Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1138 +1,1140 @@ - + Desktop Applications Synopsis While &os; is popular as a server for its performance and stability, it is also suited for day-to-day use as a desktop. With over &os.numports; applications available as &os; packages or ports, it is easy to build a customized desktop that runs a wide variety of desktop applications. This chapter demonstrates how to install numerous desktop applications, including web browsers, productivity software, document viewers, and financial software. Users who prefer to install a pre-built desktop version of FreeBSD rather than configuring one from scratch should refer to the pcbsd.org website. Readers of this chapter should know how to: Install additional software using packages or ports as described in . Install X and a window manager as described in . For information on how to configure a multimedia environment, refer to . Browsers browsers web &os; does not come with a pre-installed web browser. Instead, the www category of the Ports Collection contains many browsers which can be installed as a package or compiled from the Ports Collection. The KDE and GNOME desktop environments include their own HTML browser. Refer to for more information on how to set up these complete desktops. Some light-weight browsers include www/dillo2, www/links, and www/w3m. This section demonstrates how to install the following popular web browsers and indicates if the application is resource-heavy, takes time to compile from ports, or has any major dependencies. Application Name Resources Needed Installation from Ports Notes Firefox medium heavy &os;, &linux;, and localized versions are available Opera light light &os; and &linux; versions are available Konqueror medium heavy Requires KDE libraries Chromium medium heavy Requires Gtk+ Firefox Firefox Firefox is an open source browser that is fully ported to &os;. It features a standards-compliant HTML display engine, tabbed browsing, popup blocking, extensions, improved security, and more. Firefox is based on the Mozilla codebase. To install the package of the latest release version of Firefox, type: &prompt.root; pkg install firefox To instead install Firefox Extended Support Release (ESR) version, use: &prompt.root; pkg install firefox-esr Localized versions are available in www/firefox-i18n and www/firefox-esr-i18n. The Ports Collection can instead be used to compile the desired version of Firefox from source code. This example builds www/firefox, where firefox can be replaced with the ESR or localized version to install. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/firefox &prompt.root; make install clean Firefox and &java; Plugin The installation of Firefox does not include &java; support. However, java/icedtea-web provides a free software web browser plugin for running Java applets. It can be installed as a package. To alternately compile the port: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/java/icedtea-web &prompt.root; make install clean Keep the default configuration options when compiling the port. Once installed, start firefox, enter about:plugins in the location bar and press Enter. A page listing the installed plugins will be displayed. The &java; plugin should be listed. If the browser is unable to find the plugin, each user will have to run the following command and relaunch the browser: &prompt.user; ln -s /usr/local/lib/IcedTeaPlugin.so \ $HOME/.mozilla/plugins/ Firefox and &adobe; &flash; Plugin Flash A native &adobe; &flash; plugin is not available for &os;. However, a software wrapper for running the &linux; version of the plugin is available. This wrapper also provides support for other browser plugins such as &realplayer;. To install and enable this plugin, perform these steps: Install the www/nspluginwrapper port. Due to licensing restrictions, a package is not available. This port requires emulators/linux_base-f10 which is a large port. Install the www/linux-f10-flashplugin11 port. Due to licensing restrictions, a package is not available. &prompt.root; ln -s /usr/local/lib/browser_plugins/linux-f10-flashplugin/libflashplayer.so \ /usr/local/lib/browser_plugins/ Create the /usr/local/lib/browser_plugins directory if it is not already present. Before the plugin is first used, each user must run: &prompt.user; nspluginwrapper -v -a -i When the plugin port has been updated and reinstalled, each user must run: &prompt.user; nspluginwrapper -v -a -u Start the browser, enter about:plugins in the location bar and press Enter. A list of all the currently available plugins will be shown. Firefox and Swfdec &flash; Plugin Swfdec is a decoder and renderer for &flash; animations. Swfdec-Mozilla is a plugin for Firefox browsers that uses the Swfdec library for playing SWF files. To install the package: &prompt.root; pkg install