>, add the following options to
 	  <application>PPP</application> before going into terminal
 	  mode:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">ppp ON example&gt; <userinput>set authname <replaceable>myusername</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Where <replaceable>myusername</replaceable> should be
 	  replaced with the username that was assigned by the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">ppp ON example&gt; <userinput>set authkey <replaceable>mypassword</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Where <replaceable>mypassword</replaceable> should be
 	  replaced with the password that was assigned by the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If a connection is established, but cannot seem to find
 	  any domain name,  try to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> an
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  If there is 100 percent
 	  (100%) packet loss, it is likely that a default route was
 	  not assigned.  Double check that <option>add default
 	    HISADDR</option> was set during the connection.  If a
 	  connection can be made to a remote <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  address, it is possible that a resolver address has not been
 	  added to <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>.  This file
 	  should look like:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">domain <replaceable>example.com</replaceable>
 nameserver <replaceable>x.x.x.x</replaceable>
 nameserver <replaceable>y.y.y.y</replaceable></programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Where <replaceable>x.x.x.x</replaceable> and
 	  <replaceable>y.y.y.y</replaceable> should be replaced with
 	  the <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s DNS servers.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To configure <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslog</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> to provide logging for the
 	  <application>PPP</application> connection, make sure this
 	  line exists in <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">!ppp
 *.*     /var/log/ppp.log</programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="pppoe">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Jim</firstname>
 	  <surname>Mock</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed (from
 	    http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html)
 	    by in Jan 2000</contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>在乙太網路使用 <acronym>PPP</acronym> (PPPoE)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>over Ethernet</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to set up <acronym>PPP</acronym>
       over Ethernet (<acronym>PPPoE</acronym>).</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Here is an example of a working
       <filename>ppp.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">default:
   set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish
   set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0
 
 name_of_service_provider:
   set device PPPoE:<replaceable>xl1</replaceable> # replace xl1 with your Ethernet device
   set authname YOURLOGINNAME
   set authkey YOURPASSWORD
   set dial
   set login
   add default HISADDR</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>,
 	run:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Add the following to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ppp_enable="YES"
 ppp_mode="ddial"
 ppp_nat="YES"	# if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO
 ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider"</programlisting>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 PPPoE 服務標籤</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Sometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to
 	establish the connection.  Service tags are used to
 	distinguish between different PPPoE servers attached to a
 	given network.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Any required service tag information should be in the
 	documentation provided by the <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As a last resort, one could try installing the
 	<package>net/rr-pppoe</package> package or port.  Bear in mind
 	however, this may de-program your modem and render it useless,
 	so think twice before doing it.  Simply install the program
 	shipped with the modem.  Then, access the
 	<guimenu>System</guimenu> menu from the program.  The name of
 	the profile should be listed there.  It is usually
 	<emphasis>ISP</emphasis>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE
 	configuration entry in <filename>ppp.conf</filename> as the
 	provider part for <command>set device</command>.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for full details.  It should look like
 	this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">set device PPPoE:<replaceable>xl1</replaceable>:<replaceable>ISP</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Do not forget to change <replaceable>xl1</replaceable> to
 	the proper device for the Ethernet card.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Do not forget to change <replaceable>ISP</replaceable> to
 	the profile.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For additional information, refer to <link xlink:href="http://renaud.waldura.com/doc/freebsd/pppoe/">Cheaper
 	  Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL</link> by Renaud Waldura.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ppp-3com">
 
       <title>在 <trademark class="registered">3Com</trademark> <trademark class="registered">HomeConnect</trademark> ADSL Modem Dual Link 使用 PPPoE</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This modem does not follow the PPPoE specification defined
 	in <link xlink:href="http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc2516.html">RFC
 	  2516</link>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to make FreeBSD capable of communicating with this
 	device, a sysctl must be set.  This can be done automatically
 	at boot time by updating
 	<filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">or can be done immediately with the command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it
 	is not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and
 	a <trademark class="registered">3Com</trademark> <trademark class="registered">HomeConnect</trademark> ADSL Modem at the
 	same time.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="pppoa">
     <title>在 ATM 使用 <application>PPP</application> (PPPoA)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>PPP</acronym></primary>
       <secondary>over <acronym>ATM</acronym></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>PPPoA</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following describes how to set up PPP over
       <acronym>ATM</acronym> (PPPoA).  PPPoA is a popular choice among
       European DSL providers.</para>
 <!--
 This port is broken as of June, 2009
     <sect2>
       <title>Using PPPoA with the Alcatel &speedtouch; USB</title>
 
       <para>PPPoA support for this device is supplied as a port in
 	&os; because the firmware is distributed under <ulink
 	url="http://www.speedtouchdsl.com/disclaimer_lx.htm">Alcatel's
 	license agreement</ulink> and can not be redistributed freely
 	with the base system of &os;.</para>
 
       <para>This software can be installed using the
 	<filename role="package">net/pppoa</filename> package or port.  Once installed, follow
 	the instructions provided with it.</para>
 
       <para>Like many USB devices, the Alcatel &speedtouch; USB needs
 	to download firmware from the host computer to operate
 	properly.  It is possible to automate this process in &os;
 	so that this transfer takes place whenever the device is
 	plugged into a USB port.  The following information can be
 	added to the <filename>/etc/usbd.conf</filename> file to
 	enable this automatic firmware transfer.  This file must be
 	edited as the <username>root</username> user.</para>
 
       <programlisting>device "Alcatel SpeedTouch USB"
     devname "ugen[0-9]+"
     vendor 0x06b9
     product 0x4061
     attach "/usr/local/sbin/modem_run -f /usr/local/libdata/mgmt.o"</programlisting>
 
       <para>To enable the USB daemon, <application>usbd</application>,
 	put the following the line into
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting>usbd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para>It is also possible to set up
 	<application>ppp</application> to dial up at startup.  To do
 	this add the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Again, for this procedure
 	you will need to be logged in as the <username>root</username>
 	user.</para>
 
       <programlisting>ppp_enable="YES"
 ppp_mode="ddial"
 ppp_profile="adsl"</programlisting>
 
       <para>For this to work correctly you will need to have used the
 	sample <filename>ppp.conf</filename> which is supplied with
 	the <filename role="package">net/pppoa</filename> port.</para>
     </sect2>
     -->
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 mpd</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>mpd</application> application can be used
 	to connect to a variety of services, in particular PPTP
 	services.  It can be installed using the
 	<package>net/mpd5</package> package or port.  Many ADSL modems
 	require that a PPTP tunnel is created between the modem and
 	computer.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once installed, configure <application>mpd</application>
 	to suit the provider's settings.  The port places a set of
 	sample configuration files which are well documented in
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/mpd/</filename>.  A complete guide to
 	configure <application>mpd</application> is available in HTML
 	format in <filename>/usr/ports/share/doc/mpd/</filename>.
 	Here is a sample configuration for connecting to an ADSL
 	service with <application>mpd</application>.  The
 	configuration is spread over two files, first the
 	<filename>mpd.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example <filename>mpd.conf</filename> only works
 	  with <application>mpd</application> 4.x.</para>
       </note>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">default:
     load adsl
 
 adsl:
     new -i ng0 adsl adsl
     set bundle authname <replaceable>username</replaceable> <co xml:id="co-mpd-ex-user"/>
     set bundle password <replaceable>password</replaceable> <co xml:id="co-mpd-ex-pass"/>
     set bundle disable multilink
 
     set link no pap acfcomp protocomp
     set link disable chap
     set link accept chap
     set link keep-alive 30 10
 
     set ipcp no vjcomp
     set ipcp ranges 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0
 
     set iface route default
     set iface disable on-demand
     set iface enable proxy-arp
     set iface idle 0
 
     open</programlisting>
 
     <calloutlist>
       <callout arearefs="co-mpd-ex-user">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The username used to authenticate with your
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
       </callout>
       <callout arearefs="co-mpd-ex-pass">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The password used to authenticate with your
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>.</para>
       </callout>
     </calloutlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Information about the link, or links, to establish is found
       in <filename>mpd.links</filename>.  An example
       <filename>mpd.links</filename> to accompany the above example
       is given beneath:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">adsl:
     set link type pptp
     set pptp mode active
     set pptp enable originate outcall
     set pptp self <replaceable>10.0.0.1</replaceable> <co xml:id="co-mpd-ex-self"/>
     set pptp peer <replaceable>10.0.0.138</replaceable> <co xml:id="co-mpd-ex-peer"/></programlisting>
 
     <calloutlist>
       <callout arearefs="co-mpd-ex-self">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>IP</acronym> address of FreeBSD computer
 	  running <application>mpd</application>.</para>
       </callout>
       <callout arearefs="co-mpd-ex-peer">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the ADSL modem.
 	  The Alcatel <trademark>SpeedTouch</trademark> Home defaults to <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.138</systemitem>.</para>
       </callout>
     </calloutlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is possible to initialize the connection easily by
       issuing the following command as
       <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mpd -b <replaceable>adsl</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To view the status of the connection:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>ng0</replaceable></userinput>
 ng0: flags=88d1&lt;UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,NOARP,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
      inet 216.136.204.117 --&gt; 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffffff</screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Using <application>mpd</application> is the recommended
       way to connect to an ADSL service with FreeBSD.</para>
   </sect2>
 
   <sect2>
     <title>使用 pptpclient</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is also possible to use FreeBSD to connect to other
       PPPoA services using <package>net/pptpclient</package>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To use <package>net/pptpclient</package>
       to connect to a DSL service, install the port or package, then
       edit <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.  An example section
       of <filename>ppp.conf</filename> is given below.  For further
       information on <filename>ppp.conf</filename> options consult
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">adsl:
  set log phase chat lcp ipcp ccp tun command
  set timeout 0
  enable dns
  set authname <replaceable>username</replaceable> <co xml:id="co-pptp-ex-user"/>
  set authkey <replaceable>password</replaceable> <co xml:id="co-pptp-ex-pass"/>
  set ifaddr 0 0
  add default HISADDR</programlisting>
 
     <calloutlist>
       <callout arearefs="co-pptp-ex-user">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The username for the DSL provider.</para>
       </callout>
 
       <callout arearefs="co-pptp-ex-pass">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The password for your account.</para>
       </callout>
     </calloutlist>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">Since the account's password is added to
 	<filename>ppp.conf</filename>in plain text form, make sure
 	nobody can read the contents of this file:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chown root:wheel /etc/ppp/ppp.conf</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chmod 600 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will open a tunnel for a <acronym>PPP</acronym>
 	session to the DSL router.  Ethernet DSL modems have a
 	preconfigured LAN <acronym>IP</acronym> address to connect to.
 	In the case of the Alcatel <trademark>SpeedTouch</trademark> Home, this address is
 	<systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.138</systemitem>.  The
 	router's documentation should list the address the device
 	uses.  To open the tunnel and start a <acronym>PPP</acronym>
 	session:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pptp <replaceable>address</replaceable> <replaceable>adsl</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If an ampersand (<quote>&amp;</quote>) is added
 	  to the end of this command,
 	  <application>pptp</application> will return the
 	  prompt.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <filename>tun</filename> virtual tunnel device
 	will be created for interaction between the
 	<application>pptp</application> and
 	<application>ppp</application> processes.  Once the
 	prompt is returned, or the
 	<application>pptp</application> process has confirmed a
 	connection, examine the tunnel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>tun0</replaceable></userinput>
 tun0: flags=8051&lt;UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
         inet 216.136.204.21 --&gt; 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffff00
 	Opened by PID 918</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the connection fails, check the configuration of
 	the router, which is usually accessible using
 	a web browser.  Also, examine the output of
 	<command>pptp</command> and the contents of the
 	log file,
 	<filename>/var/log/ppp.log</filename> for clues.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="mail">
   <info>
     <title>電子郵件</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Bill</firstname><surname>Lloyd</surname></personname><contrib>Original
 	work by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en"><personname><firstname>Jim</firstname><surname>Mock</surname></personname><contrib>Rewritten
 	by </contrib></author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>email</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para><quote>電子郵件</quote> 或稱 email，是現今使用最廣泛的溝通方式之一。本章主要介紹如何在 FreeBSD 上執行郵件伺服器，以及如何使用 FreeBSD 收發信件，若欲瞭解細節請參閱 <xref linkend="bibliography"/> 內的參考書籍。</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>哪些軟體元件與收發電子郵件有關。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>FreeBSD 內的 <application>Sendmail</application> 設定檔在哪。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>遠端信箱 (Mailbox) 與本機信箱的差異。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何阻擋垃圾郵件寄件者 (Spammer) 非法使用郵件伺服器作為中繼站。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何安裝與設定其他的郵件傳輸代理程式 (Mail Transfer Agent) 來取代 <application>Sendmail</application>。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何排除常見的郵件伺服器問題。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定系統只能寄送郵件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何在撥號連線上使用郵件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 SMTP 認証來增加安全性。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何安裝並使用郵件使用者代理程式 (Mail User Agent) 如 <application>mutt</application> 來寄發與接收電子郵件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何從遠端的 <acronym>POP</acronym> 或 <acronym>IMAP</acronym> 伺服器下載郵件。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何自動套用過濾器及規則在收到的電子郵件上。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>正確的設定網路連線 (<xref linkend="advanced-networking"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>正確的設定郵件主機的 <acronym>DNS</acronym> 資訊 (<xref linkend="network-servers"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何安裝其他第三方軟體 (<xref linkend="ports"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-using">
     <title>郵件組成</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>POP</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>IMAP</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DNS</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>mail server daemons</primary>
 	<secondary><application>Sendmail</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>mail server daemons</primary>
 	<secondary><application>Postfix</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>mail server daemons</primary>
 	<secondary><application>qmail</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>mail server daemons</primary>
 	<secondary><application>Exim</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>email</primary>
 	<secondary>receiving</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MX record</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>mail host</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are five major parts involved in an email exchange:
       the Mail User Agent (<acronym>MUA</acronym>), the Mail Transfer
       Agent (<acronym>MTA</acronym>), a mail host, a remote or local
       mailbox, and <acronym>DNS</acronym>.  This section provides an
       overview of these components.</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Mail User Agent (<acronym>MUA</acronym>)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The Mail User Agent (<acronym>MUA</acronym>) is an
 	    application which is used to compose, send, and receive
 	    emails.  This application can be a command line program,
 	    such as the built-in <command>mail</command> utility or a
 	    third-party application from the Ports Collection, such as
 	    <application>mutt</application>,
 	    <application>alpine</application>, or
 	    <application>elm</application>.  Dozens of graphical
 	    programs are also available in the Ports Collection,
 	    including <application>Claws Mail</application>,
 	    <application>Evolution</application>, and
 	    <application>Thunderbird</application>.  Some
 	    organizations provide a web mail program which can be
 	    accessed through a web browser.  More information about
 	    installing and using a <acronym>MUA</acronym> on FreeBSD can
 	    be found in <xref linkend="mail-agents"/>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Mail Transfer Agent (<acronym>MTA</acronym>)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The Mail Transfer Agent (<acronym>MTA</acronym>) is
 	    responsible for receiving incoming mail and delivering
 	    outgoing mail.  FreeBSD ships with
 	    <application>Sendmail</application> as the default
 	    <acronym>MTA</acronym>, but it also supports numerous
 	    other mail server daemons, including
 	    <application>Exim</application>,
 	    <application>Postfix</application>, and
 	    <application>qmail</application>.
 	    <application>Sendmail</application> configuration is
 	    described in <xref linkend="sendmail"/>.  If another
 	    <acronym>MTA</acronym> is installed using the Ports
 	    Collection, refer to its post-installation message for
 	    FreeBSD-specific configuration details and the application's
 	    website for more general configuration
 	    instructions.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Mail Host and Mailboxes</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The mail host is a server that is responsible for
 	    delivering and receiving mail for a host or a network.
 	    The mail host collects all mail sent to the domain and
 	    stores it either in the default <filename>mbox</filename>
 	    or the alternative Maildir format, depending on the
 	    configuration.  Once mail has been stored, it may either
 	    be read locally using a <acronym>MUA</acronym> or remotely
 	    accessed and collected using protocols such as
 	    <acronym>POP</acronym> or <acronym>IMAP</acronym>.  If
 	    mail is read locally, a <acronym>POP</acronym> or
 	    <acronym>IMAP</acronym> server does not need to be
 	    installed.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To access mailboxes remotely, a <acronym>POP</acronym>
 	    or <acronym>IMAP</acronym> server is required as these
 	    protocols allow users to connect to their mailboxes from
 	    remote locations.  <acronym>IMAP</acronym> offers several
 	    advantages over <acronym>POP</acronym>.  These include the
 	    ability to store a copy of messages on a remote server
 	    after they are downloaded and concurrent updates.
 	    <acronym>IMAP</acronym> can be useful over low-speed links
 	    as it allows users to fetch the structure of messages
 	    without downloading them.  It can also perform tasks such
 	    as searching on the server in order to minimize data
 	    transfer between clients and servers.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Several <acronym>POP</acronym> and
 	    <acronym>IMAP</acronym> servers are available in the Ports
 	    Collection.  These include
 	    <package>mail/qpopper</package>,
 	    <package>mail/imap-uw</package>,
 	    <package>mail/courier-imap</package>, and
 	    <package>mail/dovecot2</package>.</para>
 
 	  <warning>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">It should be noted that both <acronym>POP</acronym>
 	      and <acronym>IMAP</acronym> transmit information,
 	      including username and password credentials, in
 	      clear-text.  To secure the transmission of information
 	      across these protocols, consider tunneling sessions over
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> (<xref linkend="security-ssh-tunneling"/>)
 	      or using <acronym>SSL</acronym> (<xref linkend="openssl"/>).</para>
 	  </warning>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term>網域名稱系統 (<acronym>DNS</acronym>)</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The Domain Name System (<acronym>DNS</acronym>) and
 	    its daemon <command>named</command> play a large role in
 	    the delivery of email.  In order to deliver mail from one
 	    site to another, the <acronym>MTA</acronym> will look up
 	    the remote site in <acronym>DNS</acronym> to determine
 	    which host will receive mail for the destination.  This
 	    process also occurs when mail is sent from a remote host
 	    to the <acronym>MTA</acronym>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In addition to mapping hostnames to
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses, <acronym>DNS</acronym> is
 	    responsible for storing information specific to mail
 	    delivery, known as Mail eXchanger
 	    <acronym>MX</acronym> records.  The <acronym>MX</acronym>
 	    record specifies which hosts will receive mail for a
 	    particular domain.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To view the <acronym>MX</acronym> records for a
 	    domain, specify the type of record.   Refer to
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>host</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, for more details about this command:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>host -t mx FreeBSD.org</userinput>
 FreeBSD.org mail is handled by 10 mx1.FreeBSD.org</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <xref linkend="network-dns"/> for more
 	    information about <acronym>DNS</acronym> and its
 	    configuration.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="sendmail">
     <info>
       <title><application>Sendmail</application> 設定檔</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Christopher</firstname>
 	    <surname>Shumway</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><application>Sendmail</application></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>Sendmail</application> is the default
       <acronym>MTA</acronym> installed with FreeBSD.  It accepts mail
       from <acronym>MUA</acronym>s and delivers it to the appropriate
       mail host, as defined by its configuration.
       <application>Sendmail</application> can also accept network
       connections and deliver mail to local mailboxes or to another
       program.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The configuration files for
       <application>Sendmail</application> are located in
       <filename>/etc/mail</filename>.  This section describes these
       files in more detail.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/access</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/local-host-names</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/mailer.conf</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/mailertable</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/sendmail.cf</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable</filename></primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail/access</filename></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This access database file defines which hosts or
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses have access to the local
 	    mail server and what kind of access they have.  Hosts
 	    listed as <option>OK</option>, which is the default
 	    option, are allowed to send mail to this host as long as
 	    the mail's final destination is the local machine.  Hosts
 	    listed as <option>REJECT</option> are rejected for all
 	    mail connections.  Hosts listed as <option>RELAY</option>
 	    are allowed to send mail for any destination using this
 	    mail server.  Hosts listed as <option>ERROR</option> will
 	    have their mail returned with the specified mail error.
 	    If a host is listed as <option>SKIP</option>,
 	    <application>Sendmail</application> will abort the current
 	    search for this entry without accepting or rejecting the
 	    mail.  Hosts listed as <option>QUARANTINE</option> will
 	    have their messages held and will receive the specified
 	    text as the reason for the hold.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Examples of using these options for both
 	    <acronym>IPv4</acronym> and <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	    addresses can be found in the FreeBSD sample configuration,
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/access.sample</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en"># $FreeBSD$
 #
 # Mail relay access control list.  Default is to reject mail unless the
 # destination is local, or listed in /etc/mail/local-host-names
 #
 ## Examples (commented out for safety)
 #From:cyberspammer.com          ERROR:"550 We don't accept mail from spammers"
 #From:okay.cyberspammer.com     OK
 #Connect:sendmail.org           RELAY
 #To:sendmail.org                RELAY
 #Connect:128.32                 RELAY
 #Connect:128.32.2               SKIP
 #Connect:IPv6:1:2:3:4:5:6:7     RELAY
 #Connect:suspicious.example.com QUARANTINE:Mail from suspicious host
 #Connect:[127.0.0.3]            OK
 #Connect:[IPv6:1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8] OK</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To configure the access database, use the format shown
 	    in the sample to make entries in
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/access</filename>, but do not put a
 	    comment symbol (<literal>#</literal>) in front of the
 	    entries.  Create an entry for each host or network whose
 	    access should be configured.  Mail senders that match the
 	    left side of the table are affected by the action on the
 	    right side of the table.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Whenever this file is updated, update its database and
 	    restart <application>Sendmail</application>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>makemap hash /etc/mail/access &lt; /etc/mail/access</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sendmail restart</userinput></screen>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This database file contains a list of virtual
 	    mailboxes that are expanded to users, files, programs, or
 	    other aliases.  Here are a few entries to illustrate the
 	    file format:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">root: localuser
 ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul
 bit.bucket:  /dev/null
 procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The mailbox name on the left side of the colon is
 	    expanded to the target(s) on the right.  The first entry
 	    expands the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>
 	    mailbox  to the <systemitem class="username">localuser</systemitem> mailbox, which
 	    is then looked up in the
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename> database.  If no
 	    match is found, the message is delivered to <systemitem class="username">localuser</systemitem>.  The second
 	    entry shows a mail list.  Mail to <systemitem class="username">ftp-bugs</systemitem> is expanded to
 	    the three local mailboxes <systemitem class="username">joe</systemitem>, <systemitem class="username">eric</systemitem>, and <systemitem class="username">paul</systemitem>.  A remote mailbox
 	    could be specified as
 	    <replaceable>user@example.com</replaceable>.  The third
 	    entry shows how to write mail to a file, in this case
 	    <filename>/dev/null</filename>.  The last entry
 	    demonstrates how to send mail to a program,
 	    <filename>/usr/local/bin/procmail</filename>, through a
 	    <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> pipe.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>aliases</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	    information about the format of this file.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Whenever this file is updated, run
 	    <command>newaliases</command> to update and initialize the
 	    aliases database.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 <!--
 This section needs to explain that this feature is for hosts with
 alternate names, such as a host that MXs for a dynamic set of other
 hosts.
 It won't work unless freebsd.mc is built with FEATURE(`use_cw_file'),
 meaning it needs a section to refer to on how to make mc files.
     <varlistentry>
       <term><filename>/etc/mail/local-host-names</filename></term>
       <listitem>
       <para>This is a list of hostnames <application>Sendmail</application> will accept
 	as the local host name.  Place any domains or hosts that
 	<application>Sendmail</application> will receive mail for.
 	For example, to configure a mail server to accept mail for the
 	domain <systemitem
 	  class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem> and the host
 	<systemitem
 	  class="fqdomainname">mail.example.com</systemitem>, add
 	these entries to
 	<filename>local-host-names</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting>example.com
 mail.example.com</programlisting>
 
     <para>Whenever this file is updated, &man.sendmail.8; needs to be
       restarted so that it will read the changes.</para>
   </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   -->
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail/sendmail.cf</filename></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This is the master configuration file for
 	    <application>Sendmail</application>.  It controls the
 	    overall behavior of <application>Sendmail</application>,
 	    including everything from rewriting email addresses to
 	    printing rejection messages to remote mail servers.
 	    Accordingly, this configuration file is quite complex.
 	    Fortunately, this file rarely needs to be changed for
 	    standard mail servers.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The master <application>Sendmail</application>
 	    configuration file can be built from <citerefentry><refentrytitle>m4</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> macros
 	    that define the features and behavior of
 	    <application>Sendmail</application>.  Refer to
 	    <filename>/usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README</filename>
 	    for some of the details.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Whenever changes to this file are made,
 	    <application>Sendmail</application> needs to be restarted
 	    for the changes to take effect.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable</filename></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This database file maps mail addresses for virtual
 	    domains and users to real mailboxes.  These mailboxes can
 	    be local, remote, aliases defined in
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/aliases</filename>, or files.  This
 	    allows multiple virtual domains to be hosted on one
 	    machine.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides a sample configuration file in
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable.sample</filename> to
 	    further demonstrate its format.  The following example
 	    demonstrates how to create custom entries using that
 	    format:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">root@example.com                root
 postmaster@example.com          postmaster@noc.example.net
 @example.com                    joe</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This file is processed in a first match order.   When
 	    an email address matches the address on the left, it is
 	    mapped to the local mailbox listed on the right.  The
 	    format of the first entry in this example maps a specific
 	    email address to a local mailbox, whereas the format of
 	    the second entry maps a specific email address to a remote
 	    mailbox.  Finally, any email address from
 	    <literal>example.com</literal> which has not matched any
 	    of the previous entries will match the last mapping and be
 	    sent to the local mailbox <literal>joe</literal>.  When
 	    creating custom entries, use this format and add them to
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/virtusertable</filename>.  Whenever
 	    this file is edited, update its database and restart
 	    <application>Sendmail</application>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>makemap hash /etc/mail/virtusertable &lt; /etc/mail/virtusertable</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sendmail restart</userinput></screen>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/mail/relay-domains</filename></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In a default FreeBSD installation,
 	    <application>Sendmail</application> is configured to only
 	    send mail from the host it is running on.  For example, if
 	    a <acronym>POP</acronym> server is available, users will
 	    be able to check mail from remote locations but they will
 	    not be able to send outgoing emails from outside
 	    locations.  Typically, a few moments after the attempt, an
 	    email will be sent from <literal>MAILER-DAEMON</literal>
 	    with a <errorname>5.7 Relaying Denied</errorname>
 	    message.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The most straightforward solution is to add the
 	    <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s <acronym>FQDN</acronym> to
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/relay-domains</filename>.  If multiple
 	    addresses are needed, add them one per
 	    line:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">your.isp.example.com
 other.isp.example.net
 users-isp.example.org
 www.example.org</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">After creating or editing this file, restart
 	    <application>Sendmail</application> with
 	    <command>service sendmail restart</command>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Now any mail sent through the system by any host in
 	    this list, provided the user has an account on the system,
 	    will succeed.  This allows users to send mail from the
 	    system remotely without opening the system up to relaying
 	    <acronym>SPAM</acronym> from the Internet.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-changingmta">
     <info>
       <title>更改郵件傳輸代理程式</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Andrew</firstname>
 	    <surname>Boothman</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Gregory</firstname>
 	    <surname>Neil Shapiro</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Information taken from emails written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>email</primary>
       <secondary>change mta</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD comes with <application>Sendmail</application> already
       installed as the <acronym>MTA</acronym> which is in charge of
       outgoing and incoming mail.  However, the system administrator
       can change the system's <acronym>MTA</acronym>.  A wide choice
       of alternative <acronym>MTA</acronym>s is available from the
       <literal>mail</literal> category of the FreeBSD Ports
       Collection.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once a new <acronym>MTA</acronym> is installed, configure
       and test the new software before replacing
       <application>Sendmail</application>.  Refer to the documentation
       of the new <acronym>MTA</acronym> for information on how to
       configure the software.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once the new <acronym>MTA</acronym> is working, use the
       instructions in this section to disable
       <application>Sendmail</application> and configure FreeBSD to use
       the replacement <acronym>MTA</acronym>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mail-disable-sendmail">
       <title>關閉 <application>Sendmail</application></title>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If <application>Sendmail</application>'s outgoing mail
 	  service is disabled, it is important that it is replaced
 	  with an alternative mail delivery system.  Otherwise, system
 	  functions such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>periodic</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will be unable to deliver
 	  their results by email.  Many parts of the system expect a
 	  functional <acronym>MTA</acronym>.  If applications continue
 	  to use <application>Sendmail</application>'s binaries to try
 	  to send email after they are disabled, mail could go into an
 	  inactive <application>Sendmail</application> queue and
 	  never be delivered.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to completely disable
 	<application>Sendmail</application>, add or edit the following
 	lines in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">sendmail_enable="NO"
 sendmail_submit_enable="NO"
 sendmail_outbound_enable="NO"
 sendmail_msp_queue_enable="NO"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To only disable <application>Sendmail</application>'s
 	incoming mail service, use only this entry in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">sendmail_enable="NO"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More information on <application>Sendmail</application>'s
 	startup options is available in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.sendmail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>替換預設的 <acronym>MTA</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When a new <acronym>MTA</acronym> is installed using the
 	Ports Collection, its startup script is also installed and
 	startup instructions are mentioned in its package message.
 	Before starting the new <acronym>MTA</acronym>, stop the
 	running <application>Sendmail</application> processes.  This
 	example stops all of these services, then starts the
 	<application>Postfix</application> service:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sendmail stop</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service postfix start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start the replacement <acronym>MTA</acronym> at system
 	boot, add its configuration line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  This entry enables the
 	Postfix <acronym>MTA</acronym>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">postfix_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some extra configuration is needed as
 	<application>Sendmail</application> is so ubiquitous that some
 	software assumes it is already installed and configured.
 	Check <filename>/etc/periodic.conf</filename> and make sure
 	that these values are set to <literal>NO</literal>.  If this
 	file does not exist, create it with these entries:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">daily_clean_hoststat_enable="NO"
 daily_status_mail_rejects_enable="NO"
 daily_status_include_submit_mailq="NO"
 daily_submit_queuerun="NO"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some alternative <acronym>MTA</acronym>s provide their own
 	compatible implementations of the
 	<application>Sendmail</application> command-line interface in
 	order to facilitate using them as drop-in replacements for
 	<application>Sendmail</application>.  However, some
 	<acronym>MUA</acronym>s may try to execute standard
 	<application>Sendmail</application> binaries instead of the
 	new <acronym>MTA</acronym>'s binaries.  FreeBSD uses
 	<filename>/etc/mail/mailer.conf</filename> to map the expected
 	<application>Sendmail</application> binaries to the location
 	of the new binaries.  More information about this mapping can
 	be found in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mailwrapper</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default <filename>/etc/mail/mailer.conf</filename>
 	looks like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># $FreeBSD$
 #
 # Execute the "real" sendmail program, named /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 #
 sendmail        /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 send-mail       /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 mailq           /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 newaliases      /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 hoststat        /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 purgestat       /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When any of the commands listed on the left are run, the
 	system actually executes the associated command shown on the
 	right.  This system makes it easy to change what binaries are
 	executed when these default binaries are invoked.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>MTA</acronym>s, when installed using the
 	Ports Collection, will prompt to update this file for the new
 	binaries.  For example, <application>Postfix</application>
 	will update the file like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#
 # Execute the Postfix sendmail program, named /usr/local/sbin/sendmail
 #
 sendmail        /usr/local/sbin/sendmail
 send-mail       /usr/local/sbin/sendmail
 mailq           /usr/local/sbin/sendmail
 newaliases      /usr/local/sbin/sendmail</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the installation of the <acronym>MTA</acronym> does
 	not automatically update
 	<filename>/etc/mail/mailer.conf</filename>, edit this file in
 	a text editor so that it points to the new binaries.  This
 	example points to the binaries installed by
 	<package>mail/ssmtp</package>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">sendmail        /usr/local/sbin/ssmtp
 send-mail       /usr/local/sbin/ssmtp
 mailq           /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 newaliases      /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 hoststat        /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail
 purgestat       /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once everything is configured, it is recommended to reboot
 	the system.  Rebooting provides the opportunity to ensure that
 	the system is correctly configured to start the new
 	<acronym>MTA</acronym> automatically on boot.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-trouble">
     <title>疑難排解</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>email</primary>
       <secondary>troubleshooting</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
 	<question>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my
 	    site?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The host may actually be in a different domain.  For
 	    example, in order for a host in <systemitem class="fqdomainname">foo.bar.edu</systemitem> to reach a
 	    host called <systemitem>mumble</systemitem> in the
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">bar.edu</systemitem>
 	    domain, refer to it by the Fully-Qualified Domain Name
 	    <acronym>FQDN</acronym>, <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mumble.bar.edu</systemitem>,
 	    instead of just <systemitem>mumble</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This is because the version of
 	    <application>BIND</application><indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>BIND</primary></indexterm> which ships with FreeBSD
 	    no longer provides default abbreviations for non-FQDNs
 	    other than the local domain.  An unqualified host such as
 	    <systemitem>mumble</systemitem> must either be found as
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mumble.foo.bar.edu</systemitem>, or
 	    it will be searched for in the root domain.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In older versions of <application>BIND</application>,
 	    the search continued across <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mumble.bar.edu</systemitem>, and
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mumble.edu</systemitem>.
 	    RFC 1535 details why this is considered bad practice or
 	    even a security hole.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">As a good workaround, place the line:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">search foo.bar.edu bar.edu</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">instead of the previous:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">domain foo.bar.edu</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">into <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>.  However,
 	    make sure that the search order does not go beyond the
 	    <quote>boundary between local and public
 	      administration</quote>, as RFC 1535 calls it.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">How can I run a mail server on a dial-up PPP
 	    host?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Connect to a FreeBSD mail gateway on the LAN.  The PPP
 	    connection is non-dedicated.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">One way to do this is to get a full-time Internet
 	    server to provide secondary
 	    <acronym>MX</acronym>
 	    <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MX record</primary></indexterm>
 	    services for the domain.  In this example, the domain is
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>
 	    and the ISP has configured
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.net</systemitem>
 	    to provide secondary <acronym>MX</acronym> services to the
 	    domain:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">example.com.          MX        10      example.com.
                       MX        20      example.net.</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Only one host should be specified as the final
 	    recipient.  For <application>Sendmail</application>, add
 	    <literal>Cw example.com</literal> in
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/sendmail.cf</filename> on <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When the sending <acronym>MTA</acronym> attempts
 	    to deliver mail, it will try to connect to the system,
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>,
 	    over the PPP link.  This will time out if the destination
 	    is offline.  The <acronym>MTA</acronym> will automatically
 	    deliver it to the secondary <acronym>MX</acronym> site at
 	    the Internet Service Provider (<acronym>ISP</acronym>),
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.net</systemitem>.
 	    The secondary <acronym>MX</acronym> site will periodically
 	    try to connect to the primary <acronym>MX</acronym> host,
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use something like this as a login script:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppmyisp
 ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) &amp;
 /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppmyisp</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">When creating a separate login script for users,
 	    instead use <command>sendmail -qRexample.com</command> in
 	    the script above.  This will force all mail in the queue
 	    for
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>
 	    to be processed immediately.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A further refinement of the situation can be seen from
 	    this example from the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-isp">FreeBSD Internet service provider's mailing list</link>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">&gt; we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to
 &gt; our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to
 &gt; his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains
 &gt; arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the
 &gt; moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is
 &gt; gone to the primary MX.
 &gt;
 &gt; Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails
 &gt; now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course.
 
 In the <quote>privacy flags</quote> section of sendmail.cf, there is a
 definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun
 
 Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing.
 You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our
 customers like this, and we have defined:
 
 # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating
 # local config error.
 OwTrue
 
 That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying
 the customer connection.  You then send to your customer.  Only works for
 <quote>hosts</quote>, so you need to get your customer to name their mail
 machine <quote>customer.com</quote> as well as
 <quote>hostname.customer.com</quote> in the DNS.  Just put an A record in
 the DNS for <quote>customer.com</quote>.</programlisting>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-advanced">
     <title>進階主題</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section covers more involved topics such as mail
       configuration and setting up mail for an entire domain.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mail-config">
       <title>基礎設定</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>email</primary>
 	<secondary>configuration</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Out of the box, one can send email to external hosts as
 	long as <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> is configured or
 	the network has access to a configured <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	server.  To have email delivered to the <acronym>MTA</acronym>
 	on the FreeBSD host, do one of the following:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Run a <acronym>DNS</acronym> server for the
 	    domain.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Get mail delivered directly to the
 	    <acronym>FQDN</acronym> for the machine.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>SMTP</primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to have mail delivered directly to a host, it
 	must have a permanent static IP address, not a dynamic IP
 	address.  If the system is behind a firewall, it must be
 	configured to allow SMTP traffic.  To receive mail directly at
 	a host, one of these two must be configured:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Make sure that the lowest-numbered
 	    <acronym>MX</acronym><indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>MX
 	      record</primary></indexterm> record in
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym> points to the host's static IP
 	    address.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Make sure there is no <acronym>MX</acronym> entry in
 	    the <acronym>DNS</acronym> for the host.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Either of the above will allow mail to be received
 	directly at the host.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Try this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hostname</userinput>
 example.FreeBSD.org
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>host example.FreeBSD.org</userinput>
 example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, mail sent directly to
 	<email role="nolink">yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org</email>
 	should work without problems, assuming
 	<application>Sendmail</application> is running correctly on
 	<systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.FreeBSD.org</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>host example.FreeBSD.org</userinput>
 example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX
 example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by nevdull.FreeBSD.org</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">All mail sent to <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.FreeBSD.org</systemitem> will
 	be collected on <systemitem>hub</systemitem> under the same
 	username instead of being sent directly to your host.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The above information is handled by the
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server.  The <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	record that carries mail routing information is the
 	<acronym>MX</acronym> entry.  If no <acronym>MX</acronym>
 	record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by
 	way of its IP address.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>MX</acronym> entry for <systemitem class="fqdomainname">freefall.FreeBSD.org</systemitem> at
 	one time looked like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">freefall		MX	30	mail.crl.net
 freefall		MX	40	agora.rdrop.com
 freefall		MX	10	freefall.FreeBSD.org
 freefall		MX	20	who.cdrom.com</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><systemitem>freefall</systemitem> had many
 	<acronym>MX</acronym> entries.  The lowest
 	<acronym>MX</acronym> number is the host that receives mail
 	directly, if available.  If it is not accessible for some
 	reason, the next lower-numbered host will accept messages
 	temporarily, and pass it along when a lower-numbered host
 	becomes available.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternate <acronym>MX</acronym> sites should have separate
 	Internet connections in order to be most useful.  Your
 	<acronym>ISP</acronym> can provide this service.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mail-domain">
       <title>網域中的郵件</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When configuring a <acronym>MTA</acronym> for a network,
 	any mail sent to hosts in its domain should be diverted to the
 	<acronym>MTA</acronym> so that users can receive their mail on
 	the master mail server.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DNS</primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">To make life easiest, a user account with the same
 	<emphasis>username</emphasis> should exist on both the
 	<acronym>MTA</acronym> and the system with the
 	<acronym>MUA</acronym>.  Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>adduser</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to create the
 	user accounts.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>MTA</acronym> must be the designated mail
 	exchanger for each workstation on the network.  This is done
 	in the<acronym>DNS</acronym> configuration with an
 	<acronym>MX</acronym> record:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">example.FreeBSD.org	A	204.216.27.XX		; Workstation
 			MX	10 nevdull.FreeBSD.org	; Mailhost</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will redirect mail for the workstation to the
 	<acronym>MTA</acronym> no matter where the A record points.
 	The mail is sent to the <acronym>MX</acronym> host.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This must be configured on a <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	server.  If the network does not run its own
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server, talk to the
 	<acronym>ISP</acronym> or <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	provider.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following is an example of virtual email hosting.
 	Consider a customer with the domain <systemitem class="fqdomainname">customer1.org</systemitem>, where all
 	the mail for <systemitem class="fqdomainname">customer1.org</systemitem> should be
 	sent to <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mail.myhost.com</systemitem>.  The
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> entry should look like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">customer1.org		MX	10	mail.myhost.com</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An <literal>A</literal>&gt; record is
 	<emphasis>not</emphasis> needed for <systemitem class="fqdomainname">customer1.org</systemitem> in order to
 	only handle email for that domain.  However, running
 	<command>ping</command> against <systemitem class="fqdomainname">customer1.org</systemitem> will not
 	work unless an <literal>A</literal> record exists for
 	it.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Tell the <acronym>MTA</acronym> which domains and/or
 	hostnames it should accept mail for.  Either of the following
 	will work for <application>Sendmail</application>:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add the hosts to
 	    <filename>/etc/mail/local-host-names</filename> when
 	    using the <literal>FEATURE(use_cw_file)</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add a <literal>Cwyour.host.com</literal> line to
 	    <filename>/etc/sendmail.cf</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="outgoing-only">
     <info>
       <title>寄件設定</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Bill</firstname>
 	    <surname>Moran</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">There are many instances where one may only want to send
       mail through a relay.  Some examples are:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The computer is a desktop machine that needs to use
 	  programs such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>send-pr</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, using the
 	  <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s mail relay.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The computer is a server that does not handle mail
 	  locally, but needs to pass off all mail to a relay for
 	  processing.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">While any <acronym>MTA</acronym> is capable of filling
       this particular niche, it can be difficult to properly configure
       a full-featured <acronym>MTA</acronym> just to handle offloading
       mail.  Programs such as <application>Sendmail</application> and
       <application>Postfix</application> are overkill for this
       use.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Additionally, a typical Internet access service agreement
       may forbid one from running a <quote>mail server</quote>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The easiest way to fulfill those needs is to install the
       <package>mail/ssmtp</package> port:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/mail/ssmtp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install replace clean</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once installed, <package>mail/ssmtp</package> can be
       configured with
       <filename>/usr/local/etc/ssmtp/ssmtp.conf</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">root=yourrealemail@example.com
 mailhub=mail.example.com
 rewriteDomain=example.com
 hostname=_HOSTNAME_</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Use the real email address for <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  Enter the
       <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s outgoing mail relay in place of
       <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mail.example.com</systemitem>.
       Some <acronym>ISP</acronym>s call this the <quote>outgoing mail
 	server</quote> or <quote>SMTP server</quote>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Make sure to disable <application>Sendmail</application>,
       including the outgoing mail service.  See <xref linkend="mail-disable-sendmail"/> for details.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><package>mail/ssmtp</package> has some other options
       available.  Refer to the examples in
       <filename>/usr/local/etc/ssmtp</filename> or the manual page
       of <application>ssmtp</application> for more information.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Setting up <application>ssmtp</application> in this manner
       allows any software on the computer that needs to send mail to
       function properly, while not violating the
       <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s usage policy or allowing the computer
       to be hijacked for spamming.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="SMTP-dialup">
     <title>在撥號連線使用郵件</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When using a static IP address, one should not need to
       adjust the default configuration.  Set the hostname to the
       assigned Internet name and <application>Sendmail</application>
       will do the rest.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When using a dynamically assigned IP address and a dialup
       PPP connection to the Internet, one usually has a mailbox on the
       <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s mail server.  In this example, the
       <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s domain is <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.net</systemitem>, the user name
       is <systemitem class="username">user</systemitem>, the hostname
       is <systemitem class="fqdomainname">bsd.home</systemitem>, and
       the <acronym>ISP</acronym> has allowed <systemitem class="fqdomainname">relay.example.net</systemitem> as a mail
       relay.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In order to retrieve mail from the <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s
       mailbox, install a retrieval agent from the Ports Collection.
       <package>mail/fetchmail</package> is a good choice as it
       supports many different protocols.  Usually, the
       <acronym>ISP</acronym> will provide <acronym>POP</acronym>.
       When using user <acronym>PPP</acronym>, email can be
       automatically fetched when an Internet connection is established
       with the following entry in
       <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">MYADDR:
 !bg su user -c fetchmail</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When using <application>Sendmail</application> to deliver
       mail to non-local accounts, configure
       <application>Sendmail</application> to process the mail queue as
       soon as the Internet connection is established.  To do this, add
       this line after the above <command>fetchmail</command> entry in
       <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">  !bg su user -c "sendmail -q"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In this example, there is an account for
       <systemitem class="username">user</systemitem> on <systemitem class="fqdomainname">bsd.home</systemitem>.  In the home
       directory of <systemitem class="username">user</systemitem> on
       <systemitem class="fqdomainname">bsd.home</systemitem>, create a
       <filename>.fetchmailrc</filename> which contains this
       line:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">poll example.net protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecret</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This file should not be readable by anyone except
       <systemitem class="username">user</systemitem> as it contains
       the password <literal>MySecret</literal>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In order to send mail with the correct
       <literal>from:</literal> header, configure
       <application>Sendmail</application> to use
       <email>user@example.net</email> rather than <email role="nolink">user@bsd.home</email> and to send all mail via
       <systemitem class="fqdomainname">relay.example.net</systemitem>,
       allowing quicker mail transmission.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following <filename>.mc</filename> should
       suffice:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0')
 OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl
 FEATURE(nouucp)dnl
 MAILER(local)dnl
 MAILER(smtp)dnl
 Cwlocalhost
 Cwbsd.home
 MASQUERADE_AS(`example.net')dnl
 FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl
 FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl
 FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl
 FEATURE(nodns)dnl
 define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.example.net')
 Dmbsd.home
 define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl
 define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnl</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Refer to the previous section for details of how to convert
       this file into the <filename>sendmail.cf</filename> format.  Do
       not forget to restart <application>Sendmail</application> after
       updating <filename>sendmail.cf</filename>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="SMTP-Auth">
     <info>
       <title>SMTP 認證</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>James</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gorham</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Configuring <acronym>SMTP</acronym> authentication on the
       <acronym>MTA</acronym> provides a number of benefits.
       <acronym>SMTP</acronym> authentication adds a layer
       of security to <application>Sendmail</application>, and provides
       mobile users who switch hosts the ability to use the same
       <acronym>MTA</acronym> without the need to reconfigure their
       mail client's settings each time.</para>
 
     <procedure>
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Install <package>security/cyrus-sasl2</package>
 	  from the Ports Collection.  This port supports a number of
 	  compile-time options.  For the SMTP authentication method
 	  demonstrated in this example, make sure that
 	  <option>LOGIN</option> is not disabled.</para>
       </step>
 
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">After installing
 	  <package>security/cyrus-sasl2</package>, edit
 	  <filename>/usr/local/lib/sasl2/Sendmail.conf</filename>,
 	  or create it if it does not exist, and add the following
 	  line:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pwcheck_method: saslauthd</programlisting>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Next, install
 	  <package>security/cyrus-sasl2-saslauthd</package> and add
 	  the following line to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">saslauthd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Finally, start the saslauthd daemon:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service saslauthd start</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This daemon serves as a broker for
 	  <application>Sendmail</application> to authenticate against
 	  the FreeBSD <citerefentry><refentrytitle>passwd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> database.  This saves the trouble of
 	  creating a new set of usernames and passwords for each user
 	  that needs to use <acronym>SMTP</acronym> authentication,
 	  and keeps the login and mail password the same.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Next, edit <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> and add
 	  the following lines:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">SENDMAIL_CFLAGS=-I/usr/local/include/sasl -DSASL
 SENDMAIL_LDFLAGS=-L/usr/local/lib
 SENDMAIL_LDADD=-lsasl2</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">These lines provide <application>Sendmail</application>
 	  the proper configuration options for linking to
 	  <package>cyrus-sasl2</package> at compile time.  Make sure
 	  that <package>cyrus-sasl2</package> has been installed
 	  before recompiling
 	  <application>Sendmail</application>.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Recompile <application>Sendmail</application> by
 	  executing the following commands:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/lib/libsmutil</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make cleandir &amp;&amp; make obj &amp;&amp; make</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/lib/libsm</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make cleandir &amp;&amp; make obj &amp;&amp; make</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make cleandir &amp;&amp; make obj &amp;&amp; make &amp;&amp; make install</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This compile should not have any problems if
 	  <filename>/usr/src</filename> has not changed extensively
 	  and the shared libraries it needs are available.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">After <application>Sendmail</application> has been
 	  compiled and reinstalled, edit
 	  <filename>/etc/mail/freebsd.mc</filename> or the local
 	  <filename>.mc</filename>.  Many administrators choose
 	  to use the output from <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostname</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> as the name of
 	  <filename>.mc</filename> for uniqueness.  Add these
 	  lines:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">dnl set SASL options
 TRUST_AUTH_MECH(`GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl
 define(`confAUTH_MECHANISMS', `GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">These options configure the different methods available
 	  to <application>Sendmail</application> for authenticating
 	  users.  To use a method other than
 	  <application>pwcheck</application>, refer to the
 	  <application>Sendmail</application> documentation.</para>
       </step>
 
       <step>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Finally, run <citerefentry><refentrytitle>make</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> while in
 	  <filename>/etc/mail</filename>.  That will run the new
 	  <filename>.mc</filename> and create a
 	  <filename>.cf</filename> named either
 	  <filename>freebsd.cf</filename> or the name used for the
 	  local <filename>.mc</filename>.  Then, run <command>make
 	    install restart</command>, which will copy the file to
 	  <filename>sendmail.cf</filename>, and properly restart
 	  <application>Sendmail</application>.  For more information
 	  about this process, refer to
 	  <filename>/etc/mail/Makefile</filename>.</para>
       </step>
     </procedure>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To test the configuration, use a <acronym>MUA</acronym> to
       send a test message.  For further investigation, set the
       <option>LogLevel</option> of <application>Sendmail</application>
       to <literal>13</literal> and watch
       <filename>/var/log/maillog</filename> for any errors.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">For more information, refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.sendmail.org/~ca/email/auth.html">
 	<acronym>SMTP</acronym> authentication</link>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-agents">
     <info>
       <title>郵件使用者代理程式</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Silver</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Mail User Agents</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A <acronym>MUA</acronym> is an application that is used to
       send and receive email.  As email <quote>evolves</quote> and
       becomes more complex, <acronym>MUA</acronym>s are becoming
       increasingly powerful and provide users increased functionality
       and flexibility.  The <literal>mail</literal> category of the
       FreeBSD Ports Collection contains numerous <acronym>MUA</acronym>s.
       These include graphical email clients such as
       <application>Evolution</application> or
       <application>Balsa</application> and console based clients such
       as <application>mutt</application> or
       <application>alpine</application>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mail-command">
       <title xml:lang="en"><command>mail</command></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>mail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> is the default
 	<acronym>MUA</acronym> installed with FreeBSD.  It is a console
 	based <acronym>MUA</acronym> that offers the basic
 	functionality required to send and receive text-based email.
 	It provides limited attachment support and can only access
 	local mailboxes.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Although <command>mail</command> does not natively support
 	interaction with <acronym>POP</acronym> or
 	<acronym>IMAP</acronym> servers, these mailboxes may be
 	downloaded to a local <filename>mbox</filename> using an
 	application such as
 	<application>fetchmail</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to send and receive email, run
 	<command>mail</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mail</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The contents of the user's mailbox in
 	<filename>/var/mail</filename> are automatically read by
 	<command>mail</command>.  Should the mailbox be empty, the
 	utility exits with a message indicating that no mail could
 	be found.  If mail exists, the application interface starts,
 	and a list of messages will be displayed.  Messages are
 	automatically numbered, as can be seen in the following
 	example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">Mail version 8.1 6/6/93.  Type ? for help.
 "/var/mail/marcs": 3 messages 3 new
 &gt;N  1 root@localhost        Mon Mar  8 14:05  14/510   "test"
  N  2 root@localhost        Mon Mar  8 14:05  14/509   "user account"
  N  3 root@localhost        Mon Mar  8 14:05  14/509   "sample"</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Messages can now be read by typing <keycap>t</keycap>
 	followed by the message number.  This example reads the first
 	email:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">&amp; <userinput>t 1</userinput>
 Message 1:
 From root@localhost  Mon Mar  8 14:05:52 2004
 X-Original-To: marcs@localhost
 Delivered-To: marcs@localhost
 To: marcs@localhost
 Subject: test
 Date: Mon,  8 Mar 2004 14:05:52 +0200 (SAST)
 From: root@localhost (Charlie Root)
 
 This is a test message, please reply if you receive it.</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As seen in this example, the message will be displayed
 	with full headers.  To display the list of messages again,
 	press <keycap>h</keycap>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the email requires a reply, press either
 	<keycap>R</keycap> or <keycap>r</keycap>
 	<command>mail</command> keys.  <keycap>R</keycap> instructs
 	<command>mail</command> to reply only to the sender of the
 	email, while <keycap>r</keycap> replies to all other
 	recipients of the message.  These commands can be suffixed
 	with the mail number of the message to reply to.  After typing
 	the response, the end of the message should be marked by a
 	single <keycap>.</keycap> on its own line.  An example can be
 	seen below:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">&amp; <userinput>R 1</userinput>
 To: root@localhost
 Subject: Re: test
 
 <userinput>Thank you, I did get your email.
 .</userinput>
 EOT</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to send a new email, press <keycap>m</keycap>,
 	followed by the recipient email address.  Multiple recipients
 	may be specified by separating each address with the
 	<keycap>,</keycap> delimiter.  The subject of the message may
 	then be entered, followed by the message contents.  The end of
 	the message should be specified by putting a single
 	<keycap>.</keycap> on its own line.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">&amp; <userinput>mail root@localhost</userinput>
 Subject: <userinput>I mastered mail
 
 Now I can send and receive email using mail ... :)
 .</userinput>
 EOT</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While using <command>mail</command>, press
 	<keycap>?</keycap> to display help at any time.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>mail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more help on how to use
 	<command>mail</command>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>mail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> was not designed to handle attachments and
 	  thus deals with them poorly.  Newer <acronym>MUA</acronym>s
 	  handle attachments in a more intelligent way.  Users who
 	  prefer to use <command>mail</command> may find the
 	  <package>converters/mpack</package> port to be of
 	  considerable use.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="mutt-command">
       <title xml:lang="en"><application>mutt</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>mutt</application> is a powerful
 	<acronym>MUA</acronym>, with many features, including:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The ability to thread messages.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">PGP support for digital signing and encryption of
 	    email.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">MIME support.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Maildir support.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Highly customizable.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <uri xlink:href="http://www.mutt.org">http://www.mutt.org</uri>
 	for more information on
 	<application>mutt</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>mutt</application> may be installed using the
 	<package>mail/mutt</package> port.  After the port has been
 	installed, <application>mutt</application> can be started by
 	issuing the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mutt</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>mutt</application> will automatically read
 	and display the contents of the user mailbox in
 	<filename>/var/mail</filename>.  If no mails are found,
 	<application>mutt</application> will wait for commands from
 	the user.  The example below shows
 	<application>mutt</application> displaying a list of
 	messages:</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/mutt1"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To read an email, select it using the cursor keys and
 	press <keycap>Enter</keycap>.  An example of
 	<application>mutt</application> displaying email can be seen
 	below:</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/mutt2"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Similar to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <application>mutt</application>
 	can be used to reply only to the sender of the message as well
 	as to all recipients.  To reply only to the sender of the
 	email, press <keycap>r</keycap>.  To send a group reply
 	to the original sender as well as all the message recipients,
 	press <keycap>g</keycap>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">By default, <application>mutt</application> uses the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> editor for creating and replying to emails.  Each
 	  user can customize this by creating or editing the
 	  <filename>.muttrc</filename> in their home directory and
 	  setting the <literal>editor</literal> variable or by setting
 	  the <envar>EDITOR</envar> environment variable.  Refer to
 	  <uri xlink:href="http://www.mutt.org/">http://www.mutt.org/</uri>
 	  for more information about configuring
 	  <application>mutt</application>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To compose a new mail message, press
 	<keycap>m</keycap>.  After a valid subject has been given,
 	<application>mutt</application> will start <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> so the
 	email can be written.  Once the contents of the email are
 	complete, save and quit from <command>vi</command>.
 	<application>mutt</application> will resume, displaying a
 	summary screen of the mail that is to be delivered.  In
 	order to send the mail, press <keycap>y</keycap>.  An example
 	of the summary screen can be seen below:</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/mutt3"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>mutt</application> contains extensive help
 	which can be accessed from most of the menus by pressing
 	<keycap>?</keycap>.  The top line also displays the keyboard
 	shortcuts where appropriate.</para>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="alpine-command">
       <title xml:lang="en"><application>alpine</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>alpine</application> is aimed at a beginner
 	user, but also includes some advanced features.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>alpine</application> has had several remote
 	  vulnerabilities discovered in the past, which allowed remote
 	  attackers to execute arbitrary code as users on the local
 	  system, by the action of sending a specially-prepared email.
 	  While <emphasis>known</emphasis> problems have been fixed,
 	  <application>alpine</application> code is written in an
 	  insecure style and the FreeBSD Security Officer believes there
 	  are likely to be other undiscovered vulnerabilities.  Users
 	  install <application>alpine</application> at their own
 	  risk.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The current version of <application>alpine</application>
 	may be installed using the <package>mail/alpine</package>
 	port.  Once the port has installed,
 	<application>alpine</application> can be started by issuing
 	the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>alpine</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first time <application>alpine</application>
 	runs, it displays a greeting page with a brief introduction,
 	as well as a request from the
 	<application>alpine</application> development team to send
 	an anonymous email message allowing them to judge how many
 	users are using their client.  To send this anonymous message,
 	press <keycap>Enter</keycap>.  Alternatively, press
 	<keycap>E</keycap> to exit the greeting without sending an
 	anonymous message.  An example of the greeting page is
 	shown below:</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/pine1"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The main menu is then presented, which can be navigated
 	using the cursor keys.  This main menu provides shortcuts for
 	the composing new mails, browsing mail directories, and
 	administering address book entries.  Below the main menu,
 	relevant keyboard shortcuts to perform functions specific to
 	the task at hand are shown.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default directory opened by
 	<application>alpine</application> is
 	<filename>inbox</filename>.  To view the message index, press
 	<keycap>I</keycap>, or select the
 	<guimenuitem>MESSAGE INDEX</guimenuitem> option shown
 	below:</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/pine2"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The message index shows messages in the current directory
 	and can be navigated by using the cursor keys.  Highlighted
 	messages can be read by pressing
 	<keycap>Enter</keycap>.</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/pine3"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In the screenshot below, a sample message is displayed by
 	<application>alpine</application>.  Contextual keyboard
 	shortcuts are displayed at the bottom of the screen.  An
 	example of one of a shortcut is <keycap>r</keycap>, which
 	tells the <acronym>MUA</acronym> to reply to the current
 	message being displayed.</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/pine4"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replying to an email in <application>alpine</application>
 	is done using the <application>pico</application> editor,
 	which is installed by default with
 	<application>alpine</application>.
 	<application>pico</application> makes it easy to navigate the
 	message and is easier for novice users to use than <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Once the reply is complete, the message can
 	be sent by pressing <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>Ctrl</keycap><keycap>X</keycap>
 	</keycombo>.  <application>alpine</application> will ask for
 	confirmation before sending the message.</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="mail/pine5"/>
 	</imageobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>alpine</application> can be customized using
 	the <guimenuitem>SETUP</guimenuitem> option from the main
 	menu.  Consult <uri xlink:href="http://www.washington.edu/alpine/">http://www.washington.edu/alpine/</uri>
 	for more information.</para>
 
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-fetchmail">
     <info>
       <title>使用 <application>fetchmail</application></title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Silver</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>fetchmail</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>fetchmail</application> is a full-featured
       <acronym>IMAP</acronym> and <acronym>POP</acronym> client.  It
       allows users to automatically download mail from remote
       <acronym>IMAP</acronym> and <acronym>POP</acronym> servers and
       save it into local mailboxes where it can be accessed more
       easily.  <application>fetchmail</application> can be installed
       using the <package>mail/fetchmail</package> port, and offers
       various features, including:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Support for the <acronym>POP3</acronym>,
 	  <acronym>APOP</acronym>, <acronym>KPOP</acronym>,
 	  <acronym>IMAP</acronym>, <acronym>ETRN</acronym> and
 	  <acronym>ODMR</acronym> protocols.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Ability to forward mail using <acronym>SMTP</acronym>,
 	  which allows filtering, forwarding, and aliasing to function
 	  normally.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">May be run in daemon mode to check periodically for new
 	  messages.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Can retrieve multiple mailboxes and forward them, based
 	  on configuration, to different local users.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section explains some of the basic features of
       <application>fetchmail</application>.  This utility requires a
       <filename>.fetchmailrc</filename> configuration in the user's
       home directory in order to run correctly.  This file includes
       server information as well as login credentials.  Due to the
       sensitive nature of the contents of this file, it is advisable
       to make it readable only by the user, with the following
       command:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>chmod 600 .fetchmailrc</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following <filename>.fetchmailrc</filename> serves as an
       example for downloading a single user mailbox using
       <acronym>POP</acronym>.  It tells
       <application>fetchmail</application> to connect to
       <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem> using
       a username of <systemitem class="username">joesoap</systemitem>
       and a password of <literal>XXX</literal>.  This example assumes
       that the user <systemitem class="username">joesoap</systemitem>
       exists on the local system.</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">poll example.com protocol pop3 username "joesoap" password "XXX"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The next example connects to multiple <acronym>POP</acronym>
       and <acronym>IMAP</acronym> servers and redirects to different
       local usernames where applicable:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">poll example.com proto pop3:
 user "joesoap", with password "XXX", is "jsoap" here;
 user "andrea", with password "XXXX";
 poll example2.net proto imap:
 user "john", with password "XXXXX", is "myth" here;</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>fetchmail</application> can be run in daemon
       mode by running it with <option>-d</option>, followed by the
       interval (in seconds) that <application>fetchmail</application>
       should poll servers listed in <filename>.fetchmailrc</filename>.
       The following example configures
       <application>fetchmail</application> to poll every 600
       seconds:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>fetchmail -d 600</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">More information on <application>fetchmail</application> can
       be found at <uri xlink:href="http://www.fetchmail.info/">http://www.fetchmail.info/</uri>.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mail-procmail">
     <info>
       <title>使用 <application>procmail</application></title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Silver</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>procmail</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>procmail</application> is a powerful
       application used to filter incoming mail.  It allows users to
       define <quote>rules</quote> which can be matched to incoming
       mails to perform specific functions or to reroute mail to
       alternative mailboxes or email addresses.
       <application>procmail</application> can be installed using the
       <package>mail/procmail</package> port.  Once installed, it can
       be directly integrated into most <acronym>MTA</acronym>s.
       Consult the <acronym>MTA</acronym> documentation for more
       information.  Alternatively, <application>procmail</application>
       can be integrated by adding the following line to a
       <filename>.forward</filename> in the home directory of the
       user:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">"|exec /usr/local/bin/procmail || exit 75"</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following section displays some basic
       <application>procmail</application> rules, as well as brief
       descriptions of what they do.  Rules must be inserted into a
       <filename>.procmailrc</filename>, which must reside in the
       user's home directory.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The majority of these rules can be found in
       <citerefentry vendor="ports"><refentrytitle>procmailex</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To forward all mail from <email>user@example.com</email> to
       an external address of <email role="nolink">goodmail@example2.com</email>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">:0
 * ^From.*user@example.com
 ! goodmail@example2.com</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To forward all mails shorter than 1000 bytes to an external
       address of <email role="nolink">goodmail@example2.com</email>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">:0
 * &lt; 1000
 ! goodmail@example2.com</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To send all mail sent to
       <email>alternate@example.com</email> to a mailbox called
       <filename>alternate</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">:0
 * ^TOalternate@example.com
 alternate</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To send all mail with a subject of <quote>Spam</quote> to
       <filename>/dev/null</filename>:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">:0
 ^Subject:.*Spam
 /dev/null</programlisting>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A useful recipe that parses incoming <systemitem class="fqdomainname">FreeBSD.org</systemitem> mailing lists and
       places each list in its own mailbox:</para>
 
     <programlisting xml:lang="en">:0
 * ^Sender:.owner-freebsd-\/[^@]+@FreeBSD.ORG
 {
 	LISTNAME=${MATCH}
 	:0
 	* LISTNAME??^\/[^@]+
 	FreeBSD-${MATCH}
 }</programlisting>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="network-servers">
   <!--
   <chapterinfo>
     <authorgroup>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	<surname>Stokely</surname>
 	<contrib>Reorganized by in July 2004</contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </chapterinfo>
   -->
 
   <title>網路伺服器</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-servers-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>本章節涵蓋一些在 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 系統常用的網路服務，包含安裝、設定、測試及維護各種不同類型的網路服務。本章會提供範例設定檔以供參考。</para>
 
     <para>讀完本章，您將了解：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何管理 <application>inetd</application> Daemon。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定網路檔案系統 (Network File System, <acronym>NFS</acronym>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定網路資訊伺服器 (Network Information Server, <acronym>NIS</acronym>) 來集中管理及共用使用者帳號。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 FreeBSD 成為 <acronym>LDAP</acronym> 伺服器或客戶端。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定使用 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 自動網路設定。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定網域名稱伺服器 (Domain Name Server, <acronym>DNS</acronym>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 <application>Apache</application> <acronym>HTTP</acronym> 伺服器。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定檔案傳輸協定 (File Transfer Protocol, <acronym>FTP</acronym>) 伺服器。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 <application>Samba</application> 檔案與列印伺服器供 <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 客戶端使用。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何同步時間與日期，並使用網路時間協定 (Network Time Protocol, <acronym>NTP</acronym>) 設定時間伺服器。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>如何設定 <acronym>iSCSI</acronym>。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>本章假設您有以下基礎知識：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para><filename>/etc/rc</filename> Script。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>網路術語。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>安裝其他第三方軟體 (<xref linkend="ports"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-inetd">
     <title><application>inetd</application> 超級伺服器</title>
 
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Chern</firstname>
 	  <surname>Lee</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <contrib>Updated by </contrib>
 	  <othername>The &os; Documentation Project</othername>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is sometimes referred to as a
       Super-Server because it manages connections for many services.
       Instead of starting multiple applications, only the
       <application>inetd</application> service needs to be started.
       When a connection is received for a service that is managed by
       <application>inetd</application>, it determines which program
       the connection is destined for, spawns a process for that
       program, and delegates the program a socket.  Using
       <application>inetd</application> for services that are not
       heavily used can reduce system load, when compared to running
       each daemon individually in stand-alone mode.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Primarily, <application>inetd</application> is used to
       spawn other daemons, but several trivial protocols are handled
       internally, such as <application>chargen</application>,
       <application>auth</application>,
       <application>time</application>,
       <application>echo</application>,
       <application>discard</application>, and
       <application>daytime</application>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section covers the basics of configuring
       <application>inetd</application>.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-inetd-conf">
       <title>設定檔</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Configuration of <application>inetd</application> is
 	done by editing <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename>.  Each
 	line of this configuration file represents an application
 	which can be started by <application>inetd</application>.  By
 	default, every line starts with a comment
 	(<literal>#</literal>), meaning that
 	<application>inetd</application> is not listening for any
 	applications.  To configure <application>inetd</application>
 	to listen for an application's connections, remove the
 	<literal>#</literal> at the beginning of the line for that
 	application.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After saving your edits, configure
 	<application>inetd</application> to start at system boot by
 	editing <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">inetd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start  <application>inetd</application> now, so that it
 	listens for the service you configured, type:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service inetd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once <application>inetd</application> is started, it needs
 	to be notified whenever a modification is made to
 	<filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <example xml:id="network-inetd-reread">
 	<title>重新庫入 <application>inetd</application> 設定檔</title>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service inetd reload</userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Typically, the default entry for an application does not
 	need to be edited beyond removing the <literal>#</literal>.
 	In some situations, it may be appropriate to edit the default
 	entry.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As an example, this is the default entry for <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ftpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	over IPv4:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ftp     stream  tcp     nowait  root    /usr/libexec/ftpd       ftpd -l</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The seven columns in an entry are as follows:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">service-name
 socket-type
 protocol
 {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute[/max-child-per-ip]]]
 user[:group][/login-class]
 server-program
 server-program-arguments</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">service-name</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The service name of the daemon to start.  It must
 	      correspond to a service listed in
 	      <filename>/etc/services</filename>.  This determines
 	      which port <application>inetd</application> listens on
 	      for incoming connections to that service.  When using a
 	      custom service, it must first be added to
 	      <filename>/etc/services</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">socket-type</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Either <literal>stream</literal>,
 	      <literal>dgram</literal>, <literal>raw</literal>, or
 	      <literal>seqpacket</literal>.  Use
 	      <literal>stream</literal> for TCP connections and
 	      <literal>dgram</literal> for
 	      <acronym>UDP</acronym> services.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">protocol</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Use one of the following protocol names:</para>
 
 	    <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	      <tgroup cols="2">
 		<thead>
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">Protocol Name</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">Explanation</entry>
 		  </row>
 		</thead>
 
 		<tbody>
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">tcp or tcp4</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">TCP IPv4</entry>
 		  </row>
 
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">udp or udp4</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>UDP</acronym> IPv4</entry>
 		  </row>
 
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">tcp6</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">TCP IPv6</entry>
 		  </row>
 
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">udp6</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>UDP</acronym> IPv6</entry>
 		  </row>
 
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">tcp46</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">Both TCP IPv4 and IPv6</entry>
 		  </row>
 
 		  <row>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">udp46</entry>
 		    <entry xml:lang="en">Both <acronym>UDP</acronym> IPv4 and
 		      IPv6</entry>
 		  </row>
 		</tbody>
 	      </tgroup>
 	    </informaltable>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">{wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute[/max-child-per-ip]]]</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">In this field, <option>wait</option> or
 	      <option>nowait</option> must be specified.
 	      <option>max-child</option>,
 	      <option>max-connections-per-ip-per-minute</option> and
 	      <option>max-child-per-ip</option> are optional.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><option>wait|nowait</option> indicates whether or
 	      not the service is able to handle its own socket.
 	      <option>dgram</option> socket types must use
 	      <option>wait</option> while
 	      <option>stream</option> daemons, which are usually
 	      multi-threaded, should use <option>nowait</option>.
 	      <option>wait</option> usually hands off multiple sockets
 	      to a single daemon, while <option>nowait</option> spawns
 	      a child daemon for each new socket.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The maximum number of child daemons
 	      <application>inetd</application> may spawn is set by
 	      <option>max-child</option>.  For example, to limit ten
 	      instances of the daemon, place a <literal>/10</literal>
 	      after <option>nowait</option>.  Specifying
 	      <literal>/0</literal> allows an unlimited number of
 	      children.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><option>max-connections-per-ip-per-minute</option>
 	      limits the number of connections from any particular
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address per minute.  Once the
 	      limit  is reached, further connections from this IP
 	      address will be dropped until the end of the minute.
 	      For example, a value of <literal>/10</literal> would
 	      limit any particular <acronym>IP</acronym> address to
 	      ten connection attempts per minute.
 	      <option>max-child-per-ip</option> limits the number of
 	      child processes that can be started on behalf on any
 	      single <acronym>IP</acronym> address at any moment.
 	      These options can limit excessive resource consumption
 	      and help to prevent Denial of Service attacks.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">An example can be seen in the default settings for
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fingerd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">finger stream  tcp     nowait/3/10 nobody /usr/libexec/fingerd fingerd -k -s</programlisting>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">user</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The username the daemon
 	      will run as.  Daemons typically run as
 	      <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>,
 	      <systemitem class="username">daemon</systemitem>, or
 	      <systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">server-program</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The full path to the daemon.  If the daemon is a
 	      service provided by <application>inetd</application>
 	      internally, use <option>internal</option>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">server-program-arguments</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Used to specify any command arguments to be passed
 	      to the daemon on invocation.  If the daemon is an
 	      internal service, use
 	      <option>internal</option>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-inetd-cmdline">
       <title>指令列選項</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Like most server daemons, <application>inetd</application>
 	has a number of options that can be used to modify its
 	behavior.  By default, <application>inetd</application> is
 	started with <literal>-wW -C 60</literal>.  These options
 	enable TCP wrappers for all services, including internal
 	services, and prevent any <acronym>IP</acronym> address from
 	requesting any service more than 60 times per minute.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To change the default options which are passed to
 	<application>inetd</application>, add an entry for
 	<literal>inetd_flags</literal> in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  If
 	<application>inetd</application> is already running, restart
 	it with <command>service inetd restart</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The available rate limiting options are:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">-c maximum</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Specify the default maximum number of simultaneous
 	      invocations of each service, where the default is
 	      unlimited.  May be overridden on a per-service basis by
 	      using <option>max-child</option> in
 	      <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">-C rate</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Specify the default maximum number of times a
 	      service can be invoked from a single
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address per minute.  May be
 	      overridden on a per-service basis by using
 	      <option>max-connections-per-ip-per-minute</option> in
 	      <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">-R rate</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Specify the maximum number of times a service can be
 	      invoked in one minute, where the default is
 	      <literal>256</literal>.  A rate of <literal>0</literal>
 	      allows an unlimited number.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">-s maximum</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Specify the maximum number of times a service can be
 	      invoked from a single <acronym>IP</acronym> address at
 	      any one time, where the default is unlimited.  May be
 	      overridden on a per-service basis by using
 	      <option>max-child-per-ip</option> in
 	      <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Additional options are available.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	for the full list of options.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-inetd-security">
       <title>安全注意事項</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Many of the daemons which can be managed by
 	<application>inetd</application> are not security-conscious.
 	Some daemons, such as <application>fingerd</application>, can
 	provide information that may be useful to an attacker.  Only
 	enable the services which are needed and monitor the system
 	for excessive connection attempts.
 	<literal>max-connections-per-ip-per-minute</literal>,
 	<literal>max-child</literal> and
 	<literal>max-child-per-ip</literal> can be used to limit such
 	attacks.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, TCP wrappers is enabled.  Consult
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts_access</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information on placing TCP
 	restrictions on various
 	<application>inetd</application> invoked daemons.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-nfs">
     <info>
       <title>網路檔案系統 (NFS)</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Reorganized and enhanced by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Bill</firstname>
 	    <surname>Swingle</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NFS</primary></indexterm>
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD supports the Network File System
       (<acronym>NFS</acronym>), which allows a server to share
       directories and files with clients over a network.  With
       <acronym>NFS</acronym>, users and programs can access files on
       remote systems as if they were stored locally.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NFS</acronym> has many practical uses.  Some of
       the more common uses include:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Data that would otherwise be duplicated on each client
 	  can be kept in a single location and accessed by clients
 	  on the network.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Several clients may need access to the
 	  <filename>/usr/ports/distfiles</filename> directory.
 	  Sharing that directory allows for quick access to the
 	  source files without having to download them to each
 	  client.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">On large networks, it is often more convenient to
 	  configure a central <acronym>NFS</acronym> server on which
 	  all user home directories are stored.  Users can log into
 	  a client anywhere on the network and have access to their
 	  home directories.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Administration of <acronym>NFS</acronym> exports is
 	  simplified.  For example, there is only one file system
 	  where security or backup policies must be set.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Removable media storage devices can be used by other
 	  machines on the network.  This reduces the number of devices
 	  throughout the network and provides a centralized location
 	  to manage their security.  It is often more convenient to
 	  install software on multiple machines from a centralized
 	  installation media.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NFS</acronym> consists of a server and one or more
       clients.  The client remotely accesses the data that is stored
       on the server machine.  In order for this to function properly,
       a few processes have to be configured and running.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">These daemons must be running on the server:</para>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>NFS</primary>
 	<secondary>server</secondary>
      </indexterm>
      <indexterm xml:lang="en">
        <primary>file server</primary>
 	<secondary>UNIX clients</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>rpcbind</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>mountd</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>nfsd</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="3*"/>
 
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Daemon</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><application>nfsd</application></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The <acronym>NFS</acronym> daemon which services
 		requests from <acronym>NFS</acronym> clients.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><application>mountd</application></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The <acronym>NFS</acronym> mount daemon which
 		carries out requests received from
 		<application>nfsd</application>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><application>rpcbind</application></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"> This daemon allows <acronym>NFS</acronym>
 		clients to discover which port the
 		<acronym>NFS</acronym> server is using.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Running <citerefentry><refentrytitle>nfsiod</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> on the client can improve
 	performance, but is not required.</para>
 
       <sect2 xml:id="network-configuring-nfs">
-	<title>設定伺服哭</title>
+	<title>設定伺服器</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>NFS</primary>
 	  <secondary>configuration</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The file systems which the <acronym>NFS</acronym> server
 	will share are specified in <filename>/etc/exports</filename>.
 	Each line in this file specifies a file system to be exported,
 	which clients have access to that file system, and any access
 	options.  When adding entries to this file, each exported file
 	system, its properties, and allowed hosts must occur on a
 	single line.  If no clients are listed in the entry, then any
 	client on the network can mount that file system.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>NFS</primary>
 	<secondary>export examples</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following <filename>/etc/exports</filename> entries
 	demonstrate how to export file systems.  The examples can be
 	modified to match the file systems and client names on the
 	reader's network.  There are many options that can be used in
 	this file, but only a few will be mentioned here.  See
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>exports</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the full list of options.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example shows how to export
 	<filename>/cdrom</filename> to three hosts named
 	<replaceable>alpha</replaceable>,
 	<replaceable>bravo</replaceable>, and
 	<replaceable>charlie</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/cdrom -ro <replaceable>alpha</replaceable> <replaceable>bravo</replaceable> <replaceable>charlie</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>-ro</literal> flag makes the file system
 	read-only, preventing clients from making any changes to the
 	exported file system.  This example assumes that the host
 	names are either in <acronym>DNS</acronym> or in
 	<filename>/etc/hosts</filename>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hosts</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> if
 	the network does not have a <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	server.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next example exports <filename>/home</filename> to
 	three clients by <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  This can be
 	useful for networks without <acronym>DNS</acronym> or
 	<filename>/etc/hosts</filename> entries.  The
 	<literal>-alldirs</literal> flag allows subdirectories to be
 	mount points.  In other words, it will not automatically mount
 	the subdirectories, but will permit the client to mount the
 	directories that are required as needed.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/usr/home  -alldirs  10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This next example exports <filename>/a</filename> so that
 	two clients from different domains may access that file
 	system.  The <option>-maproot=root</option> allows <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> on the remote system to
 	write data on the exported file system as <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>.  If
 	<literal>-maproot=root</literal> is not specified, the
 	client's <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> user
 	will be mapped to the server's <systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem> account and will be
 	subject to the access limitations defined for <systemitem class="username">nobody</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/a  -maproot=root  host.example.com box.example.org</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A client can only be specified once per file system.  For
 	example, if <filename>/usr</filename> is a single file system,
 	these entries would be invalid as both entries specify the
 	same host:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Invalid when /usr is one file system
 /usr/src   client
 /usr/ports client</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The correct format for this situation is to use one
 	entry:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">/usr/src /usr/ports  client</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following is an example of a valid export list, where
 	<filename>/usr</filename> and <filename>/exports</filename>
 	are local file systems:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Export src and ports to client01 and client02, but only
 # client01 has root privileges on it
 /usr/src /usr/ports -maproot=root    client01
 /usr/src /usr/ports               client02
 # The client machines have root and can mount anywhere
 # on /exports. Anyone in the world can mount /exports/obj read-only
 /exports -alldirs -maproot=root      client01 client02
 /exports/obj -ro</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable the processes required by the
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> server at boot time, add these options
 	to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rpcbind_enable="YES"
 nfs_server_enable="YES"
 mountd_flags="-r"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The server can be started now by running this
 	command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service nfsd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Whenever the <acronym>NFS</acronym> server is started,
 	<application>mountd</application> also starts automatically.
 	However, <application>mountd</application> only reads
 	<filename>/etc/exports</filename> when it is started.  To make
 	subsequent <filename>/etc/exports</filename> edits take effect
 	immediately, force <application>mountd</application> to reread
 	it:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service mountd reload</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定客戶端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <acronym>NFS</acronym> clients, set this option
 	in each client's <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">nfs_client_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, run this command on each <acronym>NFS</acronym>
 	client:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service nfsclient start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The client now has everything it needs to mount a remote
 	file system.  In these examples, the server's name is
 	<systemitem>server</systemitem> and the client's name is
 	<systemitem>client</systemitem>.  To mount
 	<filename>/home</filename> on
 	<systemitem>server</systemitem> to the
 	<filename>/mnt</filename> mount point on
 	<systemitem>client</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>NFS</primary>
 	<secondary>mounting</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount server:/home /mnt</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The files and directories in
 	<filename>/home</filename> will now be available on
 	<systemitem>client</systemitem>, in the
 	<filename>/mnt</filename> directory.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To mount a remote file system each time the client boots,
 	add it to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">server:/home	/mnt	nfs	rw	0	0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fstab</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a description of all available
 	options.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>鎖定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some applications require file locking to operate
 	correctly.  To enable locking, add these lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> on both the client and
 	server:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rpc_lockd_enable="YES"
 rpc_statd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then start the applications:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service lockd start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service statd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If locking is not required on the server, the
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> client can be configured to lock
 	locally by including <option>-L</option> when running
 	<application>mount</application>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>mount_nfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	for further details.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-amd">
       <info>
 	<title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>amd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> 自動掛載</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Wylie</firstname>
 	      <surname>Stilwell</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Chern</firstname>
 	      <surname>Lee</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Rewritten by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>amd</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>automatic mounter daemon</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The automatic mounter daemon,
 	<application>amd</application>, automatically mounts a remote
 	file system whenever a file or directory within that file
 	system is accessed.  File systems that are inactive for a
 	period of time will be automatically unmounted by
 	<application>amd</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This daemon provides an alternative to modifying
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> to list every client.  It
 	operates by attaching itself as an  <acronym>NFS</acronym>
 	server to the <filename>/host</filename> and
 	<filename>/net</filename> directories.  When a file is
 	accessed within one of these directories,
 	<application>amd</application> looks up the corresponding
 	remote mount and automatically mounts it.
 	<filename>/net</filename> is used to mount an exported file
 	system from an <acronym>IP</acronym> address while
 	<filename>/host</filename> is used to mount an export from a
 	remote hostname.  For instance, an attempt to access a file
 	within <filename>/host/foobar/usr</filename> would tell
 	<application>amd</application> to mount the
 	<filename>/usr</filename> export on the host
 	<systemitem>foobar</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <application>amd</application> 掛載 Export</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, <command>showmount -e</command> shows
 	  the exported file systems that can be mounted from the
 	  <acronym>NFS</acronym> server,
 	  <systemitem>foobar</systemitem>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>showmount -e foobar</userinput>
 Exports list on foobar:
 /usr                               10.10.10.0
 /a                                 10.10.10.0
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cd /host/foobar/usr</userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output from <command>showmount</command> shows
 	<filename>/usr</filename> as an export.  When changing
 	directories to <filename>/host/foobar/usr</filename>,
 	<application>amd</application> intercepts the request and
 	attempts to resolve the hostname
 	<systemitem>foobar</systemitem>.  If successful,
 	<application>amd</application> automatically mounts the
 	desired export.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <application>amd</application> at boot time, add
 	this line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">amd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start <application>amd</application> now:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service amd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Custom flags can be passed to
 	<application>amd</application> from the
 	<varname>amd_flags</varname> environment variable.  By
 	default, <varname>amd_flags</varname> is set to:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">amd_flags="-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default options with which exports are mounted are
 	defined in <filename>/etc/amd.map</filename>.  Some of the
 	more advanced features of <application>amd</application> are
 	defined in <filename>/etc/amd.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Consult <citerefentry><refentrytitle>amd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>amd.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	information.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-autofs">
       <title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 自動掛載</title>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> automount facility is supported
 	  starting with FreeBSD 10.1-RELEASE.  To use the
 	  automounter functionality in older versions of FreeBSD, use
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>amd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> instead.  This chapter only describes the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> automounter.</para>
       </note>
 
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>autofs</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>automounter subsystem</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> facility is a common name for several
 	components that, together, allow for automatic mounting of
 	remote and local filesystems whenever a file or directory
 	within that file system is accessed.  It consists of the
 	kernel component, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and several userspace
 	applications: <citerefentry><refentrytitle>automount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>autounmountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  It serves as an alternative for
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>amd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> from previous FreeBSD releases.  Amd is still
 	provided for backward compatibility purposes, as the two use
 	different map format; the one used by autofs is the same as
 	with other SVR4 automounters, such as the ones in Solaris,
 	MacOS X, and Linux.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> virtual filesystem is mounted on
 	specified mountpoints by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>automount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, usually invoked
 	during boot.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Whenever a process attempts to access file within the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> mountpoint, the kernel will notify
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon and pause the triggering process.
 	The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon will handle kernel requests by
 	finding the proper map and mounting the filesystem according
 	to it, then signal the kernel to release blocked process.  The
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>autounmountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon automatically unmounts automounted
 	filesystems after some time, unless they are still being
 	used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The primary autofs configuration file is
 	<filename>/etc/auto_master</filename>.  It assigns individual
 	maps to top-level mounts.  For an explanation of
 	<filename>auto_master</filename> and the map syntax, refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>auto_master</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There is a special automounter map mounted on
 	<filename>/net</filename>.  When a file is accessed within
 	this directory, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> looks up the corresponding
 	remote mount and automatically mounts it.  For instance, an
 	attempt to access a file within
 	<filename>/net/foobar/usr</filename> would tell
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to mount the <filename>/usr</filename> export from the host
 	<systemitem class="fqdomainname">foobar</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title>使用 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> 掛載 Export</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, <command>showmount -e</command> shows
 	  the exported file systems that can be mounted from the
 	  <acronym>NFS</acronym> server,
 	  <systemitem class="fqdomainname">foobar</systemitem>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>showmount -e foobar</userinput>
 Exports list on foobar:
 /usr                               10.10.10.0
 /a                                 10.10.10.0
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>cd /net/foobar/usr</userinput></screen>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output from <command>showmount</command> shows
 	<filename>/usr</filename> as an export.
 	When changing directories to <filename>/host/foobar/usr</filename>,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> intercepts the request and attempts to
 	resolve the hostname <systemitem class="fqdomainname">foobar</systemitem>.  If successful,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> automatically mounts the source
 	export.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> at boot time, add this line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">autofs_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be started by running:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service automount start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service automountd start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service autounmountd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>autofs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> map format is the same as in other
 	operating systems, it might be desirable to consult
 	information from other operating systems, such as the <link xlink:href="http://images.apple.com/business/docs/Autofs.pdf">Mac
 	  OS X document</link>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Consult the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>automount</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>automountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>autounmountd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>auto_master</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual pages for
 	more information.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-nis">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Bill</firstname>
 	  <surname>Swingle</surname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Eric</firstname>
 	  <surname>Ogren</surname>
 	  <contrib>Enhanced by </contrib>
 	</author>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Udo</firstname>
 	  <surname>Erdelhoff</surname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>網路資訊系統 (<acronym>NIS</acronym>)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Solaris</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>HP-UX</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>AIX</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Linux</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NetBSD</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>OpenBSD</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>yellow pages</primary>
       <see>NIS</see>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Network Information System (<acronym>NIS</acronym>) is
       designed to centralize administration of <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>-like systems
       such as <trademark>Solaris</trademark>, HP-UX, <trademark class="registered">AIX</trademark>, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and
       FreeBSD.  <acronym>NIS</acronym> was originally known as Yellow
       Pages but the name was changed due to trademark issues.   This
       is the reason why <acronym>NIS</acronym> commands begin with
       <literal>yp</literal>.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>NIS</primary>
       <secondary>domains</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> is a Remote Procedure Call
       (<acronym>RPC</acronym>)-based client/server system that allows
       a group of machines within an <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain to
       share a common set of configuration files.  This permits a
       system administrator to set up <acronym>NIS</acronym> client
       systems with only minimal configuration data and to add, remove,
       or modify configuration data from a single location.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD uses version 2 of the <acronym>NIS</acronym>
       protocol.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>NIS</acronym> 術語與程序</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Table 28.1 summarizes the terms and important processes
 	used by <acronym>NIS</acronym>:</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>rpcbind</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>portmap</application></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title><acronym>NIS</acronym> 術語</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="3*"/>
 
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>術語</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name</entry>
 
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> servers and clients share
 		an <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name.  Typically,
 		this name does not have anything to do with
 		<acronym>DNS</acronym>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rpcbind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
 
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">This service enables <acronym>RPC</acronym> and
 		must be running in order to run an
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> server or act as an
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> client.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypbind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">This service binds an <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 		client to its <acronym>NIS</acronym> server.  It will
 		take the <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name and use
 		<acronym>RPC</acronym> to connect to the server.  It
 		is the core of client/server communication in an
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> environment.  If this service
 		is not running on a client machine, it will not be
 		able to access the <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 		server.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypserv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">This is the process for the
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> server.  If this service stops
 		running, the server will no longer be able to respond
 		to <acronym>NIS</acronym> requests so hopefully, there
 		is a slave server to take over.  Some non-FreeBSD clients
 		will not try to reconnect using a slave server and the
 		<application>ypbind</application> process may need to
 		be restarted on these
 		clients.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rpc.yppasswdd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">This process only runs on
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> master servers.  This daemon
 		allows <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients to change their
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> passwords.  If this daemon is
 		not running, users will have to login to the
 		<acronym>NIS</acronym> master server and change their
 		passwords there.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
       <!-- XXX Missing: rpc.ypxfrd (not important, though) May only run
       on the master -->
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>主機類型</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS</primary>
 	<secondary>master server</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS</primary>
 	<secondary>slave server</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS</primary>
 	<secondary>client</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are three types of hosts in an
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> environment:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> master server</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This server acts as a central repository for host
 	    configuration information and maintains the
 	    authoritative copy of the files used by all of the
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients.  The
 	    <filename>passwd</filename>, <filename>group</filename>,
 	    and other various files used by <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	    clients are stored on the master server.  While it is
 	    possible for one machine to be an <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	    master server for more than one <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	    domain, this type of configuration will not be covered in
 	    this chapter as it assumes a relatively small-scale
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> environment.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> slave servers</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> slave servers maintain copies
 	    of the <acronym>NIS</acronym> master's data files in
 	    order to provide redundancy.  Slave servers also help to
 	    balance the load of the master server as
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients always attach to the
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> server which responds
 	    first.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> clients</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> clients authenticate
 	    against the <acronym>NIS</acronym> server during log
 	    on.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Information in many files can be shared using
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym>.  The
 	<filename>master.passwd</filename>,
 	<filename>group</filename>, and <filename>hosts</filename>
 	files are commonly shared via <acronym>NIS</acronym>.
 	Whenever a process on a client needs information that would
 	normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to
 	the <acronym>NIS</acronym> server that it is bound to
 	instead.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>規劃注意事項</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes a sample <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	environment which consists of 15 FreeBSD machines with no
 	centralized point of administration.  Each machine has its own
 	<filename>/etc/passwd</filename> and
 	<filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename>.  These files are kept
 	in sync with each other only through manual intervention.
 	Currently, when a user is added to the lab, the process must
 	be repeated on all 15 machines.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The configuration of the lab will be as follows:</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="3">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Machine name</entry>
 	      <entry><acronym>IP</acronym> 位址</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Machine role</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>ellington</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.2</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> master</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>coltrane</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.3</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> slave</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>basie</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.4</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Faculty workstation</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>bird</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.5</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Client machine</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>cli[1-11]</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">
 		<systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.[6-17]</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Other client machines</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If this is the first time an <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	scheme is being developed, it should be thoroughly planned
 	ahead of time.  Regardless of network size, several decisions
 	need to be made as part of the planning process.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>選擇 <acronym>NIS</acronym> 網域名稱</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>NIS</primary>
 	  <secondary>domain name</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it
 	  includes the name of the <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain that
 	  it is part of.  This is how multiple servers on one network
 	  can tell which server should answer which request.  Think of
 	  the <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name as the name for a
 	  group of hosts.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some organizations choose to use their Internet domain
 	  name for their <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name.  This is
 	  not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to
 	  debug network problems.  The <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain
 	  name should be unique within the network and it is helpful
 	  if it describes the group of machines it represents.  For
 	  example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the
 	  <quote>acme-art</quote> <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain.  This
 	  example will use the domain name
 	  <literal>test-domain</literal>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">However, some non-FreeBSD operating systems require the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name to be the same as the
 	  Internet domain name.  If one or more machines on the
 	  network have this restriction, the Internet domain name
 	  <emphasis>must</emphasis> be used as the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>實體伺服器需求</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">There are several things to keep in mind when choosing a
 	  machine to use as a <acronym>NIS</acronym> server.  Since
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients depend upon the availability
 	  of the server, choose a machine that is not rebooted
 	  frequently.  The <acronym>NIS</acronym> server should
 	  ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose is to be
 	  an <acronym>NIS</acronym> server.  If the network is not
 	  heavily used, it is acceptable to put the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> server on a machine running other
 	  services.  However, if the <acronym>NIS</acronym> server
 	  becomes unavailable, it will adversely affect all
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <acronym>NIS</acronym> Master 伺服器</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"> The canonical copies of all <acronym>NIS</acronym> files
 	are stored on the master server.  The databases used to store
 	the information are called <acronym>NIS</acronym> maps.  In
 	FreeBSD, these maps are stored in
 	<filename>/var/yp/[domainname]</filename> where
 	<filename>[domainname]</filename> is the name of the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> domain.  Since multiple domains are
 	supported, it is possible to have several directories, one for
 	each domain.  Each domain will have its own independent set of
 	maps.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> master and slave servers handle all
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> requests through <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypserv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This
 	daemon is responsible for receiving incoming requests from
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> clients, translating the requested
 	domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database
 	file, and transmitting data from the database back to the
 	client.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS</primary>
 	<secondary>server configuration</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Setting up a master <acronym>NIS</acronym> server can be
 	relatively straight forward, depending on environmental needs.
 	Since FreeBSD provides built-in <acronym>NIS</acronym> support,
 	it only needs to be enabled by adding the following lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">nisdomainname="test-domain"	<co xml:id="network-nis-co-domainname"/>
 nis_server_enable="YES"		<co xml:id="network-nis-co-server"/>
 nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES"	<co xml:id="network-nis-co-yppasswdd"/></programlisting>
 
       <calloutlist>
 	<callout arearefs="network-nis-co-domainname">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This line sets the <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name
 	    to <literal>test-domain</literal>.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="network-nis-co-server">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This automates the start up of the
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> server processes when the system
 	    boots.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="network-nis-co-yppasswdd">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This enables the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rpc.yppasswdd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon so that
 	    users can change their <acronym>NIS</acronym> password
 	    from a client machine.</para>
 	</callout>
       </calloutlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Care must be taken in a multi-server domain where the
 	server machines are also <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients.  It
 	is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to
 	themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind
 	requests and possibly become bound to each other.  Strange
 	failure modes can result if one server goes down and others
 	are dependent upon it.  Eventually, all the clients will time
 	out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay
 	involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still
 	present since the servers might bind to each other all over
 	again.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A server that is also a client can be forced to bind to a
 	particular server by adding these additional lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">nis_client_enable="YES" # run client stuff as well
 nis_client_flags="-S <replaceable>NIS domain</replaceable>,<replaceable>server</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After saving the edits, type
 	<command>/etc/netstart</command> to restart the network and
 	apply the values defined in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.
 	Before initializing the <acronym>NIS</acronym> maps, start
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypserv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ypserv start</userinput></screen>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>初始化 <acronym>NIS</acronym> 對應表</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>NIS</primary>
 	  <secondary>maps</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> maps are generated from the
 	  configuration files in <filename>/etc</filename> on the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> master, with one exception:
 	  <filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename>.  This is to prevent
 	  the propagation of passwords to all the servers in the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain.  Therefore, before the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> maps are initialized, configure the
 	  primary password files:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /var/yp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>vi master.passwd</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is advisable to remove all entries for system
 	  accounts as well as any user accounts that do not need to be
 	  propagated to the <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients, such as
 	  the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> and any
 	  other administrative accounts.</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Ensure that the
 	    <filename>/var/yp/master.passwd</filename> is neither
 	    group or world readable by setting its permissions to
 	    <literal>600</literal>.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">After completing this task, initialize the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> maps.  FreeBSD includes the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypinit</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> script to do this.  When generating maps
 	  for the master server, include <option>-m</option> and
 	  specify the <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">ellington<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ypinit -m test-domain</userinput>
 Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain
 Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions.
 Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure.
 Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] <userinput>n</userinput>
 Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails.
 If not, something might not work.
 At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers.
 rod.darktech.org is already known as master server.
 Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are
 done with the list, type a &lt;control D&gt;.
 master server   :  ellington
 next host to add:  <userinput>coltrane</userinput>
 next host to add:  <userinput>^D</userinput>
 The current list of NIS servers looks like this:
 ellington
 coltrane
 Is this correct?  [y/n: y] <userinput>y</userinput>
 
 [..output from map generation..]
 
 NIS Map update completed.
 ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors.</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This will create <filename>/var/yp/Makefile</filename>
 	  from <filename>/var/yp/Makefile.dist</filename>.  By
 	  default, this file assumes that the environment has a
 	  single <acronym>NIS</acronym> server with only FreeBSD clients.
 	  Since <literal>test-domain</literal> has a slave server,
 	  edit this line in <filename>/var/yp/Makefile</filename> so
 	  that it begins with a  comment
 	  (<literal>#</literal>):</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">NOPUSH = "True"</programlisting>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>新增使用者</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Every time a new user is created, the user account must
 	  be added to the master <acronym>NIS</acronym> server and the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> maps rebuilt.  Until this occurs, the
 	  new user will not be able to login anywhere except on the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> master.  For example, to add the new
 	  user <systemitem class="username">jsmith</systemitem> to the
 	  <literal>test-domain</literal> domain, run these commands on
 	  the master server:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pw useradd jsmith</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /var/yp</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make test-domain</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The user could also be added using <command>adduser
 	    jsmith</command> instead of <command>pw useradd
 	    smith</command>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <acronym>NIS</acronym> Slave 伺服器</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>NIS</primary>
 	<secondary>slave server</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">To set up an <acronym>NIS</acronym> slave server, log on
 	to the slave server and edit <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>
 	as for the master server.  Do not generate any
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> maps, as these already exist on the
 	master server.  When running <command>ypinit</command> on the
 	slave server, use <option>-s</option> (for slave) instead of
 	<option>-m</option> (for master).  This option requires the
 	name of the <acronym>NIS</acronym> master in addition to the
 	domain name, as  seen in this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">coltrane<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ypinit -s ellington test-domain</userinput>
 
 Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington
 
 Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions.
 Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure.
 
 Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n]  <userinput>n</userinput>
 
 Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails.
 If not, something might not work.
 There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure
 should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington.
 Transferring netgroup...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring netgroup.byuser...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring netgroup.byhost...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring master.passwd.byuid...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring passwd.byuid...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring passwd.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring group.bygid...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring group.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring services.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring rpc.bynumber...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring rpc.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring protocols.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring master.passwd.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring networks.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring networks.byaddr...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring netid.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring hosts.byaddr...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring protocols.bynumber...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring ypservers...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 Transferring hosts.byname...
 ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
 
 coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors.
 Remember to update map ypservers on ellington.</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will generate a directory on the slave server called
 	<filename>/var/yp/test-domain</filename> which contains copies
 	of the <acronym>NIS</acronym> master server's maps.  Adding
 	these <filename>/etc/crontab</filename> entries on each slave
 	server will force the slaves to sync their maps with the maps
 	on the master server:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">20      *       *       *       *       root   /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname
 21      *       *       *       *       root   /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These entries are not mandatory because the master server
 	automatically attempts to push any map changes to its slaves.
 	However, since clients may depend upon the slave server to
 	provide correct password information, it is recommended to
 	force frequent password map updates.  This is especially
 	important on busy networks where map updates might not always
 	complete.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To finish the configuration, run
 	<command>/etc/netstart</command> on the slave server in order
 	to start the <acronym>NIS</acronym> services.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <acronym>NIS</acronym> 客戶端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>NIS</acronym> client binds to an
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> server using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypbind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This
 	daemon broadcasts RPC requests on the local network.  These
 	requests specify the domain name configured on the client.  If
 	an <acronym>NIS</acronym> server in the same domain receives
 	one of the broadcasts, it will respond to
 	<application>ypbind</application>, which will record the
 	server's address.  If there are several servers available,
 	the client will use the address of the first server to respond
 	and will direct all of its <acronym>NIS</acronym> requests to
 	that server.  The client will automatically
 	<application>ping</application> the server on a regular basis
 	to make sure it is still available.  If it fails to receive a
 	reply within a reasonable amount of time,
 	<application>ypbind</application> will mark the domain as
 	unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating
 	another server.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS</primary>
 	<secondary>client configuration</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure a FreeBSD machine to be an
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> client:</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and add the
 	    following lines in order to set the
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain name and start
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypbind</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> during network startup:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">nisdomainname="test-domain"
 nis_client_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To import all possible password entries from the
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> server, use
 	    <command>vipw</command> to remove all user accounts
 	    except one from <filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename>.
 	    When removing the accounts, keep in mind that at least one
 	    local account should remain and this account should be a
 	    member of <systemitem class="groupname">wheel</systemitem>.  If there is a
 	    problem with <acronym>NIS</acronym>, this local account
 	    can be used to log in remotely, become the superuser, and
 	    fix the problem.  Before saving the edits, add the
 	    following line to the end of the file:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">+:::::::::</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This line configures the client to provide anyone with
 	    a valid account in the <acronym>NIS</acronym> server's
 	    password maps an account on the client.  There are many
 	    ways to configure the <acronym>NIS</acronym> client by
 	    modifying this line.  One method is described in <xref linkend="network-netgroups"/>.  For more detailed
 	    reading, refer to the book
 	    <literal>Managing NFS and NIS</literal>, published by
 	    O'Reilly Media.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To import all possible group entries from the
 	    <acronym>NIS</acronym> server, add this line to
 	    <filename>/etc/group</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">+:*::</programlisting>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start the <acronym>NIS</acronym> client immediately,
 	execute the following commands as the superuser:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/etc/netstart</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ypbind start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After completing these steps, running
 	<command>ypcat passwd</command> on the client should show
 	the server's <filename>passwd</filename> map.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>NIS</acronym> 安全性</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Since <acronym>RPC</acronym> is a broadcast-based service,
 	any system running <application>ypbind</application> within
 	the same domain can retrieve the contents of the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> maps.  To prevent unauthorized
 	transactions, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypserv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> supports a feature called
 	<quote>securenets</quote> which can be used to restrict access
 	to a given set of hosts.  By default, this information is
 	stored in <filename>/var/yp/securenets</filename>, unless
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypserv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is started with <option>-p</option> and an
 	alternate path.  This file contains entries that consist of a
 	network specification and a network mask separated by white
 	space.  Lines starting with <literal>#</literal> are
 	considered to be comments.  A sample
 	<filename>securenets</filename> might look like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># allow connections from local host -- mandatory
 127.0.0.1     255.255.255.255
 # allow connections from any host
 # on the 192.168.128.0 network
 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0
 # allow connections from any host
 # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255
 # this includes the machines in the testlab
 10.0.0.0      255.255.240.0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypserv</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> receives a request from an address that
 	matches one of these rules, it will process the request
 	normally.  If the address fails to match a rule, the request
 	will be ignored and a warning message will be logged.  If the
 	<filename>securenets</filename> does not exist,
 	<command>ypserv</command> will allow connections from any
 	host.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><xref linkend="tcpwrappers"/> is an alternate mechanism
 	for providing access control instead of
 	<filename>securenets</filename>.  While either access control
 	mechanism adds some security, they are both vulnerable to
 	<quote><acronym>IP</acronym> spoofing</quote> attacks.  All
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym>-related traffic should be blocked at
 	the firewall.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Servers using <filename>securenets</filename>
 	may fail to serve legitimate <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients
 	with archaic TCP/IP implementations.  Some of these
 	implementations set all host bits to zero when doing
 	broadcasts or fail to observe the subnet mask when
 	calculating the broadcast address.  While some of these
 	problems can be fixed by changing the client configuration,
 	other problems may force the retirement of these client
 	systems or the abandonment of
 	<filename>securenets</filename>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>TCP Wrapper</primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">The use of <application>TCP Wrapper</application>
 	increases the latency of the <acronym>NIS</acronym> server.
 	The additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in
 	client programs, especially in busy networks with slow
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> servers.  If one or more clients suffer
 	from latency, convert those clients into
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> slave servers and force them to bind to
 	themselves.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>阻擋部份使用者</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the <systemitem>basie</systemitem>
 	  system is a faculty workstation within the
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain.  The
 	  <filename>passwd</filename> map on the master
 	  <acronym>NIS</acronym> server contains accounts for both
 	  faculty and students.  This section demonstrates how to
 	  allow faculty logins on this system while refusing student
 	  logins.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To prevent specified users from logging on to a system,
 	  even if they are present in the <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	  database, use <command>vipw</command> to add
 	  <literal>-<replaceable>username</replaceable></literal> with
 	  the correct number of colons towards the end of
 	  <filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename> on the client,
 	  where <replaceable>username</replaceable> is the username of
 	  a user to bar from logging in.  The line with the blocked
 	  user must be before the <literal>+</literal> line that
 	  allows <acronym>NIS</acronym> users.  In this example,
 	  <systemitem class="username">bill</systemitem> is barred
 	  from logging on to <systemitem>basie</systemitem>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">basie<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cat /etc/master.passwd</userinput>
 root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh
 toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh
 daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin
 operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &amp;:/:/sbin/nologin
 bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin
 tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
 kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
 games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin
 news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin
 man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin
 bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
 uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico
 xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin
 pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
 nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
 -bill:::::::::
 +:::::::::
 
 basie<prompt>#</prompt></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-netgroups">
       <!--
       <sect2info>
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author>
 	    <firstname>Udo</firstname>
 	    <surname>Erdelhoff</surname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </sect2info>
       -->
 
       <title>使用 Netgroups</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>netgroups</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Barring specified users from logging on to individual
 	systems becomes unscaleable on larger networks and quickly
 	loses the main benefit of <acronym>NIS</acronym>:
 	<emphasis>centralized</emphasis> administration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks
 	with hundreds of users and machines.  Their use is comparable
 	to <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> groups, where the main difference is the lack of a
 	numeric ID and the ability to define a netgroup by including
 	both user accounts and other netgroups.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To expand on the example used in this chapter, the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> domain will be extended to add the
 	users and systems shown in Tables 28.2 and 28.3:</para>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>其他使用者</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>使用者名稱</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="username">alpha</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem class="username">beta</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">IT department employees</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="username">charlie</systemitem>, <systemitem class="username">delta</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">IT department apprentices</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="username">echo</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem class="username">foxtrott</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem class="username">golf</systemitem>,
 		...</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">employees</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="username">able</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem class="username">baker</systemitem>,
 		...</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">interns</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <table frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>其他系統</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>機器名稱</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <!--  Names taken from "Good Omens" by Neil Gaiman and Terry
 		    Pratchett.  Many thanks for a brilliant book.  -->
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>war</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>death</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>famine</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>pollution</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Only IT employees are allowed to log onto these
 		servers.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <!-- gluttony was omitted because it was too fat -->
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>pride</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>greed</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>envy</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>wrath</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>lust</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>sloth</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All members of the IT department are allowed to
 		login onto these servers.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>one</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>two</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>three</systemitem>,
 		<systemitem>four</systemitem>,
 		...</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Ordinary workstations used by
 		employees.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>trashcan</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">A very old machine without any critical data.
 		Even interns are allowed to use this system.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using netgroups to configure this scenario, each user
 	is assigned to one or more netgroups and logins are then
 	allowed or forbidden for all members of the netgroup.  When
 	adding a new machine, login restrictions must be defined for
 	all netgroups.  When a new user is added, the account must be
 	added to one or more netgroups.  If the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> setup is planned carefully, only one
 	central configuration file needs modification to grant or deny
 	access to machines.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first step is the initialization of the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> <literal>netgroup</literal> map.  In
 	FreeBSD, this map is not created by default.  On the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> master server, use an editor to create
 	a map named <filename>/var/yp/netgroup</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example creates four netgroups to represent IT
 	employees, IT apprentices, employees, and interns:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">IT_EMP  (,alpha,test-domain)    (,beta,test-domain)
 IT_APP  (,charlie,test-domain)  (,delta,test-domain)
 USERS   (,echo,test-domain)     (,foxtrott,test-domain) \
         (,golf,test-domain)
 INTERNS (,able,test-domain)     (,baker,test-domain)</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Each entry configures a netgroup.  The first column in an
 	entry is the name of the netgroup.  Each set of brackets
 	represents  either a group of one or more users or the name of
 	another netgroup.  When specifying a user, the three
 	comma-delimited fields inside each group represent:</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The name of the host(s) where the other fields
 	    representing the user are valid.  If a hostname is not
 	    specified, the entry is valid on all hosts.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The name of the account that belongs to this
 	    netgroup.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain for the account.
 	    Accounts may be imported from other <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	    domains into a netgroup.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If a group contains multiple users, separate each user
 	with  whitespace.  Additionally, each field may contain
 	wildcards.  See <citerefentry><refentrytitle>netgroup</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>netgroups</primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">Netgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be
 	used.  The names are case sensitive and using capital letters
 	for netgroup names is an easy way to distinguish between user,
 	machine and netgroup names.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some non-FreeBSD <acronym>NIS</acronym> clients cannot
 	handle netgroups containing more than 15 entries.  This
 	limit may be circumvented by creating several sub-netgroups
 	with 15 users or fewer and a real netgroup consisting of the
 	sub-netgroups, as seen in this example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">BIGGRP1  (,joe1,domain)  (,joe2,domain)  (,joe3,domain) [...]
 BIGGRP2  (,joe16,domain)  (,joe17,domain) [...]
 BIGGRP3  (,joe31,domain)  (,joe32,domain)
 BIGGROUP  BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Repeat this process if more than 225 (15 times 15) users
 	exist within a single netgroup.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To activate and distribute the new
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> map:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ellington<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /var/yp</userinput>
 ellington<prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will generate the three <acronym>NIS</acronym> maps
 	<filename>netgroup</filename>,
 	<filename>netgroup.byhost</filename> and
 	<filename>netgroup.byuser</filename>.  Use the map key option
 	of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ypcat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> to check if the new <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	maps are available:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ellington<prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ypcat -k netgroup</userinput>
 ellington<prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ypcat -k netgroup.byhost</userinput>
 ellington<prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ypcat -k netgroup.byuser</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The output of the first command should resemble the
 	contents of <filename>/var/yp/netgroup</filename>.  The second
 	command only produces output if host-specific netgroups were
 	created.  The third command is used to get the list of
 	netgroups for a user.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure a client, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vipw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to specify the
 	name  of the netgroup.  For example, on the server named
 	<systemitem>war</systemitem>,  replace this line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">+:::::::::</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">with</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">+@IT_EMP:::::::::</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This specifies that only the users defined in the netgroup
 	<literal>IT_EMP</literal> will be imported into this system's
 	password database and only those users are allowed to login to
 	this system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This configuration also applies to the
 	<literal>~</literal> function of the shell and all routines
 	which convert between user names and numerical user IDs.  In
 	other words,
 	<command>cd ~<replaceable>user</replaceable></command> will
 	not work, <command>ls -l</command> will show the numerical ID
 	instead of the username, and <command>find . -user joe
 	  -print</command> will fail with the message
 	<errorname>No such user</errorname>.  To fix this, import all
 	user entries without allowing them to login into the servers.
 	This can be achieved by adding an extra line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">+:::::::::/sbin/nologin</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This line configures the client to import all entries but
 	to replace the shell in those entries with
 	<filename>/sbin/nologin</filename>.</para>
 
       <!-- Been there, done that, got the scars to prove it - ue -->
       <para xml:lang="en">Make sure that extra line is placed
 	<emphasis>after</emphasis>
 	<literal>+@IT_EMP:::::::::</literal>.  Otherwise, all user
 	accounts imported from <acronym>NIS</acronym> will have
 	<filename>/sbin/nologin</filename> as their login
 	shell and no one will be able to login to the system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure the less important servers, replace the old
 	<literal>+:::::::::</literal> on the servers with these
 	lines:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">+@IT_EMP:::::::::
 +@IT_APP:::::::::
 +:::::::::/sbin/nologin</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The corresponding lines for the workstations
 	would be:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">+@IT_EMP:::::::::
 +@USERS:::::::::
 +:::::::::/sbin/nologin</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">NIS supports the creation of netgroups from other
 	netgroups which can be useful if the policy regarding user
 	access changes.  One possibility is the creation of role-based
 	netgroups.  For example, one might create a netgroup called
 	<literal>BIGSRV</literal> to define the login restrictions for
 	the important servers, another netgroup called
 	<literal>SMALLSRV</literal> for the less important servers,
 	and a third netgroup called <literal>USERBOX</literal> for the
 	workstations.  Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups
 	that are allowed to login onto these machines.  The new
 	entries for the <acronym>NIS</acronym>
 	<literal>netgroup</literal> map would look like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">BIGSRV    IT_EMP  IT_APP
 SMALLSRV  IT_EMP  IT_APP  ITINTERN
 USERBOX   IT_EMP  ITINTERN USERS</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This method of defining login restrictions works
 	reasonably well when it is possible to define groups of
 	machines with identical restrictions.  Unfortunately, this is
 	the exception and not the rule.  Most of the time, the ability
 	to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis is
 	required.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Machine-specific netgroup definitions are another
 	possibility to deal with the policy changes.  In this
 	scenario, the <filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename> of each
 	system contains two lines starting with <quote>+</quote>.
 	The first line adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to
 	login onto this machine and the second line adds all other
 	accounts with <filename>/sbin/nologin</filename> as shell.  It
 	is recommended to use the <quote>ALL-CAPS</quote> version of
 	the hostname as the name of the netgroup:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">+@<replaceable>BOXNAME</replaceable>:::::::::
 +:::::::::/sbin/nologin</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once this task is completed on all the machines, there is
 	no longer a need to modify the local versions of
 	<filename>/etc/master.passwd</filename> ever again.  All
 	further changes can be handled by modifying the
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> map.  Here is an example of a possible
 	<literal>netgroup</literal> map for this scenario:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Define groups of users first
 IT_EMP    (,alpha,test-domain)    (,beta,test-domain)
 IT_APP    (,charlie,test-domain)  (,delta,test-domain)
 DEPT1     (,echo,test-domain)     (,foxtrott,test-domain)
 DEPT2     (,golf,test-domain)     (,hotel,test-domain)
 DEPT3     (,india,test-domain)    (,juliet,test-domain)
 ITINTERN  (,kilo,test-domain)     (,lima,test-domain)
 D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain)     (,baker,test-domain)
 #
 # Now, define some groups based on roles
 USERS     DEPT1   DEPT2     DEPT3
 BIGSRV    IT_EMP  IT_APP
 SMALLSRV  IT_EMP  IT_APP    ITINTERN
 USERBOX   IT_EMP  ITINTERN  USERS
 #
 # And a groups for a special tasks
 # Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine
 SECURITY  IT_EMP  (,echo,test-domain)  (,golf,test-domain)
 #
 # machine-based netgroups
 # Our main servers
 WAR       BIGSRV
 FAMINE    BIGSRV
 # User india needs access to this server
 POLLUTION  BIGSRV  (,india,test-domain)
 #
 # This one is really important and needs more access restrictions
 DEATH     IT_EMP
 #
 # The anti-virus-machine mentioned above
 ONE       SECURITY
 #
 # Restrict a machine to a single user
 TWO       (,hotel,test-domain)
 # [...more groups to follow]</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It may not always be advisable
 	to use machine-based netgroups.  When deploying a couple of
 	dozen or hundreds of systems,
 	role-based netgroups instead of machine-based netgroups may be
 	used to keep the size of the <acronym>NIS</acronym> map within
 	reasonable limits.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>密碼格式</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>NIS</primary>
 	  <secondary>password formats</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NIS</acronym> requires that all hosts within an
 	<acronym>NIS</acronym> domain use the same format for
 	encrypting passwords.  If users have trouble authenticating on
 	an <acronym>NIS</acronym> client, it may be due to a differing
 	password format.  In a heterogeneous network, the format must
 	be supported by all operating systems, where
 	<acronym>DES</acronym> is the lowest common standard.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To check which format a server or client is using, look
 	at this section of
 	<filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">default:\
 	:passwd_format=des:\
 	:copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\
 	[Further entries elided]</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the system is using the
 	<acronym>DES</acronym> format.  Other possible values are
 	<literal>blf</literal> for Blowfish and <literal>md5</literal>
 	for MD5 encrypted passwords.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the format on a host needs to be edited to match the
 	one  being used in the <acronym>NIS</acronym> domain, the
 	login capability database must be rebuilt after saving the
 	change:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The format of passwords for existing user accounts will
 	  not be updated until each user changes their password
 	  <emphasis>after</emphasis> the login capability database is
 	  rebuilt.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-ldap">
     <info>
       <title>輕量級目錄存取協定 (<acronym>LDAP</acronym>)</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>LDAP</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
       (<acronym>LDAP</acronym>) is an application layer protocol used
       to access, modify, and authenticate objects using a distributed
       directory information service.  Think of it as a phone or record
       book which stores several levels of hierarchical, homogeneous
       information.  It is used in Active Directory and
       <application>OpenLDAP</application> networks and allows users to
       access to several levels of internal information utilizing a
       single account.  For example, email authentication, pulling
       employee contact information, and internal website
       authentication might all make use of a single user account in
       the <acronym>LDAP</acronym> server's record base.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section provides a quick start guide for configuring an
       <acronym>LDAP</acronym> server on a FreeBSD system.  It assumes
       that the administrator already has a design plan which includes
       the type of information to store, what that information will be
       used for, which users should have access to that information,
       and how to secure this information from unauthorized
       access.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>LDAP</acronym> 術語與結構</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>LDAP</acronym> uses several terms which should be
 	understood before starting the configuration.  All directory
 	entries consist of a group of
 	<firstterm>attributes</firstterm>.  Each of these attribute
 	sets contains a unique identifier known as a
 	<firstterm>Distinguished Name</firstterm>
 	(<acronym>DN</acronym>) which is normally built from several
 	other attributes such as the common or
 	<firstterm>Relative Distinguished Name</firstterm>
 	(<acronym>RDN</acronym>).  Similar to how directories have
 	absolute and relative paths, consider a <acronym>DN</acronym>
 	as an absolute path and the <acronym>RDN</acronym> as the
 	relative path.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An example <acronym>LDAP</acronym> entry looks like the
 	following.  This example searches for the entry for the
 	specified user account (<literal>uid</literal>),
 	organizational unit (<literal>ou</literal>), and organization
 	(<literal>o</literal>):</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ldapsearch -xb "uid=<replaceable>trhodes</replaceable>,ou=<replaceable>users</replaceable>,o=<replaceable>example.com</replaceable>"</userinput>
 # extended LDIF
 #
 # LDAPv3
 # base &lt;uid=trhodes,ou=users,o=example.com&gt; with scope subtree
 # filter: (objectclass=*)
 # requesting: ALL
 #
 
 # trhodes, users, example.com
 dn: uid=trhodes,ou=users,o=example.com
 mail: trhodes@example.com
 cn: Tom Rhodes
 uid: trhodes
 telephoneNumber: (123) 456-7890
 
 # search result
 search: 2
 result: 0 Success
 
 # numResponses: 2
 # numEntries: 1</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example entry shows the values for the
 	<literal>dn</literal>, <literal>mail</literal>,
 	<literal>cn</literal>, <literal>uid</literal>, and
 	<literal>telephoneNumber</literal> attributes.  The
 	<acronym>cn</acronym> attribute is the
 	<acronym>RDN</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More information about <acronym>LDAP</acronym> and its
 	terminology can be found at <uri xlink:href="http://www.openldap.org/doc/admin24/intro.html">http://www.openldap.org/doc/admin24/intro.html</uri>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="ldap-config">
       <title>設定 <acronym>LDAP</acronym> 伺服器</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>LDAP Server</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD does not provide a built-in <acronym>LDAP</acronym>
 	server.  Begin the configuration by installing the <package role="port">net/openldap24-server</package> package or port.
 	Since the port has many configurable options, it is
 	recommended that the default options are reviewed to see if
 	the package is sufficient, and to instead compile the port if
 	any options should be changed.  In most cases, the defaults
 	are fine.  However, if SQL support is needed, this option must
 	be enabled and the port compiled using the instructions in
 	<xref linkend="ports-using"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, create the directories to hold the data and to store
 	the certificates:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /var/db/openldap-data</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir /usr/local/etc/openldap/private</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Copy over the database configuration file:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cp /usr/local/etc/openldap/DB_CONFIG.example /var/db/openldap-data/DB_CONFIG</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next phase is to configure the certificate authority.
 	The following commands must be executed from
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/openldap/private</filename>.  This is
 	important as the file permissions need to be restrictive and
 	users should not have access to these files.  To create the
 	certificate authority, start with this command and follow the
 	prompts:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl req -days <replaceable>365</replaceable> -nodes -new -x509 -keyout ca.key -out ../ca.crt</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The entries for the prompts may be generic
 	<emphasis>except</emphasis> for the
 	<literal>Common Name</literal>.  This entry must be
 	<emphasis>different</emphasis> than the system hostname.  If
 	this will be a self signed certificate, prefix the hostname
 	with <literal>CA</literal> for certificate authority.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next task is to create a certificate signing request
 	and a private key.  Input this command and follow the
 	prompts:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl req -days <replaceable>365</replaceable> -nodes -new -keyout server.key -out server.csr</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">During the certificate generation process, be sure to
 	correctly set the <literal>Common Name</literal> attribute.
 	Once complete, sign the key:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl x509 -req -days <replaceable>365</replaceable> -in server.csr -out ../server.crt -CA ../ca.crt -CAkey ca.key -CAcreateserial</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The final part of the certificate generation process is to
 	generate and sign the client certificates:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl req -days <replaceable>365</replaceable> -nodes -new -keyout client.key -out client.csr</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>openssl x509 -req -days 3650 -in client.csr -out ../client.crt -CA ../ca.crt -CAkey ca.key</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Remember to use the same <literal>Common Name</literal>
 	attribute when prompted.  When finished, ensure that a total
 	of eight (8) new files have been generated through the
 	proceeding commands.  If so, the next step is to edit
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/openldap/slapd.conf</filename> and
 	add the following options:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">TLSCipherSuite HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3
 TLSCertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/server.crt
 TLSCertificateKeyFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/private/server.key
 TLSCACertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, edit
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/openldap/ldap.conf</filename> and add
 	the following lines:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">TLS_CACERT /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt
 TLS_CIPHER_SUITE HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">While editing this file, uncomment the following entries
 	and set them to the desired values: <option>BASE</option>,
 	<option>URI</option>, <option>SIZELIMIT</option> and
 	<option>TIMELIMIT</option>.  Set the <option>URI</option> to
 	contain <option>ldap://</option> and
 	<option>ldaps://</option>.  Then, add two entries pointing to
 	the certificate authority.  When finished, the entries should
 	look similar to the following:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">BASE    dc=example,dc=com
 URI     ldap:// ldaps://
 
 SIZELIMIT       12
 TIMELIMIT       15
 
 TLS_CACERT /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt
 TLS_CIPHER_SUITE HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default password for the server should then be
 	changed:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>slappasswd -h "{SHA}" &gt;&gt; /usr/local/etc/openldap/slapd.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command will prompt for the password and, if the
 	process does not fail, a password hash will be added to the
 	end of <filename>slapd.conf</filename>.  Several hashing
 	formats are supported.  Refer to the manual page for
 	<command>slappasswd</command> for more information.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, edit
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/openldap/slapd.conf</filename> and
 	add the following lines:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">password-hash {sha}
 allow bind_v2</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <option>suffix</option> in this file must be updated
 	to match the <option>BASE</option> used in
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/openldap/ldap.conf</filename> and
 	<option>rootdn</option> should also be set.  A recommended
 	value for <option>rootdn</option> is something like
 	<option>cn=Manager</option>.  Before saving this file, place
 	the <option>rootpw</option> in front of the password output
 	from <command>slappasswd</command> and delete the old
 	<option>rootpw</option>.  The end result should
 	look similar to this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">TLSCipherSuite HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3
 TLSCertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/server.crt
 TLSCertificateKeyFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/private/server.key
 TLSCACertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt
 rootpw  {SHA}W6ph5Mm5Pz8GgiULbPgzG37mj9g=</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Finally, enable the <application>OpenLDAP</application>
 	service in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and set the
 	<acronym>URI</acronym>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">slapd_enable="YES"
 slapd_flags="-4 -h ldaps:///"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point the server can be started and tested:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service slapd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If everything is configured correctly, a search of the
 	directory should show a successful connection with a single
 	response as in this example:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ldapsearch -Z</userinput>
 # extended LDIF
 #
 # LDAPv3
 # base &lt;dc=example,dc=com&gt; (default) with scope subtree
 # filter: (objectclass=*)
 # requesting: ALL
 #
 
 # search result
 search: 3
 result: 32 No such object
 
 # numResponses: 1</screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the command fails and the configuration looks
 	  correct, stop the <command>slapd</command> service and
 	  restart it with debugging options:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service slapd stop</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>/usr/local/libexec/slapd -d -1</userinput></screen>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the service is responding, the directory can be
 	populated using <command>ldapadd</command>.  In this example,
 	a file containing this list of users is first created.  Each
 	user should use the following format:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">dn: dc=<replaceable>example</replaceable>,dc=<replaceable>com</replaceable>
 objectclass: dcObject
 objectclass: organization
 o: <replaceable>Example</replaceable>
 dc: <replaceable>Example</replaceable>
 
 dn: cn=<replaceable>Manager</replaceable>,dc=<replaceable>example</replaceable>,dc=<replaceable>com</replaceable>
 objectclass: organizationalRole
 cn: <replaceable>Manager</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To import this file, specify the file name.  The following
 	command will prompt for the password specified earlier and the
 	output should look something like this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ldapadd -Z -D "cn=<replaceable>Manager</replaceable>,dc=<replaceable>example</replaceable>,dc=<replaceable>com</replaceable>" -W -f <replaceable>import.ldif</replaceable></userinput>
 Enter LDAP Password:
 adding new entry "dc=example,dc=com"
 
 adding new entry "cn=Manager,dc=example,dc=com"</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Verify the data was added by issuing a search on the
 	server using <command>ldapsearch</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ldapsearch -Z</userinput>
 # extended LDIF
 #
 # LDAPv3
 # base &lt;dc=example,dc=com&gt; (default) with scope subtree
 # filter: (objectclass=*)
 # requesting: ALL
 #
 
 # example.com
 dn: dc=example,dc=com
 objectClass: dcObject
 objectClass: organization
 o: Example
 dc: Example
 
 # Manager, example.com
 dn: cn=Manager,dc=example,dc=com
 objectClass: organizationalRole
 cn: Manager
 
 # search result
 search: 3
 result: 0 Success
 
 # numResponses: 3
 # numEntries: 2</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">At this point, the server should be configured and
 	functioning properly.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-dhcp">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Greg</firstname>
 	  <surname>Sutter</surname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>動態主機設定協定 (<acronym>DHCP</acronym>)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol</primary>
       <see><acronym>DHCP</acronym></see>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Internet Systems Consortium (ISC)</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
       (<acronym>DHCP</acronym>) allows a system to connect to a
       network in order to be assigned the necessary addressing
       information for communication on that network.  FreeBSD includes
       the OpenBSD version of <command>dhclient</command> which is used
       by the client to obtain the addressing information.  FreeBSD does
       not install a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server, but several
       servers are available in the FreeBSD Ports Collection.  The
       <acronym>DHCP</acronym> protocol is fully described in <link xlink:href="http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/RFC/2131/">RFC
 	2131</link>.
       Informational resources are also available at <link xlink:href="http://www.isc.org/downloads/dhcp/">isc.org/downloads/dhcp/</link>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to use the built-in
       <acronym>DHCP</acronym> client.  It then describes how to
       install and configure a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bpf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> device is needed by both the
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> server and <acronym>DHCP</acronym>
 	client.  This device is included in the
 	<filename>GENERIC</filename>  kernel that is installed with
 	FreeBSD.  Users who prefer to create a custom kernel need to keep
 	this device if  <acronym>DHCP</acronym> is used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It should be noted that <filename>bpf</filename> also
 	allows privileged users to run network packet sniffers on
 	that system.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 客戶端</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DHCP</acronym> client support is included in the
 	FreeBSD installer, making it easy to configure a newly installed
 	system to automatically receive its networking addressing
 	information from an existing <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server.
 	Refer to <xref linkend="bsdinstall-post"/> for examples of
 	network configuration.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><acronym>UDP</acronym></primary></indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">When <command>dhclient</command> is executed on the client
 	machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration
 	information.  By default, these requests use
 	<acronym>UDP</acronym> port 68.  The server replies on
 	<acronym>UDP</acronym> port 67, giving the client an
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address and other relevant network
 	information such as a subnet mask, default gateway, and
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server addresses.  This information is
 	in the form of a <acronym>DHCP</acronym>
 	<quote>lease</quote> and is valid for a configurable time.
 	This allows stale <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses for clients
 	no longer connected to the network to automatically be reused.
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> clients can obtain a great deal of
 	information from the server.  An exhaustive list may be found
 	in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhcp-options</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, when a FreeBSD system boots, its
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> client runs in the background, or
 	<firstterm>asynchronously</firstterm>.  Other startup scripts
 	continue to run while the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> process
 	completes, which speeds up system startup.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Background <acronym>DHCP</acronym> works well when the
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> server responds quickly to the
 	client's requests.  However, <acronym>DHCP</acronym> may take
 	a long time to complete on some systems.  If network services
 	attempt to run before <acronym>DHCP</acronym> has assigned the
 	network addressing information, they will fail.  Using
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> in <firstterm>synchronous</firstterm>
 	mode prevents this problem as it pauses startup until the
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> configuration has completed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This line in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> is used to
 	configure background or asynchronous mode:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="DHCP"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This line may already exist if the system was configured
 	to use <acronym>DHCP</acronym> during installation.  Replace
 	the <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> shown in these examples
 	with the name of the interface to be dynamically configured,
 	as described in <xref linkend="config-network-setup"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To instead configure the system to use synchronous mode,
 	and to pause during startup while <acronym>DHCP</acronym>
 	completes, use
 	<quote><literal>SYNCDHCP</literal></quote>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="SYNCDHCP"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Additional client options are available.  Search for
 	<literal>dhclient</literal> in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	details.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DHCP</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>configuration files</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DHCP</acronym> client uses the following
 	files:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/dhclient.conf</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The configuration file used by
 	    <command>dhclient</command>.  Typically, this file
 	    contains only comments as the defaults are suitable for
 	    most clients.  This configuration file is described in
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/sbin/dhclient</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">More information about the command itself can
 	    be found in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/sbin/dhclient-script</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The
 	    FreeBSD-specific <acronym>DHCP</acronym> client configuration
 	    script.  It is described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient-script</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, but
 	    should not need any user modification to function
 	    properly.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/db/dhclient.leases.<replaceable>interface</replaceable></filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DHCP</acronym> client keeps a database of
 	    valid leases in this file, which is written as a log and
 	    is described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient.leases</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-dhcp-server">
       <title>安裝並設定 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to configure a FreeBSD system
 	to act as a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server using the Internet
 	Systems Consortium (<acronym>ISC</acronym>) implementation of
 	the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server.  This implementation and
 	its documentation can be installed using the
 	<package>net/isc-dhcp43-server</package> package or
 	port.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DHCP</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>server</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DHCP</acronym></primary>
 	  <secondary>installation</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The installation of
 	<package>net/isc-dhcp43-server</package> installs a sample
 	configuration file.  Copy
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf.example</filename> to
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf</filename> and make any
 	edits to this new file.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DHCP</acronym></primary>
 	  <secondary>dhcpd.conf</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <para xml:lang="en">The configuration file is comprised of declarations for
 	subnets and hosts which define the  information that is
 	provided to <acronym>DHCP</acronym>  clients.  For example,
 	these  lines configure the following:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">option domain-name "example.org";<co xml:id="domain-name"/>
 option domain-name-servers ns1.example.org;<co xml:id="domain-name-servers"/>
 option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0;<co xml:id="subnet-mask"/>
 
 default-lease-time 600;<co xml:id="default-lease-time"/>
 max-lease-time 72400;<co xml:id="max-lease-time"/>
 ddns-update-style none;<co xml:id="ddns-update-style"/>
 
 subnet 10.254.239.0 netmask 255.255.255.224 {
   range 10.254.239.10 10.254.239.20;<co xml:id="range"/>
   option routers rtr-239-0-1.example.org, rtr-239-0-2.example.org;<co xml:id="routers"/>
 }
 
 host fantasia {
   hardware ethernet 08:00:07:26:c0:a5;<co xml:id="hardware"/>
   fixed-address fantasia.fugue.com;<co xml:id="fixed-address"/>
 }</programlisting>
 
       <calloutlist>
 	<callout arearefs="domain-name">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This option specifies the default search domain that
 	    will be provided to clients.  Refer to
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>resolv.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="domain-name-servers">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This option specifies a comma separated list of
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym> servers that the client should use.
 	    They can be listed by their Fully Qualified Domain Names
 	    (<acronym>FQDN</acronym>), as seen in the example, or by
 	    their <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="subnet-mask">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The subnet mask that will be provided to
 	    clients.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="default-lease-time">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The default lease expiry time in seconds.  A client
 	    can be configured to override this value.  </para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="max-lease-time">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The maximum allowed length of time, in seconds, for a
 	    lease.  Should a client request a longer lease, a lease
 	    will still be issued, but it will only be valid for
 	    <literal>max-lease-time</literal>.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="ddns-update-style">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The default of <option>none</option> disables dynamic
 	    DNS updates.  Changing this to <option>interim</option>
 	    configures the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server to update a
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym> server whenever it hands out a
 	    lease so that the <acronym>DNS</acronym> server knows
 	    which <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses are associated with
 	    which computers in the network.  Do not change the default
 	    setting unless the <acronym>DNS</acronym> server has  been
 	    configured to support dynamic
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym>.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="range">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This line creates a pool of available
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses which are reserved for
 	    allocation to <acronym>DHCP</acronym> clients.  The range
 	    of addresses must be valid for the network or subnet
 	    specified in the previous line.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="routers">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Declares the default gateway that is valid for the
 	    network or subnet specified before the opening
 	    <literal>{</literal> bracket.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="hardware">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Specifies the hardware <acronym>MAC</acronym> address
 	    of a client so that the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server can
 	    recognize the client when it makes a request.</para>
 	</callout>
 
 	<callout arearefs="fixed-address">
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Specifies that this host should always be given the
 	    same <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  Using the hostname is
 	    correct, since the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server will
 	    resolve the hostname before returning the lease
 	    information.</para>
 	</callout>
       </calloutlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This configuration file supports many more options.  Refer
 	to dhcpd.conf(5), installed with the server, for details and
 	examples.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the configuration of <filename>dhcpd.conf</filename>
 	is complete, enable the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">dhcpd_enable="YES"
 dhcpd_ifaces="dc0"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replace the <literal>dc0</literal> with the interface (or
 	interfaces, separated by whitespace) that the
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> server should listen on for
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> client requests.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Start the server by issuing the following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service isc-dhcpd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Any future changes to the configuration of the server will
 	require the <application>dhcpd</application> service to be
 	stopped and then started using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>service</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server uses the following
 	files.  Note that the manual pages are installed with the
 	server software.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>DHCP</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>configuration files</secondary>
       </indexterm>
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/sbin/dhcpd</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">More information about the
 	    <application>dhcpd</application> server can be found in
 	    dhcpd(8).</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The server configuration file needs to contain all the
 	    information that should be provided to clients, along with
 	    information regarding the operation of the server.  This
 	    configuration file is described in dhcpd.conf(5).</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/var/db/dhcpd.leases</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server keeps a database of
 	    leases it has issued in this file, which is written as a
 	    log.  Refer to dhcpd.leases(5), which gives a slightly
 	    longer description.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/local/sbin/dhcrelay</filename></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This daemon is used in advanced environments where one
 	    <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server forwards a request from a
 	    client to another <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server on a
 	    separate network.  If this functionality is required,
 	    install the <package>net/isc-dhcp43-relay</package>
 	    package or port.  The installation includes dhcrelay(8)
 	    which provides more detail.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-dns">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Chern</firstname>
 	  <surname>Lee</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
 
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	</author>
 
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Daniel</firstname>
 	  <surname>Gerzo</surname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>網域名稱系統 (<acronym>DNS</acronym>)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>DNS</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Domain Name System (<acronym>DNS</acronym>) is the protocol
       through which domain names are mapped to <acronym>IP</acronym>
       addresses, and vice versa.  <acronym>DNS</acronym> is
       coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat complex
       system of authoritative root, Top Level Domain
       (<acronym>TLD</acronym>), and other smaller-scale name servers,
       which host and cache individual domain information.  It is not
       necessary to run a name server to perform
       <acronym>DNS</acronym> lookups on a system.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>BIND</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD 10, the Berkeley Internet Name Domain
       (<acronym>BIND</acronym>) has been removed from the base system
       and replaced with Unbound.  Unbound as configured in the FreeBSD
       Base is a local caching resolver.  <acronym>BIND</acronym> is
       still available from The Ports Collection as <package role="port">dns/bind99</package> or <package role="port">dns/bind98</package>.  In FreeBSD 9 and lower,
       <acronym>BIND</acronym> is included in FreeBSD Base.  The FreeBSD
       version provides enhanced security features, a new file system
       layout, and automated <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> configuration.
       <acronym>BIND</acronym> is maintained by the <link xlink:href="https://www.isc.org/">Internet Systems
 	Consortium</link>.</para>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>resolver</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>reverse
       <acronym>DNS</acronym></primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>root zone</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The following table describes some of the terms associated
       with <acronym>DNS</acronym>:</para>
 
     <table frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <title><acronym>DNS</acronym> 術語</title>
 
       <tgroup cols="2">
 	<colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	<colspec colwidth="3*"/>
 
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>術語</entry>
 	    <entry>定義</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Forward <acronym>DNS</acronym></entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Mapping of hostnames to <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	      addresses.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Origin</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Refers to the domain covered in a particular zone
 	      file.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en"><application>named</application>, BIND</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Common names for the BIND name server package
 	      within FreeBSD.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Resolver</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">A system process through which a machine queries
 	      a name server for zone information.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Reverse <acronym>DNS</acronym></entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Mapping of <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses to
 	      hostnames.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Root zone</entry>
 
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">The beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy.  All
 	      zones fall under the root zone, similar to how all files
 	      in a file system fall under the root directory.</entry>
 	  </row>
 
 	  <row>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">Zone</entry>
 	    <entry xml:lang="en">An individual domain, subdomain, or portion of the
 	      <acronym>DNS</acronym> administered by the same
 	      authority.</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </table>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>zones</primary>
       <secondary>examples</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Examples of zones:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><systemitem>.</systemitem> is how the root zone is
 	  usually referred to in documentation.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><systemitem>org.</systemitem> is a Top Level Domain
 	  (<acronym>TLD</acronym>) under the root zone.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org.</systemitem> is a zone
 	  under the <systemitem>org.</systemitem>
 	  <acronym>TLD</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><systemitem>1.168.192.in-addr.arpa</systemitem> is a
 	  zone referencing all <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses which
 	  fall under the <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.*</systemitem>
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address space.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">As one can see, the more specific part of a hostname
       appears to its left.  For example, <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org.</systemitem> is more
       specific than <systemitem>org.</systemitem>, as
       <systemitem>org.</systemitem> is more specific than the root
       zone.  The layout of each part of a hostname is much like a file
       system: the <filename>/dev</filename> directory falls within the
       root, and so on.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>要執行名稱伺服器的原因</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Name servers generally come in two forms: authoritative
 	name servers, and caching (also known as resolving) name
 	servers.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An authoritative name server is needed when:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">One wants to serve <acronym>DNS</acronym> information
 	    to the world, replying authoritatively to queries.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A domain, such as <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>, is
 	    registered and <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses need to be
 	    assigned to hostnames under it.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>IP</acronym> address block requires
 	    reverse <acronym>DNS</acronym> entries
 	    (<acronym>IP</acronym> to hostname).</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A backup or second name server, called a slave, will
 	    reply to queries.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A caching name server is needed when:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A local <acronym>DNS</acronym> server may cache and
 	    respond more quickly than querying an outside name
 	    server.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When one queries for <systemitem class="fqdomainname">www.FreeBSD.org</systemitem>, the
 	resolver usually queries the uplink <acronym>ISP</acronym>'s
 	name server, and retrieves the reply.  With a local, caching
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server, the query only has to be made
 	once to the outside world by the caching
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> server.  Additional queries will not
 	have to go outside the local network, since the information is
 	cached locally.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>DNS</acronym> 伺服器設定於 FreeBSD 10.0 及之後版本</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD 10.0, <application>BIND</application> has been
 	replaced with <application>Unbound</application>.
 	<application>Unbound</application> is a validating caching
 	resolver only.  If an authoritative server is needed, many are
 	available from the Ports Collection.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Unbound</application> is provided in the FreeBSD
 	base system.  By default, it will provide
 	<acronym>DNS</acronym> resolution to the local machine only.
 	While the base system package can be configured to provide
 	resolution services beyond the local machine, it is
 	recommended that such requirements be addressed by installing
 	<application>Unbound</application> from the FreeBSD Ports
 	Collection.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <application>Unbound</application>, add the
 	following to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">local_unbound_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Any existing nameservers in
 	<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> will be configured as
 	forwarders in the new <application>Unbound</application>
 	configuration.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">If any of the listed nameservers do not support
 	  <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>, local <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	  resolution will fail.  Be sure to test each nameserver and
 	  remove any that fail the test.  The following command will
 	  show the trust tree or a failure for a nameserver running on
 	  <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.1</systemitem>:</para>
       </note>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>drill -S FreeBSD.org @<replaceable>192.168.1.1</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once each nameserver is confirmed to support
 	<acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>, start
 	<application>Unbound</application>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service local_unbound onestart</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This will take care of updating
 	<filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> so that queries for
 	<acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> secured domains will now work.  For
 	example, run the following to validate the FreeBSD.org
 	<acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> trust tree:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>drill -S FreeBSD.org</userinput>
 ;; Number of trusted keys: 1
 ;; Chasing: freebsd.org. A
 
 DNSSEC Trust tree:
 freebsd.org. (A)
 |---freebsd.org. (DNSKEY keytag: 36786 alg: 8 flags: 256)
     |---freebsd.org. (DNSKEY keytag: 32659 alg: 8 flags: 257)
     |---freebsd.org. (DS keytag: 32659 digest type: 2)
         |---org. (DNSKEY keytag: 49587 alg: 7 flags: 256)
             |---org. (DNSKEY keytag: 9795 alg: 7 flags: 257)
             |---org. (DNSKEY keytag: 21366 alg: 7 flags: 257)
             |---org. (DS keytag: 21366 digest type: 1)
             |   |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 40926 alg: 8 flags: 256)
             |       |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 19036 alg: 8 flags: 257)
             |---org. (DS keytag: 21366 digest type: 2)
                 |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 40926 alg: 8 flags: 256)
                     |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 19036 alg: 8 flags: 257)
 ;; Chase successful</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>DNS 伺服器設定於 FreeBSD 9.<replaceable>X</replaceable></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, the BIND daemon is called
 	<application>named</application>.</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>檔案</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>named</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The BIND daemon.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>rndc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Name server control utility.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/namedb</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Directory where BIND zone information
 		resides.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Configuration file of the daemon.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Depending on how a given zone is configured on the server,
 	the files related to that zone can be found in the
 	<filename>master</filename>,
 	<filename>slave</filename>, or
 	<filename>dynamic</filename> subdirectories
 	of the <filename>/etc/namedb</filename>
 	directory.  These files contain the <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	information that will be given out by the name server in
 	response to queries.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>啟動 BIND</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>BIND</primary>
 	  <secondary>starting</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Since BIND is installed by default, configuring it is
 	  relatively simple.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The default <application>named</application>
 	  configuration is that of a basic resolving name server,
 	  running in a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> environment, and restricted to
 	  listening on the local IPv4 loopback address (127.0.0.1).
 	  To start the server one time with this configuration, use
 	  the following command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service named onestart</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To ensure the <application>named</application> daemon is
 	  started at boot each time, put the following line into the
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">named_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">There are many configuration options for
 	  <filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename> that are beyond
 	  the scope of this document.  Other startup options for
 	  <application>named</application> on FreeBSD can be found in the
 	  <literal>named_<replaceable>*</replaceable></literal> flags
 	  in <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> and in
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The <xref linkend="configtuning-rcd"/>
 	  section is also a good read.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>設定檔</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>BIND</primary>
 	  <secondary>configuration files</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Configuration files for <application>named</application>
 	  currently reside in <filename>/etc/namedb</filename>
 	  directory and will need modification before use unless all
 	  that is needed is a simple resolver.  This is where most of
 	  the configuration will be performed.</para>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename></title>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">// $FreeBSD$
 //
 // Refer to the named.conf(5) and named(8) man pages, and the documentation
 // in /usr/share/doc/bind9 for more details.
 //
 // If you are going to set up an authoritative server, make sure you
 // understand the hairy details of how DNS works.  Even with
 // simple mistakes, you can break connectivity for affected parties,
 // or cause huge amounts of useless Internet traffic.
 
 options {
 	// All file and path names are relative to the chroot directory,
 	// if any, and should be fully qualified.
 	directory	"/etc/namedb/working";
 	pid-file	"/var/run/named/pid";
 	dump-file	"/var/dump/named_dump.db";
 	statistics-file	"/var/stats/named.stats";
 
 // If named is being used only as a local resolver, this is a safe default.
 // For named to be accessible to the network, comment this option, specify
 // the proper IP address, or delete this option.
 	listen-on	{ 127.0.0.1; };
 
 // If you have IPv6 enabled on this system, uncomment this option for
 // use as a local resolver.  To give access to the network, specify
 // an IPv6 address, or the keyword "any".
 //	listen-on-v6	{ ::1; };
 
 // These zones are already covered by the empty zones listed below.
 // If you remove the related empty zones below, comment these lines out.
 	disable-empty-zone "255.255.255.255.IN-ADDR.ARPA";
 	disable-empty-zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.ARPA";
 	disable-empty-zone "1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.ARPA";
 
 // If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter
 // its IP address here, and enable the line below.  This will make you
 // benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the Internet.
 /*
 	forwarders {
 		127.0.0.1;
 	};
 */
 
 // If the 'forwarders' clause is not empty the default is to 'forward first'
 // which will fall back to sending a query from your local server if the name
 // servers in 'forwarders' do not have the answer.  Alternatively you can
 // force your name server to never initiate queries of its own by enabling the
 // following line:
 //	forward only;
 
 // If you wish to have forwarding configured automatically based on
 // the entries in /etc/resolv.conf, uncomment the following line and
 // set named_auto_forward=yes in /etc/rc.conf.  You can also enable
 // named_auto_forward_only (the effect of which is described above).
 //	include "/etc/namedb/auto_forward.conf";</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Just as the comment says, to benefit from an uplink's
 	    cache, <literal>forwarders</literal> can be enabled here.
 	    Under normal circumstances, a name server will recursively
 	    query the Internet looking at certain name servers until
 	    it finds the answer it is looking for.  Having this
 	    enabled will have it query the uplink's name server (or
 	    name server provided) first, taking advantage of its
 	    cache.  If the uplink name server in question is a heavily
 	    trafficked, fast name server, enabling this may be
 	    worthwhile.</para>
 
 	  <warning>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="ipaddress">127.0.0.1</systemitem>
 	      will <emphasis>not</emphasis> work here.  Change this
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address to a name server at the
 	      uplink.</para>
 	  </warning>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">	/*
 	   Modern versions of BIND use a random <acronym>UDP</acronym> port for each outgoing
 	   query by default in order to dramatically reduce the possibility
 	   of cache poisoning.  All users are strongly encouraged to utilize
 	   this feature, and to configure their firewalls to accommodate it.
 
 	   AS A LAST RESORT in order to get around a restrictive firewall
 	   policy you can try enabling the option below.  Use of this option
 	   will significantly reduce your ability to withstand cache poisoning
 	   attacks, and should be avoided if at all possible.
 
 	   Replace NNNNN in the example with a number between 49160 and 65530.
 	*/
 	// query-source address * port NNNNN;
 };
 
 // If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1
 // first in your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried.
 // Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf.
 
 // The traditional root hints mechanism. Use this, OR the slave zones below.
 zone "." { type hint; file "/etc/namedb/named.root"; };
 
 /*	Slaving the following zones from the root name servers has some
 	significant advantages:
 	1. Faster local resolution for your users
 	2. No spurious traffic will be sent from your network to the roots
 	3. Greater resilience to any potential root server failure/DDoS
 
 	On the other hand, this method requires more monitoring than the
 	hints file to be sure that an unexpected failure mode has not
 	incapacitated your server.  Name servers that are serving a lot
 	of clients will benefit more from this approach than individual
 	hosts.  Use with caution.
 
 	To use this mechanism, uncomment the entries below, and comment
 	the hint zone above.
 
 	As documented at http://dns.icann.org/services/axfr/ these zones:
 	"." (the root), ARPA, IN-ADDR.ARPA, IP6.ARPA, and ROOT-SERVERS.NET
 	are available for AXFR from these servers on IPv4 and IPv6:
 	xfr.lax.dns.icann.org, xfr.cjr.dns.icann.org
 */
 /*
 zone "." {
 	type slave;
 	file "/etc/namedb/slave/root.slave";
 	masters {
 		192.5.5.241;	// F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
 	};
 	notify no;
 };
 zone "arpa" {
 	type slave;
 	file "/etc/namedb/slave/arpa.slave";
 	masters {
 		192.5.5.241;	// F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET.
 	};
 	notify no;
 };
 */
 
 /*	Serving the following zones locally will prevent any queries
 	for these zones leaving your network and going to the root
 	name servers.  This has two significant advantages:
 	1. Faster local resolution for your users
 	2. No spurious traffic will be sent from your network to the roots
 */
 // RFCs 1912 and 5735 (and BCP 32 for localhost)
 zone "localhost"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/localhost-forward.db"; };
 zone "127.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/localhost-reverse.db"; };
 zone "255.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // RFC 1912-style zone for IPv6 localhost address
 zone "0.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/localhost-reverse.db"; };
 
 // "This" Network (RFCs 1912 and 5735)
 zone "0.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // Private Use Networks (RFCs 1918 and 5735)
 zone "10.in-addr.arpa"	   { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "16.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "17.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "18.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "19.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "20.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "21.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "22.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "23.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "24.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "25.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "26.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "27.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "28.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "29.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "30.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "31.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // Link-local/APIPA (RFCs 3927 and 5735)
 zone "254.169.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IETF protocol assignments (RFCs 5735 and 5736)
 zone "0.0.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // TEST-NET-[1-3] for Documentation (RFCs 5735 and 5737)
 zone "2.0.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "100.51.198.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "113.0.203.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IPv6 Range for Documentation (RFC 3849)
 zone "8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // Domain Names for Documentation and Testing (BCP 32)
 zone "test" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "example" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "invalid" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "example.com" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "example.net" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "example.org" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // Router Benchmark Testing (RFCs 2544 and 5735)
 zone "18.198.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "19.198.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IANA Reserved - Old Class E Space (RFC 5735)
 zone "240.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "241.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "242.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "243.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "244.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "245.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "246.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "247.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "248.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "249.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "250.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "251.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "252.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "253.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "254.in-addr.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IPv6 Unassigned Addresses (RFC 4291)
 zone "1.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "3.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "4.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "5.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "6.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "7.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "8.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "9.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "a.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "b.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "c.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "d.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "e.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "0.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "1.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "2.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "3.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "4.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "5.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "6.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "7.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "8.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "9.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "a.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "b.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "0.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "1.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "2.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "3.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "4.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "5.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "6.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "7.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IPv6 ULA (RFC 4193)
 zone "c.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "d.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IPv6 Link Local (RFC 4291)
 zone "8.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "9.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "a.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "b.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IPv6 Deprecated Site-Local Addresses (RFC 3879)
 zone "c.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "d.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "e.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 zone "f.e.f.ip6.arpa"	{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // IP6.INT is Deprecated (RFC 4159)
 zone "ip6.int"		{ type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; };
 
 // NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only
 // serve demonstration/documentation purposes!
 //
 // Example slave zone config entries.  It can be convenient to become
 // a slave at least for the zone your own domain is in.  Ask
 // your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible
 // master name server.
 //
 // Do not forget to include the reverse lookup zone!
 // This is named after the first bytes of the IP address, in reverse
 // order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended, or ".IP6.ARPA" for IPv6.
 //
 // Before starting to set up a master zone, make sure you fully
 // understand how DNS and BIND work.  There are sometimes
 // non-obvious pitfalls.  Setting up a slave zone is usually simpler.
 //
 // NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-)  Use actual names
 // and addresses instead.
 