swfdec-plugin If the package is not available, compile and install it from the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/swfdec-plugin &prompt.root; make install clean Restart the browser to activate this plugin. Opera Opera Opera is a full-featured and standards-compliant browser which is still lightweight and fast. It comes with a built-in mail and news reader, an IRC client, an RSS/Atom feeds reader, and more. It is available as a native &os; version and as a version that runs under &linux; emulation. This command installs the package of the &os; version of Opera. Replace opera with linux-opera to instead install the &linux; version. &prompt.root; pkg install opera Alternately, install either version through the Ports Collection. This example compiles the native version: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/opera &prompt.root; make install clean To install the &linux; version, substitute linux-opera in place of opera. To install &adobe; &flash; plugin support, first compile the www/linux-f10-flashplugin11 port, as a package is not available due to licensing restrictions. Then install either the www/opera-linuxplugins port or package. This example compiles both applications from ports: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/linux-f10-flashplugin11 &prompt.root; make install clean &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/opera-linuxplugins &prompt.root; make install clean Once installed, check the presence of the plugin by starting the browser, entering opera:plugins in the location bar and pressing Enter. A list should appear with all the currently available plugins. To add the &java; plugin, follow the instructions in . Konqueror Konqueror Konqueror is more than a web browser as it is also a file manager and a multimedia viewer. It is included in the x11/kde4-baseapps package or port. Konqueror supports WebKit as well as its own KHTML. WebKit is a rendering engine used by many modern browsers including Chromium. To use WebKit with Konqueror on &os;, install the www/kwebkitpart package or port. This example compiles the port: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/kwebkitpart &prompt.root; make install clean To enable WebKit within Konqueror, click Settings, Configure Konqueror. In the General settings page, click the drop-down menu next to Default web browser engine and change KHTML to WebKit. Konqueror also supports &flash;. A How To guide for getting &flash; support on Konqueror is available at http://freebsd.kde.org/howtos/konqueror-flash.php. Chromium Chromium Chromium is an open source browser project that aims to build a safer, faster, and more stable web browsing experience. Chromium features tabbed browsing, popup blocking, extensions, and much more. Chromium is the open source project upon which the Google Chrome web browser is based. Chromium can be installed as a package by typing: &prompt.root; pkg install chromium Alternatively, Chromium can be compiled from source using the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/chromium &prompt.root; make install clean The executable for Chromium is /usr/local/bin/chrome, not /usr/local/bin/chromium. Chromium and &java; Plugin The installation of Chromium does not include &java; support. To install &java; plugin support, follow the instructions in . Once &java; support is installed, start Chromium and enter about:plugins in the address bar. IcedTea-Web should be listed as one of the installed plugins. If Chromium does not display the IcedTea-Web plugin, run the following commands and restart the web browser: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/local/share/chromium/plugins &prompt.root; ln -s /usr/local/lib/IcedTeaPlugin.so \ /usr/local/share/chromium/plugins/ Chromium and &adobe; &flash; Plugin Configuring Chromium and &adobe; &flash; is similar to the instructions in . No additional configuration should be necessary, since Chromium is able to use some plugins from other browsers. Productivity When it comes to productivity, new users often look for an office suite or an easy-to-use word processor. While some desktop environments like KDE provide an office suite, there is no default productivity package. Several office suites and graphical word processors are available for &os;, regardless of the installed window manager. This section demonstrates how to install the following popular productivity software and indicates if the application is resource-heavy, takes time to compile from ports, or has any major dependencies. Application Name Resources Needed Installation from Ports Major Dependencies Calligra light heavy KDE AbiWord light light Gtk+ or GNOME The Gimp light heavy Gtk+ Apache OpenOffice heavy huge &jdk; and Mozilla LibreOffice somewhat heavy huge Gtk+, or KDE/ GNOME, or &jdk; Calligra Calligra office suite Calligra The KDE desktop environment includes an office suite which can be installed separately from KDE. Calligra includes standard components that can be found in other office suites. Words is the word processor, Sheets is the spreadsheet program, Stage manages slide presentations, and Karbon is used to draw graphical documents. In &os;, editors/calligra can be installed as a package or a port. To install the package: &prompt.root; pkg install calligra If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection instead: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/calligra &prompt.root; make install clean AbiWord AbiWord AbiWord is a free word processing program similar in look and feel to µsoft; Word. It is fast, contains many features, and is user-friendly. AbiWord can import or export many file formats, including some proprietary ones like µsoft; .rtf. To install the AbiWord package: &prompt.root; pkg install abiword If the package is not available, it can be compiled from the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/abiword &prompt.root; make install clean The GIMP The GIMP For image authoring or picture retouching, The GIMP provides a sophisticated image manipulation program. It can be used as a simple paint program or as a quality photo retouching suite. It supports a large number of plugins and features a scripting interface. The GIMP can read and write a wide range of file formats and supports interfaces with scanners and tablets. To install the package: &prompt.root; pkg install gimp Alternately, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/gimp &prompt.root; make install clean The graphics category (freebsd.org/ports/graphics.html) of the Ports Collection contains several GIMP-related plugins, help files, and user manuals. Apache OpenOffice Apache OpenOffice office suite Apache OpenOffice Apache OpenOffice is an open source office suite which is developed under the wing of the Apache Software Foundation's Incubator. It includes all of the applications found in a complete office productivity suite: a word processor, spreadsheet, presentation manager, and drawing program. Its user interface is similar to other office suites, and it can import and export in various popular file formats. It is available in a number of different languages and internationalization has been extended to interfaces, spell checkers, and dictionaries. The word processor of Apache OpenOffice uses a native XML file format for increased portability and flexibility. The spreadsheet program features a macro language which can be interfaced with external databases. Apache OpenOffice is stable and runs natively on &windows;, &solaris;, &linux;, &os;, and &macos; X. More information about Apache OpenOffice can be found at openoffice.org. For &os; specific information refer to porting.openoffice.org/freebsd/. To install the Apache OpenOffice package: &prompt.root; pkg install apache-openoffice Once the package is installed, type the following command to launch Apache OpenOffice: &prompt.user; openoffice-X.Y.Z where X.Y.Z is the version number of the installed version of Apache OpenOffice. The first time Apache OpenOffice launches, some questions will be asked and a .openoffice.org folder will be created in the user's home directory. If the desired Apache OpenOffice package is not available, compiling the port is still an option. However, this requires a lot of disk space and a fairly long time to compile: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/openoffice-4 &prompt.root; make install clean To build a localized version, replace the previous command with: &prompt.root; make LOCALIZED_LANG=your_language install clean Replace your_language with the correct language ISO-code. A list of supported language codes is available in files/Makefile.localized, located in the port's directory. LibreOffice LibreOffice office suite LibreOffice LibreOffice is a free software office suite developed by documentfoundation.org. It is compatible with other major office suites and available on a variety of platforms. It is a rebranded fork of OpenOffice.org and includes applications found in a complete office productivity suite: a word processor, spreadsheet, presentation manager, drawing program, database management program, and a tool for creating and editing mathematical formulæ. It is available in a number of different languages and internationalization has been extended to interfaces, spell checkers, and dictionaries. The word processor of LibreOffice uses a native XML file format for increased portability and flexibility. The spreadsheet program features a macro language which can be interfaced with external databases. LibreOffice is stable and runs natively on &windows;, &linux;, &os;, and &macos; X. More information about LibreOffice can be found at libreoffice.org. To install the