 /* An example dynamic zone
 key "exampleorgkey" {
 	algorithm hmac-md5;
 	secret "sf87HJqjkqh8ac87a02lla==";
 };
 zone "example.org" {
 	type master;
 	allow-update {
 		key "exampleorgkey";
 	};
 	file "/etc/namedb/dynamic/example.org";
 };
 */
 
 /* Example of a slave reverse zone
 zone "1.168.192.in-addr.arpa" {
 	type slave;
 	file "/etc/namedb/slave/1.168.192.in-addr.arpa";
 	masters {
 		192.168.1.1;
 	};
 };
 */</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In <filename>named.conf</filename>, these are examples
 	    of slave entries for a forward and reverse zone.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For each new zone served, a new zone entry must be
 	    added to <filename>named.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For example, the simplest zone entry for
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>
 	    can look like:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">zone "example.org" {
 	type master;
 	file "master/example.org";
 };</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The zone is a master, as indicated by the
 	    <option>type</option> statement, holding its zone
 	    information in
 	    <filename>/etc/namedb/master/example.org</filename>
 	    indicated by the <option>file</option> statement.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">zone "example.org" {
 	type slave;
 	file "slave/example.org";
 };</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In the slave case, the zone information is transferred
 	    from the master name server for the particular zone, and
 	    saved in the file specified.  If and when the master
 	    server dies or is unreachable, the slave name server will
 	    have the transferred zone information and will be able to
 	    serve it.</para>
 	</sect4>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Zone Files</title>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>BIND</primary>
 	    <secondary>zone files</secondary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">An example master zone file for
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>
 	    (existing within
 	    <filename>/etc/namedb/master/example.org</filename>) is as
 	    follows:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">$TTL 3600        ; 1 hour default TTL
 example.org.    IN      SOA      ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
                                 2006051501      ; Serial
                                 10800           ; Refresh
                                 3600            ; Retry
                                 604800          ; Expire
                                 300             ; Negative Response TTL
                         )
 
 ; DNS Servers
                 IN      NS      ns1.example.org.
                 IN      NS      ns2.example.org.
 
 ; MX Records
                 IN      MX 10   mx.example.org.
                 IN      MX 20   mail.example.org.
 
                 IN      A       192.168.1.1
 
 ; Machine Names
 localhost       IN      A       127.0.0.1
 ns1             IN      A       192.168.1.2
 ns2             IN      A       192.168.1.3
 mx              IN      A       192.168.1.4
 mail            IN      A       192.168.1.5
 
 ; Aliases
 www             IN      CNAME   example.org.</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Note that every hostname ending in a <quote>.</quote>
 	    is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a
 	    trailing <quote>.</quote> is relative to the origin.  For
 	    example, <literal>ns1</literal> is translated into
 	    <literal>ns1.<replaceable>example.org.</replaceable></literal></para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The format of a zone file follows:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">recordname      IN recordtype   value</programlisting>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary><acronym>DNS</acronym></primary>
 	    <secondary>records</secondary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The most commonly used <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	    records:</para>
 
 	  <variablelist>
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">SOA</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">start of zone authority</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">NS</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">an authoritative name server</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">A</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">a host address</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">CNAME</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">the canonical name for an alias</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">MX</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">mail exchanger</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en">PTR</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">a domain name pointer (used in reverse
 		  <acronym>DNS</acronym>)</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 	  </variablelist>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
                         2006051501      ; Serial
                         10800           ; Refresh after 3 hours
                         3600            ; Retry after 1 hour
                         604800          ; Expire after 1 week
                         300 )           ; Negative Response TTL</programlisting>
 
 	  <variablelist>
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org.</systemitem></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">the domain name, also the origin for this
 		  zone file.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><systemitem class="fqdomainname">ns1.example.org.</systemitem></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">the primary/authoritative name server for this
 		  zone.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><literal>admin.example.org.</literal></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">the responsible person for this zone,
 		  email address with <quote>@</quote>
 		  replaced.  (<email>admin@example.org</email> becomes
 		  <literal>admin.example.org</literal>)</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term xml:lang="en"><literal>2006051501</literal></term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">the serial number of the file.  This must be
 		  incremented each time the zone file is modified.
 		  Nowadays, many admins prefer a
 		  <literal>yyyymmddrr</literal> format for the serial
 		  number.  <literal>2006051501</literal> would mean
 		  last modified 05/15/2006, the latter
 		  <literal>01</literal> being the first time the zone
 		  file has been modified this day.  The serial number
 		  is important as it alerts slave name servers for a
 		  zone when it is updated.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 	  </variablelist>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">       IN NS           ns1.example.org.</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This is an NS entry.  Every name server that is going
 	    to reply authoritatively for the zone must have one of
 	    these entries.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">localhost       IN      A       127.0.0.1
 ns1             IN      A       192.168.1.2
 ns2             IN      A       192.168.1.3
 mx              IN      A       192.168.1.4
 mail            IN      A       192.168.1.5</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The A record indicates machine names.  As seen above,
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">ns1.example.org</systemitem> would
 	    resolve to <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.2</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">                IN      A       192.168.1.1</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This line assigns <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	    <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.1</systemitem> to
 	    the current origin, in this case <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">www             IN CNAME        @</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The canonical name record is usually used for giving
 	    aliases to a machine.  In the example,
 	    <systemitem>www</systemitem> is aliased to the
 	    <quote>master</quote> machine whose name happens to be the
 	    same as the domain name
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>
 	    (<systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.1</systemitem>).
 	    CNAMEs can never be used together with another kind of
 	    record for the same hostname.</para>
 
 	  <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	    <primary>MX record</primary>
 	  </indexterm>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">               IN MX   10      mail.example.org.</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The MX record indicates which mail servers are
 	    responsible for handling incoming mail for the zone.
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">mail.example.org</systemitem> is
 	    the hostname of a mail server, and 10 is the priority of
 	    that mail server.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">One can have several mail servers, with priorities of
 	    10, 20 and so on.  A mail server attempting to deliver to
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.org</systemitem>
 	    would first try the highest priority MX (the record with
 	    the lowest priority number), then the second highest, etc,
 	    until the mail can be properly delivered.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym>), the same format is used, except
 	    with PTR entries instead of A or CNAME.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">$TTL 3600
 
 1.168.192.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
                         2006051501      ; Serial
                         10800           ; Refresh
                         3600            ; Retry
                         604800          ; Expire
                         300 )           ; Negative Response TTL
 
         IN      NS      ns1.example.org.
         IN      NS      ns2.example.org.
 
 1       IN      PTR     example.org.
 2       IN      PTR     ns1.example.org.
 3       IN      PTR     ns2.example.org.
 4       IN      PTR     mx.example.org.
 5       IN      PTR     mail.example.org.</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This file gives the proper <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	    address to hostname mappings for the above fictitious
 	    domain.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It is worth noting that all names on the right side
 	    of a PTR record need to be fully qualified (i.e., end in
 	    a <quote>.</quote>).</para>
 	</sect4>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>快取名稱伺服器</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>BIND</primary>
 	  <secondary>caching name server</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A caching name server is a name server whose primary
 	  role is to resolve recursive queries.  It simply asks
 	  queries of its own, and remembers the answers for later
 	  use.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><acronym role="Domain Name Security      Extensions">DNSSEC</acronym></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>BIND</primary>
 	  <secondary><acronym>DNS</acronym> security
 	      extensions</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Domain Name System Security Extensions, or <acronym role="Domain Name Security Extensions">DNSSEC</acronym>
 	  for short, is a suite of specifications to protect resolving
 	  name servers from forged <acronym>DNS</acronym> data, such
 	  as spoofed <acronym>DNS</acronym> records.  By using digital
 	  signatures, a resolver can verify the integrity of the
 	  record.  Note that <acronym role="Domain Name Security      Extensions">DNSSEC</acronym> only provides integrity via
 	  digitally signing the Resource Records (<acronym role="Resource Record">RR</acronym>s).  It provides
 	  neither confidentiality nor protection against false
 	  end-user assumptions.  This means that it cannot protect
 	  against people going to
 	  <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.net</systemitem>
 	  instead of
 	  <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>.
 	  The only thing <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> does is
 	  authenticate that the data has not been compromised in
 	  transit.  The security of <acronym>DNS</acronym> is an
 	  important step in securing the Internet in general.  For
 	  more in-depth details of how <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>
 	  works, the relevant <acronym>RFC</acronym>s are a good place
 	  to start.  See the list in
 	  <xref linkend="dns-read"/>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The following sections will demonstrate how to enable
 	  <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> for an authoritative
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> server and a recursive (or caching)
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> server running
 	  <acronym>BIND</acronym> 9.  While all versions of
 	  <acronym>BIND</acronym> 9 support <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>,
 	  it is necessary to have at least version 9.6.2 in order to
 	  be able to use the signed root zone when validating
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> queries.  This is because earlier
 	  versions lack the required algorithms to enable validation
 	  using the root zone key.  It is strongly recommended to use
 	  the latest version of <acronym>BIND</acronym> 9.7 or later
 	  to take advantage of automatic key updating for the root
 	  key, as well as other features to automatically keep zones
 	  signed and signatures up to date.  Where configurations
 	  differ between 9.6.2 and 9.7 and later, differences will be
 	  pointed out.</para>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Recursive <acronym>DNS</acronym> Server
 	    Configuration</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enabling <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> validation of
 	    queries performed by a recursive <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 	    server requires a few changes to
 	    <filename>named.conf</filename>.  Before making these
 	    changes the root zone key, or trust anchor, must be
 	    acquired.  Currently the root zone key is not available in
 	    a file format <acronym>BIND</acronym> understands, so it
 	    has to be manually converted into the proper format.  The
 	    key itself can be obtained by querying the root zone for
 	    it using <application>dig</application>.  By
 	    running</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dig +multi +noall +answer DNSKEY . &gt; root.dnskey</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">the key will end up in
 	    <filename>root.dnskey</filename>.  The contents should
 	    look something like this:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">. 93910 IN DNSKEY 257 3 8 (
 	AwEAAagAIKlVZrpC6Ia7gEzahOR+9W29euxhJhVVLOyQ
 	bSEW0O8gcCjFFVQUTf6v58fLjwBd0YI0EzrAcQqBGCzh
 	/RStIoO8g0NfnfL2MTJRkxoXbfDaUeVPQuYEhg37NZWA
 	JQ9VnMVDxP/VHL496M/QZxkjf5/Efucp2gaDX6RS6CXp
 	oY68LsvPVjR0ZSwzz1apAzvN9dlzEheX7ICJBBtuA6G3
 	LQpzW5hOA2hzCTMjJPJ8LbqF6dsV6DoBQzgul0sGIcGO
 	Yl7OyQdXfZ57relSQageu+ipAdTTJ25AsRTAoub8ONGc
 	LmqrAmRLKBP1dfwhYB4N7knNnulqQxA+Uk1ihz0=
 	) ; key id = 19036
 . 93910 IN DNSKEY 256 3 8 (
 	AwEAAcaGQEA+OJmOzfzVfoYN249JId7gx+OZMbxy69Hf
 	UyuGBbRN0+HuTOpBxxBCkNOL+EJB9qJxt+0FEY6ZUVjE
 	g58sRr4ZQ6Iu6b1xTBKgc193zUARk4mmQ/PPGxn7Cn5V
 	EGJ/1h6dNaiXuRHwR+7oWh7DnzkIJChcTqlFrXDW3tjt
 ) ; key id = 34525</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Do not be alarmed if the obtained keys differ from
 	    this example.  They might have changed since these
 	    instructions were last updated.  This output actually
 	    contains two keys.  The first key in the listing, with the
 	    value 257 after the DNSKEY record type, is the one needed.
 	    This value indicates that this is a Secure Entry Point
 	    (<acronym role="Secure Entry Point">SEP</acronym>),
 	    commonly known as a Key Signing Key
 	    (<acronym role="Key Signing Key">KSK</acronym>).  The
 	    second key, with value 256, is a subordinate key, commonly
 	    called a Zone Signing Key
 	    (<acronym role="Zone Signing Key">ZSK</acronym>).  More on
 	    the different key types later in
 	    <xref linkend="dns-dnssec-auth"/>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Now the key must be verified and formatted so that
 	    <acronym>BIND</acronym> can use it.  To verify the key,
 	    generate a <acronym role="Delegation Signer">DS</acronym>
 	    <acronym role="Resource Record">RR</acronym> set.  Create
 	    a file containing these
 	    <acronym role="Resource Record">RR</acronym>s with</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dnssec-dsfromkey -f root.dnskey . &gt; root.ds</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">These records use SHA-1 and SHA-256 respectively, and
 	    should look similar to the following example, where the
 	    longer is using SHA-256.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">.  IN DS 19036 8 1
 	B256BD09DC8DD59F0E0F0D8541B8328DD986DF6E
 . IN DS 19036 8 2 49AAC11D7B6F6446702E54A1607371607A1A41855200FD2CE1CDDE32F24E8FB5</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The SHA-256 <acronym>RR</acronym> can now be compared
 	    to the digest in <link xlink:href="https://data.iana.org/root-anchors/root-anchors.xml">https://data.iana.org/root-anchors/root-anchors.xml</link>.
 	    To be absolutely sure that the key has not been tampered
 	    with the data in the <acronym>XML</acronym> file can be
 	    verified using the <acronym>PGP</acronym> signature in
 	    <link xlink:href="https://data.iana.org/root-anchors/root-anchors.asc">https://data.iana.org/root-anchors/root-anchors.asc</link>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Next, the key must be formatted properly.  This
 	    differs a little between <acronym>BIND</acronym> versions
 	    9.6.2 and 9.7 and later.  In version 9.7 support was added
 	    to automatically track changes to the key and update it as
 	    necessary.  This is done using
 	    <literal>managed-keys</literal> as seen in the example
 	    below.  When using the older version, the key is added
 	    using a <literal>trusted-keys</literal> statement and
 	    updates must be done manually.  For
 	    <acronym>BIND</acronym> 9.6.2 the format should look
 	    like:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">trusted-keys {
 	"." 257 3 8
 	"AwEAAagAIKlVZrpC6Ia7gEzahOR+9W29euxhJhVVLOyQbSEW0O8gcCjF
 	FVQUTf6v58fLjwBd0YI0EzrAcQqBGCzh/RStIoO8g0NfnfL2MTJRkxoX
 	bfDaUeVPQuYEhg37NZWAJQ9VnMVDxP/VHL496M/QZxkjf5/Efucp2gaD
 	X6RS6CXpoY68LsvPVjR0ZSwzz1apAzvN9dlzEheX7ICJBBtuA6G3LQpz
 	W5hOA2hzCTMjJPJ8LbqF6dsV6DoBQzgul0sGIcGOYl7OyQdXfZ57relS
 	Qageu+ipAdTTJ25AsRTAoub8ONGcLmqrAmRLKBP1dfwhYB4N7knNnulq
 	QxA+Uk1ihz0=";
 };</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For 9.7 the format will instead be:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">managed-keys {
 	"." initial-key 257 3 8
 	"AwEAAagAIKlVZrpC6Ia7gEzahOR+9W29euxhJhVVLOyQbSEW0O8gcCjF
 	FVQUTf6v58fLjwBd0YI0EzrAcQqBGCzh/RStIoO8g0NfnfL2MTJRkxoX
 	bfDaUeVPQuYEhg37NZWAJQ9VnMVDxP/VHL496M/QZxkjf5/Efucp2gaD
 	X6RS6CXpoY68LsvPVjR0ZSwzz1apAzvN9dlzEheX7ICJBBtuA6G3LQpz
 	W5hOA2hzCTMjJPJ8LbqF6dsV6DoBQzgul0sGIcGOYl7OyQdXfZ57relS
 	Qageu+ipAdTTJ25AsRTAoub8ONGcLmqrAmRLKBP1dfwhYB4N7knNnulq
 	QxA+Uk1ihz0=";
 };</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The root key can now be added to
 	    <filename>named.conf</filename> either directly or by
 	    including a file containing the key.  After these steps,
 	    configure <acronym>BIND</acronym> to do
 	    <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> validation on queries by editing
 	    <filename>named.conf</filename> and adding the following
 	    to the <literal>options</literal> directive:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">dnssec-enable yes;
 dnssec-validation yes;</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To verify that it is actually working use
 	    <application>dig</application> to make a query for a
 	    signed zone using the resolver just configured.  A
 	    successful reply will contain the <literal>AD</literal>
 	    flag to indicate the data was authenticated.  Running a
 	    query such as</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dig @<replaceable>resolver</replaceable> +dnssec se ds </userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">should return the <acronym>DS</acronym>
 	    <acronym>RR</acronym> for the <literal>.se</literal> zone.
 	    In the <literal>flags:</literal> section the
 	    <literal>AD</literal> flag should be set, as seen
 	    in:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">...
 ;; flags: qr rd ra ad; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 3, AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 1
 ...</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The resolver is now capable of authenticating
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym> queries.</para>
 	</sect4>
 
 	<sect4 xml:id="dns-dnssec-auth">
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Authoritative <acronym>DNS</acronym> Server
 	    Configuration</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">In order to get an authoritative name server to serve
 	    a <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> signed zone a little more work
 	    is required.  A zone is signed using cryptographic keys
 	    which must be generated.  It is possible to use only one
 	    key for this.  The preferred method however is to have a
 	    strong well-protected Key Signing Key
 	    (<acronym role="Key Signing Key">KSK</acronym>) that is
 	    not rotated very often and a Zone Signing Key
 	    (<acronym role="Zone Signing Key">ZSK</acronym>) that is
 	    rotated more frequently.  Information on recommended
 	    operational practices can be found in <link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4641.txt"><acronym>RFC</acronym>
 	      4641: <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> Operational
 	      Practices</link>.  Practices regarding the root zone can
 	    be found in <link xlink:href="http://www.root-dnssec.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/icann-dps-00.txt"><acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>
 	      Practice Statement for the Root Zone
 	      <acronym>KSK</acronym> operator</link> and <link xlink:href="http://www.root-dnssec.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/vrsn-dps-00.txt"><acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>
 	      Practice Statement for the Root Zone
 	    <acronym>ZSK</acronym> operator</link>.  The
 	    <acronym role="Key Signing Key">KSK</acronym> is used to
 	    build a chain of authority to the data in need of
 	    validation and as such is also called a Secure Entry Point
 	    (<acronym role="Secure Entry Point">SEP</acronym>) key.  A
 	    message digest of this key, called a Delegation Signer
 	    (<acronym role="Delegation Signer">DS</acronym>) record,
 	    must be published in the parent zone to establish the
 	    trust chain.  How this is accomplished depends on the
 	    parent zone owner.  The
 	    <acronym role="Zone Signing Key">ZSK</acronym> is used to
 	    sign the zone, and only needs to be published
 	    there.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To enable <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> for the
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>
 	    zone depicted in previous examples, the first step is to
 	    use <application>dnssec-keygen</application> to generate
 	    the <acronym>KSK</acronym> and <acronym>ZSK</acronym> key
 	    pair.  This key pair can utilize different cryptographic
 	    algorithms.  It is recommended to use RSA/SHA256 for the
 	    keys and 2048 bits key length should be enough.  To
 	    generate the <acronym>KSK</acronym> for
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>,
 	    run</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dnssec-keygen -f KSK -a RSASHA256 -b 2048 -n ZONE example.com</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">and to generate the <acronym>ZSK</acronym>, run</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dnssec-keygen -a RSASHA256 -b 2048 -n ZONE example.com</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><application>dnssec-keygen</application> outputs two
 	    files, the public and the private keys in files named
 	    similar to
 	    <filename>Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.key</filename> (public)
 	    and <filename>Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.private</filename>
 	    (private).  The <literal>nnnnn</literal> part of the file
 	    name is a five digit key ID.  Keep track of which key ID
 	    belongs to which key.  This is especially important when
 	    having more than one key in a zone.  It is also possible
 	    to rename the keys.  For each <acronym>KSK</acronym> file
 	    do:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mv Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.key Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK.key</userinput>
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>mv Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.private Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK.private</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For the <acronym>ZSK</acronym> files, substitute
 	    <literal>KSK</literal> for <literal>ZSK</literal> as
 	    necessary.  The files can now be included in the zone
 	    file, using the <literal>$include</literal> statement.  It
 	    should look something like this:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">$include Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK.key ; KSK
 $include Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.ZSK.key    ; ZSK</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Finally, sign the zone and tell
 	    <acronym>BIND</acronym> to use the signed zone file.  To
 	    sign a zone <application>dnssec-signzone</application> is
 	    used.  The command to sign the zone
 	    <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>,
 	    located in <filename>example.com.db</filename> would look
 	    similar to</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>dnssec-signzone -o
 	example.com -k Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK example.com.db
 	Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.ZSK.key</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The key supplied to the <option>-k</option> argument
 	    is the <acronym>KSK</acronym> and the other key file is
 	    the <acronym>ZSK</acronym> that should be used in the
 	    signing.  It is possible to supply more than one
 	    <acronym>KSK</acronym> and <acronym>ZSK</acronym>, which
 	    will result in the zone being signed with all supplied
 	    keys.  This can be needed to supply zone data signed using
 	    more than one algorithm.  The output of
 	    <application>dnssec-signzone</application> is a zone file
 	    with all <acronym>RR</acronym>s signed.  This output will
 	    end up in a file with the extension
 	    <literal>.signed</literal>, such as
 	    <filename>example.com.db.signed</filename>.  The
 	    <acronym role="Delegation Signer">DS</acronym> records
 	    will also be written to a separate file
 	    <filename>dsset-example.com</filename>.  To use this
 	    signed zone just modify the zone directive in
 	    <filename>named.conf</filename> to use
 	    <filename>example.com.db.signed</filename>.  By default,
 	    the signatures are only valid 30 days, meaning that the
 	    zone needs to be resigned in about 15 days to be sure
 	    that resolvers are not caching records with stale
 	    signatures.  It is possible to make a script and a cron
 	    job to do this.  See relevant manuals for details.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Be sure to keep private keys confidential, as with all
 	    cryptographic keys.  When changing a key it is best to
 	    include the new key into the zone, while still signing
 	    with the old one, and then move over to using the new key
 	    to sign.  After these steps are done the old key can be
 	    removed from the zone.  Failure to do this might render
 	    the <acronym>DNS</acronym> data unavailable for a time,
 	    until the new key has propagated through the
 	    <acronym>DNS</acronym> hierarchy.  For more information on
 	    key rollovers and other <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>
 	    operational issues, see <link xlink:href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4641.txt"><acronym>RFC</acronym>
 	      4641: <acronym>DNSSEC</acronym> Operational
 	      practices</link>.</para>
 	</sect4>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Automation Using <acronym>BIND</acronym> 9.7 or
 	    Later</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Beginning with <acronym>BIND</acronym> version 9.7 a
 	    new feature called <emphasis>Smart Signing</emphasis> was
 	    introduced.  This feature aims to make the key management
 	    and signing process simpler by automating parts of the
 	    task.  By putting the keys into a directory called a
 	    <emphasis>key repository</emphasis>, and using the new
 	    option <literal>auto-dnssec</literal>, it is possible to
 	    create a dynamic zone which will be resigned as needed.
 	    To update this zone use
 	    <application>nsupdate</application> with the new option
 	    <option>-l</option>.  <application>rndc</application> has
 	    also grown the ability to sign zones with keys in the key
 	    repository, using the option <option>sign</option>.  To
 	    tell <acronym>BIND</acronym> to use this automatic signing
 	    and zone updating for <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem>, add the
 	    following to <filename>named.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">zone example.com {
 	type master;
 	key-directory "/etc/named/keys";
 	update-policy local;
 	auto-dnssec maintain;
 	file "/etc/named/dynamic/example.com.zone";
 };</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">After making these changes, generate keys for the zone
 	    as explained in <xref linkend="dns-dnssec-auth"/>, put
 	    those keys in the key repository given as the argument to
 	    the <literal>key-directory</literal> in the zone
 	    configuration and the zone will be signed automatically.
 	    Updates to a zone configured this way must be done using
 	    <application>nsupdate</application>, which will take care
 	    of re-signing the zone with the new data added.  For
 	    further details, see <xref linkend="dns-read"/> and the
 	    <acronym>BIND</acronym> documentation.</para>
 	</sect4>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>安全性</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Although BIND is the most common implementation of
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym>, there is always the issue of
 	  security.  Possible and exploitable security holes are
 	  sometimes found.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">While FreeBSD automatically drops
 	  <application>named</application> into a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  environment; there are several other security mechanisms in
 	  place which could help to lure off possible
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> service attacks.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is always good idea to read
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.cert.org/">CERT</link>'s
 	  security advisories and to subscribe to the
 	  <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security-notifications">FreeBSD security notifications mailing list</link> to stay up to date with the
 	  current Internet and FreeBSD security issues.</para>
 
 	<tip>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If a problem arises, keeping sources up to date and
 	    having a fresh build of <application>named</application>
 	    may help.</para>
 	</tip>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="dns-read">
 	<title>延伸閱讀</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">BIND/<application>named</application> manual pages:
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rndc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>named</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>named.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>nsupdate</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dnssec-signzone</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dnssec-keygen</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://www.isc.org/software/bind">Official
 		ISC BIND Page</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://www.isc.org/software/guild">Official
 		ISC BIND Forum</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/dns5/">O'Reilly
 		<acronym>DNS</acronym> and BIND 5th
 		Edition</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.root-dnssec.org/documentation/">Root
 		<acronym>DNSSEC</acronym></link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://data.iana.org/root-anchors/draft-icann-dnssec-trust-anchor.html"><acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>
 		Trust Anchor Publication for the Root
 		Zone</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1034">RFC1034
 		- Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1035">RFC1035
 		- Domain Names - Implementation and
 		Specification</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4033">RFC4033
 		- <acronym>DNS</acronym> Security Introduction and
 		Requirements</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4034">RFC4034
 		- Resource Records for the <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 		Security Extensions</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4035">RFC4035
 		- Protocol Modifications for the
 		<acronym>DNS</acronym> Security
 		Extensions</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4641">RFC4641
 		- DNSSEC Operational Practices</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5011">RFC
 		5011 - Automated Updates of <acronym>DNS</acronym>
 		Security (<acronym>DNSSEC</acronym>
 		Trust Anchors</link></para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-apache">
     <info>
       <title>Apache HTTP 伺服器</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	    <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>web servers</primary>
       <secondary>setting up</secondary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Apache</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The open source
       <application>Apache HTTP Server</application> is the most widely
       used web server.  FreeBSD does not install this web server by
       default, but it can be installed from the
       <package>www/apache24</package> package or port.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section summarizes how to configure and start version
       2.<replaceable>x</replaceable> of the <application>Apache HTTP
 	Server</application> on FreeBSD.  For more detailed information
       about <application>Apache</application> 2.X and its
       configuration directives, refer to <link xlink:href="http://httpd.apache.org/">httpd.apache.org</link>.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定並啟動 Apache</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Apache</primary>
 	<secondary>configuration file</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, the main <application>Apache HTTP
 	  Server</application> configuration file is installed as
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/apache2<replaceable>x</replaceable>/httpd.conf</filename>,
 	where <replaceable>x</replaceable> represents the version
 	number.  This <acronym>ASCII</acronym> text file begins
 	comment lines with a <literal>#</literal>.  The most
 	frequently modified directives are:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>ServerRoot "/usr/local"</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Specifies the default directory hierarchy for the
 	      <application>Apache</application> installation.
 	      Binaries are stored in the <filename>bin</filename> and
 	      <filename>sbin</filename> subdirectories of the server
 	      root and configuration files are stored in the <filename>etc/apache2<replaceable>x</replaceable></filename>
 	      subdirectory.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>ServerAdmin you@example.com</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Change this to the email address to receive problems
 	      with the server.  This address also appears on some
 	      server-generated pages, such as error documents.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>ServerName
 	      www.example.com:80</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Allows an administrator to set a hostname which is
 	      sent back to clients for the server.  For example,
 	      <systemitem>www</systemitem> can be used instead of the
 	      actual hostname.  If the system does not have a
 	      registered <acronym>DNS</acronym> name, enter its
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address instead.  If the server
 	      will listen on an alternate report, change
 	      <literal>80</literal> to the alternate port
 	      number.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><literal>DocumentRoot
 	    "/usr/local/www/apache2<replaceable>x</replaceable>/data"</literal></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The directory where documents will be served from.
 	      By default, all requests are taken from this directory,
 	      but symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to
 	      other locations.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is always a good idea to make a backup copy of the
 	default <application>Apache</application> configuration file
 	before making changes.  When the configuration of
 	<application>Apache</application> is complete, save the file
 	and verify the configuration using
 	<command>apachectl</command>.  Running <command>apachectl
 	  configtest</command> should return <literal>Syntax
 	  OK</literal>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Apache</primary>
 	<secondary>starting or stopping</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To launch <application>Apache</application> at system
 	startup, add the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">apache<replaceable>24</replaceable>_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <application>Apache</application> should be started
 	with non-default options, the following line may be added to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to specify the needed
 	flags:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">apache<replaceable>24</replaceable>_flags=""</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <application>apachectl</application> does not report
 	configuration errors, start <command>httpd</command>
 	now:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service apache<replaceable>24</replaceable> start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <command>httpd</command> service can be tested by
 	entering
 	<literal>http://<replaceable>localhost</replaceable></literal>
 	in a web browser, replacing
 	<replaceable>localhost</replaceable> with the fully-qualified
 	domain name of the machine running <command>httpd</command>.
 	The default web page that is displayed is
 	<filename>/usr/local/www/apache<replaceable>24</replaceable>/data/index.html</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>Apache</application> configuration can be
 	tested for errors after making subsequent configuration
 	changes while <command>httpd</command> is running using the
 	following command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service apache<replaceable>24</replaceable> configtest</userinput></screen>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is important to note that
 	  <literal>configtest</literal> is not an <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> standard,
 	  and should not be expected to work for all startup
 	  scripts.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>虛擬主機</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Virtual hosting allows multiple websites to run on one
 	<application>Apache</application> server.  The virtual hosts
 	can be <firstterm>IP-based</firstterm> or
 	<firstterm>name-based</firstterm>.
 	<acronym>IP</acronym>-based virtual hosting uses a different
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address for each website.  Name-based
 	virtual hosting uses the clients HTTP/1.1 headers to figure
 	out the hostname, which allows the websites to share the same
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To setup <application>Apache</application> to use
 	name-based virtual hosting, add a
 	<literal>VirtualHost</literal> block for each website.  For
 	example, for the webserver named <systemitem class="fqdomainname">www.domain.tld</systemitem> with a
 	virtual domain of <systemitem class="fqdomainname">www.someotherdomain.tld</systemitem>,
 	add the following entries to
 	<filename>httpd.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;VirtualHost *&gt;
     ServerName <replaceable>www.domain.tld</replaceable>
     DocumentRoot <replaceable>/www/domain.tld</replaceable>
 &lt;/VirtualHost&gt;
 
 &lt;VirtualHost *&gt;
     ServerName <replaceable>www.someotherdomain.tld</replaceable>
     DocumentRoot <replaceable>/www/someotherdomain.tld</replaceable>
 &lt;/VirtualHost&gt;</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For each virtual host, replace the values for
 	<literal>ServerName</literal> and
 	<literal>DocumentRoot</literal> with the values to be
 	used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more information about setting up virtual hosts,
 	consult the official <application>Apache</application>
 	documentation at: <uri xlink:href="http://httpd.apache.org/docs/vhosts/">http://httpd.apache.org/docs/vhosts/</uri>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Apache 模組</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Apache</primary>
 	<secondary>modules</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Apache</application> uses modules to augment
 	the functionality provided by the basic server.  Refer to <uri xlink:href="http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/mod/">http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/mod/</uri>
 	for a complete listing of and the configuration details for
 	the available modules.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, some modules can be compiled with the
 	<package>www/apache24</package> port.  Type <command>make
 	  config</command> within
 	<filename>/usr/ports/www/apache24</filename> to see which
 	modules are available and which are enabled by default.  If
 	the module is not compiled with the port, the FreeBSD Ports
 	Collection provides an easy way to install many modules.  This
 	section describes three of the most commonly used
 	modules.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><filename>mod_ssl</filename></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>web servers</primary>
 	  <secondary>secure</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>SSL</primary></indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>cryptography</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <filename>mod_ssl</filename> module uses the
 	  <application>OpenSSL</application> library to provide strong
 	  cryptography via the Secure Sockets Layer
 	  (<acronym>SSLv3</acronym>) and Transport Layer Security
 	  (<acronym>TLSv1</acronym>) protocols.  This module provides
 	  everything necessary to request a signed certificate from a
 	  trusted certificate signing authority to run a secure web
 	  server on FreeBSD.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <filename>mod_ssl</filename> module is enabled
 	  by default in both the package and the port.  The available
 	  configuration directives are explained at <uri xlink:href="http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/mod/mod_ssl.html">http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/mod/mod_ssl.html</uri>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><filename>mod_perl</filename></title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>mod_perl</primary>
 	  <secondary>Perl</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The
 	  <filename>mod_perl</filename> module makes it possible to
 	  write <application>Apache</application> modules in
 	  <application>Perl</application>.  In addition, the
 	  persistent interpreter embedded in the server avoids the
 	  overhead of starting an external interpreter and the penalty
 	  of <application>Perl</application> start-up time.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <filename>mod_perl</filename> can be installed using
 	  the <package>www/mod_perl2</package> package or port.
 	  Documentation for using this module can be found at <uri xlink:href="http://perl.apache.org/docs/2.0/index.html">http://perl.apache.org/docs/2.0/index.html</uri>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<info>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><filename>mod_php</filename></title>
 
 	  <authorgroup>
 	    <author xml:lang="en">
 	      <personname>
 		<firstname>Tom</firstname>
 		<surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	      </personname>
 	      <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	    </author>
 	  </authorgroup>
 	</info>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>mod_php</primary>
 	  <secondary>PHP</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><firstterm>PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor</firstterm>
 	  (<acronym>PHP</acronym>) is a general-purpose scripting
 	  language that is especially suited for web development.
 	  Capable of being embedded into <acronym>HTML</acronym>, its
 	  syntax draws upon <application>C</application>, <trademark>Java</trademark>, and
 	  <application>Perl</application> with the intention of
 	  allowing web developers to write dynamically generated
 	  webpages quickly.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To gain support for <acronym>PHP</acronym>5 for the
 	  <application>Apache</application> web server, install the
 	  <package>www/mod_php56</package> package or port.  This will
 	  install and configure the modules required to support
 	  dynamic <acronym>PHP</acronym> applications.  The
 	  installation will automatically add this line to
 	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/apache2<replaceable>4</replaceable>/httpd.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">LoadModule php5_module        libexec/apache24/libphp5.so</programlisting>
 
 <!--
 I don't think this is still needed
 AddModule mod_php5.c
     &lt;IfModule mod_php5.c&gt;
         DirectoryIndex index.php index.html
     &lt;/IfModule&gt;
     &lt;IfModule mod_php5.c&gt;
         AddType application/x-httpd-php .php
         AddType application/x-httpd-php-source .phps
     &lt;/IfModule&gt;</programlisting>
 
     -->
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then, perform a graceful restart to load the
 	  <acronym>PHP</acronym> module:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>apachectl graceful</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>PHP</acronym> support provided by
 	  <package>www/mod_php56</package> is limited.  Additional
 	  support can be installed using the
 	  <package>lang/php56-extensions</package> port which provides
 	  a menu driven interface to the available
 	  <acronym>PHP</acronym> extensions.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Alternatively, individual extensions can be installed
 	  using the appropriate port.  For instance, to add
 	  <acronym>PHP</acronym> support for the
 	  <application>MySQL</application> database server, install
 	  <package>databases/php56-mysql</package>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">After installing an extension, the
 	  <application>Apache</application> server must be reloaded to
 	  pick up the new configuration changes:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>apachectl graceful</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>動態網站</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>web servers</primary>
 	<secondary>dynamic</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In addition to <application>mod_perl</application> and
 	<application>mod_php</application>, other languages are
 	available for creating dynamic web content.  These include
 	<application>Django</application> and
 	<application>Ruby on Rails</application>.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Django</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Python</primary></indexterm>
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Django</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>Django</application> is a BSD-licensed
 	  framework designed to allow developers to write high
 	  performance, elegant web applications quickly.  It provides
 	  an object-relational mapper so that data types are developed
 	  as <application>Python</application> objects.  A rich
 	  dynamic database-access <acronym>API</acronym> is provided
 	  for those objects without the developer ever having to write
 	  <acronym>SQL</acronym>.  It also provides an extensible
 	  template system so that the logic of the application is
 	  separated from the <acronym>HTML</acronym>
 	  presentation.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Django depends on <filename>mod_python</filename>, and
 	  an <acronym>SQL</acronym> database engine.  In FreeBSD, the
 	  <package>www/py-django</package> port automatically installs
 	  <filename>mod_python</filename> and supports the
 	  <application>PostgreSQL</application>,
 	  <application>MySQL</application>, or
 	  <application>SQLite</application> databases, with the
 	  default being <application>SQLite</application>.  To change
 	  the database engine, type <command>make config</command>
 	  within <filename>/usr/ports/www/py-django</filename>, then
 	  install the port.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once <application>Django</application> is installed, the
 	  application will need a project directory along with the
 	  <application>Apache</application> configuration in order to
 	  use the embedded <application>Python</application>
 	  interpreter.  This interpreter is used to call the
 	  application for specific <acronym>URL</acronym>s on the
 	  site.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To configure <application>Apache</application> to pass
 	  requests for certain <acronym>URL</acronym>s to the web
 	  application, add the following to
 	  <filename>httpd.conf</filename>, specifying the full path to
 	  the project directory:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">&lt;Location "/"&gt;
     SetHandler python-program
     PythonPath "['<replaceable>/dir/to/the/django/packages/</replaceable>'] + sys.path"
     PythonHandler django.core.handlers.modpython
     SetEnv DJANGO_SETTINGS_MODULE mysite.settings
     PythonAutoReload On
     PythonDebug On
 &lt;/Location&gt;</programlisting>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Refer to <uri xlink:href="https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.6/">https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.6/</uri>
+	<para xml:lang="en">Refer to <uri xlink:href="https://docs.djangoproject.com">https://docs.djangoproject.com</uri>
 	  for more information on how to use
 	  <application>Django</application>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Ruby on Rails</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Ruby on Rails</primary></indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>Ruby on Rails</application> is another open
 	  source web framework that provides a full development stack.
 	  It is optimized to make web developers more productive and
 	  capable of writing powerful applications quickly.  On FreeBSD,
 	  it can be installed using the
 	  <package>www/rubygem-rails</package> package or port.</para>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">Refer to <uri xlink:href="http://rubyonrails.org/documentation">http://rubyonrails.org/documentation</uri>
+	<para xml:lang="en">Refer to <uri xlink:href="http://guides.rubyonrails.org">http://guides.rubyonrails.org</uri>
 	  for more information on how to use <application>Ruby on
 	    Rails</application>.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-ftp">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	  <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>檔案傳輸協定 (<acronym>FTP</acronym>)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	servers</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The File Transfer Protocol (<acronym>FTP</acronym>) provides
       users with a simple way to transfer files to and from an
       <acronym>FTP</acronym> server.  FreeBSD includes
       <acronym>FTP</acronym> server software,
       <application>ftpd</application>, in the base system.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides several configuration files for controlling
       access to the <acronym>FTP</acronym> server.  This section
       summarizes these files.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ftpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more details
       about the built-in <acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The most important configuration step is deciding which
 	accounts will be allowed access to the <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	server.  A FreeBSD system has a number of system accounts which
 	should not be allowed <acronym>FTP</acronym> access.  The list
 	of users disallowed any <acronym>FTP</acronym> access can be
 	found in <filename>/etc/ftpusers</filename>.  By default, it
 	includes system accounts.  Additional users that should not be
 	allowed access to <acronym>FTP</acronym> can be added.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In some cases it may be desirable to restrict the access
 	of some users without preventing them completely from using
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym>.  This can be accomplished be creating
 	<filename>/etc/ftpchroot</filename> as described in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ftpchroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This file lists users and groups subject
 	to <acronym>FTP</acronym> access restrictions.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>FTP</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>anonymous</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable anonymous <acronym>FTP</acronym> access to the
 	server, create a user named <systemitem class="username">ftp</systemitem> on the FreeBSD system.  Users
 	will then be able to log on to the
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> server with a username of
 	<systemitem class="username">ftp</systemitem> or <systemitem class="username">anonymous</systemitem>.  When prompted for
 	the password, any input will be accepted, but by convention,
 	an email address should be used as the password.  The
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> server will call <citerefentry><refentrytitle>chroot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>2</manvolnum></citerefentry> when an
 	anonymous user logs in, to restrict access to only the home
 	directory of the <systemitem class="username">ftp</systemitem> user.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are two text files that can be created to specify
 	welcome messages to be displayed to <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	clients.  The contents of
 	<filename>/etc/ftpwelcome</filename> will be displayed to
 	users before they reach the login prompt.  After a successful
 	login, the contents of
 	<filename>/etc/ftpmotd</filename> will be displayed.  Note
 	that the path to this file is relative to the login
 	environment, so the contents of
 	<filename>~ftp/etc/ftpmotd</filename> would be displayed for
 	anonymous users.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the <acronym>FTP</acronym> server has been
 	configured, set the appropriate variable in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to start the service during
 	boot:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ftpd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start the service now:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ftpd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Test the connection to the <acronym>FTP</acronym> server
 	by typing:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ftp localhost</userinput></screen>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>syslog</primary></indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>log files</primary>
 	<secondary><acronym>FTP</acronym></secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <application>ftpd</application> daemon uses
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslog</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> to log messages.  By default, the system log
 	daemon will write messages related to <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	in <filename>/var/log/xferlog</filename>.  The location of
 	the <acronym>FTP</acronym> log can be modified by changing the
 	following line in
 	<filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ftp.info      /var/log/xferlog</programlisting>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><acronym>FTP</acronym></primary>
 	<secondary>anonymous</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Be aware of the potential problems involved with running
 	  an anonymous <acronym>FTP</acronym> server.  In particular,
 	  think twice about allowing anonymous users to upload files.
 	  It may turn out that the <acronym>FTP</acronym> site becomes
 	  a forum for the trade of unlicensed commercial software or
 	  worse.  If anonymous <acronym>FTP</acronym> uploads are
 	  required, then verify the permissions so that these files
 	  can not be read by other anonymous users until they have
 	  been reviewed by an administrator.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-samba">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	  <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title><trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 用戶端檔案與列印服務 (Samba)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Samba server</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>Microsoft Windows</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>file server</primary>
       <secondary>Windows clients</secondary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>print server</primary>
       <secondary>Windows clients</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>Samba</application> is a popular open source
       software package that provides file and print services using the
       <acronym>SMB/CIFS</acronym> protocol.  This protocol is built
       into <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> systems.  It can be added to
       non-<trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> systems by installing the
       <application>Samba</application> client libraries.  The protocol
       allows clients to access shared data and printers.  These shares
       can be mapped as a local disk drive and shared printers can be
       used as if they were local printers.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">On FreeBSD, the <application>Samba</application> client
       libraries can be installed using the
       <package>net/samba-smbclient</package> port or package.  The
       client provides the ability for a FreeBSD system to access
       <acronym>SMB/CIFS</acronym> shares in a <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark>
       network.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A FreeBSD system can also be configured to act as a
       <application>Samba</application> server by installing the
       <package>net/samba43</package> port or package.  This allows the
       administrator to create <acronym>SMB</acronym>/<acronym>CIFS</acronym>shares on
       the FreeBSD system which can be accessed by clients running
       <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> or the <application>Samba</application>
       client libraries.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>伺服器設定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Samba</application> is configured in
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/smb4.conf</filename>.  This file must
 	be created before <application>Samba</application>
 	can be used.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A simple <filename>smb4.conf</filename> to share
 	directories and printers  with <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> clients in a
 	workgroup is shown here.  For more complex setups
 	involving LDAP or Active Directory, it is easier to use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>samba-tool</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to create the initial
 	<filename>smb4.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">[global]
 workgroup = WORKGROUP
 server string = Samba Server Version %v
 netbios name = ExampleMachine
 wins support = Yes
 security = user
 passdb backend = tdbsam
 
 # Example: share /usr/src accessible only to 'developer' user
 [src]
 path = /usr/src
 valid users = developer
 writable  = yes
 browsable = yes
 read only = no
 guest ok = no
 public = no
 create mask = 0666
 directory mask = 0755</programlisting>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>全域設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Settings that describe the network are added in
 	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/smb4.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<variablelist>
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><literal>workgroup</literal></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The name of the workgroup to be served.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><literal>netbios name</literal></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The NetBIOS name by which a
 		<application>Samba</application> server is known.  By
 		default, it is the same as the first component of the
 		host's <acronym>DNS</acronym> name.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><literal>server string</literal></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The string that will be displayed in the output of
 		<command>net view</command> and some other
 		networking tools that seek to display descriptive text
 		about the server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><literal>wins support</literal></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Whether <application>Samba</application> will
 		act as a <acronym>WINS</acronym> server.  Do not
 		enable support for <acronym>WINS</acronym> on more than
 		one server on the network.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 	</variablelist>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>安全性設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The most important settings in
 	  <filename>/usr/local/etc/smb4.conf</filename> are the
 	  security model and the backend password format.  These
 	  directives control the options:</para>
 
 	<variablelist>
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><literal>security</literal></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The most common settings are
 		<literal>security = share</literal> and
 		<literal>security = user</literal>.  If the clients
 		use usernames that are the same as their usernames on
 		the FreeBSD machine, user level security should be
 		used.  This is the default security policy and it
 		requires clients to first log on before they can
 		access shared resources.</para>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">In share level security, clients do not need to
 		log onto the server with a valid username and password
 		before attempting to connect to a shared resource.
 		This was the default security model for older versions
 		of <application>Samba</application>.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 
 	  <varlistentry>
 	    <term xml:lang="en"><literal>passdb backend</literal></term>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NIS+</primary></indexterm>
 	      <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>LDAP</primary></indexterm>
 	      <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>SQL database</primary></indexterm>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><application>Samba</application> has several
 		different backend authentication models.  Clients may
 		be authenticated with LDAP, NIS+, an SQL database,
 		or a modified password file.  The recommended
 		authentication method, <literal>tdbsam</literal>,
 		is ideal for simple networks and is covered here.
 		For larger or more complex networks,
 		<literal>ldapsam</literal> is recommended.
 		<literal>smbpasswd</literal>
 		was the former default and is now obsolete.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </varlistentry>
 	</variablelist>
 
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title><application>Samba</application> 使用者</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD user accounts must be mapped to the
 	  <literal>SambaSAMAccount</literal> database for
 	  <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> clients to access the share.
 	  Map existing FreeBSD user accounts using
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pdbedit</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pdbedit -a <replaceable>username</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This section has only mentioned the most commonly used
 	  settings.  Refer to the <link xlink:href="http://www.samba.org/samba/docs/man/Samba-HOWTO-Collection/">Official
 	    Samba HOWTO</link> for additional information about the
 	  available configuration options.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>啟動 <application>Samba</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <application>Samba</application> at boot time,
 	add the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">samba_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start <application>Samba</application> now:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service samba start</userinput>
 Starting SAMBA: removing stale tdbs :
 Starting nmbd.
 Starting smbd.</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Samba</application> consists of three
 	separate daemons.  Both the <application>nmbd</application>
 	and <application>smbd</application> daemons are started by
 	<varname>samba_enable</varname>.  If winbind name resolution
 	is also required, set:</para> 
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">winbindd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Samba</application> can be stopped at any
 	time by typing:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service samba stop</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Samba</application> is a complex software
 	suite with functionality that allows broad integration with
 	<trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> networks.  For more information about
 	functionality beyond the basic configuration described here,
 	refer to <uri xlink:href="http://www.samba.org">http://www.samba.org</uri>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-ntp">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	  <surname>Hukins</surname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
     -->
     <title>NTP 時間校對</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NTP</primary>
       <secondary>ntpd</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Over time, a computer's clock is prone to drift.   This is
       problematic as many network services require the computers on a
       network to share the same accurate time.  Accurate time is also
       needed to ensure that file timestamps stay consistent.  The
       Network Time Protocol (<acronym>NTP</acronym>) is one way to
       provide clock accuracy in a network.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD includes <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> which can be configured to query
       other <acronym>NTP</acronym> servers in order to synchronize the
       clock on that machine or to provide time services to other
       computers in the network.  The servers which are queried can be
       local to the network or provided by an <acronym>ISP</acronym>.
       In addition, an <link xlink:href="http://support.ntp.org/bin/view/Servers/WebHome">online
 	list of publicly accessible <acronym>NTP</acronym>
       servers</link> is available.  When choosing a public
       <acronym>NTP</acronym> server, select one that is geographically
       close and review its usage policy.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Choosing several <acronym>NTP</acronym> servers is
       recommended in case one of the servers becomes unreachable or
       its clock proves unreliable.  As <application>ntpd</application>
       receives responses, it favors reliable servers over the less
       reliable ones.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to configure
       <application>ntpd</application> on FreeBSD.  Further documentation
       can be found in <filename>/usr/share/doc/ntp/</filename> in HTML
       format.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>NTP</acronym> 設定</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NTP</primary>
 	<secondary>ntp.conf</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On FreeBSD, the built-in <application>ntpd</application> can
 	be used to synchronize a system's clock.  To enable
 	<application>ntpd</application> at boot time, add
 	<literal>ntpd_enable="YES"</literal> to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Additional variables can
 	be specified in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	details.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This application reads <filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename>
 	to determine which <acronym>NTP</acronym> servers to query.
 	Here is a simple example of an
 	<filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <example>
 	<title><filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename> 範例</title>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">server ntplocal.example.com prefer
 server timeserver.example.org
 server ntp2a.example.net
 
 driftfile /var/db/ntp.drift</programlisting>
       </example>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The format of this file is described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntp.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	The <literal>server</literal> option specifies which servers
 	to query, with one server listed on each line.  If a server
 	entry includes <literal>prefer</literal>, that server is
 	preferred over other servers.  A response from a preferred
 	server will be discarded if it differs significantly from
 	other servers' responses; otherwise it will be used.  The
 	<literal>prefer</literal> argument should only be used for
 	<acronym>NTP</acronym> servers that are known to be highly
 	accurate, such as those with special time monitoring
 	hardware.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>driftfile</literal> entry specifies which
 	file is used to store the system clock's frequency offset.
 	<application>ntpd</application> uses this to automatically
 	compensate for the clock's natural drift, allowing it to
 	maintain a reasonably correct setting even if it is cut off
 	from all external time sources for a period of time.  This
 	file also stores information about previous responses
 	from <acronym>NTP</acronym> servers.  Since this file contains
 	internal information for <acronym>NTP</acronym>, it should not
 	be modified.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, an <acronym>NTP</acronym> server is accessible
 	to any network host.  The <literal>restrict</literal> option
 	in <filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename> can be used to control
 	which systems can access the server.  For example, to deny all
 	machines from accessing the <acronym>NTP</acronym> server, add
 	the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">restrict default ignore</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This will also prevent access from other
 	  <acronym>NTP</acronym> servers.  If there is a need to
 	  synchronize with an external <acronym>NTP</acronym> server,
 	  allow only that specific server.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntp.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  for more information.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To allow machines within the network to synchronize their
 	clocks with the server, but ensure they are not allowed to
 	configure the server or be used as peers to synchronize
 	against, instead use:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">restrict 192.168.1.0 mask 255.255.255.0 nomodify notrap</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.0</systemitem> is the local
 	network address and <systemitem class="netmask">255.255.255.0</systemitem> is the network's
 	subnet mask.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Multiple <literal>restrict</literal> entries are
 	supported.  For more details, refer to the <literal>Access
 	  Control Support</literal> subsection of
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ntp.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once <literal>ntpd_enable="YES"</literal> has been added
 	to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>,
 	<application>ntpd</application> can be started now without
 	rebooting the system by typing:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ntpd start</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>在 <acronym>PPP</acronym> 連線使用 <acronym>NTP</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>ntpd</application> does not need a permanent
 	connection to the Internet to function properly.  However, if
 	a <acronym>PPP</acronym> connection is configured to dial out
 	on demand, <acronym>NTP</acronym> traffic should be prevented
 	from triggering a dial out or keeping the connection alive.
 	This can be configured with <literal>filter</literal>
 	directives in <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.  For
 	example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"> set filter dial 0 deny udp src eq 123
  # Prevent NTP traffic from initiating dial out
  set filter dial 1 permit 0 0
  set filter alive 0 deny udp src eq 123
  # Prevent incoming NTP traffic from keeping the connection open
  set filter alive 1 deny udp dst eq 123
  # Prevent outgoing NTP traffic from keeping the connection open
  set filter alive 2 permit 0/0 0/0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For more details, refer to the
 	<literal>PACKET FILTERING</literal> section in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	the examples in
 	<filename>/usr/share/examples/ppp/</filename>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some Internet access providers block low-numbered ports,
 	  preventing NTP from functioning since replies never reach
 	  the machine.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-iscsi">
     <!--
     <sect1info>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <firstname>Edward Tomasz</firstname>
 	  <surname>Napierala</surname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </sect1info>
           -->
 
     <title><acronym>iSCSI</acronym> Initiator 與 Target 設定</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>iSCSI</acronym> is a way to share storage over a
       network.  Unlike <acronym>NFS</acronym>, which works at the file
       system level, <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> works at the block device
       level.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> terminology, the system that
       shares the storage is known as the <emphasis>target</emphasis>.
       The storage can be a physical disk, or an area representing
       multiple disks or a portion of a physical disk.  For example, if
       the disk(s) are formatted with <acronym>ZFS</acronym>, a zvol
       can be created to use as the <acronym>iSCSI</acronym>
       storage.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The clients which access the <acronym>iSCSI</acronym>
       storage are called <emphasis>initiators</emphasis>.  To
       initiators, the storage available through
       <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> appears as a raw, unformatted disk
       known as a <acronym>LUN</acronym>.  Device nodes for the disk
       appear in <filename>/dev/</filename> and the device must be
       separately formatted and mounted.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Beginning with 10.0-RELEASE, FreeBSD provides a native,
       kernel-based <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> target and initiator.
       This section describes how to configure a FreeBSD system as a
       target or an initiator.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-iscsi-target">
       <title>設定 <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> Target</title>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The native <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> target is supported
 	  starting with FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE.  To use
 	  <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> in older versions of FreeBSD, install
 	  a userspace target from the Ports Collection, such as
 	  <package>net/istgt</package>.  This chapter only describes
 	  the native target.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure an <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> target, create
 	the <filename>/etc/ctl.conf</filename> configuration file, add
 	a line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to make sure the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is automatically started at boot, and then
 	start the daemon.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following is an example of a simple
 	<filename>/etc/ctl.conf</filename> configuration file.  Refer
 	to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctl.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a more complete description of this
 	file's available options.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">portal-group pg0 {
 	discovery-auth-group no-authentication
 	listen 0.0.0.0
 	listen [::]
 }
 
 target iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 {
 	auth-group no-authentication
 	portal-group pg0
 
 	lun 0 {
 		path /data/target0-0
 		size 4G
 	}
 }</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first entry defines the <literal>pg0</literal> portal
 	group.  Portal groups define which network addresses the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon will listen on.  The
 	<literal>discovery-auth-group no-authentication</literal>
 	entry indicates that any initiator is allowed to perform
 	<acronym>iSCSI</acronym> target discovery without
 	authentication.  Lines three and four configure <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	to listen on all <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
 	(<literal>listen 0.0.0.0</literal>) and
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym> (<literal>listen [::]</literal>)
 	addresses on the default port of 3260.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is not necessary to define a portal group as there is a
 	built-in portal group called <literal>default</literal>.  In
 	this case, the difference between <literal>default</literal>
 	and <literal>pg0</literal> is that with
 	<literal>default</literal>, target discovery is always denied,
 	while with <literal>pg0</literal>, it is always
 	allowed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The second entry defines a single target.  Target has two
 	possible meanings: a machine serving <acronym>iSCSI</acronym>
 	or a named group of <acronym>LUNs</acronym>.  This example
 	uses the latter meaning, where
 	<literal>iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0</literal> is the
 	target name.  This target name is suitable for testing
 	purposes.  For actual use, change
 	<literal>com.example</literal> to the real domain name,
 	reversed.  The <literal>2012-06</literal> represents the year
 	and month of acquiring control of that domain name, and
 	<literal>target0</literal> can be any value.  Any number of
 	targets can be defined in this configuration file.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>auth-group no-authentication</literal> line
 	allows all initiators to connect to the specified target and
 	<literal>portal-group pg0</literal> makes the target reachable
 	through the <literal>pg0</literal> portal group.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next section defines the <acronym>LUN</acronym>.  To
 	the initiator, each <acronym>LUN</acronym> will be visible as
 	a separate disk device.  Multiple <acronym>LUNs</acronym> can
 	be defined for each target.  Each <acronym>LUN</acronym> is
 	identified by a number, where <acronym>LUN</acronym> 0 is
 	mandatory.  The <literal>path /data/target0-0</literal> line
 	defines the full path to a file or zvol backing the
 	<acronym>LUN</acronym>.  That path must exist before starting
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The second line is optional and specifies the
 	size of the <acronym>LUN</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, to make sure the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is started at
 	boot, add this line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ctld_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> now, run this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ctld start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is started, it reads
 	<filename>/etc/ctl.conf</filename>.  If this file is edited
 	after the daemon starts, use this command so that the changes
 	take effect immediately:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ctld reload</userinput></screen>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>認證</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The previous example is inherently insecure as it uses
 	  no authentication, granting anyone full access to all
 	  targets.  To require a username and password to access
 	  targets, modify the configuration as follows:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">auth-group ag0 {
 	chap username1 secretsecret
 	chap username2 anothersecret
 }
 
 portal-group pg0 {
 	discovery-auth-group no-authentication
 	listen 0.0.0.0
 	listen [::]
 }
 
 target iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 {
 	auth-group ag0
 	portal-group pg0
 	lun 0 {
 		path /data/target0-0
 		size 4G
 	}
 }</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>auth-group</literal> section defines
 	  username and password pairs.  An initiator trying to connect
 	  to <literal>iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0</literal> must
 	  first specify a defined username and secret.  However,
 	  target discovery is still permitted without authentication.
 	  To require target discovery authentication, set
 	  <literal>discovery-auth-group</literal> to a defined
 	  <literal>auth-group</literal> name instead of
 	  <literal>no-authentication</literal>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is common to define a single exported target for
 	  every initiator.  As a shorthand for the syntax above, the
 	  username and password can be specified directly in the
 	  target entry:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">target iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 {
 	portal-group pg0
 	chap username1 secretsecret
 
 	lun 0 {
 		path /data/target0-0
 		size 4G
 	}
 }</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-iscsi-initiator">
       <title>設定 <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> Initiator</title>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> initiator described in this
 	  section is supported starting with FreeBSD 10.0-RELEASE.  To
 	  use the <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> initiator available in
 	  older versions, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>iscontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> initiator requires that the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>iscsid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is running.  This daemon does not use a
 	configuration file.  To start it automatically at boot, add
 	this line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">iscsid_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start <citerefentry><refentrytitle>iscsid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> now, run this command:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service iscsid start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Connecting to a target can be done with or without an
 	<filename>/etc/iscsi.conf</filename> configuration file.  This
 	section demonstrates both types of connections.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>不使用設定檔連線到 Target </title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To connect an initiator to a single target, specify the
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the portal and the name of
 	  the target:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>iscsictl -A -p <replaceable>10.10.10.10</replaceable> -t <replaceable>iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To verify if the connection succeeded, run
 	  <command>iscsictl</command> without any arguments.  The
 	  output should look similar to this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Target name                                     Target portal   State
 iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0                 10.10.10.10     Connected: da0</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> session
 	  was successfully established, with
 	  <filename>/dev/da0</filename> representing the attached
 	  <acronym>LUN</acronym>.  If the
 	  <literal>iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0</literal> target
 	  exports more than one <acronym>LUN</acronym>, multiple
 	  device nodes will be shown in that section of the
 	  output:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">Connected: da0 da1 da2.</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Any errors will be reported in the output, as well as
 	  the system logs.  For example, this message usually means
 	  that the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>iscsid</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is not running:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Target name                                     Target portal   State
 iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0                 10.10.10.10     Waiting for iscsid(8)</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The following message suggests a networking problem,
 	  such as a wrong <acronym>IP</acronym> address or
 	  port:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Target name                                     Target portal   State
 iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0                 10.10.10.11     Connection refused</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This message means that the specified target name is
 	  wrong:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Target name                                     Target portal   State
 iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0                 10.10.10.10     Not found</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This message means that the target requires
 	  authentication:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Target name                                     Target portal   State
 iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0                 10.10.10.10     Authentication failed</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To specify a <acronym>CHAP</acronym> username and
 	  secret, use this syntax:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>iscsictl -A -p <replaceable>10.10.10.10</replaceable> -t <replaceable>iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0</replaceable> -u <replaceable>user</replaceable> -s <replaceable>secretsecret</replaceable></userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>使用設定檔連線到 Target </title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To connect using a configuration file, create
 	  <filename>/etc/iscsi.conf</filename> with contents like
 	  this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">t0 {
 	TargetAddress   = 10.10.10.10
 	TargetName      = iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0
 	AuthMethod      = CHAP
 	chapIName       = user
 	chapSecret      = secretsecret
 }</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>t0</literal> specifies a nickname for the
 	  configuration file section.  It will be used by the
 	  initiator to specify which configuration to use.  The other
 	  lines specify the parameters to use during connection.  The
 	  <literal>TargetAddress</literal> and
 	  <literal>TargetName</literal> are mandatory, whereas the
 	  other options are optional.  In this example, the
 	  <acronym>CHAP</acronym> username and secret are
 	  shown.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To connect to the defined target, specify the
 	  nickname:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>iscsictl -An <replaceable>t0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Alternately, to connect to all targets defined in the
 	  configuration file, use:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>iscsictl -Aa</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To make the initiator automatically connect to all
 	  targets in <filename>/etc/iscsi.conf</filename>, add the
 	  following to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">iscsictl_enable="YES"
 iscsictl_flags="-Aa"</programlisting>
 
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="firewalls">
 
   <info>
     <title>防火牆</title>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Joseph J.</firstname>
 	  <surname>Barbish</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
 
     <authorgroup>
       <author xml:lang="en">
 	<personname>
 	  <firstname>Brad</firstname>
 	  <surname>Davis</surname>
 	</personname>
 	<contrib>Converted to SGML and updated by </contrib>
       </author>
     </authorgroup>
   </info>
 
   <indexterm><primary>防火牆</primary></indexterm>
 
   <indexterm xml:lang="en">
     <primary>security</primary>
 
     <secondary>firewalls</secondary>
   </indexterm>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="firewalls-intro">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para>防火牆能夠過濾透過系統進出的流量，防火牆可使用一組或多組 <quote>規則 (Rules)</quote> 來檢查網路連線中進出的網路封包(Network packets)，並且能允許或阻擋其通過。 而防火牆規則可以檢查封包中一個或數個特徵，例如通訊協定類型、來源或目的主機位址，以及來源及目地的連接埠 (Port)。</para>
 
     <para>防火牆可以加強主機或網路的安全性，它可以用來完成下列事情：</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Protect and insulate the applications, services, and
 	  machines of an internal network from unwanted traffic from
 	  the public Internet.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Limit or disable access from hosts of the internal
 	  network to services of the public Internet.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Support network address translation
 	  (<acronym>NAT</acronym>), which allows an internal network
 	  to use private <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses and share a
 	  single connection to the public Internet using either a
 	  single <acronym>IP</acronym> address or a shared pool of
 	  automatically assigned public addresses.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD has three firewalls built into the base system:
       <application>PF</application>, <application>IPFW</application>,
       and <application>IPFILTER</application>, also known as
       <application>IPF</application>.  FreeBSD also provides two traffic
       shapers for controlling bandwidth usage: <citerefentry><refentrytitle>altq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
       <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dummynet</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  <application>ALTQ</application> has
       traditionally been closely tied with
       <application>PF</application> and
       <application>dummynet</application> with
       <application>IPFW</application>.  Each firewall uses rules to
       control the access of packets to and from a FreeBSD system,
       although they go about it in different ways and each has a
       different rule syntax.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides multiple firewalls in order to meet the
       different requirements and preferences for a wide variety of
       users.  Each user should evaluate which firewall best meets
       their needs.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to define packet filtering rules.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The differences between the firewalls built into
 	  FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to use and configure the
 	  <application>PF</application> firewall.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to use and configure the
 	  <application>IPFW</application> firewall.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to use and configure the
 	  <application>IPFILTER</application> firewall.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解 FreeBSD 基礎及網路概念。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Since all firewalls are based on inspecting the values of
 	selected packet control fields, the creator of the firewall
 	ruleset must have an understanding of how
 	<acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> works, what the different values in
 	the packet control fields are, and how these values are used
 	in a normal session conversation.  For a good introduction,
 	refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.ipprimer.com/overview.cfm">Daryl's
 	  TCP/IP Primer</link>.</para>
     </note>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="firewalls-concepts">
     <title>防火牆概念</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>firewall</primary>
 
       <secondary>rulesets</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A ruleset contains a group of rules which pass or block
       packets based on the values contained in the packet.  The
       bi-directional exchange of packets between hosts comprises a
       session conversation.  The firewall ruleset processes both the
       packets arriving from the public Internet, as well as the
       packets produced by the system as a response to them.  Each
       <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> service is predefined by its protocol
       and listening port.  Packets destined for a specific service
       originate from the source address using an unprivileged port and
       target the specific service port on the destination address.
       All the above parameters can be used as selection criteria to
       create rules which will pass or block services.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">To lookup unknown port numbers, refer to
       <filename>/etc/services</filename>.  Alternatively, visit <uri xlink:href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_TCP_and_UDP_port_numbers</uri>
       and do a port number lookup to find the purpose of a particular
       port number.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Check out this link for port numbers used by Trojans <uri xlink:href="http://www.sans.org/security-resources/idfaq/oddports.php">http://www.sans.org/security-resources/idfaq/oddports.php</uri>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FTP has two modes:  active mode and passive mode.  The
       difference is in how the data channel is acquired.  Passive
       mode is more secure as the data channel is acquired by the
       ordinal ftp session requester.  For a good explanation of FTP
       and the different modes, see <uri xlink:href="http://www.slacksite.com/other/ftp.html">http://www.slacksite.com/other/ftp.html</uri>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A firewall ruleset can be either
       <quote>exclusive</quote> or <quote>inclusive</quote>.  An
       exclusive firewall allows all traffic through except for the
       traffic matching the ruleset.  An inclusive firewall does the
       reverse as it only allows traffic matching the rules through and
       blocks everything else.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">An inclusive firewall offers better control of the outgoing
       traffic, making it a better choice for systems that offer
       services to the public Internet.  It also controls the type of
       traffic originating from the public Internet that can gain
       access to a private network.  All traffic that does not match
       the rules is blocked and logged.  Inclusive firewalls are
       generally safer than exclusive firewalls because they
       significantly reduce the risk of allowing unwanted
       traffic.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Unless noted otherwise, all configuration and example
 	rulesets in this chapter create inclusive firewall
 	rulesets.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Security can be tightened further using a <quote>stateful
 	firewall</quote>.  This type of firewall keeps track of open
       connections and only allows traffic which either matches an
       existing connection or opens a new, allowed connection.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Stateful filtering treats traffic as a bi-directional
       exchange of packets comprising a session.  When state is
       specified on a matching rule the firewall dynamically generates
       internal rules for each anticipated packet being exchanged
       during the session.  It has sufficient matching capabilities to
       determine if a packet is valid for a session.  Any packets that
       do not properly fit the session template are automatically
       rejected.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When the session completes, it is removed from the dynamic
       state table.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Stateful filtering allows one to focus on blocking/passing
       new sessions.  If the new session is passed, all its subsequent
       packets are allowed automatically and any impostor packets are
       automatically rejected.  If a new session is blocked, none of
       its subsequent packets are allowed.  Stateful filtering provides
       advanced matching abilities capable of defending against the
       flood of different attack methods employed by attackers.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NAT</acronym> stands for <emphasis>Network
 	Address Translation</emphasis>.  <acronym>NAT</acronym>
       function enables the private LAN behind the firewall to share a
       single ISP-assigned IP address, even if that address is
       dynamically assigned.  NAT allows each computer in the LAN to
       have Internet access, without having to pay the ISP for multiple
       Internet accounts or IP addresses.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NAT</acronym> will automatically translate the
       private LAN IP address for each system on the LAN to the
       single public IP address as packets exit the firewall bound for
       the public Internet.  It also performs the reverse translation
       for returning packets.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">According to RFC 1918, the following IP address ranges are
       reserved for private networks which will never be routed
       directly to the public Internet, and therefore are available
       for use with NAT:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>10.0.0.0/8</literal>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>172.16.0.0/12</literal>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>192.168.0.0/16</literal>.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">When working with the firewall rules, be <emphasis>very
 	  careful</emphasis>.  Some configurations <emphasis>can
 	  lock the administrator out</emphasis> of the server.  To be
 	on the safe side, consider performing the initial firewall
 	configuration from the local console rather than doing it
 	remotely over <application>ssh</application>.</para>
     </warning>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="firewalls-pf">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en">PF</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>John</firstname>
 	    <surname>Ferrell</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Revised and updated by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>firewall</primary>
 
       <secondary>PF</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Since FreeBSD 5.3, a ported version of OpenBSD's
       <application>PF</application> firewall has been included as an
       integrated part of the base system.
       <application>PF</application> is a complete, full-featured
       firewall that has optional support for
       <application>ALTQ</application> (Alternate Queuing), which
       provides Quality of Service (<acronym>QoS</acronym>).</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The OpenBSD Project maintains the definitive reference for
       <application>PF</application> in the <link xlink:href="http://www.openbsd.org/faq/pf/">PF FAQ</link>.
       Peter Hansteen maintains a thorough
       <application>PF</application> tutorial at <link xlink:href="http://home.nuug.no/~peter/pf/">http://home.nuug.no/~peter/pf/</link>.</para>
 
     <warning>
       <para xml:lang="en">When reading the <link xlink:href="http://www.openbsd.org/faq/pf/">PF FAQ</link>,
 	keep in mind that FreeBSD uses the same version of
 	<application>PF</application> as OpenBSD 4.5.</para>
     </warning>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pf">FreeBSD packet filter mailing list</link> is a good place to ask questions about
       configuring and running the <application>PF</application>
       firewall.  Check the mailing list archives before asking a
       question as it may have already been answered.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">More information about porting <application>PF</application>
       to FreeBSD can be found at <uri xlink:href="http://pf4freebsd.love2party.net/">http://pf4freebsd.love2party.net/</uri>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section of the Handbook focuses on
       <application>PF</application> as it pertains to FreeBSD.  It
       demonstrates how to enable <application>PF</application> and
       <application>ALTQ</application>.  It then provides several
       examples for creating rulesets on a FreeBSD system.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟 <application>PF</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to use <application>PF</application>, its kernel
 	module must be first loaded.  This section describes the
 	entries that can be added to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>
 	in order to enable <application>PF</application>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Start by adding the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pf_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Additional options, described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pfctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, can be
 	passed to <application>PF</application> when it is started.
 	Add this entry to  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and
 	specify any required flags between the two quotes
 	(<literal>""</literal>):</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pf_flags=""                     # additional flags for pfctl startup</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>PF</application> will not start if it cannot
 	find its ruleset configuration file.  The default ruleset is
 	already created and is named
 	<filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename>.  If a custom ruleset has
 	been saved somewhere else, add a line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> which specifies the full
 	path to the file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pf_rules="<replaceable>/path/to/pf.conf</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Logging support for <application>PF</application> is
 	provided by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pflog</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  To enable logging support, add
 	this line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pflog_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following lines can also be added in order to
 	change the default location of the log file or to specify any
 	additional flags to pass to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pflog</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> when it is
 	started:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">pflog_logfile="/var/log/pflog"  # where pflogd should store the logfile
 pflog_flags=""                  # additional flags for pflogd startup</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Finally, if there is a <acronym>LAN</acronym> behind the
 	firewall and packets need to be forwarded for the computers on
 	the <acronym>LAN</acronym>, or <acronym>NAT</acronym> is
 	required, add the following option:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gateway_enable="YES"            # Enable as LAN gateway</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After saving the needed edits,
 	<application>PF</application> can be started with logging
 	support by typing:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service pf start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service pflog start</userinput></screen>
 
 <!--
 This is no longer true as of 9.x. It also references the CARP section
 which doesn't explain how to use it...At some point it should.
      <indexterm>
 	<primary>kernel options</primary>
 	<secondary>device pf</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm>
 	<primary>kernel options</primary>
 	<secondary>device pflog</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm>
 	<primary>kernel options</primary>
 	<secondary>device pfsync</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <note>
       <para>While it is not necessary to compile
 	<application>PF</application> support into the &os; kernel,
 	some advanced features are not included, namely &man.pfsync.4;, which is a
 	pseudo-device that exposes certain changes to the state table
 	used by <application>PF</application>.  It can be paired with
 	&man.carp.4; to create failover firewalls using
 	<application>PF</application>.  More information on
 	<acronym>CARP</acronym> can be found in <xref linkend="carp"/>.</para>
 
       <para>The following <application>PF</application> kernel options
 	are available:</para>
 
       <programlisting>device pf
 device pflog
 device pfsync</programlisting>
 
       <para>where:</para>
 
       <para><literal>device pf</literal> enables PF support.</para>
 
       <para><literal>device pflog</literal> enables the optional
 	&man.pflog.4; pseudo network device which can be used to log
 	traffic to a &man.bpf.4; descriptor.  The &man.pflogd.8;
 	daemon can then be used to store the logging information to
 	disk.</para>
 
       <para><literal>device pfsync</literal> enables the optional
 	&man.pfsync.4; pseudo-network device that is used to monitor
 	<quote>state changes</quote>.</para>
     </note>
     -->
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, <application>PF</application> reads its
 	configuration rules from <filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename> and
 	modifies, drops, or passes packets according to the rules or
 	definitions specified in this file.  The FreeBSD installation
 	includes several sample files located in
 	<filename>/usr/share/examples/pf/</filename>.  Refer to the
 	<link xlink:href="http://www.openbsd.org/faq/pf/">PF
 	  FAQ</link> for complete coverage
 	of <application>PF</application> rulesets.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To control <application>PF</application>, use
 	<command>pfctl</command>.  <xref linkend="pfctl"/> summarizes
 	some useful options to this command.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pfctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	for a description of all available options:</para>
 