English version of the LibreOffice package: &prompt.root; pkg install libreoffice The editors category (freebsd.org/ports/editors.html) of the Ports Collection contains several localizations for LibreOffice. When installing a localized package, replace libreoffice with the name of the localized package. Once the package is installed, type the following command to run LibreOffice: &prompt.user; libreoffice During the first launch, some questions will be asked and a .libreoffice folder will be created in the user's home directory. If the desired LibreOffice package is not available, compiling the port is still an option. However, this requires a lot of disk space and a fairly long time to compile. This example compiles the English version: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/libreoffice &prompt.root; make install clean To build a localized version, cd into the port directory of the desired language. Supported languages can be found in the editors category (freebsd.org/ports/editors.html) of the Ports Collection. Document Viewers Some new document formats have gained popularity since the advent of &unix; and the viewers they require may not be available in the base system. This section demonstrates how to install the following document viewers: Application Name Resources Needed Installation from Ports Major Dependencies Xpdf light light FreeType gv light light Xaw3d GQview light light Gtk+ or GNOME ePDFView light light Gtk+ Okular light heavy KDE Xpdf Xpdf PDF viewing For users that prefer a small &os; PDF viewer, Xpdf provides a light-weight and efficient viewer which requires few resources. It uses the standard X fonts and does not require any additional toolkits. To install the Xpdf package: &prompt.root; pkg install xpdf If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/xpdf &prompt.root; make install clean Once the installation is complete, launch xpdf and use the right mouse button to activate the menu. <application>gv</application> gv PDF viewing PostScript viewing gv is a &postscript; and PDF viewer. It is based on ghostview, but has a nicer look as it is based on the Xaw3d widget toolkit. gv has many configurable features, such as orientation, paper size, scale, and anti-aliasing. Almost any operation can be performed with either the keyboard or the mouse. To install gv as a package: &prompt.root; pkg install gv If a package is unavailable, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/print/gv &prompt.root; make install clean GQview GQview GQview is an image manager which supports viewing a file with a single click, launching an external editor, and thumbnail previews. It also features a slideshow mode and some basic file operations, making it easy to manage image collections and to find duplicate files. GQview supports full screen viewing and internationalization. To install the GQview package: &prompt.root; pkg install gqview If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/gqview &prompt.root; make install clean ePDFView ePDFView PDF viewing ePDFView is a lightweight PDF document viewer that only uses the Gtk+ and Poppler libraries. It is currently under development, but already opens most PDF files (even encrypted), save copies of documents, and has support for printing using CUPS. To install ePDFView as a package: &prompt.root; pkg install epdfview If a package is unavailable, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/epdfview &prompt.root; make install clean Okular Okular PDF viewing Okular is a universal document viewer based on KPDF for KDE. It can open many document formats, including PDF, &postscript;, DjVu, CHM, XPS, and ePub. To install Okular as a package: &prompt.root; pkg install okular If a package is unavailable, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/okular &prompt.root; make install clean Finance For managing personal finances on a &os; desktop, some powerful and easy-to-use applications can be installed. Some are compatible with widespread file formats, such as the formats used by Quicken and Excel. This section covers these programs: Application Name Resources Needed Installation from Ports Major Dependencies GnuCash light heavy GNOME Gnumeric light heavy GNOME KMyMoney light heavy KDE GnuCash GnuCash GnuCash is part of the GNOME effort to provide user-friendly, yet powerful, applications to end-users. GnuCash can be used to keep track of income and expenses, bank accounts, and stocks. It features an intuitive interface while remaining professional. GnuCash provides a smart register, a hierarchical system of accounts, and many keyboard accelerators and auto-completion methods. It can split a single transaction into several more detailed pieces. GnuCash can import and merge Quicken QIF files. It also handles most international date and currency formats. To install the GnuCash package: &prompt.root; pkg install gnucash If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/finance/gnucash &prompt.root; make install clean Gnumeric Gnumeric spreadsheet Gnumeric Gnumeric is a spreadsheet program developed by the GNOME community. It features convenient automatic guessing of user input according to the cell format with an autofill system for many sequences. It can import files in a number of popular formats, including Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro. It has a large number of built-in functions and allows all of the usual cell formats such as number, currency, date, time, and much more. To install Gnumeric as a package: &prompt.root; pkg install gnumeric If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/math/gnumeric &prompt.root; make install clean KMyMoney KMyMoney spreadsheet KMyMoney KMyMoney is a personal finance application created by the KDE community. KMyMoney aims to provide the important features found in commercial personal finance manager applications. It also highlights ease-of-use and proper double-entry accounting among its features. KMyMoney imports from standard Quicken QIF files, tracks investments, handles multiple currencies, and provides a wealth of reports. To install KMyMoney as a package: &prompt.root; pkg install kmymoney-kde4 If the package is not available, use the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/finance/kmymoney-kde4 &prompt.root; make install clean Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/dtrace/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/dtrace/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/dtrace/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,357 +1,358 @@ - - + &dtrace; TomRhodesWritten by Synopsis &dtrace; &dtrace; support &dtrace; &dtrace;, also known as Dynamic Tracing, was developed by &sun; as a tool for locating performance bottlenecks in production and pre-production systems. In addition to diagnosing performance problems, &dtrace; can be used to help investigate and debug unexpected behavior in both the &os; kernel and in userland programs. &dtrace; is a remarkable profiling tool, with an impressive array of features for diagnosing system issues. It may also be used to run pre-written scripts to take advantage of its capabilities. Users can author their own utilities using the &dtrace; D Language, allowing them to customize their profiling based on specific needs. The &os; implementation provides full support for kernel &dtrace; and experimental support for userland &dtrace;. Userland &dtrace; allows users to perform function boundary tracing for userland programs using the pid provider, and to insert static probes into userland programs for later tracing. Some ports, such as databases/postgres-server and lang/php5 have a &dtrace; option to enable static probes. &os; 10.0-RELEASE has reasonably good userland &dtrace; support, but it is not considered production ready. In particular, it is possible to crash traced programs. After reading this chapter, you will know: What &dtrace; is and what features it provides. Differences between the &solaris; &dtrace; implementation and the one provided by &os;. How to enable and use &dtrace; on &os;. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand &unix; and &os; basics (). Have some familiarity with security and how it pertains to &os; (). Implementation Differences While the &dtrace; in &os; is similar to that found in &solaris;, differences do exist. The primary difference is that in &os;, &dtrace; is implemented as a set of kernel modules and &dtrace; can not be used until the modules are loaded. To load all of the necessary modules: &prompt.root; kldload dtraceall Beginning with &os; 10.0-RELEASE, the modules are automatically loaded when dtrace is run. &os; uses the DDB_CTF kernel option to enable support for loading CTF data from kernel modules and the kernel itself. CTF is the &solaris; Compact C Type Format which encapsulates a reduced form of debugging information similar to DWARF and the venerable stabs. CTF data is added to binaries by the ctfconvert and ctfmerge build tools. The ctfconvert utility parses DWARF ELF debug sections created by the compiler and ctfmerge merges CTF ELF sections from objects into either executables or shared libraries. Some different providers exist for &os; than for &solaris;. Most notable is the dtmalloc provider, which allows tracing malloc() by type in the &os; kernel. Some of the providers found in &solaris;, such as cpc and mib, are not present in &os;. These may appear in future versions of &os;. Moreover, some of the providers available in both operating systems are not compatible, in the sense that their probes have different argument types. Thus, D scripts written on &solaris; may or may not work unmodified on &os;, and vice versa. Due to security