       <table xml:id="pfctl" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>有用的 <command>pfctl</command> 選項</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>指令</entry>
 	      <entry>用途</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><command>pfctl
 		  -e</command></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Enable <application>PF</application>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><command>pfctl
 		  -d</command></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Disable <application>PF</application>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><command>pfctl -F all
 		  -f /etc/pf.conf</command></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Flush all <acronym>NAT</acronym>, filter, state,
 		and table rules and reload
 		<filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><command>pfctl -s [ rules | nat |
 		  states ]</command></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Report on the filter rules,
 		<acronym>NAT</acronym> rules, or state
 		table.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><command>pfctl -vnf
 		  /etc/pf.conf</command></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Check <filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename> for
 		errors, but do not load ruleset.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><package>security/sudo</package> is useful for running
 	  commands like <command>pfctl</command> that require elevated
 	  privileges.  It can be installed from the Ports
 	  Collection.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To keep an eye on the traffic that passes through the
 	<application>PF</application> firewall, consider installing
 	the <package>sysutils/pftop</package> package or port.  Once
 	installed, <application>pftop</application> can be run to
 	view a running snapshot of traffic in a format which is
 	similar to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟 <application>ALTQ</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On FreeBSD, <application>ALTQ</application> can be used with
 	<application>PF</application> to provide Quality of Service
 	(<acronym>QOS</acronym>).  Once
 	<application>ALTQ</application> is enabled, queues can be
 	defined in the ruleset which determine the processing priority
 	of outbound packets.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Before enabling <application>ALTQ</application>, refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>altq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> to determine if the drivers for the network cards
 	installed on the system support it.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>ALTQ</application> is not available as a
 	loadable kernel module.  If the system's interfaces support
 	<application>ALTQ</application>, create a custom kernel using
 	the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.  The
 	following kernel options are available.  The first is needed
 	to enable <application>ALTQ</application>.  At least one of
 	the other options is necessary to specify the queueing
 	scheduler algorithm:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options         ALTQ
 options         ALTQ_CBQ        # Class Based Queuing (CBQ)
 options         ALTQ_RED        # Random Early Detection (RED)
 options         ALTQ_RIO        # RED In/Out
 options         ALTQ_HFSC       # Hierarchical Packet Scheduler (HFSC)
 options         ALTQ_PRIQ       # Priority Queuing (PRIQ)</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following scheduler algorithms are available:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">CBQ</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Class Based Queuing (<acronym>CBQ</acronym>) is
 	      used to divide a connection's bandwidth into different
 	      classes or queues to prioritize traffic based on filter
 	      rules.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">RED</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Random Early Detection (<acronym>RED</acronym>) is
 	      used to avoid network congestion by measuring the length
 	      of the queue and comparing it to the minimum and maximum
 	      thresholds for the queue.  When the queue is over the
 	      maximum, all new packets are randomly dropped.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">RIO</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">In Random Early Detection In and Out
 	      (<acronym>RIO</acronym>) mode, <acronym>RED</acronym>
 	      maintains multiple average queue lengths and multiple
 	      threshold values, one for each
 	      <acronym>QOS</acronym> level.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">HFSC</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Hierarchical Fair Service Curve Packet Scheduler
 	      (<acronym>HFSC</acronym>) is described in <uri xlink:href="http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~hzhang/HFSC/main.html">http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~hzhang/HFSC/main.html</uri>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">PRIQ</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Priority Queuing (<acronym>PRIQ</acronym>) always
 	      passes traffic that is in a higher queue first.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">More information about the scheduling
 	algorithms and example rulesets are available at <uri xlink:href="http://www.openbsd.org/faq/pf/queueing.html">http://www.openbsd.org/faq/pf/queueing.html</uri>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pf-tutorial">
       <info>
 	<title><application>PF</application> 規則集</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Peter</firstname>
 	      <surname>Hansteen</surname>
 	      <othername>N. M.</othername>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to create a customized
 	ruleset.  It starts with the simplest of rulesets and builds
 	upon its concepts using several examples to demonstrate
 	real-world usage of <application>PF</application>'s many
 	features.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The simplest possible ruleset is for a single machine
 	that does not run any services and which needs access to one
 	network, which may be the Internet.  To create this minimal
 	ruleset, edit <filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename> so it looks
 	like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">block in all
 pass out all keep state</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first rule denies all incoming traffic by default.
 	The second rule allows connections created by this system to
 	pass out, while retaining state information on those
 	connections.  This state information allows return traffic for
 	those connections to pass back and should only be used on
 	machines that can be trusted.  The ruleset can be loaded
 	with:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -e ; pfctl -f /etc/pf.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In addition to keeping state,
 	<application>PF</application> provides
 	<firstterm>lists</firstterm> and
 	<firstterm>macros</firstterm> which can be defined for use
 	when creating rules.  Macros can include lists and need to be
 	defined before use.  As an example, insert these lines at the
 	very top of the ruleset:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">tcp_services = "{ ssh, smtp, domain, www, pop3, auth, pop3s }"
 udp_services = "{ domain }"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>PF</application> understands port names as
 	well as port numbers, as long as the names are listed in
 	<filename>/etc/services</filename>.  This example creates two
 	macros.  The first is a list of seven
 	<acronym>TCP</acronym> port names and the second is one
 	<acronym>UDP</acronym> port name.  Once defined, macros can be
 	used in rules.  In this example, all traffic is blocked except
 	for the  connections initiated by this system for the seven
 	specified <acronym>TCP</acronym> services and the one
 	specified <acronym>UDP</acronym> service:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">tcp_services = "{ ssh, smtp, domain, www, pop3, auth, pop3s }"
 udp_services = "{ domain }"
 block all
 pass out proto tcp to any port $tcp_services keep state
 pass proto udp to any port $udp_services keep state</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Even though <acronym>UDP</acronym> is considered to be a
 	stateless protocol, <application>PF</application> is able to
 	track some state information.  For example, when a
 	<acronym>UDP</acronym> request is passed which asks a name
 	server about a domain name, <application>PF</application> will
 	watch for the response in order to pass it back.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Whenever an edit is made to a ruleset, the new rules must
 	be loaded so they can be used:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -f /etc/pf.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If there are no syntax errors, <command>pfctl</command>
 	will not output any messages during the rule load.  Rules can
 	also be tested before attempting to load them:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -nf /etc/pf.conf</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Including <option>-n</option> causes the rules to be
 	interpreted only, but not loaded.  This provides an
 	opportunity to correct any errors.  At all times, the last
 	valid ruleset loaded will be enforced until either
 	<application>PF</application> is disabled or a new ruleset is
 	loaded.</para>
 
       <tip>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Adding <option>-v</option> to a <command>pfctl</command>
 	  ruleset verify or load will display the fully parsed rules
 	  exactly the way they will be loaded.  This is extremely
 	  useful when debugging rules.</para>
       </tip>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-gateway">
 	<title>使用 NAT 的簡單閘道器</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to configure a FreeBSD system
 	  running <application>PF</application> to act as a gateway
 	  for at least one other machine.  The gateway needs at least
 	  two network interfaces, each connected to a separate
 	  network.  In this example, <filename>xl1</filename> is
 	  connected to the Internet and <filename>xl0</filename> is
 	  connected to the internal network.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">First, enable the gateway in order to let the machine
 	  forward the network traffic it receives on one interface to
 	  another interface.  This <application>sysctl</application>
 	  setting will forward <acronym>IPv4</acronym> packets:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To forward <acronym>IPv6</acronym> traffic, use:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.inet6.ip6.forwarding=1</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To enable these settings at system boot, add the
 	  following to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">gateway_enable="YES"		#for ipv4
 ipv6_gateway_enable="YES"	#for ipv6</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Verify with <command>ifconfig</command> that both of the
 	  interfaces are up and running.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Next, create the <application>PF</application> rules to
 	  allow the gateway to pass traffic.  While the following rule
 	  allows stateful traffic to pass from the Internet  to hosts
 	  on the network, the <literal>to</literal> keyword does not
 	  guarantee passage all the way from source to
 	  destination:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass in on xl1 from xl1:network to xl0:network port $ports keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">That rule only lets the traffic pass in to the gateway
 	  on the internal interface.  To let the packets go further, a
 	  matching rule is needed:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass out on xl0 from xl1:network to xl0:network port $ports keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">While these two rules will work, rules this specific are
 	  rarely needed.  For a busy network admin, a readable ruleset
 	  is a safer ruleset.  The remainder of this section
 	  demonstrates how to keep the rules as simple as possible for
 	  readability.  For example, those two rules could be
 	  replaced with one rule:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass from xl1:network to any port $ports keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>interface:network</literal> notation can be
 	  replaced with a macro to make the ruleset even more
 	  readable.  For example, a <literal>$localnet</literal> macro
 	  could be defined as the network directly attached to the
 	  internal interface (<literal>$xl1:network</literal>).
 	  Alternatively, the definition of
 	  <literal>$localnet</literal> could be changed to an
 	  <emphasis>IP address/netmask</emphasis> notation to denote
 	  a network, such as <literal>192.168.100.1/24</literal> for a
 	  subnet of private addresses.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If required, <literal>$localnet</literal> could even be
 	  defined as a list of networks.  Whatever the specific needs,
 	  a sensible <literal>$localnet</literal> definition could be
 	  used in a typical pass rule as follows:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass from $localnet to any port $ports keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The following sample ruleset allows all traffic
 	  initiated by machines on the internal network.  It first
 	  defines two macros to represent the external and internal
 	  3COM interfaces of the gateway.</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For dialup users, the external interface will use
 	    <filename>tun0</filename>.  For an
 	    <acronym>ADSL</acronym> connection, specifically those
 	    using <acronym>PPP</acronym> over Ethernet
 	    (<acronym>PPPoE</acronym>), the correct external
 	    interface is <filename>tun0</filename>, not the physical
 	    Ethernet interface.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ext_if = "xl0"	# macro for external interface - use tun0 for PPPoE
 int_if = "xl1"	# macro for internal interface
 localnet = $int_if:network
 # ext_if IP address could be dynamic, hence ($ext_if)
 nat on $ext_if from $localnet to any -&gt; ($ext_if)
 block all
 pass from { lo0, $localnet } to any keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This ruleset introduces the <literal>nat</literal> rule
 	  which is used to handle the network address translation from
 	  the non-routable addresses inside the internal network to
 	  the <acronym>IP</acronym> address assigned to the external
 	  interface.  The parentheses surrounding the last part of the
 	  nat rule <literal>($ext_if)</literal> is included when the
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the external interface is
 	  dynamically assigned.  It ensures that network traffic runs
 	  without serious interruptions even if the external
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address changes.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Note that this ruleset probably allows more traffic to
 	  pass out of the network than is needed.  One reasonable
 	  setup could create this macro:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">client_out = "{ ftp-data, ftp, ssh, domain, pop3, auth, nntp, http, \
     https, cvspserver, 2628, 5999, 8000, 8080 }"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">to use in the main pass rule:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass inet proto tcp from $localnet to any port $client_out \
     flags S/SA keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A few other pass rules may be needed.  This one enables
 	  <acronym>SSH</acronym> on the external interface::</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass in inet proto tcp to $ext_if port ssh</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This macro definition and rule allows
 	  <acronym>DNS</acronym> and <acronym>NTP</acronym> for
 	  internal clients:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">udp_services = "{ domain, ntp }"
 pass quick inet proto { tcp, udp } to any port $udp_services keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Note the <literal>quick</literal> keyword in this rule.
 	  Since the ruleset consists of several rules, it is important
 	  to understand the relationships between the rules in a
 	  ruleset.  Rules are evaluated from top to bottom, in the
 	  sequence they are written.  For each packet or connection
 	  evaluated by <application>PF</application>,
 	  <emphasis>the last matching rule</emphasis> in the ruleset
 	  is the one which is applied.  However, when a packet matches
 	  a rule which contains the <literal>quick</literal> keyword,
 	  the rule processing stops and the packet is treated
 	  according to that rule.  This is very useful when an
 	  exception to the general rules is needed.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-ftp">
 	<title>建立 <acronym>FTP</acronym> Proxy</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Configuring working <acronym>FTP</acronym> rules can be
 	  problematic due to the nature of the <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	  protocol.  <acronym>FTP</acronym> pre-dates firewalls by
 	  several decades and is insecure in its design.  The most
 	  common points against using <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	  include:</para>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Passwords are transferred in the clear.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The protocol demands the use of at least two
 	      <acronym>TCP</acronym> connections (control and data) on
 	      separate ports.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When a session is established, data is communicated
 	      using randomly selected ports.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">All of these points present security challenges, even
 	  before considering any potential security weaknesses in
 	  client or server software.  More secure alternatives for
 	  file transfer exist, such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sftp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> or <citerefentry><refentrytitle>scp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	  which both feature authentication and data transfer over
 	  encrypted connections..</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For those situations when <acronym>FTP</acronym> is
 	  required, <application>PF</application> provides
 	  redirection of <acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic to a small
 	  proxy program called <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ftp-proxy</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which is included in
 	  the base system of FreeBSD.  The role of the proxy is to
 	  dynamically insert and delete rules in the ruleset, using a
 	  set of anchors, in order to correctly handle
 	  <acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To enable the <acronym>FTP</acronym> proxy, add this
 	  line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ftpproxy_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then start the proxy by running <command>service
 	    ftp-proxy start</command>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For a basic configuration, three elements need to be
 	  added to <filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename>.  First, the
 	  anchors which the proxy will use to insert the rules it
 	  generates for the <acronym>FTP</acronym> sessions:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">nat-anchor "ftp-proxy/*"
 rdr-anchor "ftp-proxy/*"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Second, a pass rule is needed to allow
 	  <acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic in to the proxy.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Third, redirection and <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules need
 	  to be defined before the filtering rules.  Insert this
 	  <literal>rdr</literal> rule immediately after the
 	  <literal>nat</literal> rule:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">rdr pass on $int_if proto tcp from any to any port ftp -&gt; 127.0.0.1 port 8021</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Finally, allow the redirected traffic to pass:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass out proto tcp from $proxy to any port ftp</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">where <literal>$proxy</literal> expands to the address
 	  the proxy daemon is bound to.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Save <filename>/etc/pf.conf</filename>, load the new
 	  rules, and verify from a client that <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	  connections are working:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -f /etc/pf.conf</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example covers a basic setup where the clients in
 	  the local network need to contact <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	  servers elsewhere.  This basic configuration should
 	  work well with most combinations of <acronym>FTP</acronym>
 	  clients and servers.  As shown in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ftp-proxy</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, the
 	  proxy's behavior can be changed in various ways by adding
 	  options to the <literal>ftpproxy_flags=</literal> line.
 	  Some clients or servers may have specific quirks that must
 	  be compensated for in the configuration, or there may be a
 	  need to integrate the proxy in specific ways such as
 	  assigning <acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic to a specific
 	  queue.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For ways to run an <acronym>FTP</acronym> server
 	  protected by <application>PF</application> and
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ftp-proxy</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, configure a separate
 	  <command>ftp-proxy</command> in reverse mode, using
 	  <option>-R</option>, on a separate port with its own
 	  redirecting pass rule.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-icmp">
 	<title>管理 <acronym>ICMP</acronym></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Many of the tools used for debugging or troubleshooting
 	  a <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> network rely on the Internet
 	  Control Message Protocol (<acronym>ICMP</acronym>), which
 	  was designed specifically with debugging in mind.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>ICMP</acronym> protocol sends and receives
 	  <emphasis>control messages</emphasis> between hosts and
 	  gateways, mainly to provide feedback to a sender about any
 	  unusual or difficult conditions enroute to the target host.
 	  Routers use <acronym>ICMP</acronym> to negotiate packet
 	  sizes and other transmission parameters in a process often
 	  referred to as <emphasis>path <acronym>MTU</acronym>
 	    discovery</emphasis>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">From a firewall perspective, some
 	  <acronym>ICMP</acronym> control messages are vulnerable to
 	  known attack vectors.  Also, letting all diagnostic traffic
 	  pass unconditionally makes debugging easier, but it also
 	  makes it easier for others to extract information about the
 	  network.  For these reasons, the following rule may not be
 	  optimal:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass inet proto icmp from any to any</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">One solution is to let all <acronym>ICMP</acronym>
 	  traffic from the local network through while stopping all
 	  probes from outside the network:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass inet proto icmp from $localnet to any keep state
 pass inet proto icmp from any to $ext_if keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Additional options are available which demonstrate some
 	  of <application>PF</application>'s flexibility.  For
 	  example, rather than allowing all <acronym>ICMP</acronym>
 	  messages, one can specify the messages used by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Start by defining a macro for that
 	  type of message:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">icmp_types = "echoreq"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">and a rule which uses the macro:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass inet proto icmp all icmp-type $icmp_types keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If other types of <acronym>ICMP</acronym> packets are
 	  needed, expand <literal>icmp_types</literal> to a list of
 	  those packet types.  Type <command>more
 	    /usr/src/contrib/pf/pfctl/pfctl_parser.c</command> to see
 	  the list of <acronym>ICMP</acronym> message types supported
 	  by <application>PF</application>.  Refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.iana.org/assignments/icmp-parameters/icmp-parameters.xhtml">http://www.iana.org/assignments/icmp-parameters/icmp-parameters.xhtml</link>
 	  for an explanation of each message type.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Since Unix <command>traceroute</command> uses
 	  <acronym>UDP</acronym> by default, another rule is needed to
 	  allow Unix <command>traceroute</command>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en"># allow out the default range for traceroute(8):
 pass out on $ext_if inet proto udp from any to any port 33433 &gt;&lt; 33626 keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Since <command>TRACERT.EXE</command> on Microsoft
 	  Windows systems uses <acronym>ICMP</acronym> echo request
 	  messages, only the first rule is needed to allow network
 	  traces from those systems.  Unix
 	  <command>traceroute</command> can be instructed to use other
 	  protocols as well, and will use <acronym>ICMP</acronym> echo
 	  request messages if <option>-I</option> is used.  Check the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> man page for details.</para>
 
 	<sect4 xml:id="pftut-pathmtudisc">
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Path <acronym>MTU</acronym> Discovery</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Internet protocols are designed to be device
 	    independent, and one consequence of device independence is
 	    that the optimal packet size for a given connection cannot
 	    always be predicted reliably.  The main constraint on
 	    packet size is the <firstterm>Maximum Transmission
 	      Unit</firstterm> (<acronym>MTU</acronym>) which sets the
 	    upper limit on the packet size for an interface.  Type
 	    <command>ifconfig</command> to view the
 	    <acronym>MTU</acronym>s for a system's network
 	    interfaces.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> uses a process known as path
 	    <acronym>MTU</acronym> discovery to determine the right
 	    packet size for a connection.  This process sends packets
 	    of varying sizes with the <quote>Do not fragment</quote>
 	    flag set, expecting an <acronym>ICMP</acronym> return
 	    packet of <quote>type 3, code 4</quote> when the upper
 	    limit has been reached.  Type 3 means <quote>destination
 	      unreachable</quote>, and code 4 is short for
 	    <quote>fragmentation needed, but the do-not-fragment flag
 	      is set</quote>.  To allow path MTU discovery in order
 	    to support connections to other <acronym>MTU</acronym>s,
 	    add the <literal>destination unreachable</literal> type to
 	    the <literal>icmp_types</literal> macro:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">icmp_types = "{ echoreq, unreach }"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Since the pass rule already uses that macro, it does
 	    not need to be modified in order to support the new
 	    <acronym>ICMP</acronym> type:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">pass inet proto icmp all icmp-type $icmp_types keep state</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><application>PF</application> allows filtering on all
 	    variations of <acronym>ICMP</acronym> types and codes.
 	    The list of possible types and codes are documented in
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>icmp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>icmp6</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</sect4>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-tables">
 	<title>使用 Tables</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some types of data are relevant to filtering and
 	  redirection at a given time, but their definition is too
 	  long to be included in the ruleset file.
 	  <application>PF</application> supports the use of tables,
 	  which are defined lists that can be manipulated without
 	  needing to reload the entire ruleset, and which can provide
 	  fast lookups.  Table names are always enclosed within
 	  <literal>&lt; &gt;</literal>, like this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">table &lt;clients&gt; { 192.168.2.0/24, !192.168.2.5 }</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the <literal>192.168.2.0/24</literal>
 	  network is part of the table, except for the address
 	  <literal>192.168.2.5</literal>, which is excluded using the
 	  <literal>!</literal> operator.  It is also possible to load
 	  tables from files where each item is on a separate line, as
 	  seen in this example
 	  <filename>/etc/clients</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">192.168.2.0/24
 !192.168.2.5</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To refer to the file, define the table like this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">table &lt;clients&gt; persist file "/etc/clients"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once the table is defined, it can be referenced by a
 	  rule:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass inet proto tcp from &lt;clients&gt; to any port $client_out flags S/SA keep state</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A table's contents can be manipulated live, using
 	  <command>pfctl</command>.  This example adds another network
 	  to the table:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -t clients -T add 192.168.1.0/16</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Note that any changes made this way will take affect
 	  now, making them ideal for testing, but will not survive a
 	  power failure or reboot.  To make the changes permanent,
 	  modify the definition of the table in the ruleset or edit
 	  the file that the table refers to.  One can maintain the
 	  on-disk copy of the table using a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> job which
 	  dumps the table's contents to disk at regular intervals,
 	  using a command such as <command>pfctl -t clients -T show
 	    &gt;/etc/clients</command>.  Alternatively,
 	  <filename>/etc/clients</filename> can be updated with the
 	  in-memory table contents:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -t clients -T replace -f /etc/clients</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-overload">
 	<title>使用 Overload Tables 保護 <acronym>SSH</acronym></title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Those who run <acronym>SSH</acronym> on an external
 	  interface have probably seen something like this in the
 	  authentication logs:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">Sep 26 03:12:34 skapet sshd[25771]: Failed password for root from 200.72.41.31 port 40992 ssh2
 Sep 26 03:12:34 skapet sshd[5279]: Failed password for root from 200.72.41.31 port 40992 ssh2
 Sep 26 03:12:35 skapet sshd[5279]: Received disconnect from 200.72.41.31: 11: Bye Bye
 Sep 26 03:12:44 skapet sshd[29635]: Invalid user admin from 200.72.41.31
 Sep 26 03:12:44 skapet sshd[24703]: input_userauth_request: invalid user admin
 Sep 26 03:12:44 skapet sshd[24703]: Failed password for invalid user admin from 200.72.41.31 port 41484 ssh2</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This is indicative of a brute force attack where
 	  somebody or some program is trying to discover the user name
 	  and password which will let them into the system.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If external <acronym>SSH</acronym> access is needed for
 	  legitimate users, changing the default port used by
 	  <acronym>SSH</acronym> can offer some protection.  However,
 	  <application>PF</application> provides a more elegant
 	  solution.  Pass rules can contain limits on what connecting
 	  hosts can do and violators can be banished to a table of
 	  addresses which are denied some or all access.  It is even
 	  possible to drop all existing connections from machines
 	  which overreach the limits.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To configure this, create this table in the tables
 	  section of the ruleset:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">table &lt;bruteforce&gt; persist</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then, somewhere early in the ruleset, add rules to block
 	  brute access while allowing legitimate access:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">block quick from &lt;bruteforce&gt;
 pass inet proto tcp from any to $localnet port $tcp_services \
     flags S/SA keep state \
     (max-src-conn <replaceable>100</replaceable>, max-src-conn-rate <replaceable>15/5</replaceable>, \
     overload &lt;bruteforce&gt; flush global)</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The part in parentheses defines the limits and the
 	  numbers should be changed to meet local requirements.  It
 	  can be read as follows:</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>max-src-conn</literal> is the number of
 	  simultaneous connections allowed from one host.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>max-src-conn-rate</literal> is the rate of new
 	  connections allowed from any single host
 	  (<replaceable>15</replaceable>) per number of seconds
 	  (<replaceable>5</replaceable>).</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><literal>overload &lt;bruteforce&gt;</literal> means
 	  that any host which exceeds these limits gets its address
 	  added to the <literal>bruteforce</literal> table.  The
 	  ruleset blocks all traffic from addresses in the
 	  <literal>bruteforce</literal> table.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Finally, <literal>flush global</literal> says that when
 	  a host reaches the limit, that all
 	  (<literal>global</literal>) of that host's connections will
 	  be terminated (<literal>flush</literal>).</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">These rules will <emphasis>not</emphasis> block slow
 	    bruteforcers, as described in <link xlink:href="http://home.nuug.no/~peter/hailmary2013/">http://home.nuug.no/~peter/hailmary2013/</link>.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example ruleset is intended mainly as an
 	  illustration.  For example, if a generous number of
 	  connections in general are wanted, but the desire is to be
 	  more restrictive when it comes to
 	  <application>ssh</application>, supplement the rule above
 	  with something like the one below, early on in the rule
 	  set:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">pass quick proto { tcp, udp } from any to any port ssh \
     flags S/SA keep state \
     (max-src-conn 15, max-src-conn-rate 5/3, \
     overload &lt;bruteforce&gt; flush global)</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">It May Not be Necessary to Block All
 	    Overloaders</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">It is worth noting that the overload mechanism is a
 	    general technique which does not apply exclusively to
 	    <acronym>SSH</acronym>, and it is not always optimal to
 	    entirely block all traffic from offenders.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For example, an overload rule could be used to
 	    protect a mail service or a web service, and the overload
 	    table could be used in a rule to assign offenders to a
 	    queue with a minimal bandwidth allocation or to redirect
 	    to a specific web page.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Over time, tables will be filled by overload rules and
 	  their size will grow incrementally, taking up more memory.
 	  Sometimes an <acronym>IP</acronym> address that is blocked
 	  is a dynamically assigned one, which has since been assigned
 	  to a host who has a legitimate reason to communicate with
 	  hosts in the local network.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For situations like these,
 	  <application>pfctl</application> provides the ability to
 	  expire table entries.  For example, this command will remove
 	  <literal>&lt;bruteforce&gt;</literal> table entries which
 	  have not been referenced for <literal>86400</literal>
 	  seconds:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pfctl -t bruteforce -T expire 86400</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Similar functionality is provided by
 	  <package>security/expiretable</package>, which removes table
 	  entries which have not been accessed for a specified period
 	  of time.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once installed, <application>expiretable</application>
 	  can be run to remove <literal>&lt;bruteforce&gt;</literal>
 	  table entries older than a specified age.  This example
 	  removes all entries older than 24 hours:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">/usr/local/sbin/expiretable -v -d -t 24h bruteforce</programlisting>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-spamd">
 	<title><acronym>SPAM</acronym> 防護</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Not to be confused with the
 	  <application>spamd</application> daemon which comes bundled
 	  with <application>spamassassin</application>,
 	  <package>mail/spamd</package> can be configured with
 	  <application>PF</application> to provide an outer defense
 	  against <acronym>SPAM</acronym>.  This
 	  <application>spamd</application> hooks into the
 	  <application>PF</application> configuration using a set of
 	  redirections.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Spammers tend to send a large number of messages, and
 	  <acronym>SPAM</acronym> is mainly sent from a few spammer
 	  friendly networks and a large number of hijacked machines,
 	  both of which are reported to
 	  <firstterm>blacklists</firstterm> fairly quickly.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">When an <acronym>SMTP</acronym> connection from an
 	  address in a blacklist is received,
 	  <application>spamd</application> presents its banner and
 	  immediately switches to a mode where it answers
 	  <acronym>SMTP</acronym> traffic one byte at a time.  This
 	  technique, which is intended to waste as much time as
 	  possible on the spammer's end, is called
 	  <firstterm>tarpitting</firstterm>.  The specific
 	  implementation which uses one byte <acronym>SMTP</acronym>
 	  replies is often referred to as
 	  <firstterm>stuttering</firstterm>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example demonstrates the basic procedure for
 	  setting up <application>spamd</application> with
 	  automatically updated blacklists.  Refer to the man pages
 	  which are installed with <package>mail/spamd</package> for
 	  more information.</para>
 
 	<procedure>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Configuring <application>spamd</application></title>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Install the <package>mail/spamd</package> package
 	      or port.  In order to use
 	      <application>spamd</application>'s greylisting
 	      features, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fdescfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> must be mounted at <filename>/dev/fd</filename>.  Add the
 	      following line to
 	      <filename>/etc/fstab</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en"> fdescfs /dev/fd fdescfs rw 0 0</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Then, mount the filesystem:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount fdescfs</userinput></programlisting>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Next, edit the <application>PF</application> ruleset
 	      to include:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">table &lt;spamd&gt; persist
 table &lt;spamd-white&gt; persist
 rdr pass on $ext_if inet proto tcp from &lt;spamd&gt; to \
     { $ext_if, $localnet } port smtp -&gt; 127.0.0.1 port 8025
 rdr pass on $ext_if inet proto tcp from !&lt;spamd-white&gt; to \
     { $ext_if, $localnet } port smtp -&gt; 127.0.0.1 port 8025</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The two tables <literal>&lt;spamd&gt;</literal> and
 	      <literal>&lt;spamd-white&gt;</literal> are essential.
 	      <acronym>SMTP</acronym> traffic from an address listed
 	      in<literal> &lt;spamd&gt;</literal> but not in
 	      <literal>&lt;spamd-white&gt;</literal> is redirected to
 	      the <application>spamd</application> daemon listening at
 	      port 8025.</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The next step is to configure
 	      <application>spamd</application> in
 	      <filename>/usr/local/etc/spamd.conf</filename> and to
 	      add some <filename>rc.conf</filename> parameters.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The installation of <package>mail/spamd</package>
 	      includes a sample configuration file
 	      (<filename>/usr/local/etc/spamd.conf.sample</filename>)
 	      and a man page for <filename>spamd.conf</filename>.
 	      Refer to these for additional configuration options
 	      beyond those shown in this example.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">One of the first lines in the configuration file
 	      that does not begin with a <literal>#</literal> comment
 	      sign contains the block which defines the
 	      <literal>all</literal> list, which specifies the lists
 	      to use:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">all:\
     :traplist:whitelist:</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This entry adds the desired blacklists, separated by
 	      colons (<literal>:</literal>).  To use a whitelist to
 	      subtract addresses from a blacklist, add the name of the
 	      whitelist <emphasis>immediately</emphasis> after the
 	      name of that blacklist.  For example:
 	      <literal>:blacklist:whitelist:</literal>.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is followed by the specified blacklist's
 	      definition:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">traplist:\
     :black:\
     :msg="SPAM. Your address %A has sent spam within the last 24 hours":\
     :method=http:\
     :file=www.openbsd.org/spamd/traplist.gz</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">where the first line is the name of the blacklist
 	      and the second line specifies the list type.  The
 	      <literal>msg</literal> field contains the message to
 	      display to blacklisted senders during the
 	      <acronym>SMTP</acronym> dialogue.  The
 	      <literal>method</literal> field specifies how
 	      <application>spamd-setup</application> fetches the list
 	      data; supported methods are <literal>http</literal>,
 	      <literal>ftp</literal>, from a
 	      <literal>file</literal> in a mounted file system, and
 	      via <literal>exec</literal> of an external program.
 	      Finally, the <literal>file</literal> field specifies
 	      the name of the file <application>spamd</application>
 	      expects to receive.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The definition of the specified whitelist is
 	      similar, but omits the <literal>msg</literal> field
 	      since a message is not needed:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">whitelist:\
     :white:\
     :method=file:\
     :file=/var/mail/whitelist.txt</programlisting>
 
 	    <tip>
 	      <title xml:lang="en">Choose Data Sources with Care</title>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Using all the blacklists in the sample
 		<filename>spamd.conf</filename> will blacklist large
 		blocks of the Internet.  Administrators need to edit
 		the file to create an optimal configuration which uses
 		applicable data sources and, when necessary, uses
 		custom lists.</para>
 	    </tip>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Next, add this entry to
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Additional flags are
 	      described in the man page specified by the
 	      comment:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">spamd_flags="-v" # use "" and see spamd-setup(8) for flags</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When finished, reload the ruleset, start
 	      <application>spamd</application> by typing
 	      <command>service start obspamd</command>, and complete
 	      the configuration using <command>spamd-setup</command>.
 	      Finally, create a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cron</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> job which calls
 	      <command>spamd-setup</command> to update the tables at
 	      reasonable intervals.</para>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">On a typical gateway in front of a mail server, hosts
 	  will soon start getting trapped within a few seconds to
 	  several minutes.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>PF</application> also supports
 	  <firstterm>greylisting</firstterm>, which temporarily
 	  rejects messages from unknown hosts with
 	  <replaceable>45n</replaceable> codes.  Messages from
 	  greylisted hosts which try again within a reasonable time
 	  are let through.  Traffic from senders which are set up to
 	  behave within the limits set by RFC 1123 and RFC 2821 are
 	  immediately let through.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">More information about greylisting as a technique can be
 	  found at the <link xlink:href="http://www.greylisting.org/">greylisting.org</link>
 	  web site.  The most amazing thing about greylisting, apart
 	  from its simplicity, is that it still works.  Spammers and
 	  malware writers have been very slow to adapt in order to
 	  bypass this technique.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The basic procedure for configuring greylisting is as
 	  follows:</para>
 
 	<procedure>
 	  <title xml:lang="en">Configuring Greylisting</title>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Make sure that <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fdescfs</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> is mounted as
 	      described in Step 1 of the previous Procedure.</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">To run <application>spamd</application> in
 	      greylisting mode, add this line to
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">spamd_grey="YES"  # use spamd greylisting if YES</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Refer to the <application>spamd</application> man
 	      page for descriptions of additional related
 	      parameters.</para>
 	  </step>
 
 	  <step>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">To complete the greylisting setup:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service restart obspamd</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service start spamlogd</userinput></programlisting>
 	  </step>
 	</procedure>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Behind the scenes, the <application>spamdb</application>
 	  database tool and the <application>spamlogd</application>
 	  whitelist updater perform essential functions for the
 	  greylisting feature.  <application>spamdb</application> is
 	  the administrator's main interface to managing the black,
 	  grey, and white lists via the contents of the
 	  <filename>/var/db/spamdb</filename> database.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-hygiene">
 	<title>網路保健</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This section describes how
 	  <literal>block-policy</literal>, <literal>scrub</literal>,
 	  and <literal>antispoof</literal> can be used to make the
 	  ruleset behave sanely.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>block-policy</literal> is an option which
 	  can be set in the <literal>options</literal> part of the
 	  ruleset, which precedes the redirection and filtering rules.
 	  This option determines which feedback, if any,
 	  <application>PF</application> sends to hosts that are
 	  blocked by a rule.  The option has two possible values:
 	  <literal>drop</literal> drops blocked packets with no
 	  feedback, and <literal>return</literal> returns a status
 	  code such as
 	  <computeroutput>Connection refused</computeroutput>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If not set, the default policy is
 	  <literal>drop</literal>.  To change the
 	  <literal>block-policy</literal>, specify the desired
 	  value:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">set block-policy return</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In <application>PF</application>,
 	  <literal>scrub</literal> is a keyword which enables network
 	  packet normalization.  This process reassembles fragmented
 	  packets and drops TCP packets that have invalid flag
 	  combinations.  Enabling <literal>scrub</literal> provides a
 	  measure of protection against certain kinds of attacks
 	  based on incorrect handling of packet fragments.  A number
 	  of options are available, but the simplest form is suitable
 	  for most configurations:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">scrub in all</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some services, such as <acronym>NFS</acronym>, require
 	  specific fragment handling options.  Refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.openbsd.gr/faq/pf/scrub.html">http://www.openbsd.gr/faq/pf/scrub.html</link>
 	  for more information.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example reassembles fragments, clears the
 	  <quote>do not fragment</quote> bit, and sets the maximum
 	  segment size to 1440 bytes:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">scrub in all fragment reassemble no-df max-mss 1440</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>antispoof</literal> mechanism protects
 	  against activity from spoofed or forged
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses, mainly by blocking packets
 	  appearing on interfaces and in directions which are
 	  logically not possible.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">These rules weed out spoofed traffic coming in from the
 	  rest of the world as well as any spoofed packets which
 	  originate in the local network:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">antispoof for $ext_if
 antispoof for $int_if</programlisting>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="pftut-unrouteables">
 	<title>處理不可路由 (Non-Routable) 的位址</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Even with a properly configured gateway to handle
 	  network address translation, one may have to compensate for
 	  other people's misconfigurations.  A common misconfiguration
 	  is to let traffic with non-routable addresses out to the
 	  Internet.  Since traffic from non-routeable addresses can
 	  play a part in several <acronym>DoS</acronym> attack
 	  techniques, consider explicitly blocking traffic from
 	  non-routeable addresses from entering the network through
 	  the external interface.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, a macro containing non-routable
 	  addresses is defined, then used in blocking rules.  Traffic
 	  to and from these addresses is quietly dropped on the
 	  gateway's external
 	  interface.</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">martians = "{ 127.0.0.0/8, 192.168.0.0/16, 172.16.0.0/12, \
 	      10.0.0.0/8, 169.254.0.0/16, 192.0.2.0/24, \
 	      0.0.0.0/8, 240.0.0.0/4 }"
 
 block drop in quick on $ext_if from $martians to any
 block drop out quick on $ext_if from any to $martians</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="firewalls-ipfw">
     <title xml:lang="en"><application>IPFW</application></title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>firewall</primary>
 
       <secondary>IPFW</secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPFW</application> is a stateful firewall
       written for FreeBSD which supports both <acronym>IPv4</acronym> and
       <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.  It is comprised of several components:
       the kernel firewall filter rule processor and its integrated
       packet accounting facility, the logging facility,
       <acronym>NAT</acronym>, the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dummynet</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> traffic shaper, a
       forward facility, a bridge facility, and an ipstealth
       facility.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides a sample ruleset in
       <filename>/etc/rc.firewall</filename> which defines several
       firewall types for common scenarios to assist novice users in
       generating an appropriate ruleset.
       <application>IPFW</application> provides a powerful syntax which
       advanced users can use to craft customized rulesets that meet
       the security requirements of a given environment.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to enable
       <application>IPFW</application>, provides an overview of its
       rule syntax, and demonstrates several rulesets for common
       configuration scenarios.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="firewalls-ipfw-enable">
       <title>開啟 <application>IPFW</application></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFW</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>enabling</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPFW</application> is included in the basic
 	FreeBSD install as a kernel loadable module, meaning that a
 	custom kernel is not needed in order to enable
 	<application>IPFW</application>.</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPFIREWALL</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFW</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>kernel options</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For those users who wish to statically compile
 	<application>IPFW</application> support into a custom kernel,
 	refer to the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.
 	The following options are available for the
 	custom kernel configuration file:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options    IPFIREWALL			# enables IPFW
 options    IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE		# enables logging for rules with log keyword
 options    IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=5	# limits number of logged packets per-entry
 options    IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT # sets default policy to pass what is not explicitly denied
 options    IPDIVERT			# enables NAT</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure the system to enable
 	<application>IPFW</application> at boot time, add the
 	following entry to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">firewall_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To use one of the default firewall types provided by FreeBSD,
 	add another line which specifies the type:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">firewall_type="open"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The available types are:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>open</literal>: passes all traffic.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>client</literal>: protects only this
 	    machine.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>simple</literal>: protects the whole
 	    network.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>closed</literal>: entirely disables IP
 	    traffic except for the loopback interface.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>workstation</literal>: protects only this
 	    machine using stateful rules.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>UNKNOWN</literal>: disables the loading of
 	    firewall rules.</para>
 	</listitem>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><filename><replaceable>filename</replaceable></filename>:
 	    full path of the file containing the firewall
 	    ruleset.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <literal>firewall_type</literal> is set to either
 	<literal>client</literal> or <literal>simple</literal>,
 	modify the default rules found in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.firewall</filename> to fit the
 	configuration of the system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Note that the <literal>filename</literal> type is used to
 	load a custom ruleset.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An alternate way to load a custom ruleset is to set the
 	<literal>firewall_script</literal> variable to the absolute
 	path of an <emphasis>executable script</emphasis> that
 	includes <application>IPFW</application> commands.    The
 	examples used in this section assume that the
 	<literal>firewall_script</literal> is set to
 	<filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">firewall_script="/etc/ipfw.rules"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable logging, include this line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">firewall_logging="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There is no <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> variable to
 	set logging limits.  To limit the number of times a rule is
 	logged per connection attempt, specify the number using this
 	line in <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit=<replaceable>5</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After saving the needed edits, start the firewall.  To
 	enable logging limits now, also set the
 	<command>sysctl</command> value specified above:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ipfw start</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sysctl net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit=<replaceable>5</replaceable></userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="firewalls-ipfw-rules">
       <title><application>IPFW</application> 規則語法</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFW</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>rule processing order</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When a packet enters the <application>IPFW</application>
 	firewall, it is compared against the first rule in the ruleset
 	and progresses one rule at a time, moving from top to bottom
 	in sequence.  When the packet matches the selection parameters
 	of a rule, the rule's action is executed and the search of the
 	ruleset terminates for that packet.  This is referred to as
 	<quote>first match wins</quote>.  If the packet does not match
 	any of the rules, it gets caught by the mandatory
 	<application>IPFW</application> default rule number 65535,
 	which denies all packets and silently discards them.  However,
 	if the packet matches a rule that contains the
 	<literal>count</literal>, <literal>skipto</literal>, or
 	<literal>tee</literal> keywords, the search continues.  Refer
 	to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details on how these keywords affect rule
 	processing.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFW</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>rule syntax</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When creating an
 	<application>IPFW</application> rule, keywords must be
 	written in the following order.  Some keywords are mandatory
 	while other keywords are optional.  The words shown in
 	uppercase represent a variable and the words shown in
 	lowercase must precede the variable that follows it.  The
 	<literal>#</literal> symbol is used to mark the start of a
 	comment and may appear at the end of a rule or on its own
 	line.  Blank lines are ignored.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><replaceable>CMD RULE_NUMBER set SET_NUMBER ACTION log
 	  LOG_AMOUNT PROTO from SRC SRC_PORT to DST DST_PORT
 	  OPTIONS</replaceable></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section provides an overview of these keywords and
 	their options.  It is not an exhaustive list of every possible
 	option.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a complete description of
 	the rule syntax that can be used when creating
 	<application>IPFW</application> rules.</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">CMD</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Every rule must start with
 	      <parameter>ipfw add</parameter>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">RULE_NUMBER</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Each rule is associated with a number from
 	      <literal>1</literal> to
 	      <literal>65534</literal>.  The number is used to
 	      indicate the order of rule processing.  Multiple rules
 	      can have the same number, in which case they are applied
 	      according to the order in which they have been
 	      added.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">SET_NUMBER</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Each rule is associated with a set number from
 	      <literal>0</literal> to <literal>31</literal>.
 	      Sets can be individually disabled or enabled, making it
 	      possible to quickly add or delete a set of rules.  If a
 	      SET_NUMBER is not specified, the rule will be added to
 	      set <literal>0</literal>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">ACTION</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A rule can be associated with one of the following
 	      actions.  The specified action will be executed when the
 	      packet matches the selection criterion of the
 	      rule.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><parameter>allow | accept | pass |
 		permit</parameter>: these keywords are equivalent and
 	      allow packets that match the rule.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><parameter>check-state</parameter>: checks the
 	      packet against the dynamic state table.  If a match is
 	      found, execute the action associated with the rule which
 	      generated this dynamic rule, otherwise move to the next
 	      rule.  A <literal>check-state</literal> rule does not
 	      have selection criterion.  If no
 	      <literal>check-state</literal> rule is present in the
 	      ruleset, the dynamic rules table is checked at the first
 	      <literal>keep-state</literal> or
 	      <literal>limit</literal> rule.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><parameter>count</parameter>: updates counters for
 	      all packets that match the rule.  The search continues
 	      with the next rule.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><parameter>deny | drop</parameter>: either word
 	      silently discards packets that match this rule.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Additional actions are available.  Refer to
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">LOG_AMOUNT</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When a packet matches a rule with the
 	      <literal>log</literal> keyword, a message will be logged
 	      to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> with a facility name of
 	      <literal>SECURITY</literal>.  Logging only occurs if the
 	      number of packets logged for that particular rule does
 	      not exceed a specified LOG_AMOUNT.  If no
 	      LOG_AMOUNT is specified, the limit is taken from the
 	      value of
 	      <varname>net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit</varname>.  A
 	      value of zero removes the logging limit.  Once the limit
 	      is reached, logging can be re-enabled by clearing the
 	      logging counter or the packet counter for that rule,
 	      using <command>ipfw resetlog</command>.</para>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Logging is done after all other packet matching
 		conditions have been met, and before performing the
 		final action on the packet.  The administrator decides
 		which rules to enable logging on.</para>
 	    </note>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">PROTO</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This optional value can be used to specify any
 	      protocol name or number found in
 	      <filename>/etc/protocols</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">SRC</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>from</literal> keyword must be followed
 	      by the source address or a keyword that represents the
 	      source address.  An address can be represented by
 	      <literal>any</literal>, <literal>me</literal> (any
 	      address configured on an interface on this system),
 	      <literal>me6</literal>, (any <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	      address configured on an interface on this system), or
 	      <literal>table</literal> followed by the number of a
 	      lookup table which contains a list of addresses.  When
 	      specifying an <acronym>IP</acronym> address, it can be
 	      optionally followed by its <acronym>CIDR</acronym> mask
 	      or subnet mask.  For example,
 	      <literal>1.2.3.4/25</literal> or
 	      <literal>1.2.3.4:255.255.255.128</literal>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">SRC_PORT</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">An optional source port can be specified using the
 	      port number or name from
 	      <filename>/etc/services</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">DST</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>to</literal> keyword must be followed
 	      by the destination address or a keyword that represents
 	      the destination address.  The same keywords and
 	      addresses described in the SRC section can be used to
 	      describe the destination.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">DST_PORT</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">An optional destination port can be specified using
 	      the port number or name from
 	      <filename>/etc/services</filename>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">OPTIONS</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Several keywords can follow the source and
 	      destination.  As the name suggests, OPTIONS are
 	      optional.  Commonly used options include
 	      <literal>in</literal> or <literal>out</literal>, which
 	      specify the direction of packet flow,
 	      <literal>icmptypes</literal> followed by the type of
 	      <acronym>ICMP</acronym> message, and
 	      <literal>keep-state</literal>.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When a <parameter>keep-state</parameter> rule is
 	      matched, the firewall will create a dynamic rule which
 	      matches bidirectional traffic between the source and
 	      destination addresses and ports using the same
 	      protocol.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The dynamic rules facility is vulnerable to resource
 	      depletion from a SYN-flood attack which would open a
 	      huge number of dynamic rules.  To counter this type of
 	      attack with  <application>IPFW</application>, use
 	      <literal>limit</literal>.  This option limits the number
 	      of simultaneous sessions by checking the open dynamic
 	      rules, counting the number of times this rule and
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address combination occurred.  If
 	      this count is greater than the value specified by
 	      <literal>limit</literal>, the packet is
 	      discarded.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Dozens of OPTIONS are available.  Refer to
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a description of each available
 	      option.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>範例規則集</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to create an example
 	stateful firewall ruleset script named
 	<filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename>.  In this example, all
 	connection rules use <literal>in</literal> or
 	<literal>out</literal> to clarify the direction.  They also
 	use <literal>via</literal>
 	<replaceable>interface-name</replaceable> to specify
 	the interface the packet is traveling over.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When first creating or testing a firewall ruleset,
 	  consider temporarily setting this tunable:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">net.inet.ip.fw.default_to_accept="1"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This sets the default policy of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to be more
 	  permissive than the default <literal>deny ip from any to
 	    any</literal>, making it slightly more difficult to get
 	  locked out of the system right after a reboot.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The firewall script begins by indicating that it is a
 	Bourne shell script and flushes any existing rules.  It then
 	creates the <literal>cmd</literal> variable so that
 	<literal>ipfw add</literal> does not have to be typed at the
 	beginning of every rule.  It also defines the
 	<literal>pif</literal> variable which represents the name of
 	the interface that is attached to the Internet.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 # Flush out the list before we begin.
 ipfw -q -f flush
 
 # Set rules command prefix
 cmd="ipfw -q add"
 pif="dc0"     # interface name of NIC attached to Internet</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first two rules allow all traffic on the trusted
 	internal interface and on the loopback interface:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Change xl0 to LAN NIC interface name
 $cmd 00005 allow all from any to any via xl0
 
 # No restrictions on Loopback Interface
 $cmd 00010 allow all from any to any via lo0</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next rule allows the packet through if it matches an
 	existing entry in the dynamic rules table:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">$cmd 00101 check-state</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next set of rules defines which stateful connections
 	internal systems can create to hosts on the Internet:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Allow access to public DNS
 # Replace x.x.x.x with the IP address of a public DNS server
 # and repeat for each DNS server in /etc/resolv.conf
 $cmd 00110 allow tcp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via $pif setup keep-state
 $cmd 00111 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via $pif keep-state
 
 # Allow access to ISP's DHCP server for cable/DSL configurations.
 # Use the first rule and check log for IP address.
 # Then, uncomment the second rule, input the IP address, and delete the first rule
 $cmd 00120 allow log udp from any to any 67 out via $pif keep-state
 #$cmd 00120 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 out via $pif keep-state
 
 # Allow outbound HTTP and HTTPS connections
 $cmd 00200 allow tcp from any to any 80 out via $pif setup keep-state
 $cmd 00220 allow tcp from any to any 443 out via $pif setup keep-state
 
 # Allow outbound email connections
 $cmd 00230 allow tcp from any to any 25 out via $pif setup keep-state
 $cmd 00231 allow tcp from any to any 110 out via $pif setup keep-state
 
 # Allow outbound ping
 $cmd 00250 allow icmp from any to any out via $pif keep-state
 
 # Allow outbound NTP
 $cmd 00260 allow tcp from any to any 37 out via $pif setup keep-state
 
 # Allow outbound SSH
 $cmd 00280 allow tcp from any to any 22 out via $pif setup keep-state
 
 # deny and log all other outbound connections
 $cmd 00299 deny log all from any to any out via $pif</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next set of rules controls connections from Internet
 	hosts to the internal network.  It starts by denying packets
 	typically associated with attacks and then explicitly allows
 	specific types of connections.  All the authorized services
 	that originate from the Internet use <literal>limit</literal>
 	to prevent flooding.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
 $cmd 00300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16 to any in via $pif     #RFC 1918 private IP
 $cmd 00301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12 to any in via $pif      #RFC 1918 private IP
 $cmd 00302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif         #RFC 1918 private IP
 $cmd 00303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif        #loopback
 $cmd 00304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif          #loopback
 $cmd 00305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16 to any in via $pif     #DHCP auto-config
 $cmd 00306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24 to any in via $pif       #reserved for docs
 $cmd 00307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via $pif    #Sun cluster interconnect
 $cmd 00308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3 to any in via $pif        #Class D &amp; E multicast
 
 # Deny public pings
 $cmd 00310 deny icmp from any to any in via $pif
 
 # Deny ident
 $cmd 00315 deny tcp from any to any 113 in via $pif
 
 # Deny all Netbios services.
 $cmd 00320 deny tcp from any to any 137 in via $pif
 $cmd 00321 deny tcp from any to any 138 in via $pif
 $cmd 00322 deny tcp from any to any 139 in via $pif
 $cmd 00323 deny tcp from any to any 81 in via $pif
 
 # Deny fragments
 $cmd 00330 deny all from any to any frag in via $pif
 
 # Deny ACK packets that did not match the dynamic rule table
 $cmd 00332 deny tcp from any to any established in via $pif
 
 # Allow traffic from ISP's DHCP server.
 # Replace x.x.x.x with the same IP address used in rule 00120.
 #$cmd 00360 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 in via $pif keep-state
 
 # Allow HTTP connections to internal web server
 $cmd 00400 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
 
 # Allow inbound SSH connections
 $cmd 00410 allow tcp from any to me 22 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
 
 # Reject and log all other incoming connections
 $cmd 00499 deny log all from any to any in via $pif</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The last rule logs all packets that do not match any of
 	the rules in the ruleset:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Everything else is denied and logged
 $cmd 00999 deny log all from any to any</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-natd">
       <info>
 	<title>設定 <acronym>NAT</acronym></title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Chern</firstname>
 	      <surname>Lee</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>NAT</primary>
 
 	<secondary>and <application>IPFW</application></secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD's built-in <acronym>NAT</acronym> daemon,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, works in conjunction with
 	<application>IPFW</application> to provide network address
 	translation.  This can be used to provide an Internet
 	Connection Sharing solution so that several internal computers
 	can connect to the Internet using a single
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To do this, the FreeBSD machine connected to the Internet
 	must act as a gateway.  This system must have two
 	<acronym>NIC</acronym>s, where one is connected to the
 	Internet and the other is connected to the internal
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym>.  Each machine connected to the
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym> should be assigned an
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address in the private network space, as
 	defined by <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/rfc1918.txt">RFC
 	  1918</link>, and have the default gateway set to the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> system's internal <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some additional configuration is needed in order to
 	activate the <acronym>NAT</acronym> function of
 	<application>IPFW</application>.  If the system has a custom
 	kernel, the kernel configuration file needs to include
 	<literal>option IPDIVERT</literal> along with the other
 	<literal>IPFIREWALL</literal> options described in <xref linkend="firewalls-ipfw-enable"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <acronym>NAT</acronym> support at boot time, the
 	following must be in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gateway_enable="YES"		# enables the gateway
 natd_enable="YES"		# enables <acronym>NAT</acronym>
 natd_interface="rl0"		# specify interface name of NIC attached to Internet
 natd_flags="-dynamic -m"	# -m = preserve port numbers; additional options are listed in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is also possible to specify a configuration file
 	  which contains the options to pass to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">natd_flags="-f /etc/natd.conf"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The specified file must contain a list of configuration
 	  options, one per line.  For example:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.2:6667 6667
 redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.3:80 80</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For more information about this configuration file,
 	  consult <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, add the <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules to the firewall
 	ruleset.  When the rulest contains stateful rules, the
 	positioning of the <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules is critical
 	and the <literal>skipto</literal> action is used.  The
 	<literal>skipto</literal> action requires a rule number so
 	that it knows which rule to jump to.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following example builds upon the firewall ruleset
 	shown in the previous section.  It adds some additional
 	entries and modifies some existing rules in order to configure
 	the firewall for <acronym>NAT</acronym>.  It starts by adding
 	some additional variables which represent the rule number to
 	skip to, the <literal>keep-state</literal> option, and a list
 	of <acronym>TCP</acronym> ports which will be used to reduce
 	the number of rules:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">#!/bin/sh
 ipfw -q -f flush
 cmd="ipfw -q add"
 skip="skipto 500"
 pif=dc0
 ks="keep-state"
 good_tcpo="22,25,37,53,80,443,110"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The inbound <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule is inserted
 	<emphasis>after</emphasis> the two rules which allow all
 	traffic on the trusted internal interface and on the loopback
 	interface and <emphasis>before</emphasis> the
 	<literal>check-state</literal> rule.  It is important that the
 	rule number selected for this <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule, in
 	this example <literal>100</literal>, is higher than the first
 	two rules and lower than the <literal>check-state</literal>
 	rule:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">$cmd 005 allow all from any to any via xl0  # exclude LAN traffic
 $cmd 010 allow all from any to any via lo0  # exclude loopback traffic
 $cmd 100 divert natd ip from any to any in via $pif # NAT any inbound packets
 # Allow the packet through if it has an existing entry in the dynamic rules table
 $cmd 101 check-state</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The outbound rules are modified to replace the
 	<literal>allow</literal> action with the
 	<literal>$skip</literal> variable, indicating that rule
 	processing will continue at rule <literal>500</literal>.  The
 	seven <literal>tcp</literal> rules have been replaced by rule
 	<literal>125</literal> as the
 	<literal>$good_tcpo</literal> variable contains the
 	seven allowed outbound ports.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Authorized outbound packets
 $cmd 120 $skip udp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via $pif $ks
 $cmd 121 $skip udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 out via $pif $ks
 $cmd 125 $skip tcp from any to any $good_tcpo out via $pif setup $ks
 $cmd 130 $skip icmp from any to any out via $pif $ks</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The inbound rules remain the same, except for the very
 	last rule which removes the <literal> via $pif</literal> in
 	order to catch both inbound and outbound rules.  The
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> rule must follow this last outbound
 	rule, must have a higher number than that last rule, and the
 	rule number must be referenced by the
 	<literal>skipto</literal> action.  In this ruleset, rule
 	number <literal>500</literal> diverts all packets which match
 	the outbound rules to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> processing.  The next rule allows any
 	packet which has undergone <acronym>NAT</acronym> processing
 	to pass.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">$cmd 499 deny log all from any to any
 $cmd 500 divert natd ip from any to any out via $pif # skipto location for outbound stateful rules
 $cmd 510 allow ip from any to any</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, rules <literal>100</literal>,
 	<literal>101</literal>, <literal>125</literal>,
 	<literal>500</literal>, and <literal>510</literal> control the
 	address translation of the outbound and inbound packets so
 	that the entries in the dynamic state table always register
 	the private <acronym>LAN</acronym> <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Consider an internal web browser which initializes a new
 	outbound <acronym>HTTP</acronym> session over port 80.  When
 	the first outbound packet enters the firewall, it does not
 	match rule <literal>100</literal> because it is headed out
 	rather than in.  It passes rule <literal>101</literal> because
 	this is the first packet and it has not been posted to the
 	dynamic state table yet.  The packet finally matches rule
 	<literal>125</literal> as it is outbound on an allowed port
 	and has a source <acronym>IP</acronym> address from the
 	internal <acronym>LAN</acronym>.  On matching this rule, two
 	actions take place.  First, the <literal>keep-state</literal>
 	action adds an entry to the dynamic state table and the
 	specified action, <literal>skipto rule 500</literal>, is
 	executed.  Next, the packet undergoes <acronym>NAT</acronym>
 	and is sent out to the Internet.  This packet makes its way to
 	the destination web server, where a response packet is
 	generated and sent back.  This new packet enters the top of
 	the ruleset.  It matches rule <literal>100</literal> and has
 	its destination <acronym>IP</acronym> address mapped back to
 	the original internal address.  It then is processed by the
 	<literal>check-state</literal> rule, is found in the table as
 	an existing session, and is released to the
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On the inbound side, the ruleset has to deny bad packets
 	and allow only authorized services.  A packet which matches an
 	inbound rule is posted to the dynamic state table and the
 	packet is released to the <acronym>LAN</acronym>.  The packet
 	generated as a response is recognized by the
 	<literal>check-state</literal> rule as belonging to an
 	existing session.  It is then sent to rule
 	<literal>500</literal> to undergo
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> before being released to the outbound
 	interface.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>Port 重新導向</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The drawback with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is that the
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym> clients are not accessible from the
 	  Internet.  Clients on the <acronym>LAN</acronym> can make
 	  outgoing connections to the world but cannot receive
 	  incoming ones.  This presents a problem if trying to run
 	  Internet services on one of the <acronym>LAN</acronym>
 	  client machines.  A simple way around this is to redirect
 	  selected Internet ports on the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> machine to a
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym> client.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For example, an <acronym>IRC</acronym> server runs on
 	  client <systemitem>A</systemitem> and a web server runs on
 	  client <systemitem>B</systemitem>.  For this to work
 	  properly, connections received on ports 6667
 	  (<acronym>IRC</acronym>) and 80 (<acronym>HTTP</acronym>)
 	  must be redirected to the respective machines.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The syntax for <option>-redirect_port</option> is as
 	  follows:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">     -redirect_port proto targetIP:targetPORT[-targetPORT]
                  [aliasIP:]aliasPORT[-aliasPORT]
                  [remoteIP[:remotePORT[-remotePORT]]]</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In the above example, the argument should be:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">    -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.2:6667 6667
     -redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.3:80 80</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This redirects the proper <acronym>TCP</acronym> ports
 	  to the <acronym>LAN</acronym> client machines.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Port ranges over individual ports can be indicated with
 	  <option>-redirect_port</option>.  For example,
 	  <replaceable>tcp 192.168.0.2:2000-3000
 	    2000-3000</replaceable> would redirect all connections
 	  received on ports 2000 to 3000 to ports 2000 to 3000 on
 	  client <systemitem>A</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">These options can be used when directly running
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, placed within the
 	  <literal>natd_flags=""</literal> option in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, or passed via a
 	  configuration file.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For further configuration options, consult
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>位址重新導向</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>address redirection</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Address redirection is useful if more than one
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address is available.  Each
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym> client can be assigned its own
 	  external <acronym>IP</acronym> address by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	  which will then rewrite outgoing packets from the
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym> clients with the proper external
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address and redirects all traffic
 	  incoming on that particular <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	  back to the specific <acronym>LAN</acronym> client.  This is
 	  also known as static <acronym>NAT</acronym>.  For example,
 	  if <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses <systemitem class="ipaddress">128.1.1.1</systemitem>, <systemitem class="ipaddress">128.1.1.2</systemitem>, and <systemitem class="ipaddress">128.1.1.3</systemitem> are available,
 	  <systemitem class="ipaddress">128.1.1.1</systemitem> can be
 	  used as the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> machine's external
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address, while <systemitem class="ipaddress">128.1.1.2</systemitem> and <systemitem class="ipaddress">128.1.1.3</systemitem> are forwarded
 	  back to <acronym>LAN</acronym> clients
 	  <systemitem>A</systemitem> and
 	  <systemitem>B</systemitem>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <option>-redirect_address</option> syntax is as
 	  follows:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">-redirect_address localIP publicIP</programlisting>
 
 
 	<informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	  <tgroup cols="2">
 	    <tbody>
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">localIP</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The internal <acronym>IP</acronym> address of
 		  the <acronym>LAN</acronym> client.</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">publicIP</entry>
 		<entry xml:lang="en">The external <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 		  corresponding to the <acronym>LAN</acronym>
 		  client.</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In the example, this argument would read:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">-redirect_address 192.168.0.2 128.1.1.2
 -redirect_address 192.168.0.3 128.1.1.3</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Like <option>-redirect_port</option>, these arguments
 	  are placed within the <literal>natd_flags=""</literal>
 	  option of <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, or passed via a
 	  configuration file.  With address redirection, there is no
 	  need for port redirection since all data received on a
 	  particular <acronym>IP</acronym> address is
 	  redirected.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The external <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses on the
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>natd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> machine must be active and aliased to the
 	  external interface.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rc.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for
 	  details.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="firewalls-ipfw-cmd">
       <title><application>IPFW</application> 指令</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><command>ipfw</command></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>ipfw</command> can be used to make manual,
 	single rule additions or deletions to the active firewall
 	while it is running.  The problem with using this method is
 	that all the changes are lost when the system reboots.  It is
 	recommended to instead write all the rules in a file and to
 	use that file to load the rules at boot time and to replace
 	the currently running firewall rules whenever that file
 	changes.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><command>ipfw</command> is a useful way to display the
 	running firewall rules to the console screen.  The
 	<application>IPFW</application> accounting facility
 	dynamically creates a counter for each rule that counts each
 	packet that matches the rule.  During the process of testing a
 	rule, listing the rule with its counter is one way to
 	determine if the rule is functioning as expected.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To list all the running rules in sequence:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw list</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To list all the running rules with a time stamp of when
 	the last time the rule was matched:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -t list</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next example lists accounting information and the
 	packet count for matched rules along with the rules
 	themselves.  The first column is the rule number, followed by
 	the number of matched packets and bytes, followed by the rule
 	itself.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -a list</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To list dynamic rules in addition to static rules:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -d list</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To also show the expired dynamic rules:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -d -e list</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To zero the counters:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw zero</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To zero the counters for just the rule with number
 	<replaceable>NUM</replaceable>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw zero <replaceable>NUM</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>記錄防火牆訊息</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary><application>IPFW</application></primary>
 
 	  <secondary>logging</secondary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Even with the logging facility enabled,
 	  <application>IPFW</application> will not generate any rule
 	  logging on its own.  The firewall administrator decides
 	  which rules in the ruleset will be logged, and adds the
 	  <literal>log</literal> keyword to those rules.  Normally
 	  only deny rules are logged.  It is customary to duplicate
 	  the <quote>ipfw default deny everything</quote> rule with
 	  the <literal>log</literal> keyword included as the last rule
 	  in the ruleset.  This way, it is possible to see all the
 	  packets that did not match any of the rules in the
 	  ruleset.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Logging is a two edged sword.  If one is not careful,
 	  an over abundance of log data or a DoS attack can fill the
 	  disk with log files.  Log messages are not only written to
 	  <application>syslogd</application>, but also are displayed
 	  on the root console screen and soon become annoying.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=5</literal>
 	  kernel option limits the number of consecutive messages
 	  sent to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, concerning the packet matching of a
 	  given rule.  When this option is enabled in the kernel, the
 	  number of consecutive messages concerning a particular rule
 	  is capped at the number specified.  There is nothing to be
 	  gained from 200 identical log messages.  With this option
 	  set to five,
 	  five consecutive messages concerning a particular rule
 	  would be logged to <application>syslogd</application> and
 	  the remainder identical consecutive messages would be
 	  counted and posted to <application>syslogd</application>
 	  with a phrase like the following:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">last message repeated 45 times</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">All logged packets messages are written by default to
 	  <filename>/var/log/security</filename>, which is
 	  defined in <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="firewalls-ipfw-rules-script">
 	<title>建立規則 Script</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Most experienced <application>IPFW</application> users
 	  create a file containing the rules and code them in a manner
 	  compatible with running them as a script.  The major benefit
 	  of doing this is the firewall rules can be refreshed in mass
 	  without the need of rebooting the system to activate them.
 	  This method is convenient in testing new rules as the
 	  procedure can be executed as many times as needed.  Being a
 	  script, symbolic substitution can be used for frequently
 	  used values to be substituted into multiple rules.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example script is compatible with the syntax used
 	  by the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>,  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>csh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcsh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> shells.
 	  Symbolic substitution fields are prefixed with a dollar sign
 	  ($).  Symbolic fields do not have the $
 	  prefix.  The value to populate the symbolic field must be
 	  enclosed in double quotes ("").</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Start the rules file like this:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">############### start of example ipfw rules script #############
 #
 ipfw -q -f flush       # Delete all rules
 # Set defaults
 oif="tun0"             # out interface
 odns="192.0.2.11"      # ISP's DNS server IP address
 cmd="ipfw -q add "     # build rule prefix
 ks="keep-state"        # just too lazy to key this each time
 $cmd 00500 check-state
 $cmd 00502 deny all from any to any frag
 $cmd 00501 deny tcp from any to any established
 $cmd 00600 allow tcp from any to any 80 out via $oif setup $ks
 $cmd 00610 allow tcp from any to $odns 53 out via $oif setup $ks
 $cmd 00611 allow udp from any to $odns 53 out via $oif $ks
 ################### End of example ipfw rules script ############</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The rules are not important as the focus of this example
 	  is how the symbolic substitution fields are
 	  populated.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">If the above example was in
 	  <filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename>, the rules could be
 	  reloaded by the following command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sh /etc/ipfw.rules</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><filename>/etc/ipfw.rules</filename> can be located
 	  anywhere and the file can have any name.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The same thing could be accomplished by running these
 	  commands by hand:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q -f flush</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q add check-state</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q add deny all from any to any frag</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q add deny tcp from any to any established</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q add allow tcp from any to any 80 out via tun0 setup keep-state</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q add allow tcp from any to 192.0.2.11 53 out via tun0 setup keep-state</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipfw -q add 00611 allow udp from any to 192.0.2.11 53 out via tun0 keep-state</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="firewalls-ipf">
     <title xml:lang="en">IPFILTER (IPF)</title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>firewall</primary>
 
       <secondary><application>IPFILTER</application></secondary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPFILTER</application>, also known as
       <application>IPF</application>, is a cross-platform, open source
       firewall which has been ported to several operating systems,
       including FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and <trademark>Solaris</trademark>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPFILTER</application> is a kernel-side
       firewall and <acronym>NAT</acronym> mechanism that can be
       controlled and monitored by userland programs.  Firewall rules
       can be set or deleted using <application>ipf</application>,
       <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules can be set or deleted using
       <application>ipnat</application>, run-time statistics for the
       kernel parts of <application>IPFILTER</application> can be
       printed using <application>ipfstat</application>, and
       <application>ipmon</application> can be used to log
       <application>IPFILTER</application> actions to the system log
       files.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPF</application> was originally written using
       a rule processing logic of <quote>the last matching rule
 	wins</quote> and only used stateless rules.  Since then,
       <application>IPF</application> has been enhanced to include the
       <literal>quick</literal> and <literal>keep state</literal>
       options.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <application>IPF</application> FAQ is at <uri xlink:href="http://www.phildev.net/ipf/index.html">http://www.phildev.net/ipf/index.html</uri>.
       A searchable archive of the IPFilter mailing list is available
       at <uri xlink:href="http://marc.info/?l=ipfilter">http://marc.info/?l=ipfilter</uri>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section of the Handbook focuses on
       <application>IPF</application> as it pertains to FreeBSD.  It
       provides examples of rules that contain the
       <literal>quick</literal> and <literal>keep state</literal>
       options.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟 <application>IPF</application></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFILTER</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>enabling</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPF</application> is included in the basic
 	FreeBSD install as a kernel loadable module, meaning that a
 	custom kernel is not needed in order to enable
 	<application>IPF</application>.</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary><application>IPFILTER</application></secondary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPFILTER_LOG</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFILTER</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>kernel options</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For users who prefer to statically compile
 	<application>IPF</application> support into a custom kernel,
 	refer to the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.
 	The following kernel options are available:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options IPFILTER
 options IPFILTER_LOG
 options IPFILTER_LOOKUP
 options IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where <literal>options IPFILTER</literal> enables support
 	for <application>IPFILTER</application>,
 	<literal>options IPFILTER_LOG</literal> enables
 	<application>IPF</application> logging using the
 	<filename>ipl</filename> packet logging pseudo-device for
 	every rule that has the <literal>log</literal> keyword,
 	<literal>IPFILTER_LOOKUP</literal> enables
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> pools in order to speed up
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> lookups, and <literal>options
 	  IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK</literal> changes the default
 	behavior so that any packet not matching a firewall
 	<literal>pass</literal> rule gets blocked.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure the system to enable
 	<application>IPF</application> at boot time, add the following
 	entries to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  These entries
 	will also enable logging and <literal>default pass
 	  all</literal>.  To change the default policy to
 	<literal>block all</literal> without  compiling a custom
 	kernel, remember to add a <literal>block all</literal> rule at
 	the end of the ruleset.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipfilter_enable="YES"             # Start ipf firewall
 ipfilter_rules="/etc/ipf.rules"   # loads rules definition text file
 ipmon_enable="YES"                # Start IP monitor log
 ipmon_flags="-Ds"                 # D = start as daemon
                                   # s = log to syslog
                                   # v = log tcp window, ack, seq
                                   # n = map IP &amp; port to names</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <acronym>NAT</acronym> functionality is needed, also
 	add these lines:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gateway_enable="YES"              # Enable as LAN gateway
 ipnat_enable="YES"                # Start ipnat function
 ipnat_rules="/etc/ipnat.rules"    # rules definition file for ipnat</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, to start <application>IPF</application> now:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service ipfilter start</userinput></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To load the firewall rules, specify the name of the
 	ruleset file using <command>ipf</command>.  The following
 	command can be used to replace the currently running firewall
 	rules:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipf -Fa -f /etc/ipf.rules</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where <option>-Fa</option> flushes all the internal rules
 	tables and <option>-f</option> specifies the file containing
 	the rules to load.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This provides the ability to make changes to a custom
 	ruleset and update the running firewall with a fresh copy of
 	the rules without having to reboot the system.  This method is
 	convenient for testing new rules as the procedure can be
 	executed as many times as needed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details on the other flags
 	available with this command.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><application>IPF</application> 規則語法</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFILTER</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>rule syntax</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes the <application>IPF</application>
 	rule syntax used to create stateful rules.  When creating
 	rules, keep in mind that unless the <literal>quick</literal>
 	keyword appears in a rule, every rule is read in order, with
 	the <emphasis>last  matching rule</emphasis> being the one
 	that is applied.  This means that even if the first rule to
 	match a packet is a <literal>pass</literal>, if there is a
 	later matching rule that is a <literal>block</literal>, the
 	packet will be dropped.  Sample rulesets can be found in
 	<filename>/usr/share/examples/ipfilter</filename>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When creating rules, a <literal>#</literal> character is
 	used to mark the start of a comment and may appear at the end
 	of a rule, to explain that rule's function, or on its own
 	line.  Any blank lines are ignored.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The keywords which are used in rules must be written in a
 	specific order, from left to right.  Some keywords are
 	mandatory while others are optional.  Some keywords have
 	sub-options which may be keywords themselves and also include
 	more sub-options.  The keyword order is as follows, where the
 	words shown in uppercase represent a variable and the words
 	shown in lowercase must precede the variable that follows
 	it:</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><replaceable>ACTION DIRECTION OPTIONS proto PROTO_TYPE
 	  from SRC_ADDR SRC_PORT to DST_ADDR DST_PORT
 	  TCP_FLAG|ICMP_TYPE keep state STATE</replaceable></para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes each of these keywords and their
 	options.  It is not an exhaustive list of every possible
 	option.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a complete description of
 	the rule syntax that can be used when creating
 	<application>IPF</application> rules and examples for using
 	each keyword.</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">ACTION</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The action keyword indicates what to do with the
 	      packet if it matches that rule.  Every rule
 	      <emphasis>must</emphasis> have an action.  The
 	      following actions are recognized:</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>block</literal>: drops the packet.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>pass</literal>: allows the packet.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>log</literal>: generates a log
 	      record.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>count</literal>: counts the number of
 	      packets and bytes which can provide an indication of
 	      how often a rule is used.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>auth</literal>: queues the packet for
 	      further processing by another program.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>call</literal>: provides access to
 	      functions built into <application>IPF</application> that
 	      allow more complex actions.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>decapsulate</literal>: removes any headers
 	      in order to process the contents of the packet.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">DIRECTION</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Next, each rule must explicitly state the direction
 	      of traffic using one of these keywords:</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>in</literal>: the rule is applied against
 	      an inbound packet.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>out</literal>: the rule is applied against
 	      an outbound packet.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>all</literal>: the rule applies to either
 	      direction.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If the system has multiple interfaces, the interface
 	      can be specified along with the direction.  An example
 	      would be <literal>in on fxp0</literal>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">OPTIONS</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Options are optional.  However, if multiple options
 	      are specified, they must be used in the order shown
 	      here.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>log</literal>: when performing the
 	      specified ACTION, the contents of the packet's headers
 	      will be written to the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> packet log
 	      pseudo-device.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>quick</literal>: if a packet matches this
 	      rule, the ACTION specified by the rule occurs and no
 	      further processing of any following rules will occur for
 	      this packet.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>on</literal>: must be followed by the
 	      interface name as displayed by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The
 	      rule will only match if the packet is going through the
 	      specified interface in the specified direction.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When using the
 	      <literal>log</literal> keyword, the following qualifiers
 	      may be used in this order:</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>body</literal>: indicates that the first
 	      128 bytes of the packet contents will be logged after
 	      the headers.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><literal>first</literal>:  if the
 	      <literal>log</literal> keyword is being used in
 	      conjunction with a <literal>keep state</literal> option,
 	      this option is recommended so that only the triggering
 	      packet is logged and not every packet which matches the
 	      stateful connection.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Additional options are available to specify error
 	      return messages.  Refer to  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	      details.</para>
 
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">PROTO_TYPE</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The protocol type is optional.  However, it is
 	      mandatory if the rule needs to specify a SRC_PORT or
 	      a DST_PORT as it defines the type of protocol.  When
 	      specifying the type of protocol, use the
 	      <literal>proto</literal> keyword followed by either a
 	      protocol number or name from
 	      <filename>/etc/protocols</filename>.
 	      Example protocol names include <literal>tcp</literal>,
 	      <literal>udp</literal>, or <literal>icmp</literal>.  If
 	      PROTO_TYPE is specified but no SRC_PORT or DST_PORT is
 	      specified, all port numbers for that protocol will match
 	      that rule.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">SRC_ADDR</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>from</literal> keyword is mandatory and
 	      is followed by a keyword which represents the source of
 	      the packet.  The source can be a hostname, an
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address followed by the
 	      <acronym>CIDR</acronym> mask, an address pool, or the
 	      keyword <literal>all</literal>.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	      for examples.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">There is no way to match ranges of
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses which do not express
 	      themselves easily using the dotted numeric form /
 	      mask-length notation.  The
 	      <package>net-mgmt/ipcalc</package> package or port may
 	      be used to ease the calculation of the
 	      <acronym>CIDR</acronym> mask.  Additional information is
 	      available at the utility's web page: <uri xlink:href="http://jodies.de/ipcalc">http://jodies.de/ipcalc</uri>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">SRC_PORT</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The port number of the source is optional.  However,
 	      if it is used, it requires PROTO_TYPE to be first
 	      defined in the rule.  The port number must also be
 	      preceded by the <literal>proto</literal> keyword.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A number of different comparison operators are
 	      supported: <literal>=</literal> (equal to),
 	      <literal>!=</literal> (not equal to),
 	      <literal>&lt;</literal> (less than),
 	      <literal>&gt;</literal> (greater than),
 	      <literal>&lt;=</literal> (less than or equal to), and
 	      <literal>&gt;=</literal> (greater than or equal
 	      to).</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">To specify port ranges, place the two port numbers
 	      between <literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> (less than and
 	      greater than ), <literal>&gt;&lt;</literal> (greater
 	      than and less than ), or <literal>:</literal> (greater
 	      than or equal to and less than or equal to).</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">DST_ADDR</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>to</literal> keyword is mandatory and
 	      is followed by a keyword which represents the
 	      destination of the packet.  Similar to SRC_ADDR, it can
 	      be a hostname, an  <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	      followed by the <acronym>CIDR</acronym> mask, an address
 	      pool, or the keyword <literal>all</literal>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">DST_PORT</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Similar to SRC_PORT, the port number of the
 	      destination is optional.  However, if it is used, it
 	      requires PROTO_TYPE to be first defined in the rule.
 	      The port number must also be preceded by the
 	      <literal>proto</literal> keyword.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">TCP_FLAG|ICMP_TYPE</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If <literal>tcp</literal> is specifed as the
 	      PROTO_TYPE, flags can be specified as letters, where
 	      each letter represents one of the possible
 	      <acronym>TCP</acronym> flags used to determine the state
 	      of a connection.  Possible values are:
 	      <literal>S</literal> (SYN),
 	      <literal>A</literal> (ACK),
 	      <literal>P</literal> (PSH),
 	      <literal>F</literal> (FIN),
 	      <literal>U</literal> (URG),
 	      <literal>R</literal> (RST),
 	      <literal>C</literal> (CWN), and
 	      <literal>E</literal> (ECN).</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If <literal>icmp</literal> is specifed as the
 	      PROTO_TYPE, the <acronym>ICMP</acronym> type to match
 	      can be specified.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the
 	      allowable types.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">STATE</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If a <literal>pass</literal> rule contains
 	      <literal>keep state</literal>,
 	      <application>IPF</application> will add an entry to its
 	      dynamic state table and allow subsequent packets that
 	      match the connection.
 	      <application>IPF</application> can track state for
 	      <acronym>TCP</acronym>, <acronym>UDP</acronym>, and
 	      <acronym>ICMP</acronym> sessions.  Any packet that
 	      <application>IPF</application> can be certain is part of
 	      an active session, even if it is a different protocol,
 	      will be allowed.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">In <application>IPF</application>, packets destined
 	      to go out through the interface connected to the public
 	      Internet are first checked against the dynamic state
 	      table.  If the packet matches the next expected packet
 	      comprising an active session conversation, it exits the
 	      firewall and the state of the session conversation flow
 	      is updated in the dynamic state table.  Packets that do
 	      not belong to an already active session are checked
 	      against the outbound ruleset.  Packets coming in from
 	      the interface connected to the public Internet are first
 	      checked against the dynamic state table.  If the packet
 	      matches the next expected packet comprising an active
 	      session, it exits the firewall and the state of the
 	      session conversation flow is updated in the dynamic
 	      state table.  Packets that do not belong to an already
 	      active session are checked against the inbound
 	      ruleset.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Several keywords can be added after
 	      <literal>keep state</literal>.  If used, these keywords
 	      set various options that control stateful filtering,
 	      such as setting connection limits or connection age.
 	      Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for the list of available options
 	      and their descriptions.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>範例規則集</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to create an example ruleset
 	which only allows services matching
 	<literal>pass</literal> rules and blocks all others.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD uses the loopback interface
 	(<filename>lo0</filename>) and the <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address <systemitem class="ipaddress">127.0.0.1</systemitem>
 	for internal communication.  The firewall ruleset must contain
 	rules to allow free movement of these internally used
 	packets:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># no restrictions on loopback interface
 pass in quick on lo0 all
 pass out quick on lo0 all</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The public interface connected to the Internet is used to
 	authorize and control access of all outbound and inbound
 	connections.  If one or more interfaces are cabled to private
 	networks, those internal interfaces may require rules to allow
 	packets originating from the <acronym>LAN</acronym> to flow
 	between the internal networks or to the interface attached to
 	the Internet.  The ruleset should be organized into three
 	major sections: any trusted internal interfaces, outbound
 	connections through the public interface, and inbound
 	connections through the public interface.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">These two rules allow all traffic to pass through a
 	trusted <acronym>LAN</acronym> interface named
 	<filename>xl0</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># no restrictions on inside LAN interface for private network
 pass out quick on xl0 all
 pass in quick on xl0 all</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The rules for the public interface's outbound and inbound
 	sections should have the most frequently matched rules placed
 	before less commonly matched rules, with the last rule in the
 	section blocking and logging all packets for that interface
 	and direction.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This set of rules defines the outbound section of the
 	public interface named <filename>dc0</filename>.  These rules
 	keep state and identify the specific services that internal
 	systems are authorized for public Internet access.  All the
 	rules use <literal>quick</literal> and specify the
 	appropriate port numbers and, where applicable, destination
 	addresses.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># interface facing Internet (outbound)
 # Matches session start requests originating from or behind the
 # firewall, destined for the Internet.
 
 # Allow outbound access to public DNS servers.
 # Replace x.x.x. with address listed in /etc/resolv.conf.
 # Repeat for each DNS server.
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to x.x.x. port = 53 flags S keep state
 pass out quick on dc0 proto udp from any to xxx port = 53 keep state
 
 # Allow access to ISP's specified DHCP server for cable or DSL networks.
 # Use the first rule, then check log for the IP address of DHCP server.
 # Then, uncomment the second rule, replace z.z.z.z with the IP address,
 # and comment out the first rule
 pass out log quick on dc0 proto udp from any to any port = 67 keep state
 #pass out quick on dc0 proto udp from any to z.z.z.z port = 67 keep state
 
 # Allow HTTP and HTTPS
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 80 flags S keep state
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 443 flags S keep state
 
 # Allow email
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 110 flags S keep state
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 25 flags S keep state
 
 # Allow NTP
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 37 flags S keep state
 
 # Allow FTP
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21 flags S keep state
 
 # Allow SSH
 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 22 flags S keep state
 
 # Allow ping
 pass out quick on dc0 proto icmp from any to any icmp-type 8 keep state
 
 # Block and log everything else
 block out log first quick on dc0 all</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example of the rules in the inbound section of the
 	public interface blocks all undesirable packets first.  This
 	reduces the number of packets that are logged by the last
 	rule.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># interface facing Internet (inbound)
 # Block all inbound traffic from non-routable or reserved address spaces
 block in quick on dc0 from 192.168.0.0/16 to any    #RFC 1918 private IP
 block in quick on dc0 from 172.16.0.0/12 to any     #RFC 1918 private IP
 block in quick on dc0 from 10.0.0.0/8 to any        #RFC 1918 private IP
 block in quick on dc0 from 127.0.0.0/8 to any       #loopback
 block in quick on dc0 from 0.0.0.0/8 to any         #loopback
 block in quick on dc0 from 169.254.0.0/16 to any    #DHCP auto-config
 block in quick on dc0 from 192.0.2.0/24 to any      #reserved for docs
 block in quick on dc0 from 204.152.64.0/23 to any   #Sun cluster interconnect
 block in quick on dc0 from 224.0.0.0/3 to any       #Class D &amp; E multicast
 
 # Block fragments and too short tcp packets
 block in quick on dc0 all with frags
 block in quick on dc0 proto tcp all with short
 
 # block source routed packets
 block in quick on dc0 all with opt lsrr
 block in quick on dc0 all with opt ssrr
 
 # Block OS fingerprint attempts and log first occurrence
 block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any flags FUP
 
 # Block anything with special options
 block in quick on dc0 all with ipopts
 
 # Block public pings and ident
 block in quick on dc0 proto icmp all icmp-type 8
 block in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 113
 
 # Block incoming Netbios services
 block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 137
 block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 138
 block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 139
 block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 81</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Any time there are logged messages on a rule with
 	the <literal>log first</literal> option, run
 	<command>ipfstat -hio</command> to evaluate how many times the
 	rule has been matched.  A large number of matches may indicate
 	that the system is under attack.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The rest of the rules in the inbound section define which
 	connections are allowed to be initiated from the Internet.
 	The last rule denies all connections which were not explicitly
 	allowed by previous rules in this section.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. Replace z.z.z.z with
 # the same IP address used in the outbound section.
 pass in quick on dc0 proto udp from z.z.z.z to any port = 68 keep state
 
 # Allow public connections to specified internal web server
 pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to x.x.x.x port = 80 flags S keep state
 
 # Block and log only first occurrence of all remaining traffic.
 block in log first quick on dc0 all</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <acronym>NAT</acronym></title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>NAT</primary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>IP masquerading</primary>
 
 	<see>NAT</see>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>network address translation</primary>
 
 	<see>NAT</see>
       </indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><command>ipnat</command></primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <acronym>NAT</acronym>, add these statements
 	to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and specify the name of
 	the file containing the <acronym>NAT</acronym> rules:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gateway_enable="YES"
 ipnat_enable="YES"
 ipnat_rules="/etc/ipnat.rules"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>NAT</acronym> rules are flexible and can
 	accomplish many different things to fit the needs of both
 	commercial and home users.  The rule syntax presented here has
 	been simplified to demonstrate common usage.  For a complete
 	rule syntax description, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipnat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The basic syntax for a <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule is as
 	follows, where <literal>map</literal> starts the rule and
 	<replaceable>IF</replaceable> should be replaced with the
 	name of the external interface:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">map <replaceable>IF</replaceable> <replaceable>LAN_IP_RANGE</replaceable> -&gt; <replaceable>PUBLIC_ADDRESS</replaceable></programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <replaceable>LAN_IP_RANGE</replaceable> is the range
 	of <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses used by internal clients.
 	Usually, it is a private address range such as <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.0/24</systemitem>.  The
 	<replaceable>PUBLIC_ADDRESS</replaceable> can either be the
 	static external <acronym>IP</acronym> address or the keyword
 	<literal>0/32</literal> which represents the
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address assigned to
 	<replaceable>IF</replaceable>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In <application>IPF</application>, when a packet arrives
 	at the firewall from the <acronym>LAN</acronym> with a public
 	destination, it first passes through the outbound rules of the
 	firewall ruleset.  Then, the packet is passed to the
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> ruleset which is read from the top
 	down, where the first matching rule wins.
 	<application>IPF</application> tests each
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> rule against the packet's interface
 	name and source <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  When a
 	packet's interface name matches a <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule,
 	the packet's source <acronym>IP</acronym> address in the
 	private <acronym>LAN</acronym> is checked to see if it falls
 	within the <acronym>IP</acronym> address range specified in
 	<replaceable>LAN_IP_RANGE</replaceable>.  On a match, the
 	packet has its source <acronym>IP</acronym> address rewritten
 	with the public <acronym>IP</acronym> address specified by
 	<replaceable>PUBLIC_ADDRESS</replaceable>.
 	<application>IPF</application> posts an entry in its internal
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> table so that when the packet returns
 	from the Internet, it can be mapped back to its original
 	private <acronym>IP</acronym> address before being passed to
 	the firewall rules for further processing.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For networks that have large numbers of internal systems
 	or multiple subnets, the process of funneling every private
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address into a single public
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address becomes a resource problem.
 	Two methods are available to relieve this issue.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first method is to assign a range of ports to use as
 	source ports.  By adding the <literal>portmap</literal>
 	keyword, <acronym>NAT</acronym> can be directed to only use
 	source ports in the specified range:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -&gt; 0/32 portmap tcp/udp 20000:60000</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Alternately, use the <literal>auto</literal> keyword
 	which tells <acronym>NAT</acronym> to determine the ports
 	that are available for use:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -&gt; 0/32 portmap tcp/udp auto</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The second method is to use a pool of public addresses.
 	This is useful when there are too many
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym> addresses to fit into a single public
 	address and a block of public <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses
 	is available.  These public addresses can be used as a pool
 	from which <acronym>NAT</acronym> selects an
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address as a packet's address is
 	mapped on its way out.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The range of public <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses can
 	be specified using a netmask or <acronym>CIDR</acronym>
 	notation.  These two rules are equivalent:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -&gt; 204.134.75.0/255.255.255.0
 map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -&gt; 204.134.75.0/24</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A common practice is to have a publically accessible web
 	server or mail server segregated to an internal network
 	segment.  The traffic from these servers still has to undergo
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym>, but port redirection is needed to
 	direct inbound traffic to the correct server.  For example, to
 	map a web server using the internal address <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.10.25</systemitem> to its public
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address of <systemitem class="ipaddress">20.20.20.5</systemitem>, use this
 	rule:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rdr dc0 20.20.20.5/32 port 80 -&gt; 10.0.10.25 port 80</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If it is the only web server, this rule would also work as
 	it redirects all external <acronym>HTTP</acronym> requests to
 	<literal>10.0.10.25</literal>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rdr dc0 0.0.0.0/0 port 80 -&gt; 10.0.10.25 port 80</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPF</application> has a built in
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> proxy which can be used with
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym>.  It monitors all outbound traffic for
 	active or passive <acronym>FTP</acronym> connection requests
 	and dynamically creates temporary filter rules containing the
 	port number used by the <acronym>FTP</acronym> data channel.
 	This eliminates the need to open large ranges of high order
 	ports for <acronym>FTP</acronym> connections.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the first rule calls the proxy for
 	outbound <acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic from the internal
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym>.  The second rule passes the
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic from the firewall to the
 	Internet, and the third rule handles all
 	non-<acronym>FTP</acronym> traffic from the internal
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">map dc0 10.0.10.0/29 -&gt; 0/32 proxy port 21 ftp/tcp
 map dc0 0.0.0.0/0 -&gt; 0/32 proxy port 21 ftp/tcp
 map dc0 10.0.10.0/29 -&gt; 0/32</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>FTP</acronym> <literal>map</literal> rules go
 	before the <acronym>NAT</acronym> rule so that when a packet
 	matches an <acronym>FTP</acronym> rule, the
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> proxy creates temporary filter rules to
 	let the <acronym>FTP</acronym> session packets pass and
 	undergo <acronym>NAT</acronym>.  All LAN packets that are not
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> will not match the
 	<acronym>FTP</acronym> rules but will undergo
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> if they match the third rule.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Without the <acronym>FTP</acronym> proxy, the following
 	firewall rules would instead be needed.  Note that without the
 	proxy, all ports above <literal>1024</literal> need to be
 	allowed:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Allow out LAN PC client FTP to public Internet
 # Active and passive modes
 pass out quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21 flags S keep state
 
 # Allow out passive mode data channel high order port numbers
 pass out quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port &gt; 1024 flags S keep state
 
 # Active mode let data channel in from FTP server
 pass in quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 20 flags S keep state</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Whenever the file containing the <acronym>NAT</acronym>
 	rules is edited, run <command>ipnat</command> with
 	<option>-CF</option> to delete the current
 	<acronym>NAT</acronym> rules and flush the contents of the
 	dynamic translation table.  Include <option>-f</option> and
 	specify the name of the <acronym>NAT</acronym> ruleset to
 	load:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipnat -CF -f /etc/ipnat.rules</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To display the <acronym>NAT</acronym> statistics:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipnat -s</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To list the <acronym>NAT</acronym> table's current
 	mappings:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipnat -l</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To turn verbose mode on and display information relating
 	to rule processing and active rules and table entries:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ipnat -v</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 <!--
 This section is confusing and may no longer be needed with new syntax.
     <sect2 xml:id="firewalls-ipf-rules-script">
       <title>Building the Rule Script with Symbolic
 	Substitution</title>
 
       <para>Some experienced IPF users create a file containing the
 	rules and code them in a manner compatible with running them
 	as a script with symbolic substitution.  The major benefit
 	of doing this is that only the value associated with the
 	symbolic name needs to be changed, and when the script is
 	run all the rules containing the symbolic name will have the
 	value substituted in the rules.  Being a script, symbolic
 	substitution can be used to code frequently used values and
 	substitute them in multiple rules.  This can be seen in the
 	following example.</para>
 
       <para>The script syntax used here is compatible with the
 	&man.sh.1;, &man.csh.1;, and &man.tcsh.1; shells.</para>
 
       <para>Symbolic substitution fields are prefixed with a
 	<literal>&dollar;</literal>.</para>
 
       <para>Symbolic fields do not have the &dollar; prefix.</para>
 
       <para>The value to populate the symbolic field must be enclosed
 	between double quotes (<literal>"</literal>).</para>
 
       <para>Start the rule file with something like this:</para>
 
       <programlisting>############# Start of IPF rules script ########################
 
 oif="dc0"            # name of the outbound interface
 odns="192.0.2.11"    # ISP's DNS server IP address
 myip="192.0.2.7"     # my static IP address from ISP
 ks="keep state"
 fks="flags S keep state"
 
 # You can choose between building /etc/ipf.rules file
 # from this script or running this script "as is".
 #
 # Uncomment only one line and comment out another.
 #
 # 1) This can be used for building /etc/ipf.rules:
 #cat &gt; /etc/ipf.rules &lt;&lt; EOF
 #
 # 2) This can be used to run script "as is":
 /sbin/ipf -Fa -f - &lt;&lt; EOF
 
 # Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
 pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto tcp from any to &dollar;odns port = 53 &dollar;fks
 pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto udp from any to &dollar;odns port = 53 &dollar;ks
 
 # Allow out non-secure standard www function
 pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto tcp from &dollar;myip to any port = 80 &dollar;fks
 
 # Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
 pass out quick on &dollar;oif proto tcp from &dollar;myip to any port = 443 &dollar;fks
 EOF
 ################## End of IPF rules script ########################</programlisting>
 
       <para>The rules are not important in this example as it instead
 	focuses on how the symbolic substitution fields are populated.
 	If this example was in a file named
 	<filename>/etc/ipf.rules.script</filename>, these rules could
 	be reloaded by running:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sh /etc/ipf.rules.script</userinput></screen>
 
       <para>There is one problem with using a rules file with embedded
 	symbolics: IPF does not understand symbolic substitution, and
 	cannot read such scripts directly.</para>
 
       <para>This script can be used in one of two ways:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Uncomment the line that begins with
 	    <literal>cat</literal>, and comment out the line that
 	    begins with <literal>/sbin/ipf</literal>.  Place
 	    <literal>ipfilter_enable="YES"</literal> into
 	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, and run the script
 	    once after each modification to create or update
 	    <filename>/etc/ipf.rules</filename>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para>Disable <application>IPFILTER</application> in the
 	    system startup scripts by adding
 	    <literal>ipfilter_enable="NO"</literal>to
 	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <para>Then, add a script like the following to
 	    <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d/</filename>.  The script
 	    should have an obvious name like
 	    <filename>ipf.loadrules.sh</filename>, where the
 	    <filename>.sh</filename> extension is mandatory.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>#!/bin/sh
 sh /etc/ipf.rules.script</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>The permissions on this script file must be read,
 	    write, execute for owner
 	    <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem>:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 700 /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ipf.loadrules.sh</userinput></screen>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para>Now, when the system boots, the IPF rules will be
 	loaded.</para>
     </sect2>
     -->
     <sect2>
       <title>檢視 <application>IPF</application> 統計資訊</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><command>ipfstat</command></primary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFILTER</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>statistics</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPF</application> includes <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	which can be used to retrieve
 	and display statistics which are gathered
 	as packets match rules as they go through the
 	firewall.  Statistics are accumulated since the firewall was
 	last started or since the last time they
 	were reset to zero using <command>ipf
 	  -Z</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The default <command>ipfstat</command> output looks
 	like this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">input packets: blocked 99286 passed 1255609 nomatch 14686 counted 0
  output packets: blocked 4200 passed 1284345 nomatch 14687 counted 0
  input packets logged: blocked 99286 passed 0
  output packets logged: blocked 0 passed 0
  packets logged: input 0 output 0
  log failures: input 3898 output 0
  fragment state(in): kept 0 lost 0
  fragment state(out): kept 0 lost 0
  packet state(in): kept 169364 lost 0
  packet state(out): kept 431395 lost 0
  ICMP replies: 0 TCP RSTs sent: 0
  Result cache hits(in): 1215208 (out): 1098963
  IN Pullups succeeded: 2 failed: 0
  OUT Pullups succeeded: 0 failed: 0
  Fastroute successes: 0 failures: 0
  TCP cksum fails(in): 0 (out): 0
  Packet log flags set: (0)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Several options are available.  When supplied with either
 	<option>-i</option> for inbound or <option>-o</option> for
 	outbound, the command will retrieve and display the
 	appropriate list of filter rules currently installed and in
 	use by the kernel.  To also see the rule numbers, include
 	<option>-n</option>.  For example, <command>ipfstat
 	  -on</command> displays the outbound rules table with rule
 	numbers:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">@1 pass out on xl0 from any to any
 @2 block out on dc0 from any to any
 @3 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any keep state</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Include <option>-h</option> to prefix each rule with a
 	count of how many times the rule was matched.  For example,
 	<command>ipfstat -oh</command> displays the outbound internal
 	rules table, prefixing each rule with its usage count:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">2451423 pass out on xl0 from any to any
 354727 block out on dc0 from any to any
 430918 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any keep state</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To display the state table in a format similar to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>top</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, use <command>ipfstat -t</command>.  When the
 	firewall is under attack, this option provides the ability to
 	identify and see the attacking packets.  The optional
 	sub-flags give the ability to select the destination or source
 	<acronym>IP</acronym>, port, or protocol to be monitored in
 	real time.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for details.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><application>IPF</application> 日誌</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary><command>ipmon</command></primary></indexterm>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><application>IPFILTER</application></primary>
 
 	<secondary>logging</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>IPF</application> provides
 	<command>ipmon</command>, which can be used to write the
 	firewall's logging information in a human readable format.  It
 	requires that <literal>options IPFILTER_LOG</literal> be first
 	added to a custom kernel using the instructions in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This command is typically run in daemon mode in order to
 	provide a continuous system log file so that logging of past
 	events may be reviewed.  Since FreeBSD has a built in
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> facility to automatically rotate system logs,
 	the default <filename>rc.conf</filename>
 	<literal>ipmon_flags</literal> statement uses
 	<option>-Ds</option>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipmon_flags="-Ds" # D = start as daemon
                   # s = log to syslog
                   # v = log tcp window, ack, seq
                   # n = map IP &amp; port to names</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Logging provides the ability to review, after the fact,
 	information such as which packets were dropped, what addresses
 	they came from, and where they were going.  This information
 	is useful in tracking down attackers.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the logging facility is enabled in
 	<filename>rc.conf</filename> and started with <command>service
 	  ipmon start</command>, <application>IPF</application> will
 	only log the rules which contain the <literal>log</literal>
 	keyword.  The firewall administrator decides which rules in
 	the ruleset should be logged and normally only deny rules are
 	logged.  It is customary to include the
 	<literal>log</literal> keyword in the last rule in the
 	ruleset.  This makes it possible to see all the packets that
 	did not match any of the rules in the ruleset.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, <command>ipmon -Ds</command> mode uses
 	<literal>local0</literal> as the logging facility.  The
 	following logging levels can be used to further segregate the
 	logged data:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">LOG_INFO - packets logged using the "log" keyword as the action rather than pass or block.
 LOG_NOTICE - packets logged which are also passed
 LOG_WARNING - packets logged which are also blocked
 LOG_ERR - packets which have been logged and which can be considered short due to an incomplete header</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to setup <application>IPF</application> to
 	log all data to <filename>/var/log/ipfilter.log</filename>,
 	first create the empty file:</para>
 
        <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>touch /var/log/ipfilter.log</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, to write all logged messages to the specified file,
 	add the following statement to
 	<filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">local0.* /var/log/ipfilter.log</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To activate the changes and instruct <citerefentry><refentrytitle>syslogd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	to read the modified <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename>,
 	run <command>service syslogd reload</command>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Do not forget to edit
 	<filename>/etc/newsyslog.conf</filename> to rotate the new
 	log file.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Messages generated by <command>ipmon</command> consist
 	of data fields separated by white space.  Fields common to
 	all messages are:</para>
 
       <orderedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The date of packet receipt.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The time of packet receipt.  This is in the form
 	    HH:MM:SS.F, for hours, minutes, seconds, and fractions
 	    of a second.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The name of the interface that processed the
 	    packet.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The group and rule number of the rule in the format
 	    <literal>@0:17</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The action: <literal>p</literal> for passed,
 	    <literal>b</literal> for blocked, <literal>S</literal> for
 	    a short packet, <literal>n</literal> did not match any
 	    rules, and <literal>L</literal> for a log rule.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The addresses written as three fields: the source
 	    address and port separated by a comma, the -&gt; symbol,
 	    and the destination address and port.  For example:
 	    <literal>209.53.17.22,80 -&gt;
 	      198.73.220.17,1722</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>PR</literal> followed by the protocol name
 	    or number: for example, <literal>PR tcp</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><literal>len</literal> followed by the header length
 	    and total length of the packet: for example,
 	    <literal>len 20 40</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </orderedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the packet is a <acronym>TCP</acronym> packet, there
 	will be an additional field starting with a hyphen followed by
 	letters corresponding to any flags that were set.  Refer to
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry> for a list of letters and their flags.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the packet is an <acronym>ICMP</acronym> packet, there
 	will be two fields at the end:  the first always being
 	<quote>icmp</quote> and the next being the
 	<acronym>ICMP</acronym> message and sub-message type,
 	separated by a slash.  For example:
 	<literal>icmp 3/3</literal> for a port unreachable
 	message.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <chapter version="5.0" xml:id="advanced-networking">
   <title>進階網路設定</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="advanced-networking-synopsis">
     <title>概述</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This chapter covers a number of advanced networking
       topics.</para>
 
     <para>讀完這章，您將了解︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The basics of gateways and routes.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to set up USB tethering.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to set up <trademark class="registered">IEEE</trademark> 802.11 and <trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark>
 	  devices.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to make FreeBSD act as a bridge.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to set up network <acronym>PXE</acronym>
 	  booting.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to set up <acronym>IPv6</acronym> on a FreeBSD
 	  machine.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">How to enable and utilize the features of the Common
 	  Address Redundancy Protocol (<acronym>CARP</acronym>) in
 	  FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
+
+      <listitem>
+	<para>如何在 FreeBSD 上設定多個 <acronym>VLAN</acronym>。</para>
+      </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para>在開始閱讀這章之前，您需要︰</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Understand the basics of the
 	  <filename>/etc/rc</filename> scripts.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>熟悉基本網路術語。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Know how to configure and install a new FreeBSD kernel
 	  (<xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para>了解如何安裝其他第三方軟體 (<xref linkend="ports"/>)。</para>
       </listitem>
 
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-routing">
     <info>
       <title>通訊閘與路由</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Coranth</firstname>
 	    <surname>Gryphon</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>routing</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>gateway</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>subnet</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><firstterm>Routing</firstterm> is the mechanism that allows
       a system to find the network path to another system.  A
       <firstterm>route</firstterm> is a defined pair of addresses
       which represent the <quote>destination</quote> and a
       <quote>gateway</quote>.  The route indicates that when trying
       to get to the specified destination, send the packets through
       the specified gateway.  There are three types of destinations:
       individual hosts, subnets, and <quote>default</quote>.  The
       <quote>default route</quote> is used if no other routes apply.
       There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts,
       interfaces, also called links, and Ethernet hardware
       (<acronym>MAC</acronym>) addresses.  Known routes are stored in
       a routing table.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section provides an overview of routing basics.  It
       then demonstrates how to configure a FreeBSD system as a router and
       offers some troubleshooting tips.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-routing-default">
       <title>路由基礎概念</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To view the routing table of a FreeBSD system, use
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>netstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>netstat -r</userinput>
 Routing tables
 
 Internet:
 Destination      Gateway            Flags     Refs     Use     Netif Expire
 default          outside-gw         UGS        37      418       em0
 localhost        localhost          UH          0      181       lo0
 test0            0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f   UHLW        5    63288       re0     77
 10.20.30.255     link#1             UHLW        1     2421
 example.com      link#1             UC          0        0
 host1            0:e0:a8:37:8:1e    UHLW        3     4601       lo0
 host2            0:e0:a8:37:8:1e    UHLW        0        5       lo0 =&gt;
 host2.example.com link#1            UC          0        0
 224              link#1             UC          0        0</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The entries in this example are as follows:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">default</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The first route in this table specifies the
 	      <literal>default</literal> route.  When the local system
 	      needs to make a connection to a remote host, it checks
 	      the routing table to determine if a known path exists.
 	      If the remote host matches an entry in the table, the
 	      system checks to see if it can connect using the
 	      interface specified in that entry.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If the destination does not match an entry, or if
 	      all known paths fail, the system uses the entry for the
 	      default route.  For hosts on a local area network, the
 	      <literal>Gateway</literal> field in the default route is
 	      set to the system which has a direct connection to the
 	      Internet.  When reading this entry, verify that the
 	      <literal>Flags</literal> column indicates that the
 	      gateway is usable (<literal>UG</literal>).</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The default route for a machine which itself is
 	      functioning as the gateway to the outside world will be
 	      the gateway machine at the Internet Service Provider
 	      (<acronym>ISP</acronym>).</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">localhost</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The second route is the <literal>localhost</literal>
 	      route.  The interface specified in the
 	      <literal>Netif</literal> column for
 	      <literal>localhost</literal> is
 	      <filename>lo0</filename>, also known as the loopback
 	      device.  This indicates that all traffic for this
 	      destination should be internal, rather than sending it
 	      out over the network.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">MAC address</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The addresses beginning with <systemitem class="etheraddress">0:e0:</systemitem> are
 	      <acronym>MAC</acronym> addresses.  FreeBSD will
 	      automatically identify any hosts,
 	      <systemitem>test0</systemitem> in the example, on the
 	      local Ethernet and add a route for that host over the
 	      Ethernet interface, <filename>re0</filename>.  This type
 	      of route has a timeout, seen in the
 	      <literal>Expire</literal> column, which is used if the
 	      host does not respond in a specific amount of time.
 	      When this happens, the route to this host will be
 	      automatically deleted.  These hosts are identified using
 	      the Routing Information Protocol
 	      (<acronym>RIP</acronym>), which calculates routes to
 	      local hosts based upon a shortest path
 	      determination.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">subnet</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD will automatically add subnet routes for the
 	      local subnet.  In this example, <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.20.30.255</systemitem> is the
 	      broadcast address for the subnet <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.20.30</systemitem> and
 	      <systemitem class="fqdomainname">example.com</systemitem> is the
 	      domain name associated with that subnet.  The
 	      designation <literal>link#1</literal> refers to the
 	      first Ethernet card in the machine.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Local network hosts and local subnets have their
 	      routes automatically configured by a daemon called
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>routed</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  If it is not running, only routes which
 	      are statically defined by the administrator will
 	      exist.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">host</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>host1</literal> line refers to the host
 	      by its Ethernet address.  Since it is the sending host,
 	      FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface
 	      (<filename>lo0</filename>) rather than the Ethernet
 	      interface.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The two <literal>host2</literal> lines represent
 	      aliases which were created using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The
 	      <literal>=&gt;</literal> symbol after the
 	      <filename>lo0</filename> interface says that an alias
 	      has been set in addition to the loopback address.  Such
 	      routes only show up on the host that supports the alias
 	      and all other hosts on the local network will have a
 	      <literal>link#1</literal> line for such routes.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">224</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The final line (destination subnet <systemitem class="ipaddress">224</systemitem>) deals with
 	      multicasting.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Various attributes of each route can be seen in the
 	<literal>Flags</literal> column.  <xref linkend="routeflags"/>
 	summarizes some of these flags and their meanings:</para>
 
       <table xml:id="routeflags" frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<title>常見路由表標記</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry>指令</entry>
 	      <entry>用途</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">U</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The route is active (up).</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">H</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The route destination is a single host.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">G</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Send anything for this destination on to this
 		gateway, which will figure out from there where to
 		send it.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">S</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">This route was statically configured.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">C</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Clones a new route based upon this route for
 		machines to connect to.  This type of route is
 		normally used for local networks.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">W</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The route was auto-configured based upon a local
 		area network (clone) route.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">L</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Route involves references to Ethernet (link)
 		hardware.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On a FreeBSD system, the default route can defined in
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> by specifying the
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address of the default gateway:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">defaultrouter="10.20.30.1"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is also possible to manually add the route using
 	<command>route</command>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>route add default 10.20.30.1</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Note that manually added routes will not survive a reboot.
 	For more information on manual manipulation of network
 	routing tables, refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>route</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-static-routes">
       <info>
 	<title>設定路由器使用靜態路由</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Al</firstname>
 	      <surname>Hoang</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
       <!-- Feb 2004 -->
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>dual homed hosts</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A FreeBSD system can be configured as the default gateway, or
 	router, for a network if it is a dual-homed system.  A
 	dual-homed system is a host which resides on at least two
 	different networks.  Typically, each network is connected to a
 	separate network interface, though <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	aliasing can be used to bind multiple addresses, each on a
 	different subnet, to one physical interface.</para>
 
       <indexterm><primary>路由器</primary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order for the system to forward packets between
 	interfaces, FreeBSD must be configured as a router.  Internet
 	standards and good engineering practice prevent the FreeBSD
 	Project from enabling this feature by default, but it can be
 	configured to start at boot by adding this line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gateway_enable="YES"          # Set to YES if this host will be a gateway</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable routing now, set the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variable
 	<varname>net.inet.ip.forwarding</varname> to
 	<literal>1</literal>.  To stop routing, reset this variable to
 	<literal>0</literal>.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>BGP</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>RIP</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>OSPF</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The routing table of a router needs additional routes so
 	it knows how to reach other networks.  Routes can be either
 	added manually using static routes or routes can be
 	automatically learned using a routing protocol.  Static routes
 	are appropriate for small networks and this section describes
 	how to add a static routing entry for a small network.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">For large networks, static routes quickly become
 	  unscalable.  FreeBSD comes with the standard
 	  <acronym>BSD</acronym> routing daemon <citerefentry><refentrytitle>routed</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which
 	  provides the routing protocols <acronym>RIP</acronym>,
 	  versions 1 and 2, and <acronym>IRDP</acronym>.  Support for
 	  the <acronym>BGP</acronym> and <acronym>OSPF</acronym>
 	  routing protocols can be installed using the
 	  <package>net/zebra</package> package or port.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Consider the following network:</para>
 
       <mediaobject>
 	<imageobject>
 	  <imagedata fileref="advanced-networking/static-routes"/>
 	</imageobject>
 
 	<textobject>
 	<literallayout class="monospaced" xml:lang="en">
     INTERNET
       | (10.0.0.1/24) Default Router to Internet
       |
       |Interface xl0
       |10.0.0.10/24
    +------+
    |      | RouterA
    |      | (FreeBSD gateway)
    +------+
       | Interface xl1
       | 192.168.1.1/24
       |
   +--------------------------------+
    Internal Net 1      | 192.168.1.2/24
                        |
                    +------+
                    |      | RouterB
                    |      |
                    +------+
                        | 192.168.2.1/24
                        |
                      Internal Net 2</literallayout>
 	</textobject>
       </mediaobject>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this scenario, <systemitem>RouterA</systemitem> is a
 	FreeBSD machine that is acting as a router to the rest of the
 	Internet.  It has a default route set to <systemitem class="ipaddress">10.0.0.1</systemitem> which allows it to
 	connect with the outside world.
 	<systemitem>RouterB</systemitem> is already configured to use
 	<systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.1</systemitem> as its
 	default gateway.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Before adding any static routes, the routing table on
 	<systemitem>RouterA</systemitem> looks like this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>netstat -nr</userinput>
 Routing tables
 
 Internet:
 Destination        Gateway            Flags    Refs      Use  Netif  Expire
 default            10.0.0.1           UGS         0    49378    xl0
 127.0.0.1          127.0.0.1          UH          0        6    lo0
 10.0.0.0/24        link#1             UC          0        0    xl0
 192.168.1.0/24     link#2             UC          0        0    xl1</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">With the current routing table,
 	<systemitem>RouterA</systemitem> does not have a route to the
 	<systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.2.0/24</systemitem>
 	network.  The following command adds the <literal>Internal Net
 	  2</literal> network to <systemitem>RouterA</systemitem>'s
 	routing table using <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.2</systemitem> as the next
 	hop:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>route add -net 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.1.2</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Now, <systemitem>RouterA</systemitem> can reach any host
 	on the <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.2.0/24</systemitem> network.
 	However, the routing information will not persist if the FreeBSD
 	system reboots.  If a static route needs to be persistent, add
 	it to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Add Internal Net 2 as a persistent static route
 static_routes="internalnet2"
 route_internalnet2="-net 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.1.2"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>static_routes</literal> configuration
 	variable is a list of strings separated by a space, where each
 	string references a route name.  The variable
 	<literal>route_<replaceable>internalnet2</replaceable></literal>
 	contains the static route for that route name.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Using more than one string in
 	<literal>static_routes</literal> creates multiple static
 	routes.  The following shows an example of adding static
 	routes for the <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.0.0/24</systemitem> and
 	<systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.1.0/24</systemitem>
 	networks:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">static_routes="net1 net2"
 route_net1="-net 192.168.0.0/24 192.168.0.1"
 route_net2="-net 192.168.1.0/24 192.168.1.1"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-routing-troubleshooting">
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When an address space is assigned to a network, the
 	service provider configures their routing tables so that all
 	traffic for the network will be sent to the link for the site.
 	But how do external sites know to send their packets to the
 	network's <acronym>ISP</acronym>?</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There is a system that keeps track of all assigned
 	address spaces and defines their point of connection to the
 	Internet backbone, or the main trunk lines that carry Internet
 	traffic across the country and around the world.  Each
 	backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which
 	direct traffic for a particular network to a specific
 	backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service
 	providers until it reaches a particular network.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is the task of the service provider to advertise to
 	the backbone sites that they are the point of connection, and
 	thus the path inward, for a site.  This is known as route
 	propagation.</para>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary><citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry></primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Sometimes, there is a problem with route propagation and
 	some sites are unable to connect.  Perhaps the most useful
 	command for trying to figure out where routing is breaking
 	down is <command>traceroute</command>.  It is useful when
 	<command>ping</command> fails.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When using <command>traceroute</command>, include the
 	address of the remote host to connect to.  The output will
 	show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt,
 	eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating
 	because of a lack of connection.  For more information, refer
 	to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>traceroute</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-routing-multicast">
       <title>群播 (Multicast) 注意事項</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>multicast routing</primary>
       </indexterm>
       <indexterm><primary>核心選項</primary> <secondary>MROUTING</secondary></indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD natively supports both multicast applications and
 	multicast routing.  Multicast applications do not require any
 	special configuration in order to run on FreeBSD.  Support for
 	multicast routing requires that the following option be
 	compiled into a custom kernel:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">options MROUTING</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The multicast routing daemon,
 	<application>mrouted</application> can be installed using the
 	<package>net/mrouted</package> package or port.  This daemon
 	implements the <acronym>DVMRP</acronym> multicast routing
 	protocol and is configured by editing
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/mrouted.conf</filename> in order to
 	set up the tunnels and <acronym>DVMRP</acronym>.  The
 	installation of <application>mrouted</application> also
 	installs <application>map-mbone</application> and
 	<application>mrinfo</application>, as well as their associated
 	man pages.  Refer to these for configuration examples.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DVMRP</acronym> has largely been replaced by
 	  the <acronym>PIM</acronym> protocol in many multicast
 	  installations.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pim</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
 	  information.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-wireless">
     <info>
       <title>無線網路</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <othername>Loader</othername>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Marc</firstname>
 	    <surname>Fonvieille</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Murray</firstname>
 	    <surname>Stokely</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm><primary>無線網路</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>802.11</primary> <see>無線網路</see></indexterm>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>無線網路基礎</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Most wireless networks are based on the <trademark class="registered">IEEE</trademark> 802.11
 	standards.  A basic wireless network consists of multiple
 	stations communicating with radios that broadcast in either
 	the 2.4GHz or 5GHz band, though this varies according to the
 	locale and is also changing to enable communication in the
 	2.3GHz and 4.9GHz ranges.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">802.11 networks are organized in two ways.  In
 	<emphasis>infrastructure mode</emphasis>, one station acts as
 	a
 	master with all the other stations associating to it, the
 	network is known as a <acronym>BSS</acronym>, and the master
 	station is termed an access point (<acronym>AP</acronym>).
 	In a <acronym>BSS</acronym>, all communication passes through
 	the <acronym>AP</acronym>; even when one station wants to
 	communicate with another wireless station, messages must go
 	through the <acronym>AP</acronym>.  In the second form of
 	network, there is no master and stations communicate directly.
 	This form of network is termed an <acronym>IBSS</acronym>
 	and is commonly known as an <emphasis>ad-hoc
 	  network</emphasis>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">802.11 networks were first deployed in the 2.4GHz band
 	using protocols defined by the <trademark class="registered">IEEE</trademark> 802.11 and 802.11b
 	standard.  These specifications include the operating
 	frequencies and the <acronym>MAC</acronym> layer
 	characteristics, including framing and transmission rates,
 	as communication can occur at various rates.  Later, the
 	802.11a standard defined operation in the 5GHz band, including
 	different signaling mechanisms and higher transmission rates.
 	Still later, the 802.11g standard defined the use of 802.11a
 	signaling and transmission mechanisms in the 2.4GHz band in
 	such a way as to be backwards compatible with 802.11b
 	networks.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Separate from the underlying transmission techniques,
 	802.11 networks have a variety of security mechanisms.  The
 	original 802.11 specifications defined a simple security
 	protocol called <acronym>WEP</acronym>.  This protocol uses a
 	fixed pre-shared key and the RC4 cryptographic cipher to
 	encode data transmitted on a network.  Stations must all
 	agree on the fixed key in order to communicate.  This scheme
 	was shown to be easily broken and is now rarely used except
 	to discourage transient users from joining networks.  Current
 	security practice is given by the <trademark class="registered">IEEE</trademark> 802.11i specification
 	that defines new cryptographic ciphers and an additional
 	protocol to authenticate stations to an access point and
 	exchange keys for data communication.  Cryptographic keys
 	are periodically refreshed and there are mechanisms for
 	detecting and countering intrusion attempts.  Another
 	security protocol specification commonly used in wireless
 	networks is termed <acronym>WPA</acronym>, which was a
 	precursor to 802.11i.  <acronym>WPA</acronym> specifies a
 	subset of the requirements found in 802.11i and is designed
 	for implementation on legacy hardware.  Specifically,
 	<acronym>WPA</acronym> requires only the
 	<acronym>TKIP</acronym> cipher that is derived from the
 	original <acronym>WEP</acronym> cipher.  802.11i permits use
 	of <acronym>TKIP</acronym> but also requires support for a
 	stronger cipher, AES-CCM, for encrypting data.  The
 	<acronym>AES</acronym> cipher was not required in
 	<acronym>WPA</acronym> because it was deemed too
 	computationally costly to be implemented on legacy
 	hardware.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The other standard to be aware of is 802.11e.  It defines
 	protocols for deploying multimedia applications, such as
 	streaming video and voice over IP (<acronym>VoIP</acronym>),
 	in an 802.11 network.  Like 802.11i, 802.11e also has a
 	precursor specification termed <acronym>WME</acronym> (later
 	renamed <acronym>WMM</acronym>) that has been defined by an
 	industry group as a subset of 802.11e that can be deployed now
 	to enable multimedia applications while waiting for the final
 	ratification of 802.11e.  The most important thing to know
 	about 802.11e and
 	<acronym>WME</acronym>/<acronym>WMM</acronym> is that it
 	enables prioritized traffic over a wireless network through
 	Quality of Service (<acronym>QoS</acronym>) protocols and
 	enhanced media access protocols.  Proper implementation of
 	these protocols enables high speed bursting of data and
 	prioritized traffic flow.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD supports networks that operate using 802.11a,
 	802.11b, and 802.11g.  The <acronym>WPA</acronym> and 802.11i
 	security protocols are likewise supported (in conjunction with
 	any of 11a, 11b, and 11g) and <acronym>QoS</acronym> and
 	traffic prioritization required by the
 	<acronym>WME</acronym>/<acronym>WMM</acronym> protocols are
 	supported for a limited set of wireless devices.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-wireless-quick-start">
       <title>快速開始</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Connecting a computer to an existing wireless network is
 	a very common situation.  This procedure shows the steps
 	required.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Obtain the <acronym>SSID</acronym> (Service Set
 	    Identifier) and <acronym>PSK</acronym> (Pre-Shared Key)
 	    for the wireless network from the network
 	    administrator.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Identify the wireless adapter.  The FreeBSD
 	    <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel includes drivers for
 	    many common wireless adapters.  If the wireless adapter is
 	    one of those models, it will be shown in the output from
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig | grep -B3 -i wireless</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If a wireless adapter is not listed, an additional
 	    kernel module might be required, or it might be a model
 	    not supported by FreeBSD.</para>
 	  <!-- WB: refer to section that shows how to identify a
 	  wireless adapter and load the kernel modules for it. -->
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This example shows the Atheros <literal>ath0</literal>
 	    wireless adapter.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add an entry for this network to
 	    <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename>.  If the
 	    file does not exist, create it.  Replace
 	    <replaceable>myssid</replaceable> and
 	    <replaceable>mypsk</replaceable> with the
 	    <acronym>SSID</acronym> and <acronym>PSK</acronym>
 	    provided by the network administrator.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">network={
 	ssid="<replaceable>myssid</replaceable>"
 	psk="<replaceable>mypsk</replaceable>"
 }</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Add entries to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to
 	    configure the network on startup:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_<replaceable>ath0</replaceable>="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="WPA SYNCDHCP"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Restart the computer, or restart the network service
 	    to connect to the network:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif restart</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-wireless-basic">
       <title>基礎設定</title>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>核心設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To use wireless networking, a wireless networking card
 	  is needed and the kernel needs to be configured with the
 	  appropriate wireless networking support.  The kernel is
 	  separated into multiple modules so that only the required
 	  support needs to be configured.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The most
 	  commonly used wireless devices are those that use parts made
 	  by Atheros.  These devices are supported by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ath</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  and require the following line to be added to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">if_ath_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The Atheros driver is split up into three separate
 	  pieces: the driver (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ath</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>), the hardware support
 	  layer that handles chip-specific functions
 	  (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ath_hal</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>), and an algorithm for selecting the
 	  rate for transmitting frames.  When this support is loaded
 	  as kernel modules, any dependencies are automatically
 	  handled.  To load support for a different type of wireless
 	  device, specify the module for that device.  This example
 	  is for devices based on the Intersil Prism parts
 	  (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>wi</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>) driver:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">if_wi_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The examples in this section use an <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ath</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    device and the device name in the examples must be
 	    changed according to the configuration.  A list of
 	    available wireless drivers and supported adapters can be
 	    found in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes, available on
 	    the <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/index.html">Release
 	      Information</link> page of the FreeBSD website.  If a
 	    native FreeBSD driver for the wireless device does not
 	    exist, it may be possible to use the <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> driver
 	    with the help of the <link linkend="config-network-ndis">NDIS</link> driver
 	    wrapper.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In addition, the modules that implement cryptographic
 	  support for the security protocols to use must be loaded.
 	  These are intended to be dynamically loaded on demand by
 	  the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> module, but for now they must be manually
 	  configured.  The following modules are available:
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan_wep</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan_ccmp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan_tkip</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	  The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan_ccmp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan_tkip</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> drivers are
 	  only needed when using the <acronym>WPA</acronym> or
 	  802.11i security protocols.  If the network does not use
 	  encryption, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlan_wep</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> support is not needed.  To
 	  load these modules at boot time, add the following lines to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">wlan_wep_load="YES"
 wlan_ccmp_load="YES"
 wlan_tkip_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once this information has been added to
 	  <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>, reboot the FreeBSD
 	  box.  Alternately, load the modules by hand using
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>kldload</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">For users who do not want to use modules, it is
 	    possible to compile these drivers into the kernel by
 	    adding the following lines to a custom kernel
 	    configuration file:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">device wlan              # 802.11 support
 device wlan_wep          # 802.11 WEP support
 device wlan_ccmp         # 802.11 CCMP support
 device wlan_tkip         # 802.11 TKIP support
 device wlan_amrr         # AMRR transmit rate control algorithm
 device ath               # Atheros pci/cardbus NIC's
 device ath_hal           # pci/cardbus chip support
 options AH_SUPPORT_AR5416 # enable AR5416 tx/rx descriptors
 device ath_rate_sample   # SampleRate tx rate control for ath</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">With this information in the kernel configuration
 	    file, recompile the kernel and reboot the FreeBSD
 	    machine.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Information about the wireless device should appear
 	  in the boot messages, like this:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">ath0: &lt;Atheros 5212&gt; mem 0x88000000-0x8800ffff irq 11 at device 0.0 on cardbus1
 ath0: [ITHREAD]
 ath0: AR2413 mac 7.9 RF2413 phy 4.5</screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>主從式 (Infrastructure)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Infrastructure (<acronym>BSS</acronym>) mode is the
 	mode that is typically used.  In this mode, a number of
 	wireless access points are connected to a wired network.
 	Each wireless network has its own name, called the
 	<acronym>SSID</acronym>.  Wireless clients connect to the
 	wireless access points.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>FreeBSD 客戶端</title>
 
 	<sect4>
-	  <title xml:lang="en">How to Find Access Points</title>
+	  <title>如何尋找存取點</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">To scan for available networks, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	    This request may take a few moments to complete as it
 	    requires the system to switch to each available wireless
 	    frequency and probe for available access points.  Only
 	    the superuser can initiate a scan:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> up scan</userinput>
 SSID/MESH ID    BSSID              CHAN RATE   S:N     INT CAPS
 dlinkap         00:13:46:49:41:76   11   54M -90:96   100 EPS  WPA WME
 freebsdap       00:11:95:c3:0d:ac    1   54M -83:96   100 EPS  WPA</screen>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The interface must be <option>up</option> before
 	      it can scan.  Subsequent scan requests do not require
 	      the interface to be marked as up again.</para>
 	  </note>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The output of a scan request lists each
 	    <acronym>BSS</acronym>/<acronym>IBSS</acronym> network
 	    found.  Besides listing the name of the network, the
 	    <literal>SSID</literal>, the output also shows the
 	    <literal>BSSID</literal>, which is the
 	    <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the access point.  The
 	    <literal>CAPS</literal> field identifies the type of
 	    each network and the capabilities of the stations
 	    operating there:</para>
 
 	  <table frame="none" pgwide="0">
 	    <title>站台功能代號</title>
 
 	    <tgroup cols="2">
 	      <thead>
 		<row>
 		  <entry>功能代號</entry>
 		  <entry>意義</entry>
 		</row>
 	      </thead>
 
 	      <tbody>
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>E</literal></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">Extended Service Set
 		    (<acronym>ESS</acronym>).  Indicates that
 		    the station is part of an infrastructure network
 		    rather than an <acronym>IBSS</acronym>/ad-hoc
 		    network.</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>I</literal></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>IBSS</acronym>/ad-hoc network.
 		    Indicates that the station is part of an ad-hoc
 		    network rather than an <acronym>ESS</acronym>
 		    network.</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>P</literal></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">Privacy.  Encryption is required for all
 		    data frames exchanged within the
 		    <acronym>BSS</acronym> using cryptographic means
 		    such as <acronym>WEP</acronym>,
 		    <acronym>TKIP</acronym> or
 		    <acronym>AES</acronym>-<acronym>CCMP</acronym>.</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>S</literal></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">Short Preamble.  Indicates that the network
 		    is using short preambles, defined in 802.11b High
 		    Rate/DSSS PHY, and utilizes a 56 bit sync field
 		    rather than the 128 bit field used in long
 		    preamble mode.</entry>
 		</row>
 
 		<row>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>s</literal></entry>
 		  <entry xml:lang="en">Short slot time.  Indicates that the 802.11g
 		    network is using a short slot time because there
 		    are no legacy (802.11b) stations present.</entry>
 		</row>
 	      </tbody>
 	    </tgroup>
 	  </table>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">One can also display the current list of known
 	    networks with:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> list scan</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This information may be updated automatically by the
 	    adapter or manually with a <option>scan</option> request.
 	    Old data is automatically removed from the cache, so over
 	    time this list may shrink unless more scans are
 	    done.</para>
 	</sect4>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title>基礎設定</title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This section provides a simple example of how to make
 	    the wireless network adapter work in FreeBSD without
 	    encryption.  Once familiar with these concepts, it is
 	    strongly recommend to use <link linkend="network-wireless-wpa">WPA</link> to set up
 	    the wireless network.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">There are three basic steps to configure a wireless
 	    network: select an access point, authenticate the
 	    station, and configure an <acronym>IP</acronym> address.
 	    The following sections discuss each step.</para>
 
 	  <sect5>
-	    <title xml:lang="en">Selecting an Access Point</title>
+	    <title>選擇存取點</title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Most of the time, it is sufficient to let the system
 	      choose an access point using the builtin heuristics.
 	      This is the default behavior when an interface is
 	      marked as up or it is listed in
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If there are multiple access points, a specific
 	      one can be selected by its
 	      <acronym>SSID</acronym>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="ssid <replaceable>your_ssid_here</replaceable> DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">In an environment where there are multiple access
 	      points with the same <acronym>SSID</acronym>, which
 	      is often done to simplify roaming, it may be necessary
 	      to associate to one specific device.  In this case, the
 	      <acronym>BSSID</acronym> of the access point can be
 	      specified, with or without the
 	      <acronym>SSID</acronym>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="ssid <replaceable>your_ssid_here</replaceable> bssid <replaceable>xx:xx:xx:xx:xx:xx</replaceable> DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">There are other ways to constrain the choice of an
 	      access point, such as limiting the set of frequencies
 	      the system will scan on.  This may be useful for a
 	      multi-band wireless card as scanning all the possible
 	      channels can be time-consuming.  To limit operation to a
 	      specific band, use the <option>mode</option>
 	      parameter:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="mode <replaceable>11g</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>your_ssid_here</replaceable> DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This example will force the card to operate in
 	      802.11g, which is defined only for 2.4GHz frequencies
 	      so any 5GHz channels will not be considered.  This can
 	      also be achieved with the
 	      <option>channel</option> parameter, which locks
 	      operation to one specific frequency, and the
 	      <option>chanlist</option> parameter, to specify a list
 	      of channels for scanning.  More information about these
 	      parameters can be found in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	  </sect5>
 
 	  <sect5>
 	    <title>認證</title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Once an access point is selected, the station
 	      needs to authenticate before it can pass data.
 	      Authentication can happen in several ways.  The most
 	      common scheme, open authentication, allows any station
 	      to join the network and communicate.  This is the
 	      authentication to use for test purposes the first time
 	      a wireless network is setup.  Other schemes require
 	      cryptographic handshakes to be completed before data
 	      traffic can flow, either using pre-shared keys or
 	      secrets, or more complex schemes that involve backend
 	      services such as <acronym>RADIUS</acronym>.  Open
 	      authentication is the default setting.  The next most
 	      common setup is <acronym>WPA-PSK</acronym>, also
 	      known as <acronym>WPA</acronym> Personal, which is
 	      described in <xref linkend="network-wireless-wpa-wpa-psk"/>.</para>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">If using an <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">AirPort</trademark> Extreme base
 		station for an access point, shared-key authentication
 		together with a <acronym>WEP</acronym> key needs to
 		be configured.  This can be configured in
 		<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> or by using
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  For a single <trademark class="registered">AirPort</trademark> base
 		station, access can be configured with:</para>
 
 	      <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="authmode shared wepmode on weptxkey <replaceable>1</replaceable> wepkey <replaceable>01234567</replaceable> DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">In general, shared key authentication should be
 		avoided because it uses the <acronym>WEP</acronym> key
 		material in a highly-constrained manner, making it
 		even easier to crack the key.  If
 		<acronym>WEP</acronym> must be used for compatibility
 		with legacy devices, it is better to use
 		<acronym>WEP</acronym> with <literal>open</literal>
 		authentication.  More information regarding
 		<acronym>WEP</acronym> can be found in <xref linkend="network-wireless-wep"/>.</para>
 	    </note>
 	  </sect5>
 
 	  <sect5>
-	    <title xml:lang="en">Getting an <acronym>IP</acronym> Address with
-	      <acronym>DHCP</acronym></title>
+	    <title>使用 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 取得 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址</title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Once an access point is selected and the
 	      authentication parameters are set, an
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address must be obtained in
 	      order to communicate.  Most of the time, the
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address is obtained via
 	      <acronym>DHCP</acronym>.  To achieve that, edit
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and add
 	      <literal>DHCP</literal> to the configuration for the
 	      device:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The
 	      wireless interface is now ready to bring up:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif start</userinput></screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Once the interface is running, use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	      to see the status of the interface
 	      <filename>ath0</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
         ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
         inet 192.168.1.100 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.1.255
         media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/54Mbps mode 11g
         status: associated
         ssid dlinkap channel 11 (2462 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:13:46:49:41:76
         country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 bmiss 7
         scanvalid 60 bgscan bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7
         roam:rate 5 protmode CTS wme burst</screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>status: associated</literal> line means
 	      that it is connected to the wireless network.  The
 	      <literal>bssid 00:13:46:49:41:76</literal> is the
 	      <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the access point and
 	      <literal>authmode OPEN</literal> indicates that the
 	      communication is not encrypted.</para>
 	  </sect5>
 
 	  <sect5>
-	    <title xml:lang="en">Static <acronym>IP</acronym> Address</title>
+	    <title>靜態 <acronym>IP</acronym> 位址</title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If an <acronym>IP</acronym> address cannot be
 	      obtained from a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server, set a
 	      fixed <acronym>IP</acronym> address.  Replace the
 	      <literal>DHCP</literal> keyword shown above with the
 	      address information.  Be sure to retain any other
 	      parameters for selecting the access point:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.100</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>your_ssid_here</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 	  </sect5>
 	</sect4>
 
 	<sect4 xml:id="network-wireless-wpa">
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA</acronym></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Wi-Fi Protected Access (<acronym>WPA</acronym>) is a
 	    security protocol used together with 802.11 networks to
 	    address the lack of proper authentication and the weakness
 	    of <acronym>WEP</acronym>.  WPA leverages the 802.1X
 	    authentication protocol and uses one of several ciphers
 	    instead of <acronym>WEP</acronym> for data integrity.
 	    The only cipher required by <acronym>WPA</acronym> is the
 	    Temporary Key Integrity Protocol
 	    (<acronym>TKIP</acronym>).  <acronym>TKIP</acronym> is a
 	    cipher that extends the basic RC4 cipher used by
 	    <acronym>WEP</acronym> by adding integrity checking,
 	    tamper detection, and measures for responding to detected
 	    intrusions.  <acronym>TKIP</acronym> is designed to work
 	    on legacy hardware with only software modification.  It
 	    represents a compromise that improves security but is
 	    still not entirely immune to attack.
 	    <acronym>WPA</acronym> also specifies the
 	    <acronym>AES-CCMP</acronym> cipher as an alternative to
 	    <acronym>TKIP</acronym>, and that is preferred when
 	    possible.  For this specification, the term
 	    <acronym>WPA2</acronym> or <acronym>RSN</acronym> is
 	    commonly used.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA</acronym> defines authentication and
 	    encryption protocols.  Authentication is most commonly
 	    done using one of two techniques: by 802.1X and a backend
 	    authentication service such as <acronym>RADIUS</acronym>,
 	    or by a minimal handshake between the station and the
 	    access point using a pre-shared secret.  The former is
 	    commonly termed <acronym>WPA</acronym> Enterprise and the
 	    latter is known as <acronym>WPA</acronym> Personal.  Since
 	    most people will not set up a <acronym>RADIUS</acronym>
 	    backend server for their wireless network,
 	    <acronym>WPA-PSK</acronym> is by far the most commonly
 	    encountered configuration for
 	    <acronym>WPA</acronym>.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The control of the wireless connection and the key
 	    negotiation or authentication with a server is done using
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  This program requires a
 	    configuration file,
 	    <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename>, to run.
 	    More information regarding this file can be found in
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	  <sect5 xml:id="network-wireless-wpa-wpa-psk">
 	    <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA-PSK</acronym></title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA-PSK</acronym>, also known as
 	      <acronym>WPA</acronym> Personal, is based on a
 	      pre-shared key (<acronym>PSK</acronym>) which is
 	      generated from a given password and used as the master
 	      key in the wireless network.  This means every wireless
 	      user will share the same key.
 	      <acronym>WPA-PSK</acronym> is intended for small
 	      networks where the use of an authentication server is
 	      not possible or desired.</para>
 
 	    <warning>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Always use strong passwords that are sufficiently
 		long and made from a rich alphabet so that they will
 		not be easily guessed or attacked.</para>
 	    </warning>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The first step is the configuration of
 	      <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename> with
 	      the <acronym>SSID</acronym> and the pre-shared key of
 	      the network:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">network={
   ssid="freebsdap"
   psk="freebsdmall"
 }</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Then, in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>,
 	      indicate that the wireless device configuration will be
 	      done with <acronym>WPA</acronym> and the
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address will be obtained with
 	      <acronym>DHCP</acronym>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Then, bring up the interface:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif start</userinput>
 Starting wpa_supplicant.
 DHCPDISCOVER on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 5
 DHCPDISCOVER on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 6
 DHCPOFFER from 192.168.0.1
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67
 DHCPACK from 192.168.0.1
 bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
       ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
       inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
       media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/36Mbps mode 11g
       status: associated
       ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
       country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
       AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
       bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
       wme burst roaming MANUAL</screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Or, try to configure the interface manually using
 	      the information in
 	      <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>wpa_supplicant -i <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> -c /etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</userinput>
 Trying to associate with 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac (SSID='freebsdap' freq=2412 MHz)
 Associated with 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 WPA: Key negotiation completed with 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac [PTK=CCMP GTK=CCMP]
 CTRL-EVENT-CONNECTED - Connection to 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac completed (auth) [id=0 id_str=]</screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The next operation is to launch <citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	      to get the <acronym>IP</acronym> address from the
 	      <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dhclient <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67
 DHCPACK from 192.168.0.1
 bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
       ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
       inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
       media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/36Mbps mode 11g
       status: associated
       ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
       country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
       AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
       bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
       wme burst roaming MANUAL</screen>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">If <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> has an
 		<literal>ifconfig_wlan0="DHCP"</literal> entry,
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dhclient</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will be launched automatically after
 		<citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> associates with the access
 		point.</para>
 	    </note>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If <acronym>DHCP</acronym> is not possible or
 	      desired, set a static <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	      after <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> has authenticated the
 	      station:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.0.100</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
       ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
       inet 192.168.0.100 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
       media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/36Mbps mode 11g
       status: associated
       ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
       country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
       AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
       bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
       wme burst roaming MANUAL</screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">When <acronym>DHCP</acronym> is not used, the
 	      default gateway and the nameserver also have to be
 	      manually set:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>route add default <replaceable>your_default_router</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>echo "nameserver <replaceable>your_DNS_server</replaceable>" &gt;&gt; /etc/resolv.conf</userinput></screen>
 	  </sect5>
 
 	  <sect5 xml:id="network-wireless-wpa-eap-tls">
-	    <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA</acronym> with
-	      <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym></title>
+	    <title><acronym>WPA</acronym> 加上 <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym></title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The second way to use <acronym>WPA</acronym> is with
 	      an 802.1X backend authentication server.  In this case,
 	      <acronym>WPA</acronym> is called
 	      <acronym>WPA</acronym> Enterprise to differentiate it
 	      from the less secure <acronym>WPA</acronym> Personal.
 	      Authentication in <acronym>WPA</acronym> Enterprise is
 	      based on the Extensible Authentication Protocol
 	      (<acronym>EAP</acronym>).</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>EAP</acronym> does not come with an
 	      encryption method.  Instead, <acronym>EAP</acronym> is
 	      embedded inside an encrypted tunnel.  There are many
 	      <acronym>EAP</acronym> authentication methods, but
 	      <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym>, <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym>,
 	      and <acronym>EAP-PEAP</acronym> are the most
 	      common.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">EAP with Transport Layer Security
 	      (<acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym>) is a well-supported
 	      wireless authentication protocol since it was the
 	      first <acronym>EAP</acronym> method to be certified
 	      by the <link xlink:href="http://www.wi-fi.org/">Wi-Fi
 		Alliance</link>.  <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym> requires
 	      three certificates to run: the certificate of the
 	      Certificate Authority (<acronym>CA</acronym>) installed
 	      on all machines, the server certificate for the
 	      authentication server, and one client certificate for
 	      each wireless client.  In this <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 	      method, both the authentication server and wireless
 	      client authenticate each other by presenting their
 	      respective certificates, and then verify that these
 	      certificates were signed by the organization's
 	      <acronym>CA</acronym>.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">As previously, the configuration is done via
 	      <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">network={
   ssid="freebsdap" <co xml:id="co-tls-ssid"/>
   proto=RSN  <co xml:id="co-tls-proto"/>
   key_mgmt=WPA-EAP <co xml:id="co-tls-kmgmt"/>
   eap=TLS <co xml:id="co-tls-eap"/>
   identity="loader" <co xml:id="co-tls-id"/>
   ca_cert="/etc/certs/cacert.pem" <co xml:id="co-tls-cacert"/>
   client_cert="/etc/certs/clientcert.pem" <co xml:id="co-tls-clientcert"/>
   private_key="/etc/certs/clientkey.pem" <co xml:id="co-tls-pkey"/>
   private_key_passwd="freebsdmallclient" <co xml:id="co-tls-pwd"/>
 }</programlisting>
 
 	    <calloutlist>
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-ssid">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field indicates the network name
 		  (<acronym>SSID</acronym>).</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-proto">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This example uses the <acronym>RSN</acronym>
 		  <trademark class="registered">IEEE</trademark> 802.11i protocol, also known as
 		  <acronym>WPA2</acronym>.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-kmgmt">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>key_mgmt</literal> line refers to
 		  the key management protocol to use.  In this
 		  example, it is <acronym>WPA</acronym> using
 		  <acronym>EAP</acronym> authentication.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-eap">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field indicates the <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  method for the connection.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-id">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>identity</literal> field contains
 		  the identity string for
 		  <acronym>EAP</acronym>.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-cacert">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>ca_cert</literal> field indicates
 		  the pathname of the <acronym>CA</acronym>
 		  certificate file.  This file is needed to verify
 		  the server certificate.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-clientcert">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>client_cert</literal> line gives
 		  the pathname to the client certificate file.  This
 		  certificate is unique to each wireless client of the
 		  network.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-pkey">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>private_key</literal> field is the
 		  pathname to the client certificate private key
 		  file.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-tls-pwd">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>private_key_passwd</literal> field
 		  contains the passphrase for the private key.</para>
 	      </callout>
 	    </calloutlist>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Then, add the following lines to
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The next step is to bring up the interface:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif start</userinput>
 Starting wpa_supplicant.
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 7
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 15
 DHCPACK from 192.168.0.20
 bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
       ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
       inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
       media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet DS/11Mbps mode 11g
       status: associated
       ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
       country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
       AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
       bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
       wme burst roaming MANUAL</screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">It is also possible to bring up the interface
 	      manually using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> and
 	      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	  </sect5>
 
 	  <sect5 xml:id="network-wireless-wpa-eap-ttls">
-	    <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA</acronym> with
-	      <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym></title>
+	    <title><acronym>WPA</acronym> 加上 <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym></title>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">With <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym>, both the
 	      authentication server and the client need a certificate.
 	      With <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym>, a client certificate
 	      is optional.  This method is similar to a web server
 	      which creates a secure <acronym>SSL</acronym> tunnel
 	      even if visitors do not have client-side certificates.
 	      <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym> uses an encrypted
 	      <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel for safe transport of
 	      the authentication data.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The required configuration can be added to
 	      <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">network={
   ssid="freebsdap"
   proto=RSN
   key_mgmt=WPA-EAP
   eap=TTLS <co xml:id="co-ttls-eap"/>
   identity="test" <co xml:id="co-ttls-id"/>
   password="test" <co xml:id="co-ttls-passwd"/>
   ca_cert="/etc/certs/cacert.pem" <co xml:id="co-ttls-cacert"/>
   phase2="auth=MD5" <co xml:id="co-ttls-pha2"/>
 }</programlisting>
 
 	    <calloutlist>
 	      <callout arearefs="co-ttls-eap">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field specifies the <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  method for the connection.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-ttls-id">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>identity</literal> field contains
 		  the identity string for <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  authentication inside the encrypted
 		  <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-ttls-passwd">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>password</literal> field contains
 		  the passphrase for the <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  authentication.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-ttls-cacert">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>ca_cert</literal> field indicates
 		  the pathname of the <acronym>CA</acronym>
 		  certificate file.  This file is needed to verify
 		  the server certificate.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-ttls-pha2">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field specifies the authentication
 		  method used in the encrypted <acronym>TLS</acronym>
 		  tunnel.  In this example,
 		  <acronym>EAP</acronym> with MD5-Challenge is used.
 		  The <quote>inner authentication</quote> phase is
 		  often called <quote>phase2</quote>.</para>
 	      </callout>
 	    </calloutlist>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Next, add the following lines to
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The next step is to bring up the interface:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif start</userinput>
 Starting wpa_supplicant.
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 7
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 15
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 21
 DHCPACK from 192.168.0.20
 bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
       ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
       inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
       media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet DS/11Mbps mode 11g
       status: associated
       ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
       country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
       AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
       bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
       wme burst roaming MANUAL</screen>
 	  </sect5>
 
 	  <sect5 xml:id="network-wireless-wpa-eap-peap">
-	    <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA</acronym> with
-	      <acronym>EAP-PEAP</acronym></title>
+	    <title><acronym>WPA</acronym> 加上 <acronym>EAP-PEAP</acronym></title>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>PEAPv0/EAP-MSCHAPv2</acronym> is the most
 		common <acronym>PEAP</acronym> method.  In this
 		chapter, the term <acronym>PEAP</acronym> is used to
 		refer to that method.</para>
 	    </note>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Protected EAP (<acronym>PEAP</acronym>) is designed
 	      as an alternative to <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym> and
 	      is the most used <acronym>EAP</acronym> standard after
 	      <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym>.  In a network with mixed
 	      operating systems, <acronym>PEAP</acronym> should be
 	      the most supported standard after
 	      <acronym>EAP-TLS</acronym>.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>PEAP</acronym> is similar to
 	      <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym> as it uses a server-side
 	      certificate to authenticate clients by creating an
 	      encrypted <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel between the
 	      client and the authentication server, which protects
 	      the ensuing exchange of authentication information.
 	      <acronym>PEAP</acronym> authentication differs from
 	      <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym> as it broadcasts the
 	      username in the clear and only the password is sent
 	      in the encrypted <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel.
 	      <acronym>EAP-TTLS</acronym> will use the
 	      <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel for both the username
 	      and password.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Add the following lines to
 	      <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename> to
 	      configure the <acronym>EAP-PEAP</acronym> related
 	      settings:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">network={
   ssid="freebsdap"
   proto=RSN
   key_mgmt=WPA-EAP
   eap=PEAP <co xml:id="co-peap-eap"/>
   identity="test" <co xml:id="co-peap-id"/>
   password="test" <co xml:id="co-peap-passwd"/>
   ca_cert="/etc/certs/cacert.pem" <co xml:id="co-peap-cacert"/>
   phase1="peaplabel=0" <co xml:id="co-peap-pha1"/>
   phase2="auth=MSCHAPV2" <co xml:id="co-peap-pha2"/>
 }</programlisting>
 
 	    <calloutlist>
 	      <callout arearefs="co-peap-eap">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field specifies the <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  method for the connection.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-peap-id">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>identity</literal> field contains
 		  the identity string for <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  authentication inside the encrypted
 		  <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-peap-passwd">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>password</literal> field contains
 		  the passphrase for the <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		  authentication.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-peap-cacert">
 		<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>ca_cert</literal> field indicates
 		  the pathname of the <acronym>CA</acronym>
 		  certificate file.  This file is needed to verify
 		  the server certificate.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-peap-pha1">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field contains the parameters for the
 		  first phase of authentication, the
 		  <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel.  According to the
 		  authentication server used, specify a specific
 		  label for authentication.  Most of the time, the
 		  label will be <quote>client <acronym>EAP</acronym>
 		    encryption</quote> which is set by using
 		  <literal>peaplabel=0</literal>.  More information
 		  can be found in  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant.conf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	      </callout>
 
 	      <callout arearefs="co-peap-pha2">
 		<para xml:lang="en">This field specifies the authentication
 		  protocol used in the encrypted
 		  <acronym>TLS</acronym> tunnel.  In the
 		  case of <acronym>PEAP</acronym>, it is
 		  <literal>auth=MSCHAPV2</literal>.</para>
 	      </callout>
 	    </calloutlist>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Add the following to
 	      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="WPA DHCP"</programlisting>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Then, bring up the interface:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service netif start</userinput>
 Starting wpa_supplicant.
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 7
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 15
 DHCPREQUEST on wlan0 to 255.255.255.255 port 67 interval 21
 DHCPACK from 192.168.0.20
 bound to 192.168.0.254 -- renewal in 300 seconds.
 wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
       ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
       inet 192.168.0.254 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
       media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet DS/11Mbps mode 11g
       status: associated
       ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
       country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy ON deftxkey UNDEF
       AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 21.5 bmiss 7 scanvalid 450 bgscan
       bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7 roam:rate 5 protmode CTS
       wme burst roaming MANUAL</screen>
 	  </sect5>
 	</sect4>
 
 	<sect4 xml:id="network-wireless-wep">
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WEP</acronym></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Wired Equivalent Privacy (<acronym>WEP</acronym>) is
 	    part of the original 802.11 standard.  There is no
 	    authentication mechanism, only a weak form of access
 	    control which is easily cracked.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>WEP</acronym> can be set up using
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.1.100</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> \
 	    ssid <replaceable>my_net</replaceable> wepmode on weptxkey <replaceable>3</replaceable> wepkey <replaceable>3:0x3456789012</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>weptxkey</literal> specifies which
 		<acronym>WEP</acronym> key will be used in the
 		transmission.  This example uses the third key.
 		This must match the setting on the access point.
 		When unsure which key is used by the access point,
 		try <literal>1</literal> (the first key) for this
 		value.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>wepkey</literal> selects one of the
 		<acronym>WEP</acronym> keys.  It should be in the
 		format <replaceable>index:key</replaceable>.  Key
 		<literal>1</literal> is used by default; the index
 		only needs to be set when using a key other than the
 		first key.</para>
 
 	      <note>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Replace the <literal>0x3456789012</literal>
 		  with the key configured for use on the access
 		  point.</para>
 	      </note>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for further
 	    information.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> facility can be used to
 	    configure a wireless interface with
 	    <acronym>WEP</acronym>.  The example above can be set up
 	    by adding the following lines to
 	    <filename>/etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">network={
   ssid="my_net"
   key_mgmt=NONE
   wep_key3=3456789012
   wep_tx_keyidx=3
 }</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Then:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>wpa_supplicant -i <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> -c /etc/wpa_supplicant.conf</userinput>
 Trying to associate with 00:13:46:49:41:76 (SSID='dlinkap' freq=2437 MHz)
 Associated with 00:13:46:49:41:76</screen>
 	</sect4>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>對等式 (Ad-hoc)</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>IBSS</acronym> mode, also called ad-hoc mode, is
 	designed for point to point connections.  For example, to
 	establish an ad-hoc network between the machines
 	<systemitem>A</systemitem> and <systemitem>B</systemitem>,
 	choose two <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses and a
 	<acronym>SSID</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On <systemitem>A</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable> wlanmode adhoc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.0.1</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>freebsdap</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
   wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	  ether 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
 	  media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g &lt;adhoc&gt;
 	  status: running
 	  ssid freebsdap channel 2 (2417 Mhz 11g) bssid 02:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60
 	  protmode CTS wme burst</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>adhoc</literal> parameter indicates that the
 	interface is running in <acronym>IBSS</acronym> mode.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><systemitem>B</systemitem> should now be able to detect
 	<systemitem>A</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable> wlanmode adhoc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> up scan</userinput>
   SSID/MESH ID    BSSID              CHAN RATE   S:N     INT CAPS
   freebsdap       02:11:95:c3:0d:ac    2   54M -64:-96  100 IS   WME</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>I</literal> in the output confirms that
 	<systemitem>A</systemitem> is in ad-hoc mode.  Now, configure
 	<systemitem>B</systemitem> with a different
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.0.2</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>freebsdap</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
   wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	  ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
 	  inet 192.168.0.2 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
 	  media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g &lt;adhoc&gt;
 	  status: running
 	  ssid freebsdap channel 2 (2417 Mhz 11g) bssid 02:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60
 	  protmode CTS wme burst</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Both <systemitem>A</systemitem> and
 	<systemitem>B</systemitem> are now ready to exchange
 	information.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-wireless-ap">
       <title>FreeBSD 主機存取點</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD can act as an Access Point (<acronym>AP</acronym>)
 	which eliminates the need to buy a hardware
 	<acronym>AP</acronym> or run an ad-hoc network.  This can
 	be particularly useful when a FreeBSD machine is acting as a
 	gateway to another network such as the Internet.</para>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="network-wireless-ap-basic">
 	<title>基礎設定</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Before configuring a FreeBSD machine as an
 	  <acronym>AP</acronym>, the kernel must be configured with
 	  the appropriate networking support for the wireless card
 	  as well as the security protocols being used.  For more
 	  details, see <xref linkend="network-wireless-basic"/>.</para>
 
 	<note>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>NDIS</acronym> driver wrapper for
 	    <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> drivers does not currently support
 	    <acronym>AP</acronym> operation.  Only native FreeBSD
 	    wireless drivers support <acronym>AP</acronym>
 	    mode.</para>
 	</note>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once wireless networking support is loaded, check if
 	  the wireless device supports the host-based access point
 	  mode, also known as hostap mode:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> list caps</userinput>
 drivercaps=6f85edc1&lt;STA,FF,TURBOP,IBSS,HOSTAP,AHDEMO,TXPMGT,SHSLOT,SHPREAMBLE,MONITOR,MBSS,WPA1,WPA2,BURST,WME,WDS,BGSCAN,TXFRAG&gt;
 cryptocaps=1f&lt;WEP,TKIP,AES,AES_CCM,TKIPMIC&gt;</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This output displays the card's capabilities.  The
 	  <literal>HOSTAP</literal> word confirms that this wireless
 	  card can act as an <acronym>AP</acronym>.  Various supported
 	  ciphers are also listed: <acronym>WEP</acronym>,
 	  <acronym>TKIP</acronym>, and <acronym>AES</acronym>.  This
 	  information indicates which security protocols can be used
 	  on the <acronym>AP</acronym>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The wireless device can only be put into hostap mode
 	  during the creation of the network pseudo-device, so a
 	  previously created device must be destroyed first:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> destroy</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">then regenerated with the correct option before setting
 	  the other parameters:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable> wlanmode hostap</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.0.1</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>freebsdap</replaceable> mode 11g channel 1</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> again to see the status of the
 	  <filename>wlan0</filename> interface:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
   wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	  ether 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
 	  media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g &lt;hostap&gt;
 	  status: running
 	  ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60
 	  protmode CTS wme burst dtimperiod 1 -dfs</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <literal>hostap</literal> parameter indicates the
 	  interface is running in the host-based access point
 	  mode.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The interface configuration can be done automatically at
 	  boot time by adding the following lines to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">wlans_ath0="wlan0"
 create_args_wlan0="wlanmode hostap"
 ifconfig_wlan0="inet <replaceable>192.168.0.1</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>freebsdap</replaceable> mode 11g channel <replaceable>1</replaceable>"</programlisting>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>無認證或加密的 Host-based 存取點</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Although it is not recommended to run an
 	  <acronym>AP</acronym> without any authentication or
 	  encryption, this is a simple way to check if the
 	  <acronym>AP</acronym> is working.  This configuration is
 	  also important for debugging client issues.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once the <acronym>AP</acronym> is configured, initiate
 	  a scan from another wireless machine to find the
 	  <acronym>AP</acronym>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> up scan</userinput>
 SSID/MESH ID    BSSID              CHAN RATE   S:N     INT CAPS
 freebsdap       00:11:95:c3:0d:ac    1   54M -66:-96  100 ES   WME</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The client machine found the <acronym>AP</acronym> and
 	  can be associated with it:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.0.2</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>freebsdap</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
   wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	  ether 00:11:95:d5:43:62
 	  inet 192.168.0.2 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
 	  media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet OFDM/54Mbps mode 11g
 	  status: associated
 	  ssid freebsdap channel 1 (2412 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy OFF txpower 21.5 bmiss 7
 	  scanvalid 60 bgscan bgscanintvl 300 bgscanidle 250 roam:rssi 7
 	  roam:rate 5 protmode CTS wme burst</screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3 xml:id="network-wireless-ap-wpa">
 	<title><acronym>WPA2</acronym> Host-based 存取點</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This section focuses on setting up a FreeBSD
 	  access point using the <acronym>WPA2</acronym>
 	  security protocol.  More details regarding
 	  <acronym>WPA</acronym> and the configuration of
 	  <acronym>WPA</acronym>-based wireless clients can be found
 	  in <xref linkend="network-wireless-wpa"/>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is used to deal with client
 	  authentication and key management on the
 	  <acronym>WPA2</acronym>-enabled
 	  <acronym>AP</acronym>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The following configuration operations are performed
 	  on the FreeBSD machine acting as the <acronym>AP</acronym>.
 	  Once the <acronym>AP</acronym> is correctly working,
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> can be automatically started at boot
 	  with this line in
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">hostapd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Before trying to configure <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, first
 	  configure the basic settings introduced in <xref linkend="network-wireless-ap-basic"/>.</para>
 
 	<sect4>
 	  <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA2-PSK</acronym></title>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>WPA2-PSK</acronym> is intended for small
 	    networks where the use of a backend authentication server
 	    is not possible or desired.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The configuration is done in
 	    <filename>/etc/hostapd.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">interface=wlan0                  <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-iface"/>
 debug=1                          <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-dbug"/>
 ctrl_interface=/var/run/hostapd  <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-ciface"/>
 ctrl_interface_group=wheel       <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-cifacegrp"/>
 ssid=freebsdap                   <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-ssid"/>
 wpa=2                            <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-wpa"/>
 wpa_passphrase=freebsdmall       <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-pass"/>
 wpa_key_mgmt=WPA-PSK             <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-kmgmt"/>
 wpa_pairwise=CCMP                <co xml:id="co-ap-wpapsk-pwise"/></programlisting>
 
 	  <calloutlist>
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-iface">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Wireless interface used
 		for the access point.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-dbug">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Level of verbosity used during the
 		execution of <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  A value of
 		<literal>1</literal> represents the minimal
 		level.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-ciface">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Pathname of the directory used by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 		to store domain socket files for communication
 		with external programs such as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd_cli</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 		The default value is used in this example.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-cifacegrp">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The group allowed to access the control
 		interface files.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-ssid">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The wireless network name, or
 		<acronym>SSID</acronym>, that will appear in wireless
 		scans.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-wpa">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Enable
 		<acronym>WPA</acronym> and specify which
 		<acronym>WPA</acronym> authentication protocol will
 		be required.  A value of <literal>2</literal>
 		configures the <acronym>AP</acronym> for
 		<acronym>WPA2</acronym> and is recommended.
 		Set to <literal>1</literal> only if the obsolete
 		<acronym>WPA</acronym> is required.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-pass">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">ASCII passphrase for
 		<acronym>WPA</acronym> authentication.</para>
 
 	      <warning>
 		<para xml:lang="en">Always use strong passwords that are at least
 		  8 characters long and made from a rich alphabet so
 		  that they will not be easily guessed or
 		  attacked.</para>
 	      </warning>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-kmgmt">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">The
 		key management protocol to use.  This example
 		sets <acronym>WPA-PSK</acronym>.</para>
 	    </callout>
 
 	    <callout arearefs="co-ap-wpapsk-pwise">
 	      <para xml:lang="en">Encryption algorithms accepted by
 		the access point.  In this example, only
 		the
 		<acronym>CCMP</acronym> (<acronym>AES</acronym>)
 		cipher is accepted.  <acronym>CCMP</acronym>
 		is an alternative to <acronym>TKIP</acronym>
 		and is strongly preferred when possible.
 		<acronym>TKIP</acronym> should be allowed only when
 		there are stations incapable of using
 		<acronym>CCMP</acronym>.</para>
 	    </callout>
 	  </calloutlist>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The next step is to start <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hostapd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service hostapd forcestart</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
 wlan0: flags=8943&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,PROMISC,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	ether 04:f0:21:16:8e:10
 	inet6 fe80::6f0:21ff:fe16:8e10%wlan0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x9
 	nd6 options=21&lt;PERFORMNUD,AUTO_LINKLOCAL&gt;
 	media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11na &lt;hostap&gt;
 	status: running
 	ssid No5ignal channel 36 (5180 MHz 11a ht/40+) bssid 04:f0:21:16:8e:10
 	country US ecm authmode WPA2/802.11i privacy MIXED deftxkey 2
 	AES-CCM 2:128-bit AES-CCM 3:128-bit txpower 17 mcastrate 6 mgmtrate 6
 	scanvalid 60 ampdulimit 64k ampdudensity 8 shortgi wme burst
 	dtimperiod 1 -dfs
 	groups: wlan</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Once the <acronym>AP</acronym> is running, the
 	    clients can associate with it.  See <xref linkend="network-wireless-wpa"/> for more details.  It
 	    is possible to see the stations associated with the
 	    <acronym>AP</acronym> using <command>ifconfig
 	      <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> list
 	      sta</command>.</para>
 	</sect4>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title><acronym>WEP</acronym> Host-based 存取點</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">It is not recommended to use <acronym>WEP</acronym> for
 	  setting up an <acronym>AP</acronym> since there is no
 	  authentication mechanism and the encryption is easily
 	  cracked.  Some legacy wireless cards only support
 	  <acronym>WEP</acronym> and these cards will only support
 	  an <acronym>AP</acronym> without authentication or
 	  encryption.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The wireless device can now be put into hostap mode and
 	  configured with the correct <acronym>SSID</acronym> and
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable> wlanmode hostap</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> inet <replaceable>192.168.0.1</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable> \
 	ssid <replaceable>freebsdap</replaceable> wepmode on weptxkey <replaceable>3</replaceable> wepkey <replaceable>3:0x3456789012</replaceable> mode 11g</userinput></screen>
 
 	<itemizedlist>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>weptxkey</literal> indicates which
 	      <acronym>WEP</acronym> key will be used in the
 	      transmission.  This example uses the third key as key
 	      numbering starts with <literal>1</literal>.  This
 	      parameter must be specified in order to encrypt the
 	      data.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>wepkey</literal> sets the selected
 	      <acronym>WEP</acronym> key.  It should be in the format
 	      <replaceable>index:key</replaceable>.  If the index is
 	      not given, key <literal>1</literal> is set.  The index
 	      needs to be set when using keys other than the first
 	      key.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</itemizedlist>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to see the status of the
 	  <filename>wlan0</filename> interface:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput>
   wlan0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	  ether 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
 	  media: IEEE 802.11 Wireless Ethernet autoselect mode 11g &lt;hostap&gt;
 	  status: running
 	  ssid freebsdap channel 4 (2427 Mhz 11g) bssid 00:11:95:c3:0d:ac
 	  country US ecm authmode OPEN privacy ON deftxkey 3 wepkey 3:40-bit
 	  txpower 21.5 scanvalid 60 protmode CTS wme burst dtimperiod 1 -dfs</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">From another wireless machine, it is now possible to
 	  initiate a scan to find the <acronym>AP</acronym>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>ath0</replaceable></userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> up scan</userinput>
 SSID            BSSID              CHAN RATE  S:N   INT CAPS
 freebsdap       00:11:95:c3:0d:ac    1   54M 22:1   100 EPS</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the client machine found the
 	  <acronym>AP</acronym> and can associate with it using the
 	  correct parameters.  See <xref linkend="network-wireless-wep"/> for more details.</para>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>同時使用有線及無線連線</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A wired connection provides better performance and
 	reliability, while a wireless connection provides flexibility
 	and mobility.  Laptop users typically want to roam seamlessly
 	between the two types of connections.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On FreeBSD, it is possible to combine two or even more
 	network interfaces together in a <quote>failover</quote>
 	fashion.  This type of configuration uses the most preferred
 	and available connection from a group of network interfaces,
 	and the operating system switches automatically when the link
 	state changes.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Link aggregation and failover is covered in <xref linkend="network-aggregation"/> and an example for using
 	both wired and wireless connections is provided at <xref linkend="networking-lagg-wired-and-wireless"/>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes
 	a number of steps to help troubleshoot common wireless
 	networking problems.</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the access point is not listed when scanning,
 	    check that the configuration has not limited the wireless
 	    device to a limited set of channels.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If the device cannot associate with an access point,
 	    verify that the configuration matches the settings on the
 	    access point.  This includes the authentication scheme and
 	    any security protocols.  Simplify the configuration as
 	    much as possible.  If using a security protocol such as
 	    <acronym>WPA</acronym> or <acronym>WEP</acronym>,
 	    configure the access point for open authentication and
 	    no security to see if traffic will pass.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Debugging support is provided by
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wpa_supplicant</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Try running this utility manually
 	    with <option>-dd</option> and look at the
 	    system logs.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Once the system can associate with the access point,
 	    diagnose the network configuration using tools like
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">There are many lower-level debugging tools.
 	    Debugging messages can be enabled in the 802.11 protocol
 	    support layer using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>wlandebug</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	    For example, to enable console messages related to
 	    scanning for access points and the 802.11 protocol
 	    handshakes required to arrange communication:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>wlandebug -i <replaceable>ath0</replaceable> +scan+auth+debug+assoc</userinput>
   net.wlan.0.debug: 0 =&gt; 0xc80000&lt;assoc,auth,scan&gt;</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Many useful statistics are maintained by the 802.11
 	    layer and <command>wlanstats</command>, found in <filename>/usr/src/tools/tools/net80211</filename>,
 	    will dump this information.  These statistics should
 	    display all errors identified by the 802.11 layer.
 	    However, some errors are identified in the device drivers
 	    that lie below the 802.11 layer so they may not show up.
 	    To diagnose device-specific problems, refer to the
 	    drivers' documentation.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the above information does not help to clarify the
 	problem, submit a problem report and include output from the
 	above tools.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-usb-tethering">
     <info>
       <title>USB 網路共享</title>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>tether</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Many cellphones provide the option to share their data
       connection over USB (often called "tethering").  This feature
       uses either the <acronym>RNDIS</acronym>, <acronym>CDC</acronym>
       or a custom <trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> <trademark class="registered">iPhone</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">iPad</trademark>
       protocol.</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><trademark>Android</trademark> devices generally use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>urndis</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  driver.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">Apple</trademark> devices use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipheth</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Older devices will often use the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>cdce</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  driver.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before attaching a device, load the appropriate driver
       into the kernel:</para>
 
     <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload if_urndis
 <prompt>#</prompt> kldload if_cdce
 <prompt>#</prompt> kldload if_ipheth</userinput></screen>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Once the device is attached
       <literal>ue</literal><replaceable>0</replaceable> will be
       available for use like a normal network device.  Be sure that
       the <quote>USB tethering</quote> option is enabled on the
       device.</para>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-bluetooth">
     <info>
       <title>藍牙</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Pav</firstname>
 	    <surname>Lucistnik</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	  <email>pav@FreeBSD.org</email>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm><primary>藍牙</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Bluetooth is a wireless technology for creating personal
       networks operating in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed band, with a
       range of 10 meters.  Networks are usually formed ad-hoc from
       portable devices such as cellular phones, handhelds, and
       laptops.  Unlike Wi-Fi wireless technology, Bluetooth offers
       higher level service profiles, such as
       <acronym>FTP</acronym>-like file servers, file pushing, voice
       transport, serial line emulation, and more.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes the use of a <acronym>USB</acronym>
       Bluetooth dongle on a FreeBSD system.  It then describes the
       various Bluetooth protocols and utilities.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>載入藍牙支援</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Bluetooth stack in FreeBSD is implemented using the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>netgraph</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> framework.  A broad variety of Bluetooth
 	<acronym>USB</acronym> dongles is supported by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_ubt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
 	Broadcom BCM2033 based Bluetooth devices are supported by the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ubtbcmfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_ubt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> drivers.  The 3Com
 	Bluetooth PC Card 3CRWB60-A is supported by the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_bt3c</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver.  Serial and UART based Bluetooth
 	devices are supported by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sio</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_h4</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>hcseriald</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Before attaching a device, determine which of the above
 	drivers it uses, then load the driver.  For example, if the
 	device uses the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_ubt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> driver:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload ng_ubt</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the Bluetooth device will be attached to the system
 	during system startup, the system can be configured to load
 	the module at boot time by adding the driver to
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ng_ubt_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the driver is loaded, plug in the
 	<acronym>USB</acronym> dongle.  If the driver load was
 	successful, output similar to the following should appear on
 	the console and in
 	<filename>/var/log/messages</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">ubt0: vendor 0x0a12 product 0x0001, rev 1.10/5.25, addr 2
 ubt0: Interface 0 endpoints: interrupt=0x81, bulk-in=0x82, bulk-out=0x2
 ubt0: Interface 1 (alt.config 5) endpoints: isoc-in=0x83, isoc-out=0x3,
       wMaxPacketSize=49, nframes=6, buffer size=294</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To start and stop the Bluetooth stack, use its startup
 	script.  It is a good idea to stop the stack before unplugging
 	the device.  When starting the stack, the output should be
 	similar to the following:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service bluetooth start ubt0</userinput>
 BD_ADDR: 00:02:72:00:d4:1a
 Features: 0xff 0xff 0xf 00 00 00 00 00
 &lt;3-Slot&gt; &lt;5-Slot&gt; &lt;Encryption&gt; &lt;Slot offset&gt;
 &lt;Timing accuracy&gt; &lt;Switch&gt; &lt;Hold mode&gt; &lt;Sniff mode&gt;
 &lt;Park mode&gt; &lt;RSSI&gt; &lt;Channel quality&gt; &lt;SCO link&gt;
 &lt;HV2 packets&gt; &lt;HV3 packets&gt; &lt;u-law log&gt; &lt;A-law log&gt; &lt;CVSD&gt;
 &lt;Paging scheme&gt; &lt;Power control&gt; &lt;Transparent SCO data&gt;
 Max. ACL packet size: 192 bytes
 Number of ACL packets: 8
 Max. SCO packet size: 64 bytes
 Number of SCO packets: 8</screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>尋找其他藍牙裝置</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>HCI</primary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Host Controller Interface (<acronym>HCI</acronym>)
 	provides a uniform method for accessing Bluetooth baseband
 	capabilities.  In FreeBSD, a netgraph <acronym>HCI</acronym> node
 	is created for each Bluetooth device.  For more details, refer
 	to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_hci</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">One of the most common tasks is discovery of Bluetooth
 	devices within <acronym>RF</acronym> proximity.  This
 	operation is called <emphasis>inquiry</emphasis>.  Inquiry and
 	other <acronym>HCI</acronym> related operations are done using
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>hccontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  The example below shows how to find out
 	which Bluetooth devices are in range.  The list of devices
 	should be displayed in a few seconds.  Note that a remote
 	device will only answer the inquiry if it is set to
 	<emphasis>discoverable</emphasis> mode.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>hccontrol -n ubt0hci inquiry</userinput>
 Inquiry result, num_responses=1
 Inquiry result #0
        BD_ADDR: 00:80:37:29:19:a4
        Page Scan Rep. Mode: 0x1
        Page Scan Period Mode: 00
        Page Scan Mode: 00
        Class: 52:02:04
        Clock offset: 0x78ef
 Inquiry complete. Status: No error [00]</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>BD_ADDR</literal> is the unique address of a
 	Bluetooth device, similar to the <acronym>MAC</acronym>
 	address of a network card.  This address is needed for further
 	communication with a device and it is possible to assign a
 	human readable name to a BD_ADDR.  Information regarding the
 	known Bluetooth hosts is contained in
 	<filename>/etc/bluetooth/hosts</filename>.  The following
 	example shows how to obtain the human readable name that was
 	assigned to the remote device:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>hccontrol -n ubt0hci remote_name_request 00:80:37:29:19:a4</userinput>
 BD_ADDR: 00:80:37:29:19:a4
 Name: Pav's T39</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If an inquiry is performed on a remote Bluetooth device,
 	it will find the computer as
 	<quote>your.host.name (ubt0)</quote>.  The name assigned to
 	the local device can be changed at any time.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Bluetooth system provides a point-to-point connection
 	between two Bluetooth units, or a point-to-multipoint
 	connection which is shared among several Bluetooth devices.
 	The following example shows how to obtain the list of active
 	baseband connections for the local device:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>hccontrol -n ubt0hci read_connection_list</userinput>
 Remote BD_ADDR    Handle Type Mode Role Encrypt Pending Queue State
 00:80:37:29:19:a4     41  ACL    0 MAST    NONE       0     0 OPEN</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A <emphasis>connection handle</emphasis> is useful when
 	termination of the baseband connection is required, though
 	it is normally not required to do this by hand.  The stack
 	will automatically terminate inactive baseband
 	connections.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hccontrol -n ubt0hci disconnect 41</userinput>
 Connection handle: 41
 Reason: Connection terminated by local host [0x16]</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Type <command>hccontrol help</command> for a complete
 	listing of available <acronym>HCI</acronym> commands.  Most
 	of the <acronym>HCI</acronym> commands do not require
 	superuser privileges.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>裝置配對</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, Bluetooth communication is not authenticated,
 	and any device can talk to any other device.  A Bluetooth
 	device, such as a cellular phone, may choose to require
 	authentication to provide a particular service.  Bluetooth
 	authentication is normally done with a
 	<emphasis><acronym>PIN</acronym> code</emphasis>, an ASCII
 	string up to 16 characters in length.  The user is required
 	to enter the same <acronym>PIN</acronym> code on both devices.
 	Once the user has entered the <acronym>PIN</acronym> code,
 	both devices will generate a <emphasis>link key</emphasis>.
 	After that, the link key can be stored either in the devices
 	or in a persistent storage.  Next time, both devices will
 	use the previously generated link key.  This procedure is
 	called <emphasis>pairing</emphasis>.  Note that if the link
 	key is lost by either device, the pairing must be
 	repeated.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hcsecd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon is responsible for handling
 	Bluetooth authentication requests.  The default configuration
 	file is <filename>/etc/bluetooth/hcsecd.conf</filename>.  An
 	example section for a cellular phone with the
 	<acronym>PIN</acronym> code set to <literal>1234</literal> is
 	shown below:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device {
         bdaddr  00:80:37:29:19:a4;
         name    "Pav's T39";
         key     nokey;
         pin     "1234";
       }</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The only limitation on <acronym>PIN</acronym> codes is
 	length.  Some devices, such as Bluetooth headsets, may have
 	a fixed <acronym>PIN</acronym> code built in.  The
 	<option>-d</option> switch forces <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hcsecd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to stay in
 	the foreground, so it is easy to see what is happening.  Set
 	the remote device to receive pairing and initiate the
 	Bluetooth connection to the remote device.  The remote device
 	should indicate that pairing was accepted and request the
 	<acronym>PIN</acronym> code.  Enter the same
 	<acronym>PIN</acronym> code listed in
 	<filename>hcsecd.conf</filename>.  Now the computer and the
 	remote device are paired.  Alternatively, pairing can be
 	initiated on the remote device.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following line can be added to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to configure <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hcsecd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	to start automatically on system start:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hcsecd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following is a sample of the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>hcsecd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon
 	output:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hcsecd[16484]: Got Link_Key_Request event from 'ubt0hci', remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
 hcsecd[16484]: Found matching entry, remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4, name 'Pav's T39', link key doesn't exist
 hcsecd[16484]: Sending Link_Key_Negative_Reply to 'ubt0hci' for remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
 hcsecd[16484]: Got PIN_Code_Request event from 'ubt0hci', remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4
 hcsecd[16484]: Found matching entry, remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4, name 'Pav's T39', PIN code exists
 hcsecd[16484]: Sending PIN_Code_Reply to 'ubt0hci' for remote bdaddr 0:80:37:29:19:a4</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>使用 <acronym>PPP</acronym> Profile 存取網路 </title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A Dial-Up Networking (<acronym>DUN</acronym>) profile can
 	be used to configure a cellular phone as a wireless modem for
 	connecting to a dial-up Internet access server.  It can also
 	be used to configure a computer to receive data calls from a
 	cellular phone.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Network access with a <acronym>PPP</acronym> profile can
 	be used to provide <acronym>LAN</acronym> access for a single
 	Bluetooth device or multiple Bluetooth devices.  It can also
 	provide <acronym>PC</acronym> to <acronym>PC</acronym>
 	connection using <acronym>PPP</acronym> networking over serial
 	cable emulation.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, these profiles are implemented with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ppp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	and the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_pppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> wrapper which converts a
 	Bluetooth connection into something
 	<acronym>PPP</acronym> can use.  Before a profile can be used,
 	a new <acronym>PPP</acronym> label must be created in
 	<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.  Consult
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_pppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for examples.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_pppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> is used to open a
 	connection to a remote device with a
 	<literal>BD_ADDR</literal> of
 	<literal>00:80:37:29:19:a4</literal> on a
 	<acronym>DUN</acronym> <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym>
 	channel:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rfcomm_pppd -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4 -c -C dun -l rfcomm-dialup</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The actual channel number will be obtained from the remote
 	device using the <acronym>SDP</acronym> protocol.  It is
 	possible to specify the <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel by
 	hand, and in this case <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_pppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> will not perform
 	the <acronym>SDP</acronym> query.  Use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
 	find out the <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel on the remote
 	device.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to provide network access with the
 	<acronym>PPP</acronym> <acronym>LAN</acronym> service,
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> must be running and a new entry for
 	<acronym>LAN</acronym> clients must be created in
 	<filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename>.  Consult
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_pppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for examples.  Finally, start the
 	<acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> <acronym>PPP</acronym> server on a
 	valid <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel number.  The
 	<acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> <acronym>PPP</acronym> server will
 	automatically register the Bluetooth <acronym>LAN</acronym>
 	service with the local <acronym>SDP</acronym> daemon.  The
 	example below shows how to start the <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym>
 	<acronym>PPP</acronym> server.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rfcomm_pppd -s -C 7 -l rfcomm-server</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>藍牙通訊協定</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section provides an overview of the various Bluetooth
 	protocols, their function, and associated utilities.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol
 	  (<acronym>L2CAP</acronym>)</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>L2CAP</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol
 	  (<acronym>L2CAP</acronym>) provides connection-oriented and
 	  connectionless data services to upper layer protocols.
 	  <acronym>L2CAP</acronym> permits higher level protocols and
 	  applications to transmit and receive
 	  <acronym>L2CAP</acronym> data packets up to 64 kilobytes in
 	  length.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>L2CAP</acronym> is based around the concept of
 	  <emphasis>channels</emphasis>.  A channel is a logical
 	  connection on top of a baseband connection, where each
 	  channel is bound to a single protocol in a many-to-one
 	  fashion.  Multiple channels can be bound to the same
 	  protocol, but a channel cannot be bound to multiple
 	  protocols.  Each <acronym>L2CAP</acronym> packet received on
 	  a channel is directed to the appropriate higher level
 	  protocol.  Multiple channels can share the same baseband
 	  connection.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, a netgraph <acronym>L2CAP</acronym> node is
 	  created for each Bluetooth device.  This node is normally
 	  connected to the downstream Bluetooth <acronym>HCI</acronym>
 	  node and upstream Bluetooth socket nodes.  The default name
 	  for the <acronym>L2CAP</acronym> node is
 	  <quote>devicel2cap</quote>.  For more details refer to
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_l2cap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">A useful command is <citerefentry><refentrytitle>l2ping</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which can be used to
 	  ping other devices.  Some Bluetooth implementations might
 	  not return all of the data sent to them, so <literal>0
 	    bytes</literal> in the following example is normal.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>l2ping -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4</userinput>
 0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=0 time=48.633 ms result=0
 0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=1 time=37.551 ms result=0
 0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=2 time=28.324 ms result=0
 0 bytes from 0:80:37:29:19:a4 seq_no=3 time=46.150 ms result=0</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <citerefentry><refentrytitle>l2control</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> utility is used to perform various
 	  operations on <acronym>L2CAP</acronym> nodes.  This example
 	  shows how to obtain the list of logical connections
 	  (channels) and the list of baseband connections for the
 	  local device:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>l2control -a 00:02:72:00:d4:1a read_channel_list</userinput>
 L2CAP channels:
 Remote BD_ADDR     SCID/ DCID   PSM  IMTU/ OMTU State
 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca    66/   64     3   132/  672 OPEN
 <prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>l2control -a 00:02:72:00:d4:1a read_connection_list</userinput>
 L2CAP connections:
 Remote BD_ADDR    Handle Flags Pending State
 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca     41 O           0 OPEN</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Another diagnostic tool is <citerefentry><refentrytitle>btsockstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  It is
 	  similar to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>netstat</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>, but for Bluetooth
 	  network-related data structures.  The example below shows
 	  the same logical connection as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>l2control</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  above.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>btsockstat</userinput>
 Active L2CAP sockets
 PCB      Recv-Q Send-Q Local address/PSM       Foreign address   CID   State
 c2afe900      0      0 00:02:72:00:d4:1a/3     00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 66    OPEN
 Active RFCOMM sessions
 L2PCB    PCB      Flag MTU   Out-Q DLCs State
 c2afe900 c2b53380 1    127   0     Yes  OPEN
 Active RFCOMM sockets
 PCB      Recv-Q Send-Q Local address     Foreign address   Chan DLCI State
 c2e8bc80      0    250 00:02:72:00:d4:1a 00:07:e0:00:0b:ca 3    6    OPEN</screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Radio Frequency Communication
 	  (<acronym>RFCOMM</acronym>)</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> protocol provides
 	  emulation of serial ports over the <acronym>L2CAP</acronym>
 	  protocol.  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> is a simple transport
 	  protocol, with additional provisions for emulating the 9
 	  circuits of RS-232 (EIATIA-232-E) serial ports.  It
 	  supports up to 60 simultaneous connections
 	  (<acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channels) between two Bluetooth
 	  devices.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For the purposes of <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym>, a
 	  complete communication path involves two applications
 	  running on the communication endpoints with a communication
 	  segment between them.  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> is intended
 	  to cover applications that make use of the serial ports of
 	  the devices in which they reside.  The communication segment
 	  is a direct connect Bluetooth link from one device to
 	  another.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> is only concerned with the
 	  connection between the devices in the direct connect case,
 	  or between the device and a modem in the network case.
 	  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> can support other configurations,
 	  such as modules that communicate via Bluetooth wireless
 	  technology on one side and provide a wired interface on the
 	  other side.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> is implemented at the
 	  Bluetooth sockets layer.</para>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Service Discovery Protocol
 	  (<acronym>SDP</acronym>)</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>SDP</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The Service Discovery Protocol (<acronym>SDP</acronym>)
 	  provides the means for client applications to discover the
 	  existence of services provided by server applications as
 	  well as the attributes of those services.  The attributes of
 	  a service include the type or class of service offered and
 	  the mechanism or protocol information needed to utilize the
 	  service.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>SDP</acronym> involves communication between a
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> server and a <acronym>SDP</acronym>
 	  client.  The server maintains a list of service records that
 	  describe the characteristics of services associated with the
 	  server.  Each service record contains information about a
 	  single service.  A client may retrieve information from a
 	  service record maintained by the <acronym>SDP</acronym>
 	  server by issuing a <acronym>SDP</acronym> request.  If the
 	  client, or an application associated with the client,
 	  decides to use a service, it must open a separate connection
 	  to the service provider in order to utilize the service.
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> provides a mechanism for discovering
 	  services and their attributes, but it does not provide a
 	  mechanism for utilizing those services.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Normally, a <acronym>SDP</acronym> client searches for
 	  services based on some desired characteristics of the
 	  services.  However, there are times when it is desirable to
 	  discover which types of services are described by an
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> server's service records without any
 	  prior information about the services.  This process of
 	  looking for any offered services is called
 	  <emphasis>browsing</emphasis>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The Bluetooth <acronym>SDP</acronym> server,
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, and command line client, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpcontrol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	  are included in the standard FreeBSD installation.  The
 	  following example shows how to perform a
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> browse query.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sdpcontrol -a 00:01:03:fc:6e:ec browse</userinput>
 Record Handle: 00000000
 Service Class ID List:
         Service Discovery Server (0x1000)
 Protocol Descriptor List:
         L2CAP (0x0100)
                 Protocol specific parameter #1: u/int/uuid16 1
                 Protocol specific parameter #2: u/int/uuid16 1
 
 Record Handle: 0x00000001
 Service Class ID List:
         Browse Group Descriptor (0x1001)
 
 Record Handle: 0x00000002
 Service Class ID List:
         LAN Access Using PPP (0x1102)
 Protocol Descriptor List:
         L2CAP (0x0100)
         RFCOMM (0x0003)
                 Protocol specific parameter #1: u/int8/bool 1
 Bluetooth Profile Descriptor List:
         LAN Access Using PPP (0x1102) ver. 1.0</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Note that each service has a list of attributes, such
 	  as the <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel.  Depending on the
 	  service, the user might need to make note of some of the
 	  attributes.  Some Bluetooth implementations do not support
 	  service browsing and may return an empty list.  In this
 	  case, it is possible to search for the specific service.
 	  The example below shows how to search for the
 	  <acronym>OBEX</acronym> Object Push
 	  (<acronym>OPUSH</acronym>) service:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>sdpcontrol -a 00:01:03:fc:6e:ec search OPUSH</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Offering services on FreeBSD to Bluetooth clients is done
 	  with the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> server.  The following line can be
 	  added to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">sdpd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> daemon can be started with:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service sdpd start</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The local server application that wants to provide a
 	  Bluetooth service to remote clients will register the
 	  service with the local <acronym>SDP</acronym> daemon.  An
 	  example of such an application is <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_pppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  Once
 	  started, it will register the Bluetooth LAN service with the
 	  local <acronym>SDP</acronym> daemon.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The list of services registered with the local
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> server can be obtained by issuing a
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> browse query via the local control
 	  channel:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>sdpcontrol -l browse</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en"><acronym>OBEX</acronym> Object Push
 	  (<acronym>OPUSH</acronym>)</title>
 
 	<indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	  <primary>OBEX</primary>
 	</indexterm>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Object Exchange (<acronym>OBEX</acronym>) is a widely
 	  used protocol for simple file transfers between mobile
 	  devices.  Its main use is in infrared communication, where
 	  it is used for generic file transfers between notebooks or
 	  <acronym>PDA</acronym>s, and for sending business cards or
 	  calendar entries between cellular phones and other devices
 	  with Personal Information Manager (<acronym>PIM</acronym>)
 	  applications.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>OBEX</acronym> server and client are
 	  implemented by <application>obexapp</application>, which can
 	  be installed using the <package>comms/obexapp</package>
 	  package or port.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>OBEX</acronym> client is used to push
 	  and/or pull objects from the <acronym>OBEX</acronym> server.
 	  An example object is a business card or an appointment.
 	  The <acronym>OBEX</acronym> client can obtain the
 	  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel number from the remote
 	  device via <acronym>SDP</acronym>.  This can be done by
 	  specifying the service name instead of the
 	  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel number.  Supported service
 	  names are: <literal>IrMC</literal>, <literal>FTRN</literal>,
 	  and <literal>OPUSH</literal>.  It is also possible to
 	  specify the <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel as a number.
 	  Below is an example of an <acronym>OBEX</acronym> session
 	  where the device information object is pulled from the
 	  cellular phone, and a new object, the business card, is
 	  pushed into the phone's directory.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>obexapp -a 00:80:37:29:19:a4 -C IrMC</userinput>
 obex&gt; get telecom/devinfo.txt devinfo-t39.txt
 Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)
 obex&gt; put new.vcf
 Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)
 obex&gt; di
 Success, response: OK, Success (0x20)</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In order to provide the <acronym>OPUSH</acronym>
 	  service, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sdpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> must be running and a root folder,
 	  where all incoming objects will be stored, must be created.
 	  The default path to the root folder is
 	  <filename>/var/spool/obex</filename>.  Finally, start the
 	  <acronym>OBEX</acronym> server on a valid
 	  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel number.  The
 	  <acronym>OBEX</acronym> server will automatically register
 	  the <acronym>OPUSH</acronym> service with the local
 	  <acronym>SDP</acronym> daemon.  The example below shows how
 	  to start the <acronym>OBEX</acronym> server.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>obexapp -s -C 10</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title xml:lang="en">Serial Port Profile (<acronym>SPP</acronym>)</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The Serial Port Profile (<acronym>SPP</acronym>) allows
 	  Bluetooth devices to perform serial cable emulation.  This
 	  profile allows legacy applications to use Bluetooth as a
 	  cable replacement, through a virtual serial port
 	  abstraction.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_sppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> implements
 	  <acronym>SPP</acronym> and a pseudo tty is used as a virtual
 	  serial port abstraction.  The example below shows how to
 	  connect to a remote device's serial port service.  A
 	  <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel does not have to be
 	  specified as <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rfcomm_sppd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> can obtain it from the
 	  remote device via <acronym>SDP</acronym>.  To override this,
 	  specify a <acronym>RFCOMM</acronym> channel on the command
 	  line.</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>rfcomm_sppd -a 00:07:E0:00:0B:CA -t</userinput>
 rfcomm_sppd[94692]: Starting on /dev/pts/6...
 /dev/pts/6</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Once connected, the pseudo tty can be used as serial
 	  port:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cu -l /dev/pts/6</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The pseudo tty is printed on stdout and can be read by
 	  wrapper scripts:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">PTS=`rfcomm_sppd -a 00:07:E0:00:0B:CA -t`
 cu -l $PTS</programlisting>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>疑難排解</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">By default, when FreeBSD is accepting a new connection, it
 	tries to perform a role switch and become master.  Some older
 	Bluetooth devices which do not support role switching will not
 	be able to connect.  Since role switching is performed when a
 	new connection is being established, it is not possible to ask
 	the remote device if it supports role switching.  However,
 	there is a <acronym>HCI</acronym> option to disable role
 	switching on the local side:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>hccontrol -n ubt0hci write_node_role_switch 0</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To display Bluetooth packets, use the third-party package
 	<application>hcidump</application>, which can be installed
 	using the <package>comms/hcidump</package> package or port.
 	This utility is similar to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcpdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and can be used to
 	display the contents of Bluetooth packets on the terminal and
 	to dump the Bluetooth packets to a file.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-bridging">
     <info>
       <title>橋接</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Andrew</firstname>
 	    <surname>Thompson</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm><primary><acronym>IP</acronym> 子網段</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>橋接</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">It is sometimes useful to divide a network, such as an
       Ethernet segment, into network segments without having to
       create <acronym>IP</acronym> subnets and use a router to connect
       the segments together.  A device that connects two networks
       together in this fashion is called a
       <quote>bridge</quote>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">A bridge works by learning the <acronym>MAC</acronym>
       addresses of the devices on each of its network interfaces.  It
       forwards traffic between networks only when the source and
       destination <acronym>MAC</acronym> addresses are on different
       networks.  In many respects, a bridge is like an Ethernet switch
       with very few ports.    A FreeBSD system with multiple network
       interfaces can be configured to act as a bridge.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Bridging can be useful in the following situations:</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Connecting Networks</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The basic operation of a bridge is to join two or more
 	    network segments.  There are many reasons to use a
 	    host-based bridge instead of networking equipment, such as
 	    cabling constraints or firewalling.  A bridge can also
 	    connect a wireless interface running in hostap mode to a
 	    wired network and act as an access point.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Filtering/Traffic Shaping Firewall</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A bridge can be used when firewall functionality is
 	    needed without routing or Network Address Translation
 	    (<acronym>NAT</acronym>).</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">An example is a small company that is connected via
 	    <acronym>DSL</acronym> or <acronym>ISDN</acronym> to an
 	    <acronym>ISP</acronym>.  There are thirteen public
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses from the
 	    <acronym>ISP</acronym> and ten computers on the network.
 	    In this situation, using a router-based firewall is
 	    difficult because of subnetting issues.  A bridge-based
 	    firewall can be configured without any
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> addressing issues.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Network Tap</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A bridge can join two network segments in order to
 	    inspect all Ethernet frames that pass between them using
 	    <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bpf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tcpdump</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> on the bridge interface or
 	    by sending a copy of all frames out an additional
 	    interface known as a span port.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Layer 2 <acronym>VPN</acronym></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Two Ethernet networks can be joined across an
 	    <acronym>IP</acronym> link by bridging the networks to an
 	    EtherIP tunnel or a <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tap</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> based solution such as
 	    <application>OpenVPN</application>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Layer 2 Redundancy</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">A network can be connected together with multiple
 	    links and use the Spanning Tree Protocol
 	    (<acronym>STP</acronym>) to block redundant paths.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to configure a FreeBSD system as a
       bridge using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>if_bridge</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  A netgraph bridging driver is
       also available, and is described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ng_bridge</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en">Packet filtering can be used with any firewall package
 	that hooks into the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pfil</refentrytitle><manvolnum>9</manvolnum></citerefentry> framework.  The bridge can be
 	used as a traffic shaper with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>altq</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> or
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>dummynet</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </note>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟橋接</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In FreeBSD, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>if_bridge</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> is a kernel module which is
 	automatically loaded by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> when creating a
 	bridge interface.  It is also possible to compile bridge
 	support into a custom kernel by adding
 	<literal>device if_bridge</literal> to the custom kernel
 	configuration file.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The bridge is created using interface cloning.  To create
 	the bridge interface:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge create</userinput>
 bridge0
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0</userinput>
 bridge0: flags=8802&lt;BROADCAST,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         ether 96:3d:4b:f1:79:7a
         id 00:00:00:00:00:00 priority 32768 hellotime 2 fwddelay 15
         maxage 20 holdcnt 6 proto rstp maxaddr 100 timeout 1200
         root id 00:00:00:00:00:00 priority 0 ifcost 0 port 0</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When a bridge interface is created, it is automatically
 	assigned a randomly generated Ethernet address.  The
 	<literal>maxaddr</literal> and <literal>timeout</literal>
 	parameters control how many <acronym>MAC</acronym> addresses
 	the bridge will keep in its forwarding table and how many
 	seconds before each entry is removed after it is last seen.
 	The other parameters control how <acronym>STP</acronym>
 	operates.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, specify which network interfaces to add as members
 	of the bridge.  For the bridge to forward packets, all member
 	interfaces and the bridge need to be up:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 addm fxp0 addm fxp1 up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig fxp0 up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig fxp1 up</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The bridge can now forward Ethernet frames between
 	<filename>fxp0</filename> and <filename>fxp1</filename>.  Add
 	the following lines to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> so
 	the bridge is created at startup:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">cloned_interfaces="bridge0"
 ifconfig_bridge0="addm fxp0 addm fxp1 up"
 ifconfig_fxp0="up"
 ifconfig_fxp1="up"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the bridge host needs an <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address, set it on the bridge interface, not on the member
 	interfaces.  The address can be set statically or via
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym>.  This example sets a static
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 inet 192.168.0.1/24</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is also possible to assign an <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	address to a bridge interface.  To make the changes permanent,
 	add the addressing information to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">When packet filtering is enabled, bridged packets will
 	  pass through the filter inbound on the originating interface
 	  on the bridge interface, and outbound on the appropriate
 	  interfaces.  Either stage can be disabled.  When direction
 	  of the packet flow is important, it is best to firewall on
 	  the member interfaces rather than the bridge itself.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The bridge has several configurable settings for passing
 	  non-<acronym>IP</acronym> and <acronym>IP</acronym> packets,
 	  and layer2 firewalling with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ipfw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  See
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>if_bridge</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.</para>
       </note>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>開啟 Spanning Tree</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For an Ethernet network to function properly, only one
 	active path can exist between two devices.  The
 	<acronym>STP</acronym> protocol detects loops and puts
 	redundant links into a blocked state.  Should one of the
 	active links fail, <acronym>STP</acronym> calculates a
 	different tree and enables one of the blocked paths to restore
 	connectivity to all points in the network.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (<acronym>RSTP</acronym>
 	or 802.1w) provides backwards compatibility with legacy
 	<acronym>STP</acronym>.  <acronym>RSTP</acronym> provides
 	faster convergence and exchanges information with neighboring
 	switches to quickly transition to forwarding mode without
 	creating loops.  FreeBSD supports <acronym>RSTP</acronym> and
 	<acronym>STP</acronym> as operating modes, with
 	<acronym>RSTP</acronym> being the default mode.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>STP</acronym> can be enabled on member interfaces
 	using <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.  For a bridge with
 	<filename>fxp0</filename> and <filename>fxp1</filename> as the
 	current interfaces, enable <acronym>STP</acronym> with:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 stp fxp0 stp fxp1</userinput>
 bridge0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         ether d6:cf:d5:a0:94:6d
         id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768 hellotime 2 fwddelay 15
         maxage 20 holdcnt 6 proto rstp maxaddr 100 timeout 1200
         root id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768 ifcost 0 port 0
         member: fxp0 flags=1c7&lt;LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP&gt;
                 port 3 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
                 role designated state forwarding
         member: fxp1 flags=1c7&lt;LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP&gt;
                 port 4 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
                 role designated state forwarding</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This bridge has a spanning tree ID of
 	<literal>00:01:02:4b:d4:50</literal> and a priority of
 	<literal>32768</literal>.  As the <literal>root id</literal>
 	is the same, it indicates that this is the root bridge for the
 	tree.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Another bridge on the network also has
 	<acronym>STP</acronym> enabled:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en">bridge0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         ether 96:3d:4b:f1:79:7a
         id 00:13:d4:9a:06:7a priority 32768 hellotime 2 fwddelay 15
         maxage 20 holdcnt 6 proto rstp maxaddr 100 timeout 1200
         root id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768 ifcost 400000 port 4
         member: fxp0 flags=1c7&lt;LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP&gt;
                 port 4 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
                 role root state forwarding
         member: fxp1 flags=1c7&lt;LEARNING,DISCOVER,STP,AUTOEDGE,PTP,AUTOPTP&gt;
                 port 5 priority 128 path cost 200000 proto rstp
                 role designated state forwarding</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The line <literal>root id 00:01:02:4b:d4:50 priority 32768
 	  ifcost 400000 port 4</literal> shows that the root bridge is
 	<literal>00:01:02:4b:d4:50</literal> and has a path cost of
 	<literal>400000</literal> from this bridge.  The path to the
 	root bridge is via <literal>port 4</literal> which is
 	<filename>fxp0</filename>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>橋接介面參數</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Several <command>ifconfig</command> parameters are unique
 	to bridge interfaces.  This section summarizes some common
 	uses for these parameters.  The complete list of available
 	parameters is described in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">private</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A private interface does not forward any traffic to
 	      any other port that is also designated as a private
 	      interface.  The traffic is blocked unconditionally so no
 	      Ethernet frames will be forwarded, including
 	      <acronym>ARP</acronym> packets.  If traffic needs to be
 	      selectively blocked, a firewall should be used
 	      instead.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">span</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A span port transmits a copy of every Ethernet frame
 	      received by the bridge.  The number of span ports
 	      configured on a bridge is unlimited, but if an
 	      interface is designated as a span port, it cannot also
 	      be used as a regular bridge port.  This is most useful
 	      for snooping a bridged network passively on another host
 	      connected to one of the span ports of the bridge.  For
 	      example, to send a copy of all frames out the interface
 	      named <filename>fxp4</filename>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 span fxp4</userinput></screen>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">sticky</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">If a bridge member interface is marked as sticky,
 	      dynamically learned address entries are treated as
 	      static entries in the forwarding cache.  Sticky entries
 	      are never aged out of the cache or replaced, even if the
 	      address is seen on a different interface.  This gives
 	      the benefit of static address entries without the need
 	      to pre-populate the forwarding table.  Clients learned
 	      on a particular segment of the bridge can not roam to
 	      another segment.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">An example of using sticky addresses is to combine
 	      the bridge with <acronym>VLAN</acronym>s in order to
 	      isolate customer networks without wasting
 	      <acronym>IP</acronym> address space.  Consider that
 	      <systemitem class="fqdomainname">CustomerA</systemitem>
 	      is on <literal>vlan100</literal>, <systemitem class="fqdomainname">CustomerB</systemitem> is on
 	      <literal>vlan101</literal>, and the bridge has the
 	      address <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.0.1</systemitem>:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 addm vlan100 sticky vlan100 addm vlan101 sticky vlan101</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 inet 192.168.0.1/24</userinput></screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">In this example, both clients see <systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.0.1</systemitem> as their
 	      default gateway.  Since the bridge cache is sticky, one
 	      host can not spoof the <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of
 	      the other customer in order to intercept their
 	      traffic.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Any communication between the
 	      <acronym>VLAN</acronym>s can be blocked using a firewall
 	      or, as seen in this example, private interfaces:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 private vlan100 private vlan101</userinput></screen>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The customers are completely isolated from each
 	      other and the full <systemitem class="netmask">/24</systemitem> address range can be
 	      allocated without subnetting.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The number of unique source <acronym>MAC</acronym>
 	      addresses behind an interface can be limited.  Once the
 	      limit is reached, packets with unknown source addresses
 	      are dropped until an existing host cache entry expires
 	      or is removed.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The following example sets the maximum number of
 	      Ethernet devices for <systemitem class="fqdomainname">CustomerA</systemitem> on
 	      <literal>vlan100</literal> to 10:</para>
 
 	    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 ifmaxaddr vlan100 10</userinput></screen>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Bridge interfaces also support monitor mode, where the
 	packets are discarded after <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bpf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> processing and are not
 	processed or forwarded further.  This can be used to
 	multiplex the input of two or more interfaces into a single
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>bpf</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> stream.  This is useful for reconstructing the
 	traffic for network taps that transmit the RX/TX signals out
 	through two separate interfaces.  For example, to read the
 	input from four network interfaces as one stream:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig bridge0 addm fxp0 addm fxp1 addm fxp2 addm fxp3 monitor up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tcpdump -i bridge0</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>SNMP</acronym> 監視</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The bridge interface and <acronym>STP</acronym>
 	parameters can be monitored via <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsnmpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> which is
 	included in the FreeBSD base system.  The exported bridge
 	<acronym>MIB</acronym>s conform to <acronym>IETF</acronym>
 	standards so any <acronym>SNMP</acronym> client or monitoring
 	package can be used to retrieve the data.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable monitoring on the bridge, uncomment this line in
 	<filename>/etc/snmp.config</filename> by removing the
 	beginning <literal>#</literal> symbol:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">begemotSnmpdModulePath."bridge" = "/usr/lib/snmp_bridge.so"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Other configuration settings, such as community names and
 	access lists, may need to be modified in this file.  See
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsnmpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>snmp_bridge</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more information.
 	Once these edits are saved, add this line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">bsnmpd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, start  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>bsnmpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service bsnmpd start</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The following examples use the
 	<application>Net-SNMP</application> software
 	(<package>net-mgmt/net-snmp</package>) to query a bridge
 	from a client system.  The
 	<package>net-mgmt/bsnmptools</package> port can also be used.
 	From the <acronym>SNMP</acronym> client which is running
 	<application>Net-SNMP</application>, add the following lines
 	to <filename>$HOME/.snmp/snmp.conf</filename> in order to
 	import the bridge <acronym>MIB</acronym> definitions:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">mibdirs +/usr/share/snmp/mibs
 mibs +BRIDGE-MIB:RSTP-MIB:BEGEMOT-MIB:BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To monitor a single bridge using the IETF BRIDGE-MIB
 	(RFC4188):</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>snmpwalk -v 2c -c public bridge1.example.com mib-2.dot1dBridge</userinput>
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dBaseBridgeAddress.0 = STRING: 66:fb:9b:6e:5c:44
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dBaseNumPorts.0 = INTEGER: 1 ports
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpTimeSinceTopologyChange.0 = Timeticks: (189959) 0:31:39.59 centi-seconds
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpTopChanges.0 = Counter32: 2
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpDesignatedRoot.0 = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 01 02 4B D4 50
 ...
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortState.3 = INTEGER: forwarding(5)
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortEnable.3 = INTEGER: enabled(1)
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortPathCost.3 = INTEGER: 200000
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedRoot.3 = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 01 02 4B D4 50
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedCost.3 = INTEGER: 0
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedBridge.3 = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 01 02 4B D4 50
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortDesignatedPort.3 = Hex-STRING: 03 80
 BRIDGE-MIB::dot1dStpPortForwardTransitions.3 = Counter32: 1
 RSTP-MIB::dot1dStpVersion.0 = INTEGER: rstp(2)</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>dot1dStpTopChanges.0</literal> value is two,
 	indicating that the <acronym>STP</acronym> bridge topology has
 	changed twice.  A topology change means that one or more links
 	in the network have changed or failed and a new tree has been
 	calculated.  The
 	<literal>dot1dStpTimeSinceTopologyChange.0</literal> value
 	will show when this happened.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To monitor multiple bridge interfaces, the private
 	BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB can be used:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>snmpwalk -v 2c -c public bridge1.example.com</userinput>
 enterprises.fokus.begemot.begemotBridge
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseName."bridge0" = STRING: bridge0
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseName."bridge2" = STRING: bridge2
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseAddress."bridge0" = STRING: e:ce:3b:5a:9e:13
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseAddress."bridge2" = STRING: 12:5e:4d:74:d:fc
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseNumPorts."bridge0" = INTEGER: 1
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeBaseNumPorts."bridge2" = INTEGER: 1
 ...
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTimeSinceTopologyChange."bridge0" = Timeticks: (116927) 0:19:29.27 centi-seconds
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTimeSinceTopologyChange."bridge2" = Timeticks: (82773) 0:13:47.73 centi-seconds
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTopChanges."bridge0" = Counter32: 1
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpTopChanges."bridge2" = Counter32: 1
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpDesignatedRoot."bridge0" = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 40 95 30 5E 31
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeStpDesignatedRoot."bridge2" = Hex-STRING: 80 00 00 50 8B B8 C6 A9</screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To change the bridge interface being monitored via the
 	<literal>mib-2.dot1dBridge</literal> subtree:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>%</prompt> <userinput>snmpset -v 2c -c private bridge1.example.com</userinput>
 BEGEMOT-BRIDGE-MIB::begemotBridgeDefaultBridgeIf.0 s bridge2</screen>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-aggregation">
     <info>
       <title>Link Aggregation 與容錯移轉</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Andrew</firstname>
 	    <surname>Thompson</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>lagg</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>容錯移轉</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>FEC</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>LACP</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>loadbalance</primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>roundrobin</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD provides the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lagg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> interface which can be used
       to aggregate multiple network interfaces into one virtual
       interface in order to provide failover and link aggregation.
       Failover allows traffic to continue to flow as long as at least
       one aggregated network interface has an established link.  Link
       aggregation works best on switches which support
       <acronym>LACP</acronym>, as this protocol distributes traffic
       bi-directionally while responding to the failure of individual
       links.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The aggregation protocols supported by the lagg interface
       determine which ports are used for outgoing traffic and whether
       or not a specific port accepts incoming traffic.  The following
       protocols are supported by <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lagg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">failover</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This mode sends and receives traffic only through
 	    the master port.  If the master port becomes
 	    unavailable, the next active port is used.  The first
 	    interface added to the virtual interface is the master
 	    port and all subsequently added interfaces are used as
 	    failover devices.  If failover to a non-master port
 	    occurs, the original port becomes master once it
 	    becomes available again.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">fec / loadbalance</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> Fast <trademark class="registered">EtherChannel</trademark> (<acronym>FEC</acronym>)
 	    is found on older <trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> switches.  It provides a
 	    static setup and does not negotiate aggregation with the
 	    peer or exchange frames to monitor the link.  If the
 	    switch supports <acronym>LACP</acronym>, that should be
 	    used instead.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en"><acronym>lacp</acronym></term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <trademark class="registered">IEEE</trademark> 802.3ad Link Aggregation Control Protocol
 	    (<acronym>LACP</acronym>) negotiates a set of
 	    aggregable links with the peer into one or more Link
 	    Aggregated Groups (<acronym>LAG</acronym>s).  Each
 	    <acronym>LAG</acronym> is composed of ports of the same
 	    speed, set to full-duplex operation, and traffic is
 	    balanced across the ports in the
 	    <acronym>LAG</acronym> with the greatest total speed.
 	    Typically, there is only one <acronym>LAG</acronym>
 	    which contains all the ports.  In the event of changes
 	    in physical connectivity,
 	    <acronym>LACP</acronym> will quickly converge to a new
 	    configuration.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>LACP</acronym> balances outgoing traffic
 	    across the active ports based on hashed protocol header
 	    information and accepts incoming traffic from any active
 	    port.  The hash includes the Ethernet source and
 	    destination address and, if available, the
 	    <acronym>VLAN</acronym> tag, and the
 	    <acronym>IPv4</acronym> or <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	    source and destination address.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">roundrobin</term>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This mode distributes outgoing traffic using a
 	    round-robin scheduler through all active ports and
 	    accepts incoming traffic from any active port.  Since
 	    this mode violates Ethernet frame ordering, it should be
 	    used with caution.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定範例</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to configure a <trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark>
 	switch and a FreeBSD system for <acronym>LACP</acronym> load
 	balancing.  It then shows how to configure two Ethernet
 	interfaces in failover mode as well as how to configure
 	failover mode between an Ethernet and a wireless
 	interface.</para>
 
       <example xml:id="networking-lacp-aggregation-cisco">
 	<title><trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> 交換器上設定 <acronym>LACP</acronym> Aggregation</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This example connects two <citerefentry><refentrytitle>fxp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> Ethernet
 	  interfaces on a FreeBSD machine to the first two Ethernet ports
 	  on a <trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> switch as a single load balanced and fault
 	  tolerant link.  More interfaces can be added to increase
 	  throughput and fault tolerance.  Replace the names of the
 	  <trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> ports, Ethernet devices, channel group number, and
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address shown in the example to match
 	  the local configuration.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Frame ordering is mandatory on Ethernet links and any
 	  traffic between two stations always flows over the same
 	  physical link, limiting the maximum speed to that of one
 	  interface.  The transmit algorithm attempts to use as much
 	  information as it can to distinguish different traffic flows
 	  and balance the flows across the available
 	  interfaces.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">On the <trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> switch, add the
 	  <replaceable>FastEthernet0/1</replaceable> and
 	  <replaceable>FastEthernet0/2</replaceable> interfaces to
 	  channel group <replaceable>1</replaceable>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><userinput>interface <replaceable>FastEthernet0/1</replaceable>
  channel-group <replaceable>1</replaceable> mode active
  channel-protocol lacp</userinput>
 !
 <userinput>interface <replaceable>FastEthernet0/2</replaceable>
  channel-group <replaceable>1</replaceable> mode active
  channel-protocol lacp</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">On the FreeBSD system, create the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lagg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> interface
 	  using the physical interfaces
 	  <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> and
 	  <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> and bring the interfaces up
 	  with an <acronym>IP</acronym> address of
 	  <replaceable>10.0.0.3/24</replaceable>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> create </userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> up laggproto lacp laggport <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> laggport <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> <replaceable>10.0.0.3/24</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Next, verify the status of the virtual interface:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal></userinput>
 lagg0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         options=8&lt;VLAN_MTU&gt;
         ether 00:05:5d:71:8d:b8
         media: Ethernet autoselect
         status: active
         laggproto lacp
         laggport: fxp1 flags=1c&lt;ACTIVE,COLLECTING,DISTRIBUTING&gt;
         laggport: fxp0 flags=1c&lt;ACTIVE,COLLECTING,DISTRIBUTING&gt;</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Ports
 	  marked as <literal>ACTIVE</literal> are part of the
 	  <acronym>LAG</acronym> that has been negotiated with the
 	  remote switch.  Traffic will be transmitted and received
 	  through these active ports.  Add <option>-v</option> to the
 	  above command to view the <acronym>LAG</acronym>
 	  identifiers.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To see the port status on the <trademark class="registered">Cisco</trademark> switch:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en">switch# <userinput>show lacp neighbor</userinput>
 Flags:  S - Device is requesting Slow LACPDUs
         F - Device is requesting Fast LACPDUs
         A - Device is in Active mode       P - Device is in Passive mode
 
 Channel group 1 neighbors
 
 Partner's information:
 
                   LACP port                        Oper    Port     Port
 Port      Flags   Priority  Dev ID         Age     Key     Number   State
 Fa0/1     SA      32768     0005.5d71.8db8  29s    0x146   0x3      0x3D
 Fa0/2     SA      32768     0005.5d71.8db8  29s    0x146   0x4      0x3D</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For more detail, type <userinput>show lacp neighbor
 	  detail</userinput>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To retain this configuration across reboots, add the
 	  following entries to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> on the FreeBSD system:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="up"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp1</replaceable>="up"
 cloned_interfaces="<literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal>"
 ifconfig_<literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal>="laggproto lacp laggport <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> laggport <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> <replaceable>10.0.0.3/24</replaceable>"</programlisting>
       </example>
 
       <example xml:id="networking-lagg-failover">
 	<title>容錯移轉模式</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Failover mode can be used to switch over to a secondary
 	  interface if the link is lost on the master interface.  To
 	  configure failover, make sure that the underlying physical
 	  interfaces are up, then create the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lagg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> interface.
 	  In this example, <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> is the
 	  master interface, <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> is the
 	  secondary interface, and the virtual interface is assigned
 	  an <acronym>IP</acronym> address of
 	  <replaceable>10.0.0.15/24</replaceable>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> create</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> up laggproto failover laggport <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> laggport <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> <replaceable>10.0.0.15/24</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The virtual interface should look something like
 	  this:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal></userinput>
 lagg0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         options=8&lt;VLAN_MTU&gt;
         ether 00:05:5d:71:8d:b8
         inet 10.0.0.15 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
         media: Ethernet autoselect
         status: active
         laggproto failover
         laggport: fxp1 flags=0&lt;&gt;
         laggport: fxp0 flags=5&lt;MASTER,ACTIVE&gt;</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Traffic will be transmitted and received on
 	  <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>.  If the link is lost on
 	  <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>,
 	  <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> will become the active link.
 	  If the link is restored on the master interface, it will
 	  once again become the active link.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To retain this configuration across reboots, add the
 	  following entries to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="up"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp1</replaceable>="up"
 cloned_interfaces="<literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal>"
 ifconfig_<literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal>="laggproto failover laggport <replaceable>fxp0</replaceable> laggport <replaceable>fxp1</replaceable> <replaceable>10.0.0.15/24</replaceable>"</programlisting>
       </example>
 
       <example xml:id="networking-lagg-wired-and-wireless">
 	<title>乙太網路與無線介面間的容錯移轉模式</title>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">For laptop users, it is usually desirable to configure
 	  the wireless device as a secondary which is only used when
 	  the Ethernet connection is not available.  With
 	  <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lagg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>, it is possible to configure a failover which
 	  prefers the Ethernet connection for both performance and
 	  security reasons, while maintaining the ability to transfer
 	  data over the wireless connection.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This is achieved by overriding the physical wireless
 	  interface's <acronym>MAC</acronym> address with that of the
 	  Ethernet interface.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">In this example, the Ethernet interface,
 	  <replaceable>bge0</replaceable>, is the master and the
 	  wireless interface, <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable>, is
 	  the failover.  The <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> device
 	  was created from <replaceable>iwn0</replaceable> wireless
 	  interface, which will be configured with the
 	  <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the Ethernet interface.
 	  First, determine the <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the
 	  Ethernet interface:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>bge0</replaceable></userinput>
 bge0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
 	options=19b&lt;RXCSUM,TXCSUM,VLAN_MTU,VLAN_HWTAGGING,VLAN_HWCSUM,TSO4&gt;
 	ether 00:21:70:da:ae:37
 	inet6 fe80::221:70ff:feda:ae37%bge0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x2
 	nd6 options=29&lt;PERFORMNUD,IFDISABLED,AUTO_LINKLOCAL&gt;
 	media: Ethernet autoselect (1000baseT &lt;full-duplex&gt;)
 	status: active</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Replace <replaceable>bge0</replaceable> to match the
 	  system's Ethernet interface name.  The
 	  <literal>ether</literal> line will contain the
 	  <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the specified interface.
 	  Now, change the <acronym>MAC</acronym> address of the
 	  underlying wireless interface:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>iwn0</replaceable> ether <replaceable>00:21:70:da:ae:37</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Bring the wireless interface up, but do not set an
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable> create wlandev <replaceable>iwn0</replaceable> ssid <replaceable>my_router</replaceable> up</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Make sure the <replaceable>bge0</replaceable> interface
 	  is up, then create the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>lagg</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> interface with
 	  <replaceable>bge0</replaceable> as master with failover to
 	  <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable>:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>bge0</replaceable> up</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> create</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal> up laggproto failover laggport <replaceable>bge0</replaceable> laggport <replaceable>wlan0</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">The virtual interface should look something like
 	  this:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal></userinput>
 lagg0: flags=8843&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; metric 0 mtu 1500
         options=8&lt;VLAN_MTU&gt;
         ether 00:21:70:da:ae:37
         media: Ethernet autoselect
         status: active
         laggproto failover
         laggport: wlan0 flags=0&lt;&gt;
         laggport: bge0 flags=5&lt;MASTER,ACTIVE&gt;</screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Then, start the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> client to
 	  obtain an <acronym>IP</acronym> address:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>dhclient <literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal></userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">To retain this configuration across reboots, add the
 	  following entries to
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_bge0="up"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>iwn0</replaceable>="<replaceable>ether 00:21:70:da:ae:37</replaceable>"
 wlans_<replaceable>iwn0</replaceable>="wlan0"
 ifconfig_wlan0="WPA"
 cloned_interfaces="<literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal>"
 ifconfig_<literal>lagg<replaceable>0</replaceable></literal>="laggproto failover laggport bge0 laggport wlan0 DHCP"</programlisting>
       </example>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-diskless">
     <info>
       <title><acronym>PXE</acronym> 無磁碟作業</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Jean-François</firstname>
 	    <surname>Dockès</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Updated by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Alex</firstname>
 	    <surname>Dupre</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Reorganized and enhanced by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm><primary>無磁碟工作站</primary></indexterm>
     <indexterm><primary>無磁碟作業</primary></indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> Preboot eXecution Environment
       (<acronym>PXE</acronym>) allows an operating system to boot over
       the network.  For example, a FreeBSD system can boot over the
       network and operate without a local disk, using file systems
       mounted from an <acronym>NFS</acronym> server.
       <acronym>PXE</acronym> support is usually available in the
       <acronym>BIOS</acronym>.  To use <acronym>PXE</acronym> when the
       machine starts, select the <literal>Boot from network</literal>
       option in the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> setup or type a function
       key during system initialization.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In order to provide the files needed for an operating system
       to boot over the network, a <acronym>PXE</acronym> setup also
       requires properly configured <acronym>DHCP</acronym>,
       <acronym>TFTP</acronym>, and <acronym>NFS</acronym> servers,
       where:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Initial parameters, such as an <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  address, executable boot filename and location, server name,
 	  and root path are obtained from the
 	  <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The operating system loader file is booted using
 	  <acronym>TFTP</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The file systems are loaded using
 	  <acronym>NFS</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When a computer <acronym>PXE</acronym> boots, it receives
       information over <acronym>DHCP</acronym> about where to obtain
       the initial boot loader file.  After the host computer receives
       this information, it downloads the boot loader via
       <acronym>TFTP</acronym> and then executes the boot loader.  In
       FreeBSD, the boot loader file is
       <filename>/boot/pxeboot</filename>.  After
       <filename>/boot/pxeboot</filename> executes, the FreeBSD kernel is
       loaded and the rest of the FreeBSD bootup sequence proceeds, as
       described in <xref linkend="boot"/>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This section describes how to configure these services on a
       FreeBSD system so that other systems can <acronym>PXE</acronym>
       boot into FreeBSD.  Refer to <citerefentry><refentrytitle>diskless</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> for more
       information.</para>
 
     <caution>
       <para xml:lang="en">As described, the system providing these services is
 	insecure.  It should live in a protected area of a network and
 	be untrusted by other hosts.</para>
     </caution>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-pxe-nfs">
       <info>
 	<title>設定 <acronym>PXE</acronym> 環境</title>
 
 	<authorgroup>
 	  <author xml:lang="en">
 	    <personname>
 	      <firstname>Craig</firstname>
 	      <surname>Rodrigues</surname>
 	    </personname>
 	    <affiliation>
 	      <address xml:lang="en">rodrigc@FreeBSD.org</address>
 	    </affiliation>
 	    <contrib>Written by </contrib>
 	  </author>
 	</authorgroup>
       </info>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The steps shown in this section configure the built-in
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> and <acronym>TFTP</acronym> servers.
 	The next section demonstrates how to install and configure the
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> server.  In this example, the
 	directory which will contain the files used by
 	<acronym>PXE</acronym> users is
 	<filename>/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install</filename>.  It is
 	important that this directory exists and that the same
 	directory name is set in both
 	<filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename> and
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Create the root directory which will contain a FreeBSD
 	    installation to be <acronym>NFS</acronym> mounted:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>export NFSROOTDIR=/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir -p ${NFSROOTDIR}</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enable the <acronym>NFS</acronym> server by adding
 	    this line to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">nfs_server_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Export the diskless root directory via
 	    <acronym>NFS</acronym> by adding the following to
 	    <filename>/etc/exports</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">/b -ro -alldirs</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Start the <acronym>NFS</acronym> server:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service nfsd start</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Enable <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> by adding the following line to
 	    <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">inetd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Uncomment the following line in
 	    <filename>/etc/inetd.conf</filename> by making sure it
 	    does not start with a <literal>#</literal> symbol:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en">tftp dgram udp wait root /usr/libexec/tftpd tftpd -l -s /b/tftpboot</programlisting>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>PXE</acronym> versions require the
 	      <acronym>TCP</acronym> version of
 	      <acronym>TFTP</acronym>.  In this case, uncomment the
 	      second <literal>tftp</literal> line which contains
 	      <literal>stream tcp</literal>.</para>
 	  </note>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Start <citerefentry><refentrytitle>inetd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service inetd start</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Rebuild the FreeBSD kernel and userland (refer to <xref linkend="makeworld"/> for more detailed
 	    instructions):</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make buildworld</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make buildkernel</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Install FreeBSD into the directory mounted over
 	    <acronym>NFS</acronym>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installworld DESTDIR=${NFSROOTDIR}</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make installkernel DESTDIR=${NFSROOTDIR}</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make distribution DESTDIR=${NFSROOTDIR}</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Test that the <acronym>TFTP</acronym> server works and
 	    can download the boot loader which will be obtained via
 	    <acronym>PXE</acronym>:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tftp localhost</userinput>
 tftp&gt; <userinput>get FreeBSD/install/boot/pxeboot</userinput>
 Received 264951 bytes in 0.1 seconds</screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Edit <filename>${NFSROOTDIR}/etc/fstab</filename> and
 	    create an entry to mount the root file system over
 	    <acronym>NFS</acronym>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting xml:lang="en"># Device                                         Mountpoint    FSType   Options  Dump Pass
 <replaceable>myhost.example.com</replaceable>:/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install       /         nfs      ro        0    0</programlisting>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Replace <replaceable>myhost.example.com</replaceable>
 	    with the hostname or <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the
 	    <acronym>NFS</acronym> server.  In this example, the root
 	    file system is mounted read-only in order to prevent
 	    <acronym>NFS</acronym> clients from potentially deleting
 	    the contents of the root file system.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Set the root password in the <acronym>PXE</acronym>
 	    environment for client machines which are
 	    <acronym>PXE</acronym> booting :</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chroot ${NFSROOTDIR}</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>passwd</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">If needed, enable <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ssh</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> root logins for client
 	    machines which are <acronym>PXE</acronym> booting by
 	    editing
 	    <filename>${NFSROOTDIR}/etc/ssh/sshd_config</filename> and
 	    enabling <literal>PermitRootLogin</literal>.  This option
 	    is documented in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sshd_config</refentrytitle><manvolnum>5</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Perform any other needed customizations of the
 	    <acronym>PXE</acronym> environment in
 	    <filename>${NFSROOTDIR}</filename>.  These customizations
 	    could include things like installing packages or editing
 	    the password file with <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vipw</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When booting from an <acronym>NFS</acronym> root volume,
 	<filename>/etc/rc</filename> detects the
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> boot and runs
 	<filename>/etc/rc.initdiskless</filename>.  In this case,
 	<filename>/etc</filename> and <filename>/var</filename> need
 	to be memory backed file systems so that these directories are
 	writable but the <acronym>NFS</acronym> root directory is
 	read-only:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>chroot ${NFSROOTDIR}</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mkdir -p conf/base</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar -c -v -f conf/base/etc.cpio.gz --format cpio --gzip etc</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tar -c -v -f conf/base/var.cpio.gz --format cpio --gzip var</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When the system boots, memory file systems for
 	<filename>/etc</filename> and <filename>/var</filename> will
 	be created and mounted and the contents of the
 	<filename>cpio.gz</filename> files will be copied into
 	them.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="network-pxe-setting-up-dhcp">
       <title>設定 <acronym>DHCP</acronym> 伺服器</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>DHCP</primary>
 	<secondary>diskless operation</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server does not need to be the
 	same machine as the <acronym>TFTP</acronym> and
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> server, but it needs to be accessible
 	in the network.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>DHCP</acronym> is not part of the FreeBSD base
 	system but can be installed using the
 	<package>net/isc-dhcp42-server</package> port or
 	package.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once installed, edit the configuration file,
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf</filename>.  Configure
 	the <literal>next-server</literal>,
 	<literal>filename</literal>, and
 	<literal>root-path</literal> settings as seen in this
 	example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">subnet 192.168.0.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
    range 192.168.0.2 192.168.0.3 ;
    option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0 ;
    option routers 192.168.0.1 ;
    option broadcast-address 192.168.0.255 ;
    option domain-name-servers 192.168.35.35, 192.168.35.36 ;
    option domain-name "example.com";
 
    # IP address of TFTP server
    next-server <replaceable>192.168.0.1</replaceable> ;
 
    # path of boot loader obtained via tftp
      filename "<replaceable>FreeBSD/install/boot/pxeboot</replaceable>" ;
 
    # pxeboot boot loader will try to NFS mount this directory for root FS
    option root-path "<replaceable>192.168.0.1:/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install/</replaceable>" ;
 
 }</programlisting>
 
 <!--
  This option still needed?
  host corbieres {
       <para>This option tells <application>dhcpd</application>
 	to send the value in the <literal>host</literal>
 	declarations as the hostname for the diskless host.
 	An alternate way would be to add an <literal>option
 	host-name <replaceable>corbieres</replaceable></literal>
 	inside the <literal>host</literal> declarations.</para>
 -->
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>next-server</literal> directive is used to
 	specify the <acronym>IP</acronym> address of the
 	<acronym>TFTP</acronym> server.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>filename</literal> directive defines the path
 	to <filename>/boot/pxeboot</filename>.  A relative filename is
 	used, meaning that <filename>/b/tftpboot</filename> is not
 	included in the path.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>root-path</literal> option defines the path
 	to the <acronym>NFS</acronym> root file system.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the edits are saved, enable <acronym>DHCP</acronym>
 	at boot time by adding the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">dhcpd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then start the <acronym>DHCP</acronym> service:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>service isc-dhcpd start</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 <!--
 Are these sections still needed?
     <sect2>
       <title>Preparing the Root File System</title>
 
       <indexterm>
 	<primary>diskless operation</primary>
 	<secondary>kernel configuration</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>When using <acronym>PXE</acronym>, building a custom
 	kernel with the following options is not strictly necessary.
 	These options cause more <acronym>DHCP</acronym> requests
 	to be issued during kernel startup, with a small risk of
 	inconsistency between the new values and those retrieved
 	by &man.pxeboot.8; in some special cases.  The advantage
 	is that the host name will be set.  Otherwise, set the
 	host name in a client-specific
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <programlisting>options     BOOTP          # Use BOOTP to obtain IP address/hostname
 options     BOOTP_NFSROOT  # NFS mount root file system using BOOTP info</programlisting>
 
       <para>The custom kernel can also include
 	<literal>BOOTP_NFSV3</literal>,
 	<literal>BOOT_COMPAT</literal> and
 	<literal>BOOTP_WIRED_TO</literal>.  Refer to
 	<filename>NOTES</filename> for descriptions of these
 	options.</para>
 
       <para>These option names are historical and slightly
 	misleading as they actually enable indifferent use of
 	<acronym>DHCP</acronym> and <acronym>BOOTP</acronym>
 	inside the kernel.</para>
 
       <para>Build the custom kernel, using the instructions in
 	<xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>, and copy it to the place
 	specified in
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <indexterm>
 	<primary>root file system</primary>
 	<secondary>diskless operation</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>Create a root file system for the diskless
 	workstations in the location listed as
 	<literal>root-path</literal> in
 	<filename>/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf</filename>.</para>
 
       <para>Using <command>make world</command> to populate root is
 	quick and will install a complete virgin system, not just
 	the root file system, into <envar>DESTDIR</envar>.  Execute
 	the following script:</para>
 
       <programlisting>#!/bin/sh
 export DESTDIR=/data/misc/diskless
 mkdir -p ${DESTDIR}
 cd /usr/src; make buildworld &amp;&amp; make buildkernel
 make installworld &amp;&amp; make installkernel
 cd /usr/src/etc; make distribution</programlisting>
 
       <para>Once done, customize
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and
 	<filename>/etc/fstab</filename> placed into
 	<envar>DESTDIR</envar> according to the system's
 	requirements.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Configuring Swap</title>
 
       <para>If needed, a swap file located on the server can be
 	accessed via <acronym>NFS</acronym>.</para>
 
       <para>The kernel does not support enabling
 	<acronym>NFS</acronym> swap at boot time.  Swap must be
 	enabled by the startup scripts, by mounting a writable
 	file system and creating and enabling a swap file.  To
 	create a swap file:</para>
 
       <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=<replaceable>/path/to/swapfile</replaceable> bs=1k count=1 oseek=<replaceable>100000</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para>To enable the swap file, add the following line to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting>swapfile=<replaceable>/path/to/swapfile</replaceable></programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Miscellaneous Issues</title>
 
       <indexterm>
 	<primary>diskless operation</primary>
 	<secondary>/usr read-only</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para>If the diskless workstation is configured to run
 	<application>&xorg;</application> and is running with a
 	read-only <filename>/usr</filename>, adjust the
 	<application>XDM</application> configuration file as it puts
 	the error log on <filename>/usr</filename> by
 	default.</para>
 
       <para>When the server for the root file system is not
 	running &os;, create the root file system on a &os;
 	machine, then copy it to its destination, using
 	&man.tar.1; or &man.cpio.1;.</para>
 
       <para>In this situation, there are sometimes problems with
 	the special files in <filename>/dev</filename>, due to
 	differing major/minor integer sizes.  A solution to this
 	problem is to export a directory from the non-&os; server,
 	mount this directory onto a &os; machine, and use
 	&man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently for
 	the user.</para>
     </sect2>
 -->
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>PXE</acronym> 問題除錯</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once all of the services are configured and started,
 	<acronym>PXE</acronym> clients should be able to
 	automatically load FreeBSD over the network.  If a particular
 	client is unable to connect, when that client machine boots
 	up, enter the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> configuration menu and
 	confirm that it is set to boot from the network.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section describes some troubleshooting tips for
 	isolating the source of the configuration problem should no
 	clients be able to <acronym>PXE</acronym> boot.</para>
 
       <procedure>
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Use the <package>net/wireshark</package> package or
 	    port to debug the network traffic involved during the
 	    <acronym>PXE</acronym> booting process, which is
 	    illustrated in the diagram below.</para>
 
 	  <figure>
 	    <title>使用 <acronym>NFS</acronym> Root Mount 進行 <acronym>PXE</acronym> 開機程序</title>
 
 	    <mediaobject>
 	      <imageobjectco>
 		<areaspec units="calspair">
 		  <area xml:id="co-pxenfs1" coords="2873,8133 3313,7266"/>
 		  <area xml:id="co-pxenfs2" coords="3519,6333 3885,5500"/>
 		  <area xml:id="co-pxenfs3" coords="4780,5866 5102,5200"/>
 		  <area xml:id="co-pxenfs4" coords="4794,4333 5102,3600"/>
 		  <area xml:id="co-pxenfs5" coords="3108,2666 3519,1800"/>
 		</areaspec>
 		<imageobject>
 		  <imagedata fileref="advanced-networking/pxe-nfs"/>
 		</imageobject>
 		<calloutlist>
 		  <callout arearefs="co-pxenfs1">
 		    <para xml:lang="en">Client broadcasts a
 		      <literal>DHCPDISCOVER</literal> message.</para>
 		  </callout>
 		  <callout arearefs="co-pxenfs2">
 		    <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>DHCP</acronym> server responds
 		      with the <acronym>IP</acronym> address,
 		      <literal>next-server</literal>,
 		      <literal>filename</literal>, and
 		      <literal>root-path</literal> values.</para>
 		  </callout>
 		  <callout arearefs="co-pxenfs3">
 		    <para xml:lang="en">The client sends a <acronym>TFTP</acronym>
 		      request to <literal>next-server</literal>,
 		      asking to retrieve
 		      <literal>filename</literal>.</para>
 		  </callout>
 		  <callout arearefs="co-pxenfs4">
 		    <para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>TFTP</acronym> server responds
 		      and sends <literal>filename</literal> to
 		      client.</para>
 		  </callout>
 		  <callout arearefs="co-pxenfs5">
 		    <para xml:lang="en">The client executes
 		      <literal>filename</literal>, which is
 		      <citerefentry><refentrytitle>pxeboot</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, which then loads the kernel.
 		      When the kernel executes, the root file system
 		      specified by <literal>root-path</literal> is
 		      mounted over <acronym>NFS</acronym>.</para>
 		  </callout>
 		</calloutlist>
 	      </imageobjectco>
 	    </mediaobject>
 	  </figure>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">On the
 	    <acronym>TFTP</acronym> server, read
 	    <filename>/var/log/xferlog</filename> to ensure that
 	    <filename>pxeboot</filename> is being retrieved from
 	    the correct location.  To test this example
 	    configuration:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>tftp 192.168.0.1</userinput>
 tftp&gt; <userinput>get FreeBSD/install/boot/pxeboot</userinput>
 Received 264951 bytes in 0.1 seconds</screen>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The <literal>BUGS</literal> sections in <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tftpd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	    and <citerefentry><refentrytitle>tftp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> document some limitations with
 	    <acronym>TFTP</acronym>.</para>
 	</step>
 
 	<step>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Make sure that the root file system can be mounted
 	    via <acronym>NFS</acronym>.  To test this example
 	    configuration:</para>
 
 	  <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>mount -t nfs 192.168.0.1:/b/tftpboot/FreeBSD/install /mnt</userinput></screen>
 	</step>
       </procedure>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="network-ipv6">
     <info>
       <title xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPv6</acronym></title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Aaron</firstname>
 	    <surname>Kaplan</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Originally Written by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Restructured and Added by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Brad</firstname>
 	    <surname>Davis</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Extended by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPv6</acronym> is the new version of the well known
       <acronym>IP</acronym> protocol, also known as
       <acronym>IPv4</acronym>.  <acronym>IPv6</acronym> provides
       several advantages over <acronym>IPv4</acronym> as well as many
       new features:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Its 128-bit address space allows for
 	  340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
 	  addresses.  This addresses the <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
 	  address shortage and eventual <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
 	  address exhaustion.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Routers only store network aggregation addresses in
 	  their routing tables, thus reducing the average space of a
 	  routing table to 8192 entries.  This addresses the
 	  scalability issues associated with <acronym>IPv4</acronym>,
 	  which required every allocated block of
 	  <acronym>IPv4</acronym> addresses to be exchanged between
 	  Internet routers, causing their routing tables to become too
 	  large to allow efficient routing.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Address autoconfiguration (<link xlink:href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2462.txt">RFC2462</link>).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Mandatory multicast addresses.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Built-in <acronym>IPsec</acronym> (<acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  security).</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Simplified header structure.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Support for mobile <acronym>IP</acronym>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPv6</acronym>-to-<acronym>IPv4</acronym>
 	  transition mechanisms.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD includes the <link xlink:href="http://www.kame.net/">http://www.kame.net/</link>
       <acronym>IPv6</acronym> reference implementation and comes
       with everything needed to use <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.  This
       section focuses on getting <acronym>IPv6</acronym> configured
       and running.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址的背景知識</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">There are three different types of <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	addresses:</para>
 
       <variablelist>
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Unicast</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A packet sent to a unicast address arrives at the
 	      interface belonging to the address.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Anycast</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">These addresses are syntactically indistinguishable
 	      from unicast addresses but they address a group of
 	      interfaces.  The packet destined for an anycast address
 	      will arrive at the nearest router interface.  Anycast
 	      addresses are only used by routers.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">Multicast</term>
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en">These addresses identify a group of interfaces.  A
 	      packet destined for a multicast address will arrive at
 	      all interfaces belonging to the multicast group.  The
 	      <acronym>IPv4</acronym> broadcast address, usually
 	      <systemitem class="ipaddress">xxx.xxx.xxx.255</systemitem>, is
 	      expressed by multicast addresses in
 	      <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When reading an <acronym>IPv6</acronym> address, the
 	canonical form is represented as
 	<systemitem>x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x</systemitem>, where each
 	<literal>x</literal> represents a 16 bit hex value.  An
 	example is
 	<systemitem>FEBC:A574:382B:23C1:AA49:4592:4EFE:9982</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Often, an address will have long substrings of all zeros.
 	A <literal>::</literal> (double colon) can be used to replace
 	one substring per address.  Also, up to three leading
 	<literal>0</literal>s per hex value can be omitted.  For
 	example, <systemitem>fe80::1</systemitem> corresponds to the
 	canonical form
 	<systemitem>fe80:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A third form is to write the last 32 bits using the well
 	known <acronym>IPv4</acronym> notation.  For example,
 	<systemitem>2002::10.0.0.1</systemitem> corresponds to the
 	hexadecimal canonical representation
 	<systemitem>2002:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0a00:0001</systemitem>,
 	which in turn is equivalent to
 	<systemitem>2002::a00:1</systemitem>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To view a FreeBSD system's <acronym>IPv6 </acronym> address,
 	use <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ifconfig</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig</userinput></screen>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rl0: flags=8943&lt;UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,PROMISC,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST&gt; mtu 1500
          inet 10.0.0.10 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255
          inet6 fe80::200:21ff:fe03:8e1%rl0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x1
          ether 00:00:21:03:08:e1
          media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX )
          status: active</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In this example, the <filename>rl0</filename> interface is
 	using <systemitem>fe80::200:21ff:fe03:8e1%rl0</systemitem>, an
 	auto-configured link-local address which was automatically
 	generated from the <acronym>MAC</acronym> address.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Some <acronym>IPv6</acronym> addresses are reserved.  A
 	summary of these reserved addresses is seen in <xref linkend="reservedip6"/>:</para>
 
       <table xml:id="reservedip6" frame="none">
 	<title>已保留的 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址</title>
 
 	<tgroup cols="4">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPv6</acronym> address</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Prefixlength (Bits)</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	      <entry>說明</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>::</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">128 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">unspecified</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Equivalent to <systemitem class="ipaddress">0.0.0.0</systemitem> in
 		<acronym>IPv4</acronym>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>::1</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">128 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">loopback address</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Equivalent to <systemitem class="ipaddress">127.0.0.1</systemitem> in
 		<acronym>IPv4</acronym>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>::00:xx:xx:xx:xx</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">96 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">embedded <acronym>IPv4</acronym></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The lower 32 bits are the compatible
 		<acronym>IPv4</acronym> address.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>::ff:xx:xx:xx:xx</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">96 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><acronym>IPv4</acronym> mapped
 		<acronym>IPv6</acronym> address</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The lower 32 bits are the <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
 		address for hosts which do not support
 		<acronym>IPv6</acronym>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>fe80::/10</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">10 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">link-local</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Equivalent to 169.254.0.0/16 in
 		<acronym>IPv4</acronym>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>fc00::/7</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">7 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">unique-local</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Unique local addresses are intended for local
 		communication and are only routable within a set of
 		cooperating sites.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>ff00::</systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">8 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">multicast</entry>
 	      <entry> </entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><systemitem>2000::-3fff:: </systemitem></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">3 bits</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">global unicast</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All global unicast addresses are assigned from
 		this pool.  The first 3 bits are
 		<literal>001</literal>.</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </table>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For further information on the structure of
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym> addresses, refer to <link xlink:href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3513.txt">RFC3513</link>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>設定 <acronym>IPv6</acronym></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To configure a FreeBSD system as an <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	client, add these two lines to
 	<filename>rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_<replaceable>rl0</replaceable>_ipv6="inet6 accept_rtadv"
 rtsold_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first line enables the specified interface to receive
 	router solicitation messages.  The second line enables the
 	router solicitation daemon, <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rtsol</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the interface needs a statically assigned
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym> address, add an entry to specify the
 	static address and associated prefix length:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_<replaceable>rl0</replaceable>_ipv6="inet6 <replaceable>2001:db8:4672:6565:2026:5043:2d42:5344</replaceable> prefixlen <replaceable>64</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To assign a default router, specify its address:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipv6_defaultrouter="<replaceable>2001:db8:4672:6565::1</replaceable>"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>連線到 Provider</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">In order to connect to other <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	networks, one must have a provider or a tunnel that supports
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym>:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Contact an Internet Service Provider to see if they
 	    offer <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.sixxs.net">SixXS</link>
 	    offers tunnels with end-points all around the
 	    globe.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.tunnelbroker.net">Hurricane
 	      Electric</link> offers tunnels with end-points all
 	    around the globe.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Install the <package>net/freenet6</package> package or
 	  port for a dial-up connection.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to take the directions from
 	a tunnel provider and convert them into
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> settings that will persist
 	through reboots.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The first <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> entry creates
 	the generic tunneling interface
 	<filename><replaceable>gif0</replaceable></filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gif_interfaces="gif<replaceable>0</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, configure that interface with the
 	<acronym>IPv4</acronym> addresses of the local and remote
 	endpoints.  Replace <replaceable>MY_IPv4_ADDR</replaceable>
 	and <replaceable>REMOTE_IPv4_ADDR</replaceable> with the
 	actual <acronym>IPv4</acronym> addresses:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">gifconfig_gif0="<replaceable>MY_IPv4_ADDR REMOTE_IPv4_ADDR</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To apply the <acronym>IPv6</acronym> address that has been
 	assigned for use as the <acronym>IPv6</acronym> tunnel
 	endpoint, add this line, replacing
 	<replaceable>MY_ASSIGNED_IPv6_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR</replaceable>
 	with the assigned address:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ifconfig_gif0_ipv6="inet6 <replaceable>MY_ASSIGNED_IPv6_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Then, set the default route for the other side of the
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym> tunnel.  Replace
 	<replaceable>MY_IPv6_REMOTE_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR</replaceable>
 	with the default gateway address assigned by the
 	provider:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipv6_defaultrouter="<replaceable>MY_IPv6_REMOTE_TUNNEL_ENDPOINT_ADDR</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If the FreeBSD system will route <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	packets between the rest of the network and the world, enable
 	the gateway using this line:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipv6_gateway_enable="YES"</programlisting>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>Router Advertisement 與 Host Auto Configuration</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to setup <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rtadvd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to
 	advertise the <acronym>IPv6</acronym> default route.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To enable <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rtadvd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>, add the following to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rtadvd_enable="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is important to specify the interface on which to
 	do <acronym>IPv6</acronym> router solicitation.  For example,
 	to tell <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rtadvd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> to use
 	<filename>rl0</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rtadvd_interfaces="rl0"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, create the configuration file,
 	<filename>/etc/rtadvd.conf</filename> as seen in this
 	example:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">rl0:\
 	:addrs#1:addr="2001:db8:1f11:246::":prefixlen#64:tc=ether:</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Replace <filename>rl0</filename> with the interface
 	to be used and <systemitem>2001:db8:1f11:246::</systemitem>
 	with the prefix of the allocation.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For a dedicated <systemitem class="netmask">/64</systemitem> subnet, nothing else needs
 	to be changed.  Otherwise, change the
 	<literal>prefixlen#</literal> to the correct value.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title><acronym>IPv6</acronym> 與 <acronym>IPv6</acronym> 位址對應表</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">When <acronym>IPv6</acronym> is enabled on a server, there
 	may be a need to enable <acronym>IPv4</acronym> mapped
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym> address communication.  This
 	compatibility option allows for <acronym>IPv4</acronym>
 	addresses to be represented as <acronym>IPv6</acronym>
 	addresses.  Permitting <acronym>IPv6</acronym> applications
 	to communicate with <acronym>IPv4</acronym> and vice versa
 	may be a security issue.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This option may not be required in most cases and is
 	available only for compatibility.  This option will allow
 	<acronym>IPv6</acronym>-only applications to work with
 	<acronym>IPv4</acronym> in a dual stack environment.  This
 	is most useful for third party applications which may not
 	support an <acronym>IPv6</acronym>-only environment.  To
 	enable this feature,
 	add the following to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">ipv6_ipv4mapping="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Reviewing the information in <acronym>RFC</acronym> 3493,
 	section 3.6 and 3.7 as well as <acronym>RFC</acronym> 4038
 	section 4.2 may be useful to some administrators.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 <!--
   <sect1 xml:id="network-atm">
     <info><title>Asynchronous Transfer Mode (<acronym>ATM</acronym>)</title>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author>
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Harti</firstname>
 	    <surname>Brandt</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
     <sect2>
       <title>Configuring Classical <acronym>IP</acronym> over
 	<acronym>ATM</acronym></title>
 
       <para>Classical <acronym>IP</acronym> over
 	<acronym>ATM</acronym> (<acronym>CLIP</acronym>) is the
 	simplest method to use Asynchronous Transfer Mode
 	(<acronym>ATM</acronym>) with <acronym>IP</acronym>.  It can
 	be used with Switched Virtual Circuits
 	(<acronym>SVC</acronym>s) and with Permanent Virtual Circuits
 	(<acronym>PVC</acronym>s).  This section describes how to
 	set up a network based on <acronym>PVC</acronym>s.</para>
 
       <sect3>
 	<title>Fully Meshed Configurations</title>
 
 	<para>The first method to set up a <acronym>CLIP</acronym>
 	  with <acronym>PVC</acronym>s is to connect each machine
 	  to each other machine in the network via a dedicated
 	  <acronym>PVC</acronym>.  While this is simple to
 	  configure, it becomes impractical for a large number of
 	  machines.  The following example supposes four machines in
 	  the network, each connected to the <acronym role="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">ATM</acronym> network
 	  with an <acronym role="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">ATM</acronym> adapter
 	  card.  The first step is the planning of the
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses and the <acronym role="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">ATM</acronym>
 	  connections between the machines.  This example uses the
 	  following:</para>
 
 	<informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	  <tgroup cols="2">
 	    <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	    <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	    <thead>
 	      <row>
 		<entry>Host</entry>
 		<entry><acronym>IP</acronym> Address</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </thead>
 
 	    <tbody>
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostA</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry><systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.173.1</systemitem></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostB</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry><systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.173.2</systemitem></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostC</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry><systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.173.3</systemitem></entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostD</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry><systemitem class="ipaddress">192.168.173.4</systemitem></entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
 
 	<para>To build a fully meshed net, one <acronym>ATM</acronym>
 	  connection is needed between each pair of machines:</para>
 
 	<informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	  <tgroup cols="2">
 	    <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	    <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	    <thead>
 	      <row>
 		<entry>Machines</entry>
 		<entry>VPI.VCI couple</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </thead>
 
 	    <tbody>
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostA</systemitem> -
 		  <systemitem>hostB</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry>0.100</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostA</systemitem> -
 		  <systemitem>hostC</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry>0.101</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostA</systemitem> -
 		  <systemitem>hostD</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry>0.102</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostB</systemitem> -
 		  <systemitem>hostC</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry>0.103</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostB</systemitem> -
 		  <systemitem>hostD</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry>0.104</entry>
 	      </row>
 
 	      <row>
 		<entry><systemitem>hostC</systemitem> -
 		  <systemitem>hostD</systemitem></entry>
 		<entry>0.105</entry>
 	      </row>
 	    </tbody>
 	  </tgroup>
 	</informaltable>
 
 	<para>The Virtual Path Identifier <acronym>VPI</acronym> and
 	  Virtual Channel Identifier <acronym>VCI</acronym> values
 	  at each end of the connection may differ, but for
 	  simplicity, this example assumes they are the same.  Next,
 	  configure the <acronym>ATM</acronym> interfaces on each
 	  host:</para>
 
 	<screen>hostA&prompt.root; <userinput>ifconfig hatm0 192.168.173.1 up</userinput>
 hostB&prompt.root; <userinput>ifconfig hatm0 192.168.173.2 up</userinput>
 hostC&prompt.root; <userinput>ifconfig hatm0 192.168.173.3 up</userinput>
 hostD&prompt.root; <userinput>ifconfig hatm0 192.168.173.4 up</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>This example assumes that the <acronym>ATM</acronym>
 	  interface is <filename>hatm0</filename> on all hosts.
 	  Next, the <acronym>PVC</acronym>s need to be configured on
 	  <systemitem>hostA</systemitem>.  This should already be
 	  configured on the <acronym>ATM</acronym> switch; consult the
 	  manual for the switch on how to do this.</para>
 
 	<screen>hostA&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.2 hatm0 0 100 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostA&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.3 hatm0 0 101 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostA&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.4 hatm0 0 102 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 
 hostB&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.1 hatm0 0 100 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostB&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.3 hatm0 0 103 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostB&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.4 hatm0 0 104 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 
 hostC&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.1 hatm0 0 101 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostC&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.2 hatm0 0 103 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostC&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.4 hatm0 0 105 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 
 hostD&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.1 hatm0 0 102 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostD&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.2 hatm0 0 104 llc/snap ubr</userinput>
 hostD&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm add 192.168.173.3 hatm0 0 105 llc/snap ubr</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>Other traffic contracts besides <literal>ubr</literal>
 	  can be used if the <acronym>ATM</acronym> adapter supports
 	  it.  In this case, the name of the traffic contract is
 	  followed by the parameters of the traffic.  Help for the
 	  &man.atmconfig.8; tool can be obtained with:</para>
 
 	<screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig help natm add</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para>Refer to &man.atmconfig.8; for more information.</para>
 
 	<para>The same configuration can also be done via
 	  <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  These lines configure
 	  <systemitem>hostA</systemitem>:</para>
 
 	<programlisting>network_interfaces="lo0 hatm0"
 ifconfig_hatm0="inet 192.168.173.1 up"
 natm_static_routes="hostB hostC hostD"
 route_hostB="192.168.173.2 hatm0 0 100 llc/snap ubr"
 route_hostC="192.168.173.3 hatm0 0 101 llc/snap ubr"
 route_hostD="192.168.173.4 hatm0 0 102 llc/snap ubr"</programlisting>
 
 	<para>The current state of all <acronym>CLIP</acronym> routes
 	  can be obtained with:</para>
 
 	<screen>hostA&prompt.root; <userinput>atmconfig natm show</userinput></screen>
       </sect3>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
   -->
   <sect1 xml:id="carp">
     <info>
       <title>共用位址備援協定 (<acronym>CARP</acronym>)</title>
 
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Tom</firstname>
 	    <surname>Rhodes</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Contributed by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
       <authorgroup>
 	<author xml:lang="en">
 	  <personname>
 	    <firstname>Allan</firstname>
 	    <surname>Jude</surname>
 	  </personname>
 	  <contrib>Updated by </contrib>
 	</author>
       </authorgroup>
     </info>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary><acronym>CARP</acronym></primary>
     </indexterm>
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Common Address Redundancy Protocol</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The Common Address Redundancy Protocol
       (<acronym>CARP</acronym>) allows multiple hosts to share the
       same <acronym>IP</acronym> address and Virtual Host ID
       (<acronym>VHID</acronym>) in order to provide <firstterm>high
       availability</firstterm> for one or more services.  This means
       that one or more hosts can fail, and the other hosts will
       transparently take over so that users do not see a service
       failure.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In addition to the shared <acronym>IP</acronym> address,
       each host has its own <acronym>IP</acronym> address for
       management and configuration.  All of the machines that share an
       <acronym>IP</acronym> address have the same
       <acronym>VHID</acronym>.  The <acronym>VHID</acronym> for each
       virtual <acronym>IP</acronym> address must be unique across the
       broadcast domain of the network interface.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">High availability using <acronym>CARP</acronym> is built
       into FreeBSD, though the steps to configure it vary slightly
       depending upon the FreeBSD version.  This section provides the same
       example configuration for versions before and equal to or after
       FreeBSD 10.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">This example configures failover support with three hosts,
       all with unique <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses, but providing
       the same web content.  It has two different masters named
       <systemitem>hosta.example.org</systemitem> and
       <systemitem>hostb.example.org</systemitem>, with a shared backup
       named <systemitem>hostc.example.org</systemitem>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">These machines are load balanced with a Round Robin
       <acronym>DNS</acronym> configuration.  The master and backup
       machines are configured identically except for their hostnames
       and management <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses.  These servers
       must have the same configuration and run the same services.
       When the failover occurs, requests to the service on the shared
       <acronym>IP</acronym> address can only be answered correctly if
       the backup server has access to the same content.  The backup
       machine has two additional <acronym>CARP</acronym> interfaces,
       one for each of the master content server's
       <acronym>IP</acronym> addresses.  When a failure occurs, the
       backup server will pick up the failed master machine's
       <acronym>IP</acronym> address.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="carp-10x">
       <title>使用 <acronym>CARP</acronym> 於 FreeBSD 10 及之後版本</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Enable boot-time support for <acronym>CARP</acronym> by
 	adding an entry for the <filename>carp.ko</filename> kernel
 	module in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">carp_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To load the module now without rebooting:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload carp</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For users who prefer to use a custom kernel, include the
 	following line in the custom kernel configuration file and
 	compile the kernel as described in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device	carp</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The hostname, management <acronym>IP</acronym> address and
 	subnet mask, shared <acronym>IP</acronym> address, and
 	<acronym>VHID</acronym> are all set by adding entries to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  This example is for
 	<systemitem>hosta.example.org</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="<replaceable>hosta.example.org</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.3</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>_alias0="inet vhid <replaceable>1</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> alias <replaceable>192.168.1.50</replaceable>/32"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The next set of entries are for
 	<systemitem>hostb.example.org</systemitem>.  Since it
 	represents a second master, it uses a different shared
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address and <acronym>VHID</acronym>.
 	However, the passwords specified with <option>pass</option>
 	must be identical as <acronym>CARP</acronym> will only listen
 	to and accept advertisements from machines with the correct
 	password.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="<replaceable>hostb.example.org</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.4</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>_alias0="inet vhid <replaceable>2</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> alias <replaceable>192.168.1.51</replaceable>/32"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The third machine,
 	<systemitem>hostc.example.org</systemitem>, is configured to
 	handle failover from either master.  This machine is
 	configured with two <acronym>CARP</acronym>
 	<acronym>VHID</acronym>s, one to handle the virtual
 	<acronym>IP</acronym> address for each of the master hosts.
 	The <acronym>CARP</acronym> advertising skew,
 	<option>advskew</option>, is set to ensure that the backup
 	host advertises later than the master, since
 	<option>advskew</option> controls the order of precedence when
 	there are multiple backup servers.</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="hostc.example.org"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.5</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>_alias0="inet vhid <replaceable>1</replaceable> advskew <replaceable>100</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> alias <replaceable>192.168.1.50</replaceable>/32"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>_alias1="inet vhid <replaceable>2</replaceable> advskew <replaceable>100</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> alias <replaceable>192.168.1.51</replaceable>/32"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Having two <acronym>CARP</acronym>
 	<acronym>VHID</acronym>s configured means that
 	<systemitem>hostc.example.org</systemitem> will notice if
 	either of the master servers becomes unavailable.  If a master
 	fails to advertise before the backup server, the backup server
 	will pick up the shared <acronym>IP</acronym> address until
 	the master becomes available again.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Preemption is disabled by default.  If preemption has
 	  been enabled, <systemitem>hostc.example.org</systemitem>
 	  might not release the virtual <acronym>IP</acronym> address
 	  back to the original master server.  The administrator
 	  can force the backup server to return the
 	  <acronym>IP</acronym> address to the master with the
 	  command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig em0 vhid 1 state backup</userinput></screen>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the configuration is complete, either restart
 	networking or reboot each system.  High availability is now
 	enabled.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>CARP</acronym> functionality can be controlled
 	via several <citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysctl</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> variables documented in the
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>carp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> manual pages.  Other actions can be triggered
 	from <acronym>CARP</acronym> events by using
 	<citerefentry><refentrytitle>devd</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="carp-9x">
       <title>使用 <acronym>CARP</acronym> 於 FreeBSD 9 及先前版本</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The configuration for these versions of FreeBSD is similar to
 	the one described in the previous section, except that a
 	<acronym>CARP</acronym> device must first be created and
 	referred to in the configuration.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Enable boot-time support for <acronym>CARP</acronym> by
 	loading the <filename>if_carp.ko</filename> kernel module in
 	<filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">if_carp_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
      <para xml:lang="en">To load the module now without rebooting:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>kldload carp</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For users who prefer to use a custom kernel, include the
 	following line in the custom kernel configuration file and
 	compile the kernel as described in <xref linkend="kernelconfig"/>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">device	carp</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Next, on each host, create a <acronym>CARP</acronym>
 	device:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig carp0 create</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Set the hostname, management <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	address, the shared <acronym>IP</acronym> address, and
 	<acronym>VHID</acronym> by adding the required lines to
 	<filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.  Since a virtual
 	<acronym>CARP</acronym> device is used instead of an alias,
 	the actual subnet mask of <literal>/24</literal> is used
 	instead of <literal>/32</literal>.  Here are the entries for
 	<systemitem>hosta.example.org</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="<replaceable>hosta.example.org</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.3</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable>"
 cloned_interfaces="carp0"
 ifconfig_carp0="vhid <replaceable>1</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> <replaceable>192.168.1.50/24</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">On <systemitem>hostb.example.org</systemitem>:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="<replaceable>hostb.example.org</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.4</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable>"
 cloned_interfaces="carp0"
 ifconfig_carp0="vhid <replaceable>2</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> <replaceable>192.168.1.51/24</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The third machine,
 	<systemitem>hostc.example.org</systemitem>, is configured to
 	handle failover from either of the master hosts:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">hostname="<replaceable>hostc.example.org</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_<replaceable>fxp0</replaceable>="inet <replaceable>192.168.1.5</replaceable> netmask <replaceable>255.255.255.0</replaceable>"
 cloned_interfaces="carp0 carp1"
 ifconfig_carp0="vhid <replaceable>1</replaceable> advskew <replaceable>100</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> <replaceable>192.168.1.50/24</replaceable>"
 ifconfig_carp1="vhid <replaceable>2</replaceable> advskew <replaceable>100</replaceable> pass <replaceable>testpass</replaceable> <replaceable>192.168.1.51/24</replaceable>"</programlisting>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Preemption is disabled in the GENERIC FreeBSD kernel.  If
 	  preemption has been enabled with a custom kernel,
 	  <systemitem>hostc.example.org</systemitem> may not release
 	  the <acronym>IP</acronym> address back to the original
 	  content server.  The administrator can force the backup
 	  server to return the <acronym>IP</acronym> address to the
 	  master with the command:</para>
 
 	<screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig carp0 down &amp;&amp; ifconfig carp0 up</userinput></screen>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This should be done on the <filename>carp</filename>
 	  interface which corresponds to the correct host.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Once the configuration is complete, either restart
 	networking or reboot each system.  High availability is now
 	enabled.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
+  <sect1 xml:id="network-vlan">
+    <info>
+      <title xml:lang="en">VLANs</title>
+    </info>
+
+    <indexterm xml:lang="en">
+      <primary><acronym>VLANs</acronym></primary>
+    </indexterm>
+    <indexterm><primary>虛擬 LAN</primary></indexterm>
+
+    <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>VLANs</acronym> are a way of virtually dividing up a
+      network into many different subnetworks.  Each will have its own
+      broadcast domain and be isolated from the rest of the
+      <acronym>VLANs</acronym>.</para>
+
+    <para>在 FreeBSD 上，要使用 <acronym>VLANs</acronym> 必須有網路卡驅動程式的支援，要查看那些驅動程式支援 vlan，請參考 <citerefentry><refentrytitle>vlan</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> 操作手冊。</para>
+
+    <para xml:lang="en">When configuring a <acronym>VLAN</acronym>, a couple pieces of
+      information must be known.  First, which network interface?  Second,
+      what is the <acronym>VLAN</acronym> tag?</para>
+
+    <para xml:lang="en">To configure <acronym>VLANs</acronym> at run time, with a
+      <acronym>NIC</acronym> of <literal>em0</literal> and a
+      <acronym>VLAN</acronym> tag of <systemitem>5</systemitem>.  The command
+      would look like this:</para>
+
+    <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>ifconfig <replaceable>em0.5</replaceable> create vlan <replaceable>5</replaceable> vlandev <replaceable>em0</replaceable> inet 192.168.20.20/24</userinput></screen>
+
+    <note>
+      <para xml:lang="en">See how the interface name includes the <acronym>NIC</acronym>
+	driver name and the <acronym>VLAN</acronym> tag, separated by a
+	period?  This is a best practice to make maintaining the
+	<acronym>VLAN</acronym> configuration easy when many
+	<acronym>VLANs</acronym> are present on a machine.</para>
+    </note>
+
+    <para xml:lang="en">To configure <acronym>VLANs</acronym> at boot time,
+      <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> must be updated.  To duplicate the
+      configuration above, the following will need to be added:</para>
+
+    <programlisting xml:lang="en">vlans_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>="<replaceable>5</replaceable>"
+ifconfig_<replaceable>em0</replaceable>_<replaceable>5</replaceable>="inet 192.168.20.20/24"</programlisting>
+
+    <para xml:lang="en">Additional <acronym>VLANs</acronym> may be added, by simply adding
+      the tag to the <literal>vlans_<replaceable>em0</replaceable></literal>
+      field and adding an additional line configuring the network on that
+      <acronym>VLAN</acronym> tag's interface.</para>
+  </sect1>
 </chapter>
 
   </part>
 
   <part xml:id="appendices">
     <title>附錄</title>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <appendix version="5.0" xml:id="mirrors">
   <title>取得 FreeBSD</title>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mirrors-cdrom">
     <title><acronym>CD</acronym> 與 <acronym>DVD</acronym> 合集</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD <acronym>CD</acronym> and <acronym>DVD</acronym> sets
       are available from several online retailers:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<address xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Mall, Inc.
 	  <street>2420 Sand Creek Rd C-1 #347</street>
 	  <city>Brentwood</city>, <state>CA</state>
 	  <postcode>94513</postcode>
 	  <country>USA</country>
 	  Phone: <phone>+1 925 240-6652</phone>
 	  Fax: <fax>+1 925 674-0821</fax>
 	  Email: <email>info@freebsdmall.com</email>
 	  WWW: <otheraddr xlink:href="http://www.freebsdmall.com/">http://www.freebsdmall.com/</otheraddr>
 	</address>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<address xml:lang="en">Getlinux
 	  <street>78 Rue de la Croix Rochopt</street>
 	  <city>Épinay-sous-Sénart</city>
 	  <postcode>91860</postcode>
 	  <country>France</country>
 	  Email: <email>contact@getlinux.fr</email>
 	  WWW: <otheraddr xlink:href="http://www.getlinux.fr">http://www.getlinux.fr/</otheraddr>
 	</address>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<address xml:lang="en">Dr. Hinner EDV
 	  <street>Kochelseestr. 11</street>
 	  <postcode>D-81371</postcode> <city>München</city>
 	  <country>Germany</country>
 	  Phone: <phone>(0177) 428 419 0</phone>
 	  Email: <email>infow@hinner.de</email>
 	  WWW: <otheraddr xlink:href="http://www.hinner.de/linux/freebsd.html">http://www.hinner.de/linux/freebsd.html</otheraddr>
 	</address>
       </listitem>
 
 <!--
 This site is just showing the Apache test page.
       <listitem>
 	<address>
 	  Linux Distro UK
 	  <street>42 Wharfedale Road</street>
 	  <city>Margate</city>
 	  <postcode>CT9 2TB</postcode>
 	  <country>United Kingdom</country>
 	  WWW: <otheraddr
 	    xlink:href="https://linux-distro.co.uk/">https://linux-distro.co.uk/</otheraddr>
 	</address>
       </listitem>
 
 This site doesn't have any products newer than 8.1 which is now EOL'd
       <listitem>
 	<address>The Linux Emporium
 	  <street>The Techno Centre, Puma Way</street>
 	  <city>Parkside</city>
 	  <postcode>CV1 2TT</postcode>
 	  <country>United Kingdom</country>
 	  Phone: <phone>+44 (0)247 615 8121</phone>
 	  Fax: <fax>+44 1491 837016</fax>
 	  WWW: <otheraddr
 	    xlink:href="http://www.linuxemporium.co.uk/products/bsd/">http://www.linuxemporium.co.uk/products/bsd/</otheraddr>
 	</address>
       </listitem>
 -->
 
       <listitem>
 	<address xml:lang="en">Linux Center
 	  <street>Galernaya Street, 55</street>
 	  <city>Saint-Petersburg</city>
 	  <postcode>190000</postcode>
 	  <country>Russia</country>
 	  Phone: <phone>+7-812-309-06-86</phone>
 	  Email: <email>info@linuxcenter.ru</email>
 	  WWW: <otheraddr xlink:href="http://linuxcenter.ru/shop/freebsd">http://linuxcenter.ru/shop/freebsd</otheraddr>
 	</address>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mirrors-ftp">
     <title><acronym>FTP</acronym> 站</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous
       <acronym>FTP</acronym> from a worldwide set of mirror sites.
       The site <uri xlink:href="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</uri>
       is available via <acronym>HTTP</acronym> and
       <acronym>FTP</acronym>.  It is made up of many machines operated
       by the project cluster administrators and behind GeoDNS to
       direct users to the closest available mirror.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous
       <acronym>FTP</acronym> from the following mirror sites.  When
       obtaining FreeBSD via anonymous <acronym>FTP</acronym>,
       please try to use a nearby site.  The mirror sites listed as
       <quote>Primary Mirror Sites</quote> typically have the entire
       FreeBSD archive (all the currently available versions for each of
       the architectures) but faster download speeds are probably
       available from a site that is in your country or region.  The
       regional sites carry the most recent versions for the most
       popular architecture(s) but might not carry the entire FreeBSD
       archive.  All sites provide access via anonymous
       <acronym>FTP</acronym> but some sites also provide access via
       other methods.  The access methods available for each site are
       provided in parentheses after the hostname.</para>
 
     
 <para xml:lang="en"><link linkend="central-ftp">Central Servers</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-primary-ftp">Primary Mirror Sites</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-am-ftp">Armenia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-au-ftp">Australia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-at-ftp">Austria</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-br-ftp">Brazil</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ca-ftp">Canada</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-cn-ftp">China</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-cz-ftp">Czech Republic</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-dk-ftp">Denmark</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ee-ftp">Estonia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-fi-ftp">Finland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-fr-ftp">France</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-de-ftp">Germany</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-gr-ftp">Greece</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-hk-ftp">Hong Kong</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ie-ftp">Ireland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-jp-ftp">Japan</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-kr-ftp">Korea</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-lv-ftp">Latvia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-lt-ftp">Lithuania</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-nl-ftp">Netherlands</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-nz-ftp">New Zealand</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-no-ftp">Norway</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-pl-ftp">Poland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ru-ftp">Russia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-sa-ftp">Saudi Arabia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-si-ftp">Slovenia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-za-ftp">South Africa</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-es-ftp">Spain</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-se-ftp">Sweden</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ch-ftp">Switzerland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-tw-ftp">Taiwan</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ua-ftp">Ukraine</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-uk-ftp">United Kingdom</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-us-ftp">USA</link>.</para>
 
 
     
 <para xml:lang="en">(as of   UTC)</para>
 
 
     
 <variablelist>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="central-ftp"/>Central Servers</term>
     <listitem>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / ftpv6 / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-primary-ftp"/>Primary Mirror Sites</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>mirror-admin@FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp1.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp1.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / ftpv6 / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp7.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp7.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / ftpv6 / <link xlink:href="http://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp10.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp11.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp11.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp14.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp14.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp14.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp14.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-am-ftp"/>Armenia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@am.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp1.am.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp1.am.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp1.am.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp1.am.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-au-ftp"/>Australia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@au.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.au.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-at-ftp"/>Austria</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@at.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.at.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.at.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / ftpv6 / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.at.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.at.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.at.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.at.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-br-ftp"/>Brazil</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@br.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.org/">http://ftp2.br.FreeBSD.org/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.br.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-ca-ftp"/>Canada</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@ca.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.ca.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.ca.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.ca.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.ca.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-cn-ftp"/>China</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@cn.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.cn.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.cn.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-cz-ftp"/>Czech Republic</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@cz.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync / rsyncv6) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp2.cz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-dk-ftp"/>Denmark</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@dk.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / ftpv6 / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.dk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-ee-ftp"/>Estonia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@ee.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.ee.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.ee.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-fi-ftp"/>Finland</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@fi.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.fi.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.fi.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-fr-ftp"/>France</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@fr.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp1.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp1.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp1.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp1.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp7.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp7.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp8.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp8.fr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-de-ftp"/>Germany</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>de-bsd-hubs@de.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp1.de.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/">ftp://ftp1.de.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://www1.de.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/">http://www1.de.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/</link> / <link xlink:href="rsync://rsync3.de.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/">rsync://rsync3.de.FreeBSD.org/freebsd/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp2.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp7.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp8.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp8.de.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-gr-ftp"/>Greece</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@gr.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.gr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.gr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.gr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.gr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-hk-ftp"/>Hong Kong</term>
     <listitem>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.hk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.hk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-ie-ftp"/>Ireland</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@ie.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.ie.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.ie.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-jp-ftp"/>Japan</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@jp.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp7.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp7.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp8.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp8.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp9.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp9.jp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-kr-ftp"/>Korea</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@kr.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp2.kr.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-lv-ftp"/>Latvia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@lv.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.lv.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.lv.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.lv.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.lv.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-lt-ftp"/>Lithuania</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@lt.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.lt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.lt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.lt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.lt.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-nl-ftp"/>Netherlands</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@nl.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/os/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/os/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.nl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.nl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-nz-ftp"/>New Zealand</term>
     <listitem>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.nz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.nz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.nz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.nz.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-no-ftp"/>Norway</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@no.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.no.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.no.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-pl-ftp"/>Poland</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@pl.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.pl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.pl.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en">ftp2.pl.FreeBSD.org</para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-ru-ftp"/>Russia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@ru.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.ru.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.ru.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp2.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp5.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp5.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.ru.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-sa-ftp"/>Saudi Arabia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>ftpadmin@isu.net.sa</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.isu.net.sa/pub/ftp.freebsd.org/">ftp://ftp.isu.net.sa/pub/ftp.freebsd.org/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-si-ftp"/>Slovenia</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@si.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.si.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.si.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-za-ftp"/>South Africa</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@za.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-es-ftp"/>Spain</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@es.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.es.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-se-ftp"/>Sweden</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@se.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="rsync://ftp2.se.FreeBSD.org/">rsync://ftp2.se.FreeBSD.org/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="rsync://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">rsync://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="rsync://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">rsync://ftp4.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp6.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp6.se.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-ch-ftp"/>Switzerland</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@ch.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.ch.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.ch.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.ch.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.ch.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-tw-ftp"/>Taiwan</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@tw.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync / rsyncv6) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync / rsyncv6) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp6.tw.FreeBSD.org/">http://ftp6.tw.FreeBSD.org/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp7.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp7.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp8.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp8.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp11.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp11.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp11.tw.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/">http://ftp11.tw.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp12.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp12.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp13.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp13.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp14.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp14.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp15.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp15.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-ua-ftp"/>Ukraine</term>
     <listitem>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp6.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD">http://ftp6.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD</link> / <link xlink:href="rsync://ftp6.ua.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/">rsync://ftp6.ua.FreeBSD.org/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp7.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp7.ua.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-uk-ftp"/>United Kingdom</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@uk.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="rsync://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.org/ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/">rsync://ftp2.uk.FreeBSD.org/ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.uk.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
   <varlistentry>
     <term xml:lang="en"><anchor xml:id="mirrors-us-ftp"/>USA</term>
     <listitem>
       <para xml:lang="en">In case of problems, please contact the hostmaster
       <email>hostmaster@us.FreeBSD.org</email> for this domain.</para>
       <itemizedlist>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp1.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp1.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp2.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp2.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp3.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp3.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp4.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp4.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / ftpv6 / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / <link xlink:href="http://ftp4.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp4.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp5.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp5.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp6.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp6.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp8.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp8.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp10.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp10.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp11.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp11.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp13.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp13.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp13.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp13.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> / rsync) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp14.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp14.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp / <link xlink:href="http://ftp14.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">http://ftp14.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link>) </para>
         </listitem>
         <listitem>
           <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="ftp://ftp15.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp://ftp15.us.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/</link> (ftp) </para>
         </listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </listitem>
   </varlistentry>
 </variablelist>
 
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="svn">
     <title>使用 <application>Subversion</application></title>
 
     <indexterm xml:lang="en">
       <primary>Subversion</primary>
     </indexterm>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="svn-intro">
       <title>簡介</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">As of July 2012, FreeBSD uses
 	<application>Subversion</application> as the only version
 	control system for storing all of FreeBSD's source code,
 	documentation, and the Ports Collection.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><application>Subversion</application> is generally a
 	  developer tool.  Users may prefer to use
 	  <command>freebsd-update</command> (<xref linkend="updating-upgrading-freebsdupdate"/>) to update
 	  the FreeBSD base system, and <command>portsnap</command> (<xref linkend="ports-using"/>) to update the FreeBSD Ports
 	  Collection.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This section demonstrates how to install
 	<application>Subversion</application> on a FreeBSD system and
 	use it to create a local copy of a FreeBSD repository.
 	Additional information on the use of
 	<application>Subversion</application> is included.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="svn-ssl-certificates">
       <title>根 <acronym>SSL</acronym> 憑證</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Installing
 	<package role="port">security/ca_root_nss</package> allows
 	<application>Subversion</application> to verify the identity
 	of <acronym>HTTPS</acronym> repository servers.  The root
 	<acronym>SSL</acronym> certificates can be installed from a
 	port:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/security/ca_root_nss</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">or as a package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install ca_root_nss</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="svn-svnlite">
       <title xml:lang="en"><application>Svnlite</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A lightweight version of
 	<application>Subversion</application> is already installed
 	on FreeBSD as <command>svnlite</command>.  The port or package
 	version of <application>Subversion</application> is only
 	needed if the Python or Perl <acronym>API</acronym> is needed,
 	or if a later version of Subversion is desired.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The only difference from normal
 	<application>Subversion</application> use is that the command
 	name is <literal>svnlite</literal>.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="svn-install">
       <title>安裝</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <command>svnlite</command> is unavailable or the full
 	version of <application>Subversion</application> is needed,
 	then it must be installed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Subversion</application> can be installed
 	from the Ports Collection:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/ports/devel/subversion</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make install clean</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Subversion</application> can also be
 	installed as a package:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>pkg install subversion</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="svn-usage">
       <title>執行 <application>Subversion</application></title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To fetch a clean copy of the sources into a local
 	directory, use <command>svn</command>.  The files in this
 	directory are called a <emphasis>local working
 	  copy</emphasis>.</para>
 
       <warning>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Move or delete an existing destination directory before
 	  using <command>checkout</command> for the first time.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Checkout over an existing
 	  non-<command>svn</command> directory can cause conflicts
 	  between the existing files and those brought in from the
 	  repository.</para>
       </warning>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><application>Subversion</application> uses
 	<acronym>URL</acronym>s to designate a repository, taking the
 	form of <replaceable>protocol://hostname/path</replaceable>.
 	The first component of the path is the FreeBSD repository to
 	access.  There are three different repositories,
 	<literal>base</literal> for the FreeBSD base system source code,
 	<literal>ports</literal> for the Ports Collection, and
 	<literal>doc</literal> for documentation.  For example, the
 	URL
 	<literal>https://svn.FreeBSD.org/ports/head/</literal>
 	specifies the main branch of the ports repository,
 	using the <literal>https</literal> protocol.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">A checkout from a given repository is performed with a
 	command like this:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn checkout https://svn.FreeBSD.org/<replaceable>repository</replaceable>/<replaceable>branch</replaceable> <replaceable>lwcdir</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">where:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><replaceable>repository</replaceable> is one of the
 	    Project repositories: <literal>base</literal>,
 	    <literal>ports</literal>, or
 	    <literal>doc</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><replaceable>branch</replaceable> depends on the
 	    repository used.  <literal>ports</literal> and
 	    <literal>doc</literal> are mostly updated in the
 	    <literal>head</literal> branch, while
 	    <literal>base</literal> maintains the latest version of
 	    -CURRENT under <literal>head</literal> and the respective
 	    latest versions of the -STABLE branches under
 	    <literal>stable/9</literal>
 	    (9.<replaceable>x</replaceable>) and
 	    <literal>stable/10</literal>
 	    (10.<replaceable>x</replaceable>).</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><replaceable>lwcdir</replaceable> is the target
 	    directory where the contents of the specified branch
 	    should be placed.  This is usually
 	    <filename>/usr/ports</filename> for
 	    <literal>ports</literal>,
 	    <filename>/usr/src</filename> for
 	    <literal>base</literal>, and
 	    <filename>/usr/doc</filename> for
 	    <literal>doc</literal>.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This example checks out the Ports Collection from the
 	FreeBSD repository using the <acronym>HTTPS</acronym>
 	protocol, placing the local working copy in
 	<filename>/usr/ports</filename>.  If
 	<filename>/usr/ports</filename> is already
 	present but was not created by <command>svn</command>,
 	remember to rename or delete it before the checkout.</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn checkout https://svn.FreeBSD.org/ports/head /usr/ports</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Because the initial checkout must download the full
 	branch of the remote repository, it can take a while.  Please
 	be patient.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">After the initial checkout, the local working copy can be
 	updated by running:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn update <replaceable>lwcdir</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To update
 	<filename>/usr/ports</filename> created in
 	the example above, use:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>svn update /usr/ports</userinput></screen>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The update is much quicker than a checkout, only
 	transferring files that have changed.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">An alternate way of updating the local working copy after
 	checkout is provided by the <filename>Makefile</filename> in
 	the <filename>/usr/ports</filename>,
 	<filename>/usr/src</filename>, and
 	<filename>/usr/doc</filename> directories.
 	Set <varname>SVN_UPDATE</varname> and use the
 	<buildtarget xml:lang="en">update</buildtarget> target.  For example, to
 	update <filename>/usr/src</filename>:</para>
 
       <screen xml:lang="en"><prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput>
 <prompt>#</prompt> <userinput>make update SVN_UPDATE=yes</userinput></screen>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="svn-mirrors">
       <title><application>Subversion</application> 鏡像站</title>
 
       <indexterm xml:lang="en">
 	<primary>Subversion Repository</primary>
 	<secondary>Mirror Sites</secondary>
       </indexterm>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD <application>Subversion</application>
 	repository is:</para>
 
       <programlisting xml:lang="en">svn.FreeBSD.org</programlisting>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">This is
 	a publicly accessible mirror network that uses GeoDNS to
 	select an appropriate back end server.  To view the FreeBSD
 	<application>Subversion</application> repositories through a
 	browser, use <link xlink:href="https://svnweb.FreeBSD.org/">https://svnweb.FreeBSD.org/</link>.</para>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD <application>Subversion</application> mirrors
 	  previously used self-signed SSL certificates documented in
 	  this chapter.  As of July 14, 2015, all mirrors now use an
 	  official SSL certificate that will be recognized by
 	  <application>Subversion</application> if the <package role="port">security/ca_root_nss</package> port is
 	  installed.  The legacy self-signed certificates and server
 	  names are still available but are deprecated and no longer
 	  supported.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For those without the <package role="port">security/ca_root_nss</package> port
 	installed, the SHA1 and SHA256 fingerprints are:</para>
 
       <informaltable>
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Hash</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Fingerprint</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SHA1</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>E9:37:73:80:B5:32:1B:93:92:94:98:17:59:F0:FA:A2:5F:1E:DE:B9</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">SHA256</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>D5:27:1C:B6:55:E6:A8:7D:48:D5:0C:F0:DA:9D:51:60:D7:42:6A:F2:05:F1:8A:47:BE:78:A1:3A:72:06:92:60</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><acronym>HTTPS</acronym> is the preferred protocol,
 	providing protection against another computer pretending to be
 	the FreeBSD mirror (commonly known as a <quote>man in the
 	  middle</quote> attack) or otherwise trying to send bad
 	content to the end user.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If <literal>https</literal> cannot be used due to firewall
 	or other problems, <literal>svn</literal> is the next choice,
 	with slightly faster transfers.  When neither can be used, use
 	<literal>http</literal>.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For those still using deprecated server names, the SHA1
 	and SHA256 fingerprints will be one of:</para>
 
       <informaltable>
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <colspec colwidth="1*"/>
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Hash</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Fingerprint</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Legacy-SHA1</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>1C:BD:85:95:11:9F:EB:75:A5:4B:C8:A3:FE:08:E4:02:73:06:1E:61</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Legacy-SHA1</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>F6:44:AA:B9:03:89:0E:3E:8C:4D:4D:14:F0:27:E6:C7:C1:8B:17:C5</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Legacy-SHA256</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>47:35:A9:09:A3:AB:FA:20:33:36:43:C5:1A:D6:E6:FB:EB:C0:C0:83:37:D4:46:9C:A0:AB:89:7F:C2:9C:4C:A3</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Legacy-SHA256</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><literal>48:3C:84:DB:7C:27:1B:FA:D5:0B:A0:D7:E0:4C:79:AA:A3:8E:A3:FA:84:E6:32:34:7D:EB:30:E6:11:01:CF:BE</literal></entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Seeing one of these legacy certificate
 	fingerprints means it is likely that a deprecated
 	server name is being used.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>取得更多資訊</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">For other information about using
 	<application>Subversion</application>, please see the
 	<quote>Subversion Book</quote>, titled
 	<link xlink:href="http://svnbook.red-bean.com/">Version
 	  Control with Subversion</link>, or the <link xlink:href="http://subversion.apache.org/docs/">Subversion
 	  Documentation</link>.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="mirrors-rsync">
     <title>使用 <application>rsync</application></title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">These sites make FreeBSD available through the rsync
       protocol.  The <application>rsync</application> utility works in
       much the same way as the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>rcp</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry> command, but has more
       options and uses the rsync remote-update protocol which
       transfers only the differences between two sets of files, thus
       greatly speeding up the synchronization over the network.  This
       is most useful for mirror sites of the FreeBSD
       <acronym>FTP</acronym> server.  The
       <application>rsync</application> suite is available for many
       operating systems, on FreeBSD, see the <package>net/rsync</package>
       port or use the package.</para>
 
     <variablelist>
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Czech Republic</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">ftp: A partial mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Netherlands</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Russia</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp.mtu.ru/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD-Archive: The mirror of FreeBSD Archive
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Sweden</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp4.se.freebsd.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">Taiwan</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp6.tw.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">United Kingdom</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://rsync.mirrorservice.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">ftp.freebsd.org: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
 
       <varlistentry>
 	<term xml:lang="en">United States of America</term>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp-master.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">This server may only be used by FreeBSD primary mirror
 	    sites.</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: The master archive of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">acl: The FreeBSD master ACL list.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">rsync://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/</para>
 
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Available collections:</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD
 		<acronym>FTP</acronym> server.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</listitem>
       </varlistentry>
     </variablelist>
   </sect1>
 </appendix>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <appendix version="5.0" xml:id="bibliography">
 
   <title>參考書目</title>
 
-  <para xml:lang="en">While manual pages provide a definitive reference for
-    individual pieces of the FreeBSD operating system, they seldom
-    illustrate how to put the pieces together to
-    make the whole operating system run smoothly.  For this, there is
-    no substitute for a good book or users' manual on <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> system
-    administration.</para>
+  <para>雖然操作手冊提供 FreeBSD 作業系統各個部分完整的說明，卻難免有「小學而大遺」之憾，像是如何讓整個作業系統運作順暢。因此，身邊有 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 系統管理的好書以及好的使用手冊是不可或缺的。</para>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-freebsd">
     <title>FreeBSD 相關書籍</title>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">International books:</para>
+    <para>國際書籍:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://jdli.tw.FreeBSD.org/publication/book/freebsd2/index.htm">Using
-	    FreeBSD</link> (in Traditional Chinese), published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.drmaster.com.tw/">Drmaster</link>,
-	  1997.  ISBN 9-578-39435-7.</para>
+	<para><link xlink:href="http://jdli.tw.FreeBSD.org/publication/book/freebsd2/index.htm">FreeBSD 入門與應用 (光碟豪華版)</link> (繁體中文), <link xlink:href="http://www.drmaster.com.tw/">博碩文化</link>出版, 1997. ISBN 9-578-39435-7。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Unleashed (Simplified Chinese translation),
-	  published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.hzbook.com/">China Machine
-	    Press</link>.  ISBN 7-111-10201-0.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 技術內幕 (FreeBSD Unleashed 簡體中譯版), <link xlink:href="http://www.hzbook.com/">機械工業出版社</link>出版. ISBN 7-111-10201-0。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD From Scratch Second Edition (in Simplified
-	  Chinese), published by China Machine Press.  ISBN
-	  7-111-10286-X.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 使用大全第二版 (簡體中文), 機械工業出版社出版. ISBN 7-111-10286-X。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Handbook Second Edition (Simplified Chinese
-	  translation), published by <link xlink:href="http://www.ptpress.com.cn/">Posts &amp;
-	    Telecom Press</link>.  ISBN 7-115-10541-3.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD Handbook 第二版 (簡體中譯版), <link xlink:href="http://www.ptpress.com.cn/">人民郵電出版社</link>出版. ISBN 7-115-10541-3。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD &amp; Windows (in Simplified Chinese), published
-	  by <link xlink:href="http://www.tdpress.com/">China Railway
-	    Publishing House</link>.  ISBN 7-113-03845-X</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD &amp; Windows 集成組網實務 (簡體中文), <link xlink:href="http://www.tdpress.com/">中國鐵道出版社</link>出版. ISBN 7-113-03845-X。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Internet Services HOWTO (in Simplified Chinese),
-	  published by China Railway Publishing House.  ISBN
-	  7-113-03423-3</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 網站架設實務 (簡體中文), 中國鐵道出版社出版. ISBN 7-113-03423-3。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by CUTT.  ISBN
-	  4-906391-22-2 C3055 P2400E.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD (日文), CUTT 出版. ISBN 4-906391-22-2 C3055 P2400E。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.shoeisha.com/book/Detail.asp?bid=650">Complete
-	    Introduction to FreeBSD</link> (in Japanese), published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.shoeisha.co.jp/">Shoeisha Co.,
-	    Ltd</link>.  ISBN 4-88135-473-6 P3600E.</para>
+	<para><link xlink:href="http://www.shoeisha.com/book/Detail.asp?bid=650">Complete Introduction to FreeBSD</link> (日文), <link xlink:href="http://www.shoeisha.co.jp/">Shoeisha Co., Ltd</link> 出版. ISBN 4-88135-473-6 P3600E。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ascii.co.jp/pb/book1/shinkan/detail/1322785.html">Personal
-	    UNIX Starter Kit FreeBSD</link> (in Japanese), published
-	  by <link xlink:href="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII</link>.
-	  ISBN 4-7561-1733-3 P3000E.</para>
+	<para><link xlink:href="http://www.ascii.co.jp/pb/book1/shinkan/detail/1322785.html">Personal UNIX Starter Kit FreeBSD</link> (日文), <link xlink:href="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII</link> 出版. ISBN 4-7561-1733-3 P3000E。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Handbook (Japanese translation), published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII</link>.
-	  ISBN 4-7561-1580-2 P3800E.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD Handbook (日譯版), <link xlink:href="http://www.ascii.co.jp/">ASCII</link> 出版. ISBN 4-7561-1580-2 P3800E。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD mit Methode (in German), published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.cul.de">Computer und Literatur
-	    Verlag</link>/Vertrieb Hanser, 1998.  ISBN
-	  3-932311-31-0.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD mit Methode (德文), <link xlink:href="http://www.cul.de">Computer und Literatur Verlag</link>/Vertrieb Hanser 出版, 1998. ISBN 3-932311-31-0。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.mitp.de/vmi/mitp/detail/pWert/1343/">
-	    FreeBSD de Luxe</link> (in German), published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.mitp.de">Verlag Modere
-	    Industrie</link>, 2003.  ISBN 3-8266-1343-0.</para>
+	<para><link xlink:href="http://www.mitp.de/vmi/mitp/detail/pWert/1343/"> FreeBSD de Luxe</link> (德文), <link xlink:href="http://www.mitp.de">Verlag Modere Industrie</link> 出版, 2003. ISBN 3-8266-1343-0。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/FreeBSD/install-manual.html">FreeBSD
-	    Install and Utilization Manual</link> (in Japanese),
-	  published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/">Mainichi
-	    Communications Inc.</link>, 1998.  ISBN
-	  4-8399-0112-0.</para>
+	<para><link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/FreeBSD/install-manual.html">FreeBSD Install and Utilization Manual</link> (日文), <link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/">Mainichi Communications Inc.</link> 出版, 1998. ISBN 4-8399-0112-0。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Onno W Purbo, Dodi Maryanto, Syahrial Hubbany, Widjil
-	  Widodo <emphasis><link xlink:href="http://maxwell.itb.ac.id/">Building Internet
-	      Server with FreeBSD</link></emphasis> (in Indonesia
-	  Language), published by
-	  <link xlink:href="http://www.elexmedia.co.id/">Elex
-	    Media Komputindo</link>.</para>
+	<para>Onno W Purbo, Dodi Maryanto, Syahrial Hubbany, Widjil Widodo <emphasis><link xlink:href="http://maxwell.itb.ac.id/">Building Internet Server with FreeBSD</link></emphasis> (印尼文), <link xlink:href="http://www.elexmedia.co.id/">Elex Media Komputindo</link> 出版。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en">Absolute BSD: The Ultimate Guide to FreeBSD (Traditional
-	  Chinese translation), published by <link xlink:href="http://www.grandtech.com.tw/">GrandTech
-	    Press</link>, 2003.  ISBN 986-7944-92-5.</para>
+	<para>FreeBSD 完全探索 (Absolute BSD: The Ultimate Guide to FreeBSD 繁體中譯版), <link xlink:href="http://www.grandtech.com.tw/">GrandTech Press</link> 出版, 2003. ISBN 986-7944-92-5。</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.twbsd.org/cht/book/">The
-	    FreeBSD 6.0 Book</link> (in Traditional Chinese),
-	  published by Drmaster, 2006.  ISBN 9-575-27878-X.</para>
+	<para><link xlink:href="http://www.twbsd.org/cht/book/">FreeBSD 6.0 架設管理與應用</link> (繁體中文), 博碩出版, 2006. ISBN 9-575-27878-X。</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
 
-    <para xml:lang="en">English language books:</para>
+    <para>英文書籍:</para>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.absoluteFreeBSD.com/">Absolute
 	    FreeBSD, 2nd Edition: The Complete Guide to
 	    FreeBSD</link>, published by
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.nostarch.com/">No Starch
 	    Press</link>, 2007.  ISBN: 978-1-59327-151-0</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.freebsdmall.com/cgi-bin/fm/bsdcomp">
 	    The Complete FreeBSD</link>, published by
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.oreilly.com/">O'Reilly</link>,
 	  2003. ISBN: 0596005164</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.freebsd-corp-net-guide.com/">The
 	    FreeBSD Corporate Networker's Guide</link>, published by
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.awl.com/aw/">Addison-Wesley</link>,
 	  2000.  ISBN: 0201704811</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://andrsn.stanford.edu/FreeBSD/introbook/">
 	    FreeBSD: An Open-Source Operating System for Your Personal
 	    Computer</link>, published by The Bit Tree Press, 2001.
 	  ISBN: 0971204500</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Teach Yourself FreeBSD in 24 Hours, published by <link xlink:href="http://www.samspublishing.com/">Sams</link>,
 	  2002.  ISBN: 0672324245</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD 6 Unleashed, published by <link xlink:href="http://www.samspublishing.com/">Sams</link>,
 	  2006.  ISBN: 0672328755</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD: The Complete Reference, published by <link xlink:href="http://books.mcgraw-hill.com">McGrawHill</link>,
 	  2003.  ISBN: 0072224096 </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-userguides">
     <title>使用指南</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Ohio State University has written a <link xlink:href="http://www.cs.duke.edu/csl/docs/unix_course/">UNIX
 	    Introductory Course</link> which is available online in
 	  HTML and PostScript format.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">An Italian <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/it_IT.ISO8859-15/books/unix-introduction/index.html">translation</link>
 	  of this document is available as part of the FreeBSD Italian
 	  Documentation Project.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/">Jpman
 	    Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group</link>.  <link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/FreeBSD/urm.html">FreeBSD
 	    User's Reference Manual</link> (Japanese translation).
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/">Mainichi
 	    Communications Inc.</link>, 1998.  ISBN4-8399-0088-4
 	  P3800E.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ed.ac.uk/">Edinburgh
 	    University</link> has written an
 	  <link xlink:href="http://unixhelp.ed.ac.uk/">Online
 	    Guide</link> for newcomers to the UNIX environment.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-adminguides">
     <title>管理指南</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/">Jpman
 	    Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group</link>.  <link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/FreeBSD/sam.html">FreeBSD
 	    System Administrator's Manual</link> (Japanese
 	  translation).
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.pc.mycom.co.jp/">Mainichi
 	    Communications Inc.</link>, 1998.  ISBN4-8399-0109-0
 	  P3300E.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Dreyfus, Emmanuel.  <link xlink:href="http://www.eyrolles.com/Informatique/Livre/9782212114638/">Cahiers
 	    de l'Admin: BSD</link> 2nd Ed. (in French), Eyrolles,
 	  2004.  ISBN 2-212-11463-X</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-programmers">
     <title>開發指南</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley.
 	  <emphasis>4.4BSD Programmer's Reference Manual</emphasis>.
 	  O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1994.  ISBN
 	  1-56592-078-3</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley.
 	  <emphasis>4.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary
 	    Documents</emphasis>.  O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc.,
 	  1994.  ISBN 1-56592-079-1</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L. Jr.  <emphasis>C:
 	    A Reference Manual</emphasis>.  4th Ed. Prentice Hall,
 	  1995.  ISBN 0-13-326224-3</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Kernighan, Brian and Dennis M. Ritchie.  <emphasis>The C
 	    Programming Language</emphasis>.  2nd Ed. PTR Prentice
 	  Hall, 1988.  ISBN 0-13-110362-8</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Lehey, Greg.  <emphasis>Porting UNIX
 	    Software</emphasis>.  O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc.,
 	  1995.  ISBN 1-56592-126-7</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Plauger, P. J. <emphasis>The Standard C
 	    Library</emphasis>.  Prentice Hall, 1992.  ISBN
 	  0-13-131509-9</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Spinellis, Diomidis.  <link xlink:href="http://www.spinellis.gr/codereading/"><emphasis>Code
 	      Reading: The Open Source Perspective</emphasis></link>.
 	  Addison-Wesley, 2003.  ISBN 0-201-79940-5</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Spinellis, Diomidis.  <link xlink:href="http://www.spinellis.gr/codequality/"><emphasis>Code
 	      Quality: The Open Source Perspective</emphasis></link>.
 	  Addison-Wesley, 2006.  ISBN 0-321-16607-8</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Stevens, W. Richard and Stephen A. Rago.
 	  <emphasis>Advanced Programming in the UNIX
 	    Environment</emphasis>.  2nd Ed. Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 2005.  ISBN 0-201-43307-9</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Stevens, W. Richard.  <emphasis>UNIX Network
 	    Programming</emphasis>.  2nd Ed, PTR Prentice Hall, 1998.
 	  ISBN 0-13-490012-X</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-osinternals">
     <title>深入作業系統</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Andleigh, Prabhat K.  <emphasis>UNIX System
 	    Architecture</emphasis>.  Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1990.  ISBN
 	  0-13-949843-5</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Jolitz, William.  <quote>Porting UNIX to the
 	    386</quote>.  <emphasis>Dr. Dobb's Journal</emphasis>.
 	  January 1991-July 1992.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J
 	  Karels and John Quarterman <emphasis>The Design and
 	    Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating
 	    System</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1989.
 	  ISBN 0-201-06196-1</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick,
 	  <emphasis>The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX
 	    Operating System: Answer Book</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass.
 	  : Addison-Wesley, 1991.  ISBN 0-201-54629-9</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">McKusick, Marshall Kirk, Keith Bostic, Michael J Karels,
 	  and John Quarterman.  <emphasis>The Design and
 	    Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System</emphasis>.
 	  Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996.  ISBN
 	  0-201-54979-4</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">(Chapter 2 of this book is available <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/design-44bsd/book.html">online</link>
 	  as part of the FreeBSD Documentation Project.)</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Marshall Kirk McKusick, George V. Neville-Neil
 	  <emphasis>The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD
 	    Operating System</emphasis>.  Boston, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 2004.  ISBN 0-201-70245-2</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Marshall Kirk McKusick, George V. Neville-Neil,
 	  Robert N. M. Watson <emphasis>The Design and Implementation
 	    of the FreeBSD Operating System, 2nd Ed.</emphasis>.
 	  Westford, Mass. : Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.
 	  ISBN 0-321-96897-2</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Stevens, W. Richard.  <emphasis>TCP/IP Illustrated,
 	    Volume 1: The Protocols</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1996.  ISBN 0-201-63346-9</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Schimmel, Curt.  <emphasis>Unix Systems for Modern
 	    Architectures</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1994.  ISBN 0-201-63338-8</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Stevens, W. Richard.  <emphasis>TCP/IP Illustrated,
 	    Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP and the UNIX
 	    Domain Protocols</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1996.  ISBN 0-201-63495-3</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Vahalia, Uresh.  <emphasis>UNIX Internals -- The New
 	    Frontiers</emphasis>.  Prentice Hall, 1996.  ISBN
 	  0-13-101908-2</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Wright, Gary R. and W. Richard Stevens.
 	  <emphasis>TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The
 	    Implementation</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1995.  ISBN 0-201-63354-X</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-security">
     <title>安全性參考文獻</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Cheswick, William R. and Steven M. Bellovin.
 	  <emphasis>Firewalls and Internet Security: Repelling the
 	    Wily Hacker</emphasis>.  Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley,
 	  1995.  ISBN 0-201-63357-4</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Garfinkel, Simson.  <emphasis>PGP Pretty Good
 	    Privacy</emphasis> O'Reilly &amp; Associates, Inc., 1995.
 	  ISBN 1-56592-098-8</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-hardware">
     <title>硬體參考文獻</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Anderson, Don and Tom Shanley.  <emphasis>Pentium
 	    Processor System Architecture</emphasis>.  2nd Ed.
 	  Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995.  ISBN
 	  0-201-40992-5</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Ferraro, Richard F.  <emphasis>Programmer's Guide to the
 	    EGA, VGA, and Super VGA Cards</emphasis>.  3rd ed.
 	  Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995.  ISBN
 	  0-201-62490-7</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Intel Corporation publishes documentation on their CPUs,
 	  chipsets and standards on their
 	  <link xlink:href="http://developer.intel.com/">developer web
 	    site</link>, usually as PDF files.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Shanley, Tom.  <emphasis>80486 System
 	    Architecture</emphasis>.  3rd Ed. Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1995.  ISBN 0-201-40994-1</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Shanley, Tom.  <emphasis>ISA System
 	    Architecture</emphasis>.  3rd Ed. Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1995.  ISBN 0-201-40996-8</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Shanley, Tom.  <emphasis>PCI System
 	    Architecture</emphasis>.  4th Ed. Reading, Mass. :
 	  Addison-Wesley, 1999.  ISBN 0-201-30974-2</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Van Gilluwe, Frank.  <emphasis>The Undocumented
 	    PC</emphasis>, 2nd Ed.  Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub.
 	  Co., 1996.  ISBN 0-201-47950-8</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Messmer, Hans-Peter.  <emphasis>The Indispensable PC
 	    Hardware Book</emphasis>, 4th Ed. Reading, Mass :
 	  Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 2002.  ISBN 0-201-59616-4</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-history">
     <title><trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 歷史</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Lion, John <emphasis>Lion's Commentary on UNIX, 6th Ed.
 	    With Source Code</emphasis>.  ITP Media Group, 1996.  ISBN
 	  1573980137</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Raymond, Eric S.  <emphasis>The New Hacker's Dictionary,
 	    3rd edition</emphasis>.  MIT Press, 1996.  ISBN
 	  0-262-68092-0.  Also known as the <link xlink:href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/index.html">Jargon
 	    File</link></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Salus, Peter H.  <emphasis>A quarter century of
 	    UNIX</emphasis>.  Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.,
 	  1994.  ISBN 0-201-54777-5</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Simon Garfinkel, Daniel Weise, Steven Strassmann.
 	  <emphasis>The UNIX-HATERS Handbook</emphasis>.  IDG Books
 	  Worldwide, Inc., 1994.  ISBN 1-56884-203-1.  Out of print,
 	  but available <link xlink:href="http://www.simson.net/ref/ugh.pdf">online</link>.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Don Libes, Sandy Ressler <emphasis>Life with
 	    UNIX</emphasis> — special edition.  Prentice-Hall,
 	  Inc., 1989.  ISBN 0-13-536657-7</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>The BSD family tree</emphasis>.
 	  <uri xlink:href="https://svnweb.freebsd.org/base/head/share/misc/bsd-family-tree?view=co">https://svnweb.freebsd.org/base/head/share/misc/bsd-family-tree?view=co</uri>
 	  or <link xlink:href="file://localhost/usr/share/misc/bsd-family-tree"><filename>/usr/share/misc/bsd-family-tree</filename></link>
 	  on a FreeBSD machine.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Networked Computer Science Technical Reports
 	    Library</emphasis>.  <uri xlink:href="http://www.ncstrl.org/">http://www.ncstrl.org/</uri></para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Old BSD releases from the Computer Systems
 	    Research group (CSRG)</emphasis>.  <uri xlink:href="http://www.mckusick.com/csrg/">http://www.mckusick.com/csrg/</uri>:
 	  The 4CD set covers all BSD versions from 1BSD to 4.4BSD and
 	  4.4BSD-Lite2 (but not 2.11BSD, unfortunately).  The last
 	  disk also holds the final sources plus the SCCS
 	  files.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="bibliography-journals">
     <title>期刊與雜誌</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.admin-magazin.de/">Admin
 	    Magazin</link> (in German), published by
 	  Medialinx AG. ISSN: 2190-1066</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.bsdmag.org/">BSD
 	    Magazine</link>, published by Software Press Sp. z o.o.
 	  SK. ISSN: 1898-9144</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.bsdnow.tv/">BSD Now
 	    — Video Podcast</link>, published by
 	  Jupiter Broadcasting LLC</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://bsdtalk.blogspot.com/">BSD
 	    Talk Podcast</link>, by Will Backman</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://freebsdjournal.com/">FreeBSD
 	    Journal</link>, published by S&amp;W
 	  Publishing, sponsored by The FreeBSD Foundation.
 	  ISBN: 978-0-615-88479-0</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 </appendix>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <appendix version="5.0" xml:id="eresources">
 
   <title>網路資源</title>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">The rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media
     impractical as a means of following the latest developments.
     Electronic resources are the best, if not often the only, way to
     stay informed of the latest advances.  Since FreeBSD is a volunteer
     effort, the user community itself also generally serves as a
     <quote>technical support department</quote> of sorts, with
     electronic mail, web forums, and USENET news being the most
     effective way of reaching that community.</para>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user
     community are outlined below.  Please send other resources not
     mentioned here to the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-doc">FreeBSD documentation project mailing list</link> so that they may also be
     included.</para>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="eresources-www">
     <title>網站</title>
 
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://forums.FreeBSD.org/">The
 	    FreeBSD Forums</link> provide a web based discussion forum
 	  for FreeBSD questions and technical
 	  discussion.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
-	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://planet.freebsdish.org/">Planet
+	<para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://planet.freebsd.org/">Planet
 	  FreeBSD</link> offers an aggregation feed of dozens of blogs
 	  written by FreeBSD developers.  Many developers use this to
 	  post quick notes about what they are working on, new
 	  patches, and other works in progress.</para>
       </listitem>
 
       <listitem>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <link xlink:href="http://www.youtube.com/bsdconferences">BSDConferences
 	    YouTube Channel</link> provides a collection of high
 	  quality videos from BSD conferences around the world.
 	  This is a great way to watch key developers give
 	  presentations about new work in FreeBSD.</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="eresources-mail">
     <title>郵遞論壇 (Mailing List)</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The mailing lists are the most direct way of addressing
       questions or opening a technical discussion to a concentrated
       FreeBSD audience.  There are a wide variety of lists on a number of
       different FreeBSD topics.  Sending questions to the most
       appropriate mailing list will invariably assure a faster and
       more accurate response.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom
       of this document.  <emphasis>Please read the charter before
       joining or sending mail to any list</emphasis>.  Most list
       subscribers receive many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages every
       day, and the charters and rules for use are meant to keep the
       signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high.  To do less would see
       the mailing lists ultimately fail as an effective communications
       medium for the Project.</para>
 
     <note>
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>To test the ability to send email to FreeBSD lists,
 	  send a test message to <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-test">freebsd-test</link>.</emphasis>  Please do
 	not send test messages to any other list.</para>
     </note>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">When in doubt about what list to post a question to, see
       <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/freebsd-questions">How to get
 	best results from the FreeBSD-questions mailing
 	list</link>.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Before posting to any list, please learn about how to best
       use the mailing lists, such as how to help avoid
       frequently-repeated discussions, by reading the
       <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/mailing-list-faq">Mailing List
 	Frequently Asked Questions</link> (FAQ) document.</para>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be
       searched using the
       <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/search/index.html">FreeBSD World Wide
 	Web server</link>.  The keyword searchable archive offers an
       excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions
       and should be consulted before posting a question.  Note that
       this also means that messages sent to FreeBSD mailing lists are
       archived in perpetuity.  When protecting privacy is a concern,
       consider using a disposable secondary email address and posting
       only public information.</para>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="eresources-summary">
       <title>論壇摘要</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>General lists:</emphasis> The following are
 	general lists which anyone is free (and encouraged) to
 	join:</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">List</entry>
 	      <entry>用途</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-advocacy">freebsd-advocacy</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Evangelism</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-announce">freebsd-announce</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Important events and Project milestones
 		(moderated)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-arch">freebsd-arch</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Architecture and design discussions</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-bugbusters">freebsd-bugbusters</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussions pertaining to the maintenance of
 		the FreeBSD problem report database and related
 		tools</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-bugs">freebsd-bugs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Bug reports</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-chat">freebsd-chat</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Non-technical items related to the FreeBSD
 		community</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-chromium">freebsd-chromium</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD-specific Chromium issues</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">freebsd-current</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion concerning the use of
 		FreeBSD-CURRENT</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-isp">freebsd-isp</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Issues for Internet Service Providers using
 		FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-jobs">freebsd-jobs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD employment and consulting
 		opportunities</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-questions">freebsd-questions</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">User questions and technical support</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security-notifications">freebsd-security-notifications</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Security notifications (moderated)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-stable">freebsd-stable</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion concerning the use of
 		FreeBSD-STABLE</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-test">freebsd-test</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Where to send test messages instead of to
 		one of the actual lists</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Technical lists:</emphasis> The following lists
 	are for technical discussion.  Read the charter for each list
 	carefully before joining or sending mail to one as there are
 	firm guidelines for their use and content.</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">List</entry>
 	      <entry>用途</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-acpi">freebsd-acpi</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ACPI and power management development</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-afs">freebsd-afs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting AFS to FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/aic7xxx">freebsd-aic7xxx</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Developing drivers for the <trademark class="registered">Adaptec</trademark>
 		AIC 7xxx</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-amd64">freebsd-amd64</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to AMD64 systems (moderated)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-apache">freebsd-apache</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion about
 		<application>Apache</application> related
 		ports</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-arm">freebsd-arm</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark> processors</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-atm">freebsd-atm</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using ATM networking with FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-bluetooth">freebsd-bluetooth</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using <trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark> technology in FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-cloud">freebsd-cloud</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD on cloud platforms (EC2, GCE, Azure,
 		etc.)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-cluster">freebsd-cluster</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using FreeBSD in a clustered environment</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-database">freebsd-database</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussing database use and development under
 		FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-desktop">freebsd-desktop</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using and improving FreeBSD on the desktop</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-doc">freebsd-doc</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Creating FreeBSD related documents</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-drivers">freebsd-drivers</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Writing device drivers for FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-dtrace">freebsd-dtrace</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using and working on DTrace in FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-eclipse">freebsd-eclipse</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD users of Eclipse IDE, tools, rich client
 		applications and ports.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-embedded">freebsd-embedded</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using FreeBSD in embedded applications</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-eol">freebsd-eol</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Peer support of FreeBSD-related software that
 		is no longer supported by the FreeBSD Project.</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-emulation">freebsd-emulation</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Emulation of other systems such as
 		Linux/<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-enlightenment">freebsd-enlightenment</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting <application>Enlightenment</application>
 		and <application>Enlightenment</application>
 		applications</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-firewire">freebsd-firewire</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD <trademark class="registered">FireWire</trademark> (iLink, IEEE 1394) technical
 		discussion</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-fortran">freebsd-fortran</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Fortran on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-fs">freebsd-fs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">File systems</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-games">freebsd-games</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Support for Games on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-gecko">freebsd-gecko</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Gecko Rendering
 		  Engine</application> issues</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-geom">freebsd-geom</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">GEOM-specific discussions and
 		implementations</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-git">freebsd-git</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion of git use in the FreeBSD project</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-gnome">freebsd-gnome</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting <application>GNOME</application> and
 		<application>GNOME</application> applications</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hackers">freebsd-hackers</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">General technical discussion</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hardware">freebsd-hardware</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">General discussion of hardware for running
 		FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-i18n">freebsd-i18n</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Internationalization</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ia32">freebsd-ia32</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD on the IA-32 (<trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> x86)
 		platform</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ia64">freebsd-ia64</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark>'s upcoming IA64
 		systems</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-infiniband">freebsd-infiniband</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Infiniband on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ipfw">freebsd-ipfw</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Technical discussion concerning the redesign
 		of the IP firewall code</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-isdn">freebsd-isdn</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">ISDN developers</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-jail">freebsd-jail</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion about the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>jail</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 		facility</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-java">freebsd-java</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><trademark>Java</trademark> developers and people porting <trademark>JDK</trademark>s to
 		FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-lfs">freebsd-lfs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting LFS to FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-mips">freebsd-mips</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to <trademark class="registered">MIPS</trademark></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-mobile">freebsd-mobile</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussions about mobile computing</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-mono">freebsd-mono</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Mono and C# applications on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-multimedia">freebsd-multimedia</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Multimedia applications</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-new-bus">freebsd-new-bus</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Technical discussions about bus
 		architecture</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-net">freebsd-net</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Networking discussion and TCP/IP source
 		code</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-numerics">freebsd-numerics</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussions of high quality implementation of
 		libm functions</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-office">freebsd-office</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Office applications on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-performance">freebsd-performance</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Performance tuning questions for high
 		performance/load installations</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-perl">freebsd-perl</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Maintenance of a number of
 		Perl-related ports</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pf">freebsd-pf</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion and questions about the packet filter
 		firewall system</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pkg">freebsd-pkg</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Binary package management and package
 		tools discussion</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pkg-fallout">freebsd-pkg-fallout</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Fallout logs from package building</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pkgbase">freebsd-pkgbase</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Packaging the FreeBSD base system</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-platforms">freebsd-platforms</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Concerning ports to non <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> architecture
 		platforms</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports">freebsd-ports</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion of the Ports Collection</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports-announce">freebsd-ports-announce</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Important news and instructions about the Ports
 		Collection (moderated)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports-bugs">freebsd-ports-bugs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion of the ports bugs/PRs</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ppc">freebsd-ppc</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to the <trademark class="registered">PowerPC</trademark></entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-proliant">freebsd-proliant</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Technical discussion of FreeBSD on HP ProLiant
 		server platforms</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-python">freebsd-python</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD-specific Python issues</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-rc">freebsd-rc</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion related to the
 		<filename>rc.d</filename> system and its
 		development</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-realtime">freebsd-realtime</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Development of realtime extensions to
 		FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ruby">freebsd-ruby</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD-specific Ruby discussions</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-scsi">freebsd-scsi</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">The SCSI subsystem</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security">freebsd-security</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Security issues affecting FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-small">freebsd-small</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Using FreeBSD in embedded applications
 		(obsolete; use <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-embedded">freebsd-embedded</link> instead)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-snapshots">freebsd-snapshots</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Development Snapshot Announcements</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-sparc64">freebsd-sparc64</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to <trademark class="registered">SPARC</trademark> based systems</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-standards">freebsd-standards</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD's conformance to the C99 and the <trademark class="registered">POSIX</trademark>
 		standards</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-sysinstall">freebsd-sysinstall</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><citerefentry><refentrytitle>sysinstall</refentrytitle><manvolnum>8</manvolnum></citerefentry> development</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-tcltk">freebsd-tcltk</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD-specific Tcl/Tk discussions</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-testing">freebsd-testing</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Testing on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-tex">freebsd-tex</link></entry>
 
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting <application>TeX</application> and its
 		applications to FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-threads">freebsd-threads</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Threading in FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-tilera">freebsd-tilera</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Porting FreeBSD to the Tilera family of
 		CPUs</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-tokenring">freebsd-tokenring</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Support Token Ring in FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-toolchain">freebsd-toolchain</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Maintenance of FreeBSD's integrated
 		toolchain</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-translators">freebsd-translators</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Translating FreeBSD documents and programs</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-transport">freebsd-transport</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussions of transport level network protocols
 		in FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-usb">freebsd-usb</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussing FreeBSD support for USB</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-virtualization">freebsd-virtualization</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion of various virtualization techniques
 		supported by FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-vuxml">freebsd-vuxml</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion on VuXML infrastructure</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-x11">freebsd-x11</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Maintenance and support of X11 on FreeBSD</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-xen">freebsd-xen</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussion of the FreeBSD port to <trademark>Xen</trademark> —
 		implementation and usage</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-xfce">freebsd-xfce</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><application>XFCE</application> for FreeBSD —
 		porting and maintaining</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-zope">freebsd-zope</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><application>Zope</application> for FreeBSD —
 		porting and maintaining</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Limited lists:</emphasis>  The following lists
 	are for more specialized (and demanding) audiences and are
 	probably not of interest to the general public.  It is also a
 	good idea to establish a presence in the technical lists
 	before joining one of these limited lists in order to
 	understand the communications etiquette involved.</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="2">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">List</entry>
 	      <entry>用途</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hubs">freebsd-hubs</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">People running mirror sites (infrastructural
 		support)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-user-groups">freebsd-user-groups</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">User group coordination</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-wip-status">freebsd-wip-status</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">FreeBSD Work-In-Progress Status</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-wireless">freebsd-wireless</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Discussions of 802.11 stack, tools, device driver
 		development</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Digest lists:</emphasis>  All of the above lists
 	are available in a digest format.  Once subscribed to a list,
 	the digest options can be changed in the account options
 	section.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>SVN lists:</emphasis> The following lists are
 	for people interested in seeing the log messages for changes
 	to various areas of the source tree.  They are
 	<emphasis>Read-Only</emphasis> lists and should not have mail
 	sent to them.</para>
 
       <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
 	<tgroup cols="3">
 	  <thead>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">List</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Source area</entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">Area Description (source for)</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </thead>
 
 	  <tbody>
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-doc-all">svn-doc-all</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/doc</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the doc Subversion repository
 		(except for <filename>user</filename>,
 		<filename>projects</filename> and
 		<filename>translations</filename>)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-doc-head">svn-doc-head</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/doc</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <quote>head</quote> branch of
 		the doc Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-doc-projects">svn-doc-projects</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/doc/projects</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>projects</filename>
 		area of the doc Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-doc-svnadmin">svn-doc-svnadmin</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/doc</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the administrative scripts, hooks,
 		and other configuration data of the doc Subversion
 		repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-ports-all">svn-ports-all</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/ports</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the ports Subversion
 		repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-ports-head">svn-ports-head</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/ports</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <quote>head</quote> branch
 		of the ports Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-ports-svnadmin">svn-ports-svnadmin</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/ports</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the administrative scripts, hooks,
 		and other configuration data of the ports Subversion
 		repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-all">svn-src-all</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the src Subversion repository
 		(except for <filename>user</filename>
 		and <filename>projects</filename>)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-head">svn-src-head</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <quote>head</quote> branch
 		of the src Subversion repository (the FreeBSD-CURRENT
 		branch)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-projects">svn-src-projects</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/projects</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>projects</filename>
 		area of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-release">svn-src-release</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>releases</filename>
 		area of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-releng">svn-src-releng</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>releng</filename>
 		branches of the src Subversion repository (the
 		security / release engineering branches)</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable">svn-src-stable</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the all stable branches of the src
 		Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-6">svn-src-stable-6</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>stable/6</filename>
 		branch of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-7">svn-src-stable-7</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>stable/7</filename>
 		branch of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-8">svn-src-stable-8</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>stable/8</filename>
 		branch of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-9">svn-src-stable-9</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>stable/9</filename>
 		branch of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-10">svn-src-stable-10</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the <filename>stable/10</filename>
 		branch of the src Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-stable-other">svn-src-stable-other</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the
 		older <filename>stable</filename> branches of the src
 		Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-svnadmin">svn-src-svnadmin</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the administrative scripts, hooks,
 		and other configuration data of the src Subversion
 		repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-user">svn-src-user</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the
 		experimental <filename>user</filename> area of the src
 		Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 
 	    <row>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/svn-src-vendor">svn-src-vendor</link></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en"><filename>/usr/src</filename></entry>
 	      <entry xml:lang="en">All changes to the vendor work area of the src
 		Subversion repository</entry>
 	    </row>
 	  </tbody>
 	</tgroup>
       </informaltable>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="eresources-subscribe">
       <title>如何訂閱</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To subscribe to a list, click the list name at
 	<link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo">http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo</link>.  The page that is displayed should
 	contain all of the necessary subscription instructions for
 	that list.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To actually post to a given list, send mail to
 	<email><replaceable>listname</replaceable>@FreeBSD.org</email>.
 	It will then be redistributed to mailing list members
 	world-wide.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">To unsubscribe from a list, click on the URL found at the
 	bottom of every email received from the list.  It is also
 	possible to send an email to
 	<email><replaceable>listname</replaceable>-unsubscribe@FreeBSD.org</email>
 	to unsubscribe.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">It is important to keep discussion in the technical
 	mailing lists on a technical track.  To only receive important
 	announcements, instead join the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-announce">FreeBSD announcements mailing list</link>, which is
 	intended for infrequent traffic.</para>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="eresources-charters">
       <title>論壇章程</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>All</emphasis> FreeBSD mailing lists have certain
 	basic rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them.
 	Failure to comply with these guidelines will result in two (2)
 	written warnings from the FreeBSD Postmaster
 	<email>postmaster@FreeBSD.org</email>, after which, on a third
 	offense, the poster will removed from all FreeBSD mailing lists
 	and filtered from further posting to them.  We regret that
 	such rules and measures are necessary at all, but today's
 	Internet is a pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and
 	many fail to appreciate just how fragile some of its
 	mechanisms are.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Rules of the road:</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic
 	    charter of the list it is posted to.  If the list is about
 	    technical issues, the posting should contain technical
 	    discussion.  Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming only
 	    detracts from the value of the mailing list for everyone
 	    on it and will not be tolerated.  For free-form discussion
 	    on no particular topic, the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-chat">FreeBSD chat mailing list</link> is freely available
 	    and should be used instead.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing
 	    lists, and only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post
 	    to both lists exists.  For most lists, there is already a
 	    great deal of subscriber overlap and except for the most
 	    esoteric mixes (say <quote>-stable &amp; -scsi</quote>),
 	    there really is no reason to post to more than one list at
 	    a time.  If a message is received with multiple mailing
 	    lists on the <literal>Cc</literal> line, trim the
 	    <literal>Cc</literal> line before replying.  <emphasis>The
 	      person who replies is still responsible for
 	      cross-posting, no matter who the originator might have
 	      been.</emphasis></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an
 	    argument) are not allowed, and that includes users and
 	    developers alike.  Gross breaches of netiquette, like
 	    excerpting or reposting private mail when permission to do
 	    so was not and would not be forthcoming, are frowned upon
 	    but not specifically enforced.
 	    <emphasis>However</emphasis>, there are also very few
 	    cases where such content would fit within the charter of a
 	    list and it would therefore probably rate a warning (or
 	    ban) on that basis alone.</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services
 	    is strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban
 	    if it is clear that the offender is advertising by
 	    spam.</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Individual list charters:</emphasis></para>
 
       <variablelist>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-acpi">freebsd-acpi</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>ACPI and power management
 		development</emphasis></para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-afs">freebsd-afs</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Andrew File System</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list is for discussion on porting and using
 	      AFS from CMU/Transarc</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-announce">freebsd-announce</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Important events /
 		milestones</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for people interested only
 	      in occasional announcements of significant FreeBSD events.
 	      This includes announcements about snapshots and other
 	      releases.  It contains announcements of new FreeBSD
 	      capabilities.  It may contain calls for volunteers etc.
 	      This is a low volume, strictly moderated mailing
 	      list.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-arch">freebsd-arch</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Architecture and design
 		discussions</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list is for discussion of the FreeBSD
 	      architecture.  Messages will mostly be kept strictly
 	      technical in nature.  Examples of suitable topics
 	      are:</para>
 
 	    <itemizedlist>
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">How to re-vamp the build system to have several
 		  customized builds running at the same time.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">What needs to be fixed with VFS to make
 		  Heidemann layers work.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">How do we change the device driver interface
 		  to be able to use the same drivers cleanly on many
 		  buses and architectures.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para xml:lang="en">How to write a network driver.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </itemizedlist>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-bluetooth">freebsd-bluetooth</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark> in FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the forum where FreeBSD's <trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark> users
 	      congregate.  Design issues, implementation details,
 	      patches, bug reports, status reports, feature requests,
 	      and all matters related to <trademark class="registered">Bluetooth</trademark> are fair
 	      game.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-bugbusters">freebsd-bugbusters</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Coordination of the Problem Report
 		handling effort</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The purpose of this list is to serve as a
 	      coordination and discussion forum for the Bugmeister,
 	      his Bugbusters, and any other parties who have a genuine
 	      interest in the PR database.  This list is not for
 	      discussions about specific bugs, patches or PRs.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-bugs">freebsd-bugs</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Bug reports</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD.
 	      Whenever possible, bugs should be submitted using the
 	      <link xlink:href="https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/enter_bug.cgi">web
 		interface</link> to it.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-chat">freebsd-chat</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Non technical items related to the FreeBSD
 		community</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list contains the overflow from the other lists
 	      about non-technical, social information.  It includes
 	      discussion about whether Jordan looks like a toon ferret
 	      or not, whether or not to type in capitals, who is
 	      drinking too much coffee, where the best beer is brewed,
 	      who is brewing beer in their basement, and so on.
 	      Occasional announcements of important events (such as
 	      upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can
 	      be made to the technical lists, but the follow ups
 	      should be directed to this -chat list.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-chromium">freebsd-chromium</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>FreeBSD-specific Chromium
 		issues</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a list for the discussion of Chromium
 	      support for FreeBSD.  This is a technical list to
 	      discuss development and installation of Chromium.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-cloud">freebsd-cloud</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Running FreeBSD on various cloud
 		platforms</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list discusses running FreeBSD on Amazon EC2,
 	      Google Compute Engine, Microsoft Azure, and other cloud
 	      computing platforms.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en">freebsd-core</term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>FreeBSD core team</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is an internal mailing list for use by the core
 	      members.  Messages can be sent to it when a serious
 	      FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or
 	      high-level scrutiny.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current">freebsd-current</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussions about the use of
 		FreeBSD-CURRENT</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for users of FreeBSD-CURRENT.
 	      It includes warnings about new features coming out in
 	      -CURRENT that will affect the users, and instructions
 	      on steps that must be taken to remain -CURRENT.  Anyone
 	      running <quote>CURRENT</quote> must subscribe to this
 	      list.  This is a technical mailing list for which
 	      strictly technical content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-desktop">freebsd-desktop</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Using and improving FreeBSD on the
 		desktop</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for discussion of FreeBSD on the
 	      desktop.  It is primarily a place for desktop porters
 	      and users to discuss issues and improve FreeBSD's desktop
 	      support.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-doc">freebsd-doc</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Documentation Project</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This mailing list is for the discussion of issues
 	      and projects related to the creation of documentation
 	      for FreeBSD.  The members of this mailing list are
 	      collectively referred to as <quote>The FreeBSD
 	      Documentation Project</quote>.  It is an open list; feel
 	      free to join and contribute!</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-drivers">freebsd-drivers</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Writing device drivers for
 		FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for technical discussions related to
 	      device drivers on FreeBSD.  It is primarily a place for
 	      device driver writers to ask questions about how to
 	      write device drivers using the APIs in the FreeBSD
 	      kernel.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-dtrace">freebsd-dtrace</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Using and working on DTrace in
 		FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">DTrace is an integrated component of FreeBSD that
 	      provides a framework for understanding the kernel as
 	      well as user space programs at run time.  The mailing
 	      list is an archived discussion for developers of the
 	      code as well as those using it.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-eclipse">freebsd-eclipse</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>FreeBSD users of Eclipse IDE, tools, rich
 		client applications and ports.</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The intention of this list is to provide mutual
 	      support for everything to do with choosing, installing,
 	      using, developing and maintaining the Eclipse IDE,
 	      tools, rich client applications on the FreeBSD platform and
 	      assisting with the porting of Eclipse IDE and plugins to
 	      the FreeBSD environment.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The intention is also to facilitate exchange of
 	      information between the Eclipse community and the FreeBSD
 	      community to the mutual benefit of both.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Although this list is focused primarily on the needs
 	      of Eclipse users it will also provide a forum for those
 	      who would like to develop FreeBSD specific applications
 	      using the Eclipse framework.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-embedded">freebsd-embedded</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Using FreeBSD in embedded
 		applications</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list discusses topics related to using FreeBSD in
 	      embedded systems.  This is a technical mailing list for
 	      which strictly technical content is expected.  For the
 	      purpose of this list, embedded systems are those
 	      computing devices which are not desktops and which
 	      usually serve a single purpose as opposed to being
 	      general computing environments.  Examples include, but
 	      are not limited to, all kinds of phone handsets, network
 	      equipment such as routers, switches and PBXs, remote
 	      measuring equipment, PDAs, Point Of Sale systems, and so
 	      on.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-emulation">freebsd-emulation</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Emulation of other systems such as
 		Linux/<trademark class="registered">MS-DOS</trademark>/<trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark></emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for technical discussions related
 	      to running programs written for other operating systems
 	      on FreeBSD.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-enlightenment">freebsd-enlightenment</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Enlightenment</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions concerning the
 	      <application>Enlightenment</application> Desktop
 	      Environment for FreeBSD systems.  This is a technical
 	      mailing list for which strictly technical content is
 	      expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-eol">freebsd-eol</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Peer support of FreeBSD-related software
 		that is no longer supported by the FreeBSD
 		Project.</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list is for those interested in providing or
 	      making use of peer support of FreeBSD-related software for
 	      which the FreeBSD Project no longer provides official
 	      support in the form of security advisories and
 	      patches.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-firewire">freebsd-firewire</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><trademark class="registered">FireWire</trademark> (iLink, IEEE
 		1394)</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a mailing list for discussion of the design
 	      and implementation of a <trademark class="registered">FireWire</trademark> (aka IEEE 1394 aka
 	      iLink) subsystem for FreeBSD.  Relevant topics specifically
 	      include the standards, bus devices and their protocols,
 	      adapter boards/cards/chips sets, and the architecture
 	      and implementation of code for their proper
 	      support.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-fortran">freebsd-fortran</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Fortran on FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for discussion of Fortran
 	      related ports on FreeBSD: compilers, libraries, scientific
 	      and engineering applications from laptops to HPC
 	      clusters.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-fs">freebsd-fs</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>File systems</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions concerning FreeBSD filesystems.  This is a
 	      technical mailing list for which strictly technical
 	      content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-games">freebsd-games</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Games on FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a technical list for discussions related to
 	      bringing games to FreeBSD.  It is for individuals actively
 	      working on porting games to FreeBSD, to bring up problems
 	      or discuss alternative solutions.  Individuals
 	      interested in following the technical discussion are
 	      also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-gecko">freebsd-gecko</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Gecko Rendering Engine</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum about
 	      <application>Gecko</application> applications using
 	      FreeBSD.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussion centers around Gecko Ports applications,
 	      their installation, their development and their support
 	      within FreeBSD.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-geom">freebsd-geom</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>GEOM</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions specific to GEOM and related
 	      implementations.  This is a technical mailing list for
 	      which strictly technical content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-git">freebsd-git</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Use of git in the FreeBSD
 		project</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions of how to use git in FreeBSD
 	      infrastructure including the github mirror and other
 	      uses of git for project collaboration.  Discussion area
 	      for people using git against the FreeBSD github mirror.
 	      People wanting to get started with the mirror or git
 	      in general on FreeBSD can ask here.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-gnome">freebsd-gnome</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>GNOME</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions concerning The
 	      <application>GNOME</application> Desktop Environment
 	      for FreeBSD systems.  This is a technical mailing list
 	      for which strictly technical content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-infiniband">freebsd-infiniband</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Infiniband on FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Technical mailing list discussing Infiniband, OFED,
 	      and OpenSM on FreeBSD.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ipfw">freebsd-ipfw</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>IP Firewall</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the forum for technical discussions
 	      concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code in
 	      FreeBSD.  This is a technical mailing list for which
 	      strictly technical content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ia64">freebsd-ia64</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Porting FreeBSD to IA64</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a technical mailing list for individuals
 	      actively working on porting FreeBSD to the IA-64 platform
 	      from <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark>, to bring up problems or discuss
 	      alternative solutions.  Individuals interested in
 	      following the technical discussion are also
 	      welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-isdn">freebsd-isdn</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>ISDN Communications</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for people discussing the
 	      development of ISDN support for FreeBSD.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-java">freebsd-java</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis><trademark>Java</trademark> Development</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for people discussing the
 	      development of significant <trademark>Java</trademark> applications for FreeBSD
 	      and the porting and maintenance of <trademark>JDK</trademark>s.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry xml:id="eresources-charters-jobs">
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-jobs">freebsd-jobs</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Jobs offered and sought</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for posting employment notices
 	      specifically related to FreeBSD and resumes from those
 	      seeking FreeBSD-related employment.  This is
 	      <emphasis>not</emphasis> a mailing list for general
 	      employment issues since adequate forums for that already
 	      exist elsewhere.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Note that this list, like other <systemitem class="fqdomainname">FreeBSD.org</systemitem>
 	      mailing lists, is distributed worldwide.  Be clear about
 	      the geographic location and the extent to which
 	      telecommuting or assistance with relocation is
 	      available.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Email should use open formats only —
 	      preferably plain text, but basic Portable Document
 	      Format (<acronym>PDF</acronym>), HTML, and a few others
 	      are acceptable to many readers.  Closed formats such as
 	      <trademark class="registered">Microsoft</trademark> Word (<filename>.doc</filename>) will be
 	      rejected by the mailing list server.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="https://mail.kde.org/mailman/listinfo/kde-freebsd">freebsd-kde</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>KDE</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions concerning
 	      <application>KDE</application> on FreeBSD systems.
 	      This is a technical mailing list for which strictly
 	      technical content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hackers">freebsd-hackers</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Technical discussions</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for technical discussions related
 	      to FreeBSD.  This is the primary technical mailing list.
 	      It is for individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring
 	      up problems or discuss alternative solutions.
 	      Individuals interested in following the technical
 	      discussion are also welcome.  This is a technical
 	      mailing list for which strictly technical content is
 	      expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hardware">freebsd-hardware</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>General discussion of FreeBSD
 		hardware</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">General discussion about the types of hardware that
 	      FreeBSD runs on, various problems and suggestions
 	      concerning what to buy or avoid.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-hubs">freebsd-hubs</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Mirror sites</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Announcements and discussion for people who run FreeBSD
 	      mirror sites.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-isp">freebsd-isp</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Issues for Internet Service
 		Providers</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This mailing list is for discussing topics relevant
 	      to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD.  This
 	      is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical
 	      content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-mono">freebsd-mono</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Mono and C# applications on
 		FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a list for discussions related to the Mono
 	      development framework on FreeBSD.  This is a technical
 	      mailing list.  It is for individuals actively working on
 	      porting Mono or C# applications to FreeBSD, to bring up
 	      problems or discuss alternative solutions.  Individuals
 	      interested in following the technical discussion are
 	      also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-office">freebsd-office</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Office applications on
 		FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussion centers around office applications, their
 	      installation, their development and their support within
 	      FreeBSD.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ops-announce">freebsd-ops-announce</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Project Infrastructure
 		Announcements</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for people interested in
 	      changes and issues related to the FreeBSD.org Project
 	      infrastructure.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This moderated list is strictly for announcements:
 	      no replies, requests, discussions, or opinions.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-performance">freebsd-performance</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussions about tuning or speeding up
 		FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This mailing list exists to provide a place for
 	      hackers, administrators, and/or concerned parties to
 	      discuss performance related topics pertaining to FreeBSD.
 	      Acceptable topics includes talking about FreeBSD
 	      installations that are either under high load, are
 	      experiencing performance problems, or are pushing the
 	      limits of FreeBSD.  Concerned parties that are willing to
 	      work toward improving the performance of FreeBSD are highly
 	      encouraged to subscribe to this list.  This is a highly
 	      technical list ideally suited for experienced FreeBSD
 	      users, hackers, or administrators interested in keeping
 	      FreeBSD fast, robust, and scalable.  This list is not a
 	      question-and-answer list that replaces reading through
 	      documentation, but it is a place to make contributions
 	      or inquire about unanswered performance related
 	      topics.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pf">freebsd-pf</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussion and questions about the packet
 		filter firewall system</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussion concerning the packet filter (pf)
 	      firewall system in terms of FreeBSD.  Technical discussion
 	      and user questions are both welcome.  This list is also
 	      a place to discuss the ALTQ QoS framework.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pkg">freebsd-pkg</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Binary package management and package
 		tools discussion</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussion of all aspects of managing FreeBSD systems
 	      by using binary packages to install software, including
 	      binary package toolkits and formats, their development
 	      and support within FreeBSD, package repository management,
 	      and third party packages.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Note that discussion of ports which fail to generate
 	      packages correctly should generally be considered as
 	      ports problems, and so inappropriate for this
 	      list.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pkg-fallout">freebsd-pkg-fallout</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Fallout logs from package
 		building</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">All packages building failures logs from the package
 	      building clusters</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-pkgbase">freebsd-pkgbase</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Packaging the FreeBSD base
 		system.</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions surrounding implementation and issues
 	      regarding packaging the FreeBSD base system.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-platforms">freebsd-platforms</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Porting to Non <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark>
 		platforms</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Cross-platform FreeBSD issues, general discussion and
 	      proposals for non <trademark class="registered">Intel</trademark> FreeBSD ports.  This is a
 	      technical mailing list for which strictly technical
 	      content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports">freebsd-ports</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussion of
 		<quote>ports</quote></emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions concerning FreeBSD's <quote>ports
 		collection</quote> (<filename>/usr/ports</filename>),
 	      ports infrastructure, and general ports coordination
 	      efforts.  This is a technical mailing list for which
 	      strictly technical content is expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports-announce">freebsd-ports-announce</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Important news and instructions about the
 		FreeBSD <quote>Ports
 		  Collection</quote></emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Important news for developers, porters, and users of
 	      the <quote>Ports Collection</quote>
 	      (<filename>/usr/ports</filename>), including
 	      architecture/infrastructure changes, new capabilities,
 	      critical upgrade instructions, and release engineering
 	      information.  This is a low-volume mailing list,
 	      intended for announcements.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ports-bugs">freebsd-ports-bugs</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussion of
 		<quote>ports</quote> bugs</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Discussions concerning problem reports for FreeBSD's
 	      <quote>ports collection</quote>
 	      (<filename>/usr/ports</filename>), proposed ports, or
 	      modifications to ports.  This is a technical mailing
 	      list for which strictly technical content is
 	      expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-proliant">freebsd-proliant</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Technical discussion of FreeBSD on HP
 		ProLiant server platforms</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This mailing list is to be used for the technical
 	      discussion of the usage of FreeBSD on HP ProLiant servers,
 	      including the discussion of ProLiant-specific drivers,
 	      management software, configuration tools, and BIOS
 	      updates.  As such, this is the primary place to discuss
 	      the hpasmd, hpasmcli, and hpacucli modules.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-python">freebsd-python</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Python on FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a list for discussions related to improving
 	      Python-support on FreeBSD.  This is a technical mailing
 	      list.  It is for individuals working on porting Python,
 	      its third party modules and
 	      <application>Zope</application> stuff to FreeBSD.
 	      Individuals interested in following the technical
 	      discussion are also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-questions">freebsd-questions</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>User questions</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD.
 	      Do not send <quote>how to</quote> questions to the
 	      technical lists unless the question is quite
 	      technical.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-ruby">freebsd-ruby</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>FreeBSD-specific Ruby
 		discussions</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a list for discussions related to the Ruby
 	      support on FreeBSD.  This is a technical mailing list.  It
 	      is for individuals working on Ruby ports, third party
 	      libraries and frameworks.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Individuals interested in the technical discussion
 	      are also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-scsi">freebsd-scsi</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>SCSI subsystem</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for people working on the
 	      SCSI subsystem for FreeBSD.  This is a technical mailing
 	      list for which strictly technical content is
 	      expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security">freebsd-security</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Security issues</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">FreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known
 	      security holes and fixes, etc).  This is a technical
 	      mailing list for which strictly technical discussion is
 	      expected.  Note that this is not a question-and-answer
 	      list, but that contributions (BOTH question AND answer)
 	      to the FAQ are welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-security-notifications">freebsd-security-notifications</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Security Notifications</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Notifications of FreeBSD security problems and fixes.
 	      This is not a discussion list.  The discussion list is
 	      FreeBSD-security.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-small">freebsd-small</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Using FreeBSD in embedded
 		applications</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list discusses topics related to unusually
 	      small and embedded FreeBSD installations.  This is a
 	      technical mailing list for which strictly technical
 	      content is expected.</para>
 
 	    <note>
 	      <para xml:lang="en">This list has been obsoleted by
 		<link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-embedded">freebsd-embedded</link>.</para>
 	    </note>
 
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-snapshots">freebsd-snapshots</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>FreeBSD Development Snapshot
 		Announcements</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This list provides notifications about the
 	      availability of new FreeBSD development snapshots for the
 	      head/ and stable/ branches.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-stable">freebsd-stable</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussions about the use of
 		FreeBSD-STABLE</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for users of FreeBSD-STABLE.
 	      <quote>STABLE</quote> is the branch where development
 	      continues after a RELEASE, including bug fixes and new
 	      features.  The ABI is kept stable for binary
 	      compatibility.  It includes warnings about new features
 	      coming out in -STABLE that will affect the users, and
 	      instructions on steps that must be taken to remain
 	      -STABLE.  Anyone running <quote>STABLE</quote> should
 	      subscribe to this list.  This is a technical mailing
 	      list for which strictly technical content is
 	      expected.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-standards">freebsd-standards</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>C99 &amp; POSIX
 		Conformance</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for technical discussions related to
 	      FreeBSD Conformance to the C99 and the POSIX
 	      standards.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-testing">freebsd-testing</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Testing on FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Technical mailing list discussing testing on FreeBSD,
 	      including ATF/Kyua, test build infrastructure, port
 	      tests to FreeBSD from other operating systems (NetBSD,
 	      ...), etc.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-tex">freebsd-tex</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Porting <application>TeX</application> and
 		its applications to FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a technical mailing list for discussions
 	      related to TeX and its applications on FreeBSD.  It is for
 	      individuals actively working on porting TeX to FreeBSD,
 	      to bring up problems or discuss alternative solutions.
 	      Individuals interested in following the technical
 	      discussion are also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-toolchain">freebsd-toolchain</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Maintenance of FreeBSD's integrated
 		toolchain</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for discussions related to
 	      the maintenance of the toolchain shipped with FreeBSD.
 	      This could include the state of Clang and GCC, but also
 	      pieces of software such as assemblers, linkers and
 	      debuggers.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-transport">freebsd-transport</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussions of transport level network
 		protocols in FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The transport mailing list exists for the discussion
 	      of issues and designs around the transport level
 	      protocols in the FreeBSD network stack, including TCP,
 	      SCTP and UDP.  Other networking topics, including
 	      driver specific and network protocol issues should be
 	      discussed on the <link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-net">FreeBSD networking mailing list</link>.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-translators">freebsd-translators</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Translating FreeBSD documents and
 		programs</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A discussion list where translators of FreeBSD
 	      documents from English into other languages can talk
 	      about translation methods and tools.  New members are
 	      asked to introduce themselves and mention the languages
 	      they are interested in translating.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-usb">freebsd-usb</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussing FreeBSD support for
 		USB</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a mailing list for technical discussions
 	      related to FreeBSD support for USB.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-user-groups">freebsd-user-groups</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>User Group Coordination
 		List</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is the mailing list for the coordinators from
 	      each of the local area Users Groups to discuss matters
 	      with each other and a designated individual from the
 	      Core Team.  This mail list should be limited to meeting
 	      synopsis and coordination of projects that span User
 	      Groups.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-virtualization">freebsd-virtualization</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussion of various virtualization
 		techniques supported by FreeBSD</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A list to discuss the various virtualization
 	      techniques supported by FreeBSD.  On one hand the focus
 	      will be on the implementation of the basic functionality
 	      as well as adding new features.  On the other hand users
 	      will have a forum to ask for help in case of problems or
 	      to discuss their use cases.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-wip-status">freebsd-wip-status</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>FreeBSD Work-In-Progress
 		Status</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This mailing list can be used by developers to
 	      announce the creation and progress of FreeBSD related work.
 	      Messages will be moderated.  It is suggested to send the
 	      message "To:" a more topical FreeBSD list and only "BCC:"
 	      this list.  This way the WIP can also be discussed on
 	      the topical list, as no discussion is allowed on this
 	      list.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">Look inside the archives for examples of suitable
 	      messages.</para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">An editorial digest of the messages to this list
 	      might be posted to the FreeBSD website every few months as
 	      part of the Status Reports
 	      <footnote><para xml:lang="en"><uri xlink:href="http://www.freebsd.org/news/status/">http://www.freebsd.org/news/status/</uri></para></footnote>.
 	      Past reports are archived.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-wireless">freebsd-wireless</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussions of 802.11 stack, tools device
 		driver development</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD-wireless list focuses on 802.11 stack
 	      (sys/net80211), device driver and tools development.
 	      This includes bugs, new features and maintenance.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-xen">freebsd-xen</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Discussion of the FreeBSD port to <trademark>Xen</trademark>
 		— implementation and usage</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">A list that focuses on the FreeBSD <trademark>Xen</trademark> port.  The
 	      anticipated traffic level is small enough that it is
 	      intended as a forum for both technical discussions of
 	      the implementation and design details as well as
 	      administrative deployment issues.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-xfce">freebsd-xfce</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>XFCE</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for discussions related to bring the
 	      <application>XFCE</application> environment to FreeBSD.
 	      This is a technical mailing list.  It is for individuals
 	      actively working on porting
 	      <application>XFCE</application> to FreeBSD, to bring up
 	      problems or discuss alternative solutions.  Individuals
 	      interested in following the technical discussion are
 	      also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
 
 	<varlistentry>
 	  <term xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-zope">freebsd-zope</link></term>
 
 	  <listitem>
 	    <para xml:lang="en"><emphasis>Zope</emphasis></para>
 
 	    <para xml:lang="en">This is a forum for discussions related to bring the
 	      <application>Zope</application> environment to FreeBSD.
 	      This is a technical mailing list.  It is for individuals
 	      actively working on porting
 	      <application>Zope</application> to FreeBSD, to bring up
 	      problems or discuss alternative solutions.  Individuals
 	      interested in following the technical discussion are
 	      also welcome.</para>
 	  </listitem>
 	</varlistentry>
       </variablelist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="eresources-mailfiltering">
       <title>郵遞論壇過濾項目</title>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD mailing lists are filtered in multiple ways to
 	avoid the distribution of spam, viruses, and other unwanted
 	emails.  The filtering actions described in this section do
 	not include all those used to protect the mailing
 	lists.</para>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">Only certain types of attachments are allowed on the
 	mailing lists.  All attachments with a MIME content type not
 	found in the list below will be stripped before an email is
 	distributed on the mailing lists.</para>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">application/octet-stream</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">application/pdf</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">application/pgp-signature</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">application/x-pkcs7-signature</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">message/rfc822</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">multipart/alternative</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">multipart/related</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">multipart/signed</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">text/html</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">text/plain</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">text/x-diff</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en">text/x-patch</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
 
       <note>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some of the mailing lists might allow attachments of
 	  other MIME content types, but the above list should be
 	  applicable for most of the mailing lists.</para>
       </note>
 
       <para xml:lang="en">If an email contains both an HTML and a plain text
 	version, the HTML version will be removed.  If an email
 	contains only an HTML version, it will be converted to plain
 	text.</para>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="eresources-news">
     <title>Usenet 新聞群組</title>
 
     <para xml:lang="en">In addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are
       many others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise
       relevant to FreeBSD users.</para>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>BSD 專屬新聞群組</title>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce">comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc">comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:de.comp.os.unix.bsd">de.comp.os.unix.bsd</link>
 	    (German)</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:fr.comp.os.bsd">fr.comp.os.bsd</link>
 	    (French)</para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:it.comp.os.freebsd">it.comp.os.freebsd</link>
 	    (Italian)</para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>其他相關的 <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> 新聞群組</title>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix">comp.unix</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.questions">comp.unix.questions</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.admin">comp.unix.admin</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.programmer">comp.unix.programmer</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.shell">comp.unix.shell</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.misc">comp.unix.misc</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.unix.bsd">comp.unix.bsd</link></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2>
       <title>X 視窗系統</title>
 
       <itemizedlist>
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.windows.x">comp.windows.x</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.windows.x.apps">comp.windows.x.apps</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.windows.x.announce">comp.windows.x.announce</link></para>
 	</listitem>
 
 	<listitem>
 	  <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="news:comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine">comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine</link></para>
 	</listitem>
       </itemizedlist>
     </sect2>
   </sect1>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="eresources-web">
     <title>官方鏡像站</title>
 
     
 <para xml:lang="en"><link linkend="central-www">Central Servers</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-am-www">Armenia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-au-www">Australia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-at-www">Austria</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ca-www">Canada</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-cz-www">Czech Republic</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-dk-www">Denmark</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-fi-www">Finland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-fr-www">France</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-de-www">Germany</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-hk-www">Hong Kong</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ie-www">Ireland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-jp-www">Japan</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-lv-www">Latvia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-lt-www">Lithuania</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-nl-www">Netherlands</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-no-www">Norway</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ru-www">Russia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-si-www">Slovenia</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-za-www">South Africa</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-es-www">Spain</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-se-www">Sweden</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-ch-www">Switzerland</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-tw-www">Taiwan</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-uk-www">United Kingdom</link>, <link linkend="mirrors-us-www">USA</link>.</para>
 
 
     
 <para xml:lang="en">(as of   UTC)</para>
 
 
     
 <itemizedlist>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="central-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Central Servers</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-am-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Armenia</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www1.am.FreeBSD.org/">http://www1.am.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-au-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Australia</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.au.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.au.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www2.au.FreeBSD.org/">http://www2.au.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-at-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Austria</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.at.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.at.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-ca-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Canada</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.ca.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.ca.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www2.ca.FreeBSD.org/">http://www2.ca.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-cz-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Czech Republic</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.cz.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.cz.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-dk-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Denmark</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.dk.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.dk.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-fi-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Finland</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.fi.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.fi.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-fr-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">France</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www1.fr.FreeBSD.org/">http://www1.fr.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-de-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Germany</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-hk-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Hong Kong</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.hk.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.hk.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-ie-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Ireland</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.ie.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.ie.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-jp-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Japan</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/www.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/www.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-lv-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Latvia</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.lv.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.lv.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-lt-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Lithuania</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.lt.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.lt.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-nl-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Netherlands</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.nl.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.nl.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-no-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Norway</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.no.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.no.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-ru-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Russia</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ru.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.ru.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-si-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Slovenia</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.si.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.si.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-za-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">South Africa</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.za.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.za.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-es-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Spain</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.es.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.es.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www2.es.FreeBSD.org/">http://www2.es.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-se-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Sweden</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.se.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.se.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-ch-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Switzerland</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www.ch.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.ch.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www2.ch.FreeBSD.org/">http://www2.ch.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-tw-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">Taiwan</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www.tw.FreeBSD.org/">http://www.tw.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www2.tw.FreeBSD.org/">http://www2.tw.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www4.tw.FreeBSD.org/">http://www4.tw.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www5.tw.FreeBSD.org/">http://www5.tw.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-uk-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">United Kingdom</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www1.uk.FreeBSD.org/">http://www1.uk.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en">
           <link xlink:href="http://www3.uk.FreeBSD.org/">http://www3.uk.FreeBSD.org/</link>
         </para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
   <listitem>
     <anchor xml:id="mirrors-us-www"/>
     <para xml:lang="en">USA</para>
     <itemizedlist>
       <listitem>
         <para xml:lang="en"><link xlink:href="http://www5.us.FreeBSD.org/">http://www5.us.FreeBSD.org/</link> (IPv6)</para>
       </listitem>
     </itemizedlist>
   </listitem>
 </itemizedlist>
 
   </sect1>
 <!--
 Comment out for now as only one address
   <sect1 xml:id="eresources-email">
     <title>Email Addresses</title>
 
     <para>The following user groups provide &os; related email
       addresses for their members.  The listed administrator reserves
       the right to revoke the address if it is abused in any
       way.</para>
 
     <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
       <tgroup cols="4">
 	<thead>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>Domain</entry>
 	    <entry>Facilities</entry>
 	    <entry>User Group</entry>
 	    <entry>Administrator</entry>
 	  </row>
 	</thead>
 
 	<tbody>
 	  <row>
 	    <entry>ukug.uk.FreeBSD.org</entry>
 	    <entry>Forwarding only</entry>
 	    <entry><email>ukfreebsd@uk.FreeBSD.org</email></entry>
 	    <entry>Lee Johnston
 	      <email>lee@uk.FreeBSD.org</email></entry>
 	  </row>
 	</tbody>
       </tgroup>
     </informaltable>
   </sect1>
   -->
 </appendix>
 
     
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <!--
 
   Do not edit this file except as instructed by the addkey.sh script.
 
   See the README file in head/share/pgpkeys for instructions.
 
   Note that only officer keys are shown here now.  All of the keys are
   shown in en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/pgpkeys/article.xml.
 
 -->
 <appendix version="5.0" xml:id="pgpkeys">
   <title>Open<acronym>PGP</acronym> 金鑰</title>
 
   <indexterm xml:lang="en"><primary>pgp keys</primary></indexterm>
 
   <para xml:lang="en">The Open<acronym>PGP</acronym> keys of the
     <systemitem class="fqdomainname">FreeBSD.org</systemitem> officers
     are shown here.  These keys can be used to verify a signature or
     send encrypted email to one of the officers.  A full list of FreeBSD
     Open<acronym>PGP</acronym> keys is available in the
     <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/pgpkeys"><acronym>PGP</acronym>
       Keys</link> article.  The complete keyring can be downloaded
     at <link xlink:href="https://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/pgpkeyring.txt">https://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/pgpkeyring.txt</link>.</para>
 
   <sect1 xml:id="pgpkeys-officers">
     <title>人員</title>
 
     <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pgpkey-security-officer">
       <title xml:lang="en">Security Officer Team <email>security-officer@FreeBSD.org</email></title>
       <!-- $FreeBSD$ -->
 <!--
 sh addkey.sh security-officer ED67ECD65DCF6AE7 ;
 -->
 <programlisting role="pgpfingerprint" xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[
 pub   rsa4096/ED67ECD65DCF6AE7 2013-09-24 [expires: 2018-01-01]
       Key fingerprint = 1CF7 FF6F ADF5 CA9F BE1B  8CB2 ED67 ECD6 5DCF 6AE7
 uid                            FreeBSD Security Officer <security-officer@FreeBSD.org>
 sub   rsa4096/B64357A343D9CBAE 2013-09-24 [expires: 2018-01-01]
 
 ]]></programlisting>
 <programlisting role="pgpkey" xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[
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 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
 ]]></programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pgpkey-secteam-secretary">
       <title xml:lang="en">Security Team Secretary <email>secteam-secretary@FreeBSD.org</email></title>
       <!-- $FreeBSD$ -->
 <!--
 sh addkey.sh secteam-secretary 3CB2EAFCC3D6C666;
 -->
 <programlisting role="pgpfingerprint" xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[
 pub   4096R/3CB2EAFCC3D6C666 2013-09-24 [expires: 2018-01-01]
       Key fingerprint = FA97 AA04 4DF9 0969 D5EF  4ADA 3CB2 EAFC C3D6 C666
 uid                          FreeBSD Security Team Secretary <secteam-secretary@FreeBSD.org>
 sub   4096R/509B26612335EB65 2013-09-24 [expires: 2018-01-01]
 ]]></programlisting>
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 ]]></programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pgpkey-core-secretary">
       <title xml:lang="en">Core Team Secretary <email>core-secretary@FreeBSD.org</email></title>
       <!-- $FreeBSD$ -->
 <!--
 sh addkey.sh core-secretary 36A7C05FE1ECF9BB ;
 -->
 <programlisting role="pgpfingerprint" xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[
 pub   rsa4096/36A7C05FE1ECF9BB 2014-07-09 [SC] [expires: 2017-07-08]
       Key fingerprint = C07B F5E3 10AE 64BF 6120  B0F6 36A7 C05F E1EC F9BB
 uid                            FreeBSD Core Team Secretary <core-secretary@freebsd.org>
 uid                            Core Secretary <core-secretary@freebsd.org>
 sub   rsa4096/7B5150C8D7CE5D02 2014-07-09 [E] [expires: 2017-07-08]
 
 ]]></programlisting>
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 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
 ]]></programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
 
     <sect2 xml:id="pgpkey-portmgr-secretary">
       <title xml:lang="en">Ports Management Team Secretary <email>portmgr-secretary@FreeBSD.org</email></title>
       <!-- $FreeBSD$ -->
 <!--
 sh addkey.sh portmgr-secretary D8294EC3BBC4D7D5 ;
 -->
 <programlisting role="pgpfingerprint" xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[
 pub   rsa2048/D8294EC3BBC4D7D5 2012-07-24 [SC]
       Key fingerprint = FB37 45C8 6F15 E8ED AC81  32FC D829 4EC3 BBC4 D7D5
 uid                            FreeBSD Ports Management Team Secretary <portmgr-secretary@FreeBSD.org>
 sub   rsa2048/5CC117965F65CFE7 2012-07-24 [E]
 
 ]]></programlisting>
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 ]]></programlisting>
 
     </sect2>
 
   </sect1>
 </appendix>
 
   </part>
   
 <!--
     $FreeBSD$
 
     FreeBSD Glossary Terms
 	Please keep this file sorted alphabetically/ASCIIly by glossterm.
 
 	glossterms that are acronyms should have two entries - one for
 	the expanded acronym and another for the acronym itself.  The
 	second of these should reference the entry for the expanded acronym
 	via a glosssee element.  For example:
 
 	<glossentry>
 	  <glossterm>FUBAR</glossterm>
 	  <glosssee otherterm="fubar-glossary">
 	</glossentry>
 
 	<glossentry id="fubar-glossary">
 	  <glossterm>Fuc... Up Beyond All Recognition</glossterm>
 	  <acronym>FUBAR</acronym>
 	  <glossdef>
 	    <para>Broken.</para>
 	  </glossdef>
 	</glossentry>
 
 	Note that in this instance, the expanded acronym sorts below the
 	unexpanded acronym.  That's OK.
 
 	Finally, id attribute values should end in the string
 	"-glossary" to avoid conflicting with id attribute values in
 	the main text.
 
 -->
 <glossary version="5.0" status="draft" xml:id="freebsd-glossary">
   <title>FreeBSD 詞彙表</title>
   <para xml:lang="en">This glossary contains terms and acronyms used within the FreeBSD
     community and documentation.</para>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">A</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ACL</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="acl-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ACPI</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="acpi-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">AMD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="amd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">AML</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="aml-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">API</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="api-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">APIC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="apic-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">APM</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="apm-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">APOP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="apop-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ASL</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="asl-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ATA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ata-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ATM</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="atm-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="aml-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACPI</acronym> Machine Language</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">AML</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">Pseudocode, interpreted by a virtual machine within an
 	  <acronym>ACPI</acronym>-compliant operating system, providing a
 	  layer between the underlying hardware and the documented
 	  interface presented to the <acronym>OS</acronym>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="asl-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>ACPI</acronym> Source Language</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ASL</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">The programming language <acronym>AML</acronym> is written in.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="acl-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Access Control List</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ACL</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A list of permissions attached to an object, usually either a
 	  file or a network device.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="acpi-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Advanced Configuration and Power Interface</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ACPI</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A specification which provides an abstraction of the
 	  interface the hardware presents to the operating system, so
 	  that the operating system should need to know nothing about
 	  the underlying hardware to make the most of it.  <acronym>ACPI</acronym>
 	  evolves and supersedes the functionality provided previously by
 	  <acronym>APM</acronym>, <acronym>PNPBIOS</acronym> and other technologies, and
 	  provides facilities for controlling power consumption, machine
 	  suspension, device enabling and disabling, etc.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="api-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Application Programming Interface</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">API</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A set of procedures, protocols and tools that specify the
 	  canonical interaction of one or more program parts; how, when
 	  and why they do work together, and what data they share or
 	  operate on.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="apm-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Advanced Power Management</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">APM</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>API</acronym> enabling the operating system to work
 	  in conjunction with the <acronym>BIOS</acronym> in order to achieve
 	  power management.  <acronym>APM</acronym> has been superseded by
 	  the much more generic and powerful <acronym>ACPI</acronym>
 	  specification for most applications.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="apic-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">APIC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ata-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Advanced Technology Attachment</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ATA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="atm-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ATM</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="apop-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Authenticated Post Office Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">APOP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="amd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Automatic Mount Daemon</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">AMD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A daemon that automatically mounts a filesystem when a file
           or directory within that filesystem is accessed.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">B</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">BAR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="bar-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">BIND</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="bind-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">BIOS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="bios-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">BSD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="bsd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="bar-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Base Address Register</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">BAR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">The registers that determine which address range a <acronym>PCI</acronym> device
 	  will respond to.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="bios-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Basic Input/Output System</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">BIOS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">The definition of <acronym>BIOS</acronym> depends a bit on
 	  the context. Some people refer to it as the <acronym>ROM</acronym>
 	  chip with a basic set of routines to provide an interface between
 	  software and hardware.  Others refer to it as the set of routines
 	  contained in the chip that help in bootstrapping the system.  Some
 	  might also refer to it as the screen used to configure the
 	  bootstrapping process. The <acronym>BIOS</acronym> is PC-specific
 	  but other systems have something similar.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="bind-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Berkeley Internet Name Domain</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">BIND</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An implementation of the <acronym>DNS</acronym> protocols.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="bsd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Berkeley Software Distribution</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">BSD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">This is the name that the Computer Systems Research Group
 	  (CSRG) at <link xlink:href="http://www.berkeley.edu">The University
 	  of California at Berkeley</link>
 	  gave to their improvements and modifications to
 	  AT&amp;T's 32V <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark>.
 	  FreeBSD is a descendant of the CSRG work.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="bikeshed-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Bikeshed Building</glossterm>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">A phenomenon whereby many people will give an opinion on
 	  an uncomplicated topic, whilst a complex topic receives little
 	  or no discussion.  See the
 	  <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/misc.html#BIKESHED-PAINTING">FAQ</link> for
 	  the origin of the term.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">C</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">CD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="cd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">CHAP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="chap-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">CLIP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="clip-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">COFF</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="coff-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">CPU</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="cpu-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">CTS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="cts-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="cd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Carrier Detect</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">CD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> signal indicating that a carrier
 	  has been detected.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="cpu-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Central Processing Unit</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">CPU</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">Also known as the processor.  This is the brain of the
 	  computer where all calculations take place.  There are a number of
 	  different architectures with different instruction sets.  Among
 	  the more well-known are the Intel-x86 and derivatives, Sun SPARC,
 	  PowerPC, and Alpha.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="chap-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">CHAP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A method of authenticating a user, based on a secret shared
 	  between client and server.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="clip-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Classical <acronym>IP</acronym> over <acronym>ATM</acronym></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">CLIP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="cts-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Clear To Send</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">CTS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> signal giving the remote system
           permission to send data.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="rts-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="coff-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Common Object File Format</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">COFF</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">D</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DAC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dac-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DDB</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ddb-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DES</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="des-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DHCP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dhcp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DNS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dns-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DSDT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dsdt-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DSR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dsr-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DTR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dtr-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">DVMRP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="dvmrp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dac-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Discretionary Access Control</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DAC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="des-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Data Encryption Standard</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DES</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A method of encrypting information, traditionally used as the
 	  method of encryption for <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> passwords and the <citerefentry><refentrytitle>crypt</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>
 	  function.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dsr-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Data Set Ready</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DSR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> signal sent from the modem to the
 	  computer or terminal indicating a readiness to send and receive
 	  data.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="dtr-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dtr-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Data Terminal Ready</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DTR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> signal sent from the computer or
 	  terminal to the modem indicating a readiness to send and receive
 	  data.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ddb-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Debugger</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DDB</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An interactive in-kernel facility for examining the status of
 	  a system, often used after a system has crashed to establish the
 	  events surrounding the failure.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dsdt-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Differentiated System Description Table</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DSDT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>ACPI</acronym> table, supplying basic configuration
 	  information about the base system.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dvmrp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Distance-Vector Multicast Routing Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DVMRP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dns-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Domain Name System</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DNS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The system that converts humanly readable hostnames (i.e.,
 	  mail.example.net) to Internet addresses and vice versa.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="dhcp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">DHCP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A protocol that dynamically assigns IP addresses to a computer
 	  (host) when it requests one from the server.  The address assignment
 	  is called a <quote>lease</quote>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">E</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ECOFF</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ecoff-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ELF</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="elf-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ESP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="esp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="esp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Encapsulated Security Payload</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ESP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="elf-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Executable and Linking Format</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ELF</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ecoff-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Extended <acronym>COFF</acronym></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ECOFF</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">F</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">FADT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="fadt-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">FAT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="fat-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">FAT16</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="fat16-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">FTP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ftp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="fat-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">File Allocation Table</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">FAT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="fat16-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">File Allocation Table (16-bit)</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">FAT16</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ftp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">File Transfer Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">FTP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A member of the family of high-level protocols implemented
 	  on top of <acronym>TCP</acronym> which can be used to transfer
 	  files over a <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym> network.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="fadt-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Fixed <acronym>ACPI</acronym> Description Table</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">FADT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">G</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">GUI</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="gui-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="giant-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Giant</glossterm>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The name of a mutual exclusion mechanism
 	  (a <literal>sleep mutex</literal>) that protects a large
 	  set of kernel resources.  Although a simple locking mechanism
 	  was adequate in the days where a machine might have only
 	  a few dozen processes, one networking card, and certainly
 	  only one processor, in current times it is an unacceptable
 	  performance bottleneck.  FreeBSD developers are actively working
 	  to replace it with locks that protect individual resources,
 	  which will allow a much greater degree of parallelism for
 	  both single-processor and multi-processor machines.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="gui-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Graphical User Interface</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">GUI</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A system where the user and computer interact with
           graphics.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">H</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">HTML</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="html-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">HUP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="hup-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="hup-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">HangUp</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">HUP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="html-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">HyperText Markup Language</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">HTML</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">The markup language used to create web pages.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">I</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">I/O</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="io-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IASL</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="iasl-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IMAP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="imap-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ip-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IPFW</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ipfw-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IPP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ipp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IPv4</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ipv4-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">IPv6</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ipv6-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ISP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="isp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ipfw-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>IP</acronym> Firewall</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IPFW</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ipv4-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>IP</acronym> Version 4</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IPv4</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The <acronym>IP</acronym> protocol version 4, which uses 32 bits
 	  for addressing.  This version is still the most widely used, but it
 	  is slowly being replaced with <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="ipv6-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ipv6-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>IP</acronym> Version 6</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IPv6</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The new <acronym>IP</acronym> protocol. Invented because the
 	  address space in <acronym>IPv4</acronym> is running out.  Uses 128
 	  bits for addressing.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="io-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Input/Output</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">I/O</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="iasl-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Intel’s <acronym>ASL</acronym> compiler</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IASL</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">Intel’s compiler for converting <acronym>ASL</acronym> into
 	  <acronym>AML</acronym>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="imap-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Internet Message Access Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IMAP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A protocol for accessing email messages on a mail server,
 	  characterised by the messages usually being kept on the server as
 	  opposed to being downloaded to the mail reader client.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="pop3-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ipp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Internet Printing Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IPP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ip-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Internet Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">IP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The packet transmitting protocol that is the basic protocol on
 	  the Internet.  Originally developed at the U.S. Department of
 	  Defense and an extremely important part of the <acronym>TCP/IP
 	  </acronym> stack.  Without the Internet Protocol, the Internet
 	  would not have become what it is today.  For more information, see
 	  <link xlink:href="ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/rfc791.txt">
 	  RFC 791</link>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="isp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Internet Service Provider</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ISP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A company that provides access to the Internet.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">K</title>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="kame-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">KAME</glossterm>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">Japanese for <quote>turtle</quote>, the term KAME is used
 	  in computing circles to refer to the <link xlink:href="http://www.kame.net/">KAME Project</link>, who work on
 	  an implementation of <acronym>IPv6</acronym>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">KDC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="kdc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">KLD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="kld-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">KSE</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="kse-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">KVA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="kva-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Kbps</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="kbps-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="kld-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Kernel <citerefentry><refentrytitle>ld</refentrytitle><manvolnum>1</manvolnum></citerefentry></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">KLD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A method of dynamically loading functionality into a FreeBSD kernel
 	  without rebooting the system.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="kse-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Kernel Scheduler Entities</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">KSE</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A kernel-supported threading system.  See the <link xlink:href="http://www.FreeBSD.org/kse">project home page</link>
 	  for further details.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="kva-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Kernel Virtual Address</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">KVA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="kdc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Key Distribution Center</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">KDC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="kbps-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Kilo Bits Per Second</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">Kbps</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Used to measure bandwidth (how much data can pass a given
 	  point at a specified amount of time).  Alternates to the Kilo
 	  prefix include Mega, Giga, Tera, and so forth.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">L</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">LAN</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="lan-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">LOR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="lor-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">LPD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="lpd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="lpd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Line Printer Daemon</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">LPD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="lan-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Local Area Network</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">LAN</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A network used on a local area, e.g. office, home, or so forth.
 	  </para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="lor-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Lock Order Reversal</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">LOR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The FreeBSD kernel uses a number of resource locks to
 	  arbitrate contention for those resources.  A run-time
 	  lock diagnostic system found in FreeBSD-CURRENT kernels
 	  (but removed for releases), called <citerefentry><refentrytitle>witness</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry>,
 	  detects the potential for deadlocks due to locking errors.
 	  (<citerefentry><refentrytitle>witness</refentrytitle><manvolnum>4</manvolnum></citerefentry> is actually slightly conservative, so
 	  it is possible to get false positives.)  A true positive
 	  report indicates that <quote>if you were unlucky, a deadlock would
 	  have happened here</quote>.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">True positive LORs tend to get fixed quickly, so
 	  check http://lists.FreeBSD.org/mailman/listinfo/freebsd-current and the
 	  <link xlink:href="http://sources.zabbadoz.net/freebsd/lor.html">
 	  LORs Seen</link> page before posting to the mailing lists.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">M</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MAC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mac-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MADT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="madt-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MFC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mfc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MFH</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mfh-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MFP4</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mfp4-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MFS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mfs-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MIT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mit-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MLS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mls-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MOTD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="motd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MTA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mta-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">MUA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="mua-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mta-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Mail Transfer Agent</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MTA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An application used to transfer email.  An
 	  <acronym>MTA</acronym> has traditionally been part of the BSD
 	  base system.  Today Sendmail is included in the base system, but
 	  there are many other <acronym>MTA</acronym>s, such as postfix,
 	  qmail and Exim.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mua-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Mail User Agent</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MUA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An application used by users to display and write email.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mac-glossary">
       <glossterm>強制存取控制 (MAC)</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MAC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mit-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MIT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mfc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Merge From Current</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MFC</acronym>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">To merge functionality or a patch from the -CURRENT
 	  branch to another, most often -STABLE.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mfh-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Merge From Head</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MFH</acronym>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">To merge functionality or a patch from a repository HEAD
 	  to an earlier branch.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mfp4-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Merge From Perforce</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MFP4</acronym>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">To merge functionality or a patch from the Perforce
 	  repository to the -CURRENT branch.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="perforce-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mfs-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Merge From Stable</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MFS</acronym>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">In the normal course of FreeBSD development, a change will
 	  be committed to the -CURRENT branch for testing before being
 	  merged to -STABLE.  On rare occasions, a change will go into
 	  -STABLE first and then be merged to -CURRENT.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">This term is also used when a patch is merged from -STABLE
 	  to a security branch.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="mfc-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="motd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Message Of The Day</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MOTD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A message, usually shown on login, often used to
 	  distribute information to users of the system.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="mls-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Multi-Level Security</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MLS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="madt-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Multiple <acronym>APIC</acronym> Description Table</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">MADT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">N</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">NAT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="nat-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">NDISulator</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="projectevil-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">NFS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="nfs-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">NTFS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ntfs-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">NTP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ntp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="nat-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Network Address Translation</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">NAT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A technique where <acronym>IP</acronym> packets are rewritten
 	  on the way through a gateway, enabling many machines behind the
 	  gateway to effectively share a single <acronym>IP</acronym> address.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="nfs-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Network File System</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">NFS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ntfs-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">New Technology File System</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">NTFS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A filesystem developed by Microsoft and available in its
 	  <quote>New Technology</quote> operating systems, such as
 	  <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> 2000, <trademark class="registered">Windows NT</trademark> and <trademark class="registered">Windows</trademark> XP.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ntp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Network Time Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">NTP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A means of synchronizing clocks over a network.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">O</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">OBE</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="obe-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">ODMR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="odmr-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">OS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="os-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="odmr-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">On-Demand Mail Relay</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">ODMR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="os-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Operating System</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">OS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A set of programs, libraries and tools that provide access to
 	  the hardware resources of a computer.  Operating systems range
 	  today from simplistic designs that support only one program
 	  running at a time, accessing only one device to fully
 	  multi-user, multi-tasking and multi-process systems that can
 	  serve thousands of users simultaneously, each of them running
 	  dozens of different applications.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="obe-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Overtaken By Events</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">OBE</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Indicates a suggested change (such as a Problem Report
 	  or a feature request) which is no longer relevant or
 	  applicable due to such things as later changes to FreeBSD,
 	  changes in networking standards, the affected hardware
 	  having since become obsolete, and so forth.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">P</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">p4</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="perforce-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PAE</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pae-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PAM</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pam-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PAP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pap-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PCNSFD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pcnfsd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PDF</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pdf-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PID</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pid-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">POLA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pola-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">POP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pop-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">POP3</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pop3-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PPD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ppd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PPP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ppp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PPPoA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pppoa-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PPPoE</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pppoe-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pppoa-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>PPP</acronym> over <acronym>ATM</acronym></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PPPoA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pppoe-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>PPP</acronym> over <acronym>Ethernet</acronym></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PPPoE</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pr-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PXE</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="pxe-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pap-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Password Authentication Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PAP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="perforce-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Perforce</glossterm>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A source code control product made by
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.perforce.com/">Perforce Software</link>.
 	  Although not open source, its use
 	  is free of charge to open-source projects such as FreeBSD.</para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Some FreeBSD developers use a Perforce repository as a staging
 	  area for code that is considered too experimental for the
 	  -CURRENT branch.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Personal Computer</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pcnfsd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Personal Computer Network File System Daemon</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PCNFSD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pae-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Physical Address Extensions</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PAE</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A method of enabling access to up to 64 GB of <acronym>RAM</acronym> on
 	  systems which only physically have a 32-bit wide address space
 	  (and would therefore be limited to 4 GB without PAE).</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pam-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Pluggable Authentication Modules</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PAM</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ppp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Point-to-Point Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PPP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pointyhat">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Pointy Hat</glossterm>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">A mythical piece of headgear, much like a
 	  <literal>dunce cap</literal>, awarded to any FreeBSD
 	  committer who breaks the build, makes revision numbers
 	  go backwards, or creates any other kind of havoc in
 	  the source base.  Any committer worth his or her salt
 	  will soon accumulate a large collection.  The usage is
 	  (almost always?) humorous.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pdf-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Portable Document Format</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PDF</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pop-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Post Office Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">POP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="pop3-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pop3-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Post Office Protocol Version 3</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">POP3</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A protocol for accessing email messages on a mail server,
 	  characterised by the messages usually being downloaded from the
 	  server to the client, as opposed to remaining on the server.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="imap-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ppd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">PostScript Printer Description</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PPD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pxe-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Preboot eXecution Environment</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PXE</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pola-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Principle Of Least Astonishment</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">POLA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">As FreeBSD evolves, changes visible to the user should be
 	  kept as unsurprising as possible.  For example, arbitrarily
 	  rearranging system startup variables in
 	  <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> violates
 	  <acronym>POLA</acronym>.  Developers consider
 	  <acronym>POLA</acronym> when contemplating user-visible
 	  system changes.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pr-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Problem Report</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A description of some kind of problem that has been
 	  found in either the FreeBSD source or documentation.  See
 	  <link xlink:href="@@URL_RELPREFIX@@/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/problem-reports/index.html">
 	  Writing FreeBSD Problem Reports</link>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="pid-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Process ID</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">PID</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A number, unique to a particular process on a system,
 	  which identifies it and allows actions to be taken against it.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="projectevil-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Project Evil</glossterm>
       <glossdef subject="FreeBSD">
 	<para xml:lang="en">The working title for the <acronym>NDISulator</acronym>,
 	  written by Bill Paul, who named it referring to how awful
 	  it is (from a philosophical standpoint) to need to have
 	  something like this in the first place.  The
 	  <acronym>NDISulator</acronym> is a special compatibility
 	  module to allow Microsoft Windows™ NDIS miniport
 	  network drivers to be used with FreeBSD/i386.  This is usually
 	  the only way to use cards where the driver is closed-source.
 	  See <filename>src/sys/compat/ndis/subr_ndis.c</filename>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">R</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RA</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ra-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RAID</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="raid-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RAM</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ram-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="rd-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RFC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="rfc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RISC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="risc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RPC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="rpc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RS232C</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="rs232c-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">RTS</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="rts-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ram-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Random Access Memory</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RAM</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="rcs-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Revision Control System</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RCS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">The <emphasis>Revision Control System</emphasis>
           (<acronym>RCS</acronym>) is one of the oldest software suites
           that implement <quote>revision control</quote> for plain
           files.  It allows the storage, retrieval, archival, logging,
           identification and merging of multiple revisions for each
           file.  RCS consists of many small tools that work together.
           It lacks some of the features found in more modern revision
           control systems, like Git, but it is very simple
           to install, configure, and start using for a small set of
           files.</para>
 
 	<glossseealso otherterm="svn-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="rd-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Received Data</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> pin or wire that data is
 	  received on.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="td-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="rs232c-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Recommended Standard 232C</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RS232C</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A standard for communications between serial devices.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="risc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Reduced Instruction Set Computer</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RISC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An approach to processor design where the operations the hardware
 	  can perform are simplified but made as general purpose as possible.
 	  This can lead to lower power consumption, fewer transistors and in
 	  some cases, better performance and increased code density.  Examples
 	  of RISC processors include the Alpha, <trademark class="registered">SPARC</trademark>, <trademark class="registered">ARM</trademark> and
 	  <trademark class="registered">PowerPC</trademark>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="raid-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RAID</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="rpc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Remote Procedure Call</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RPC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="rfc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Request For Comments</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RFC</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A set of documents defining Internet standards, protocols, and
 	  so forth.  See
 	  <link xlink:href="http://www.rfc-editor.org/">www.rfc-editor.org</link>.
 	  </para>
 
 	<para xml:lang="en">Also used as a general term when someone has a suggested change
 	  and wants feedback.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="rts-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Request To Send</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RTS</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> signal requesting that the remote
 	  system commences transmission of data.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="cts-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ra-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Router Advertisement</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">RA</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">S</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SCI</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="sci-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SCSI</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="scsi-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SG</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="sg-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SMB</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="smb-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SMP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="smp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SMTP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="smtp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SMTP AUTH</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="smtpauth-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SSH</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ssh-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">STR</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="str-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">SVN</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="svn-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="smtpauth-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en"><acronym>SMTP</acronym> Authentication</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SMTP AUTH</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="smb-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Server Message Block</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SMB</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="sg-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Signal Ground</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SG</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232</acronym> pin or wire that is the ground
 	  reference for the signal.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="smtp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SMTP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ssh-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Secure Shell</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SSH</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="scsi-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Small Computer System Interface</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SCSI</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="svn-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Subversion</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SVN</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">Subversion is a version control system
           currently used by the FreeBSD project.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="str-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Suspend To <acronym>RAM</acronym></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">STR</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="smp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Symmetric MultiProcessor</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SMP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="sci-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">System Control Interrupt</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">SCI</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">T</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">TCP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="tcp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">TCP/IP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="tcpip-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">TD</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="td-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">TFTP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="tftp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">TGT</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="tgt-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">TSC</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="tsc-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="tgt-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Ticket-Granting Ticket</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">TGT</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="tsc-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Time Stamp Counter</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">TSC</acronym>
       <!-- From dg@, 20040814125503.GF40460@nexus.dglawrence.com -->
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A profiling counter internal to modern <trademark class="registered">Pentium</trademark> processors
 	  that counts core frequency clock ticks.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="tcp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Transmission Control Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">TCP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A protocol that sits on top of (e.g.) the <acronym>IP</acronym>
 	  protocol and guarantees that packets are delivered in a reliable,
 	  ordered, fashion.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="tcpip-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">TCP/IP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">The term for the combination of the <acronym>TCP</acronym>
 	  protocol running over the <acronym>IP</acronym> protocol.  Much of
 	  the Internet runs over <acronym>TCP/IP</acronym>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="td-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Transmitted Data</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">TD</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An <acronym>RS232C</acronym> pin or wire that data is transmitted
 	  on.</para>
 	<glossseealso otherterm="rd-glossary"/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="tftp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Trivial <acronym>FTP</acronym></glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">TFTP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para/>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">U</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">UDP</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="udp-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">UFS1</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ufs1-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">UFS2</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="ufs2-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">UID</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="uid-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">URL</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="url-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">USB</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="usb-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="url-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Uniform Resource Locator</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">URL</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A method of locating a resource, such as a document on
 	  the Internet and a means to identify that resource.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ufs1-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Unix File System Version 1</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">UFS1</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">The original <trademark class="registered">UNIX</trademark> file system, sometimes called the
 	  Berkeley Fast File System.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="ufs2-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Unix File System Version 2</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">UFS2</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">An extension to <acronym>UFS1</acronym>, introduced in
 	  FreeBSD 5-CURRENT.  <acronym>UFS2</acronym> adds 64 bit block
 	  pointers (breaking the 1T barrier), support for extended file
 	  storage and other features.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="usb-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Universal Serial Bus</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">USB</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A hardware standard used to connect a wide variety of
 	  computer peripherals to a universal interface.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="uid-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">User ID</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">UID</acronym>
       <glossdef>
         <para xml:lang="en">A unique number assigned to each user of a computer,
 	  by which the resources and permissions assigned to that
 	  user can be identified.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="udp-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">User Datagram Protocol</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">UDP</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A simple, unreliable datagram protocol which is used
 	  for exchanging data on a TCP/IP network.  <acronym>UDP</acronym>
 	  does not provide error checking and correction like
 	  <acronym>TCP</acronym>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 
   <glossdiv>
     <title xml:lang="en">V</title>
 
     <glossentry>
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">VPN</glossterm>
       <glosssee otherterm="vpn-glossary"/>
     </glossentry>
 
     <glossentry xml:id="vpn-glossary">
       <glossterm xml:lang="en">Virtual Private Network</glossterm>
       <acronym xml:lang="en">VPN</acronym>
       <glossdef>
 	<para xml:lang="en">A method of using a public telecommunication
 	  such as the Internet, to provide remote access to a
 	  localized network, such as a corporate
 	  <acronym>LAN</acronym>.</para>
       </glossdef>
     </glossentry>
   </glossdiv>
 </glossary>
 
   <index/>
   
 <!--
      The FreeBSD Documentation Project
 
      $FreeBSD$
 -->
 <colophon version="5.0" xml:id="colophon">
 
   <para>本手冊是由數以百計 <quote>FreeBSD 文件計劃</quote> 的志願工作者所合作而成。 這些文字是由依據 DocBook DTD 規範的 XML 所寫， 並由 XSLT 將 XML 轉換成其他不同格式。 要是沒有 Donald Knuth 的 <application>TeX</application> 排版語言， Leslie Lamport 的 <application>LaTeX</application> 或 Sebastian Rahtz 的 <application>JadeTeX</application> 巨集套件的重要貢獻，本文件的印刷版本將無以完成。</para>
 </colophon>
 
 </book>