differences, only root may use &dtrace; on &os;. &solaris; has a few low level security checks which do not yet exist in &os;. As such, the /dev/dtrace/dtrace is strictly limited to root. &dtrace; falls under the Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL) license. To view this license on &os;, see /usr/src/cddl/contrib/opensolaris/OPENSOLARIS.LICENSE or view it online at http://opensource.org/licenses/CDDL-1.0. While a &os; kernel with &dtrace; support is BSD licensed, the CDDL is used when the modules are distributed in binary form or the binaries are loaded. Enabling &dtrace; Support In &os; 9.2 and 10.0, &dtrace; support is built into the GENERIC kernel. Users of earlier versions of &os; or who prefer to statically compile in &dtrace; support should add the following lines to a custom kernel configuration file and recompile the kernel using the instructions in : options KDTRACE_HOOKS options DDB_CTF options DEBUG=-g Users of the AMD64 architecture should also add this line: options KDTRACE_FRAME This option provides support for FBT. While &dtrace; will work without this option, there will be limited support for function boundary tracing. Once the &os; system has rebooted into the new kernel, or the &dtrace; kernel modules have been loaded using kldload dtraceall, the system will need support for the Korn shell as the &dtrace; Toolkit has several utilities written in ksh. Make sure that the shells/ksh93 package or port is installed. It is also possible to run these tools under shells/pdksh or shells/mksh. Finally, install the current &dtrace; Toolkit, a collection of ready-made scripts for collecting system information. There are scripts to check open files, memory, CPU usage, and a lot more. &os; 10 installs a few of these scripts into /usr/share/dtrace. On other &os; versions, or to install the full &dtrace; Toolkit, use the sysutils/DTraceToolkit package or port. The scripts found in /usr/share/dtrace have been specifically ported to &os;. Not all of the scripts found in the &dtrace; Toolkit will work as-is on &os; and some scripts may require some effort in order for them to work on &os;. The &dtrace; Toolkit includes many scripts in the special language of &dtrace;. This language is called the D language and it is very similar to C++. An in depth discussion of the language is beyond the scope of this document. It is extensively discussed at http://wikis.oracle.com/display/DTrace/Documentation. Using &dtrace; &dtrace; scripts consist of a list of one or more probes, or instrumentation points, where each probe is associated with an action. Whenever the condition for a probe is met, the associated action is executed. For example, an action may occur when a file is opened, a process is started, or a line of code is executed. The action might be to log some information or to modify context variables. The reading and writing of context variables allows probes to share information and to cooperatively analyze the correlation of different events. To view all probes, the administrator can execute the following command: &prompt.root; dtrace -l | more Each probe has an ID, a PROVIDER (dtrace or fbt), a MODULE, and a FUNCTION NAME. Refer to &man.dtrace.1; for more information about this command. The examples in this section provide an overview of how to use two of the fully supported scripts from the &dtrace; Toolkit: the hotkernel and procsystime scripts. The hotkernel script is designed to identify which function is using the most kernel time. It will produce output similar to the following: &prompt.root; cd /usr/share/dtrace/toolkit &prompt.root; ./hotkernel Sampling... Hit Ctrl-C to end. As instructed, use the CtrlC key combination to stop the process. Upon termination, the script will display a list of kernel functions and timing information, sorting the output in increasing order of time: kernel`_thread_lock_flags 2 0.0% 0xc1097063 2 0.0% kernel`sched_userret 2 0.0% kernel`kern_select 2 0.0% kernel`generic_copyin 3 0.0% kernel`_mtx_assert 3 0.0% kernel`vm_fault 3 0.0% kernel`sopoll_generic 3 0.0% kernel`fixup_filename 4 0.0% kernel`_isitmyx 4 0.0% kernel`find_instance 4 0.0% kernel`_mtx_unlock_flags 5 0.0% kernel`syscall 5 0.0% kernel`DELAY 5 0.0% 0xc108a253 6 0.0% kernel`witness_lock 7 0.0% kernel`read_aux_data_no_wait 7 0.0% kernel`Xint0x80_syscall 7 0.0% kernel`witness_checkorder 7 0.0% kernel`sse2_pagezero 8 0.0% kernel`strncmp 9 0.0% kernel`spinlock_exit 10 0.0% kernel`_mtx_lock_flags 11 0.0% kernel`witness_unlock 15 0.0% kernel`sched_idletd 137 0.3% 0xc10981a5 42139 99.3% This script will also work with kernel modules. To use this feature, run the script with : &prompt.root; ./hotkernel -m Sampling... Hit Ctrl-C to end. ^C MODULE COUNT PCNT 0xc107882e 1 0.0% 0xc10e6aa4 1 0.0% 0xc1076983 1 0.0% 0xc109708a 1 0.0% 0xc1075a5d 1 0.0% 0xc1077325 1 0.0% 0xc108a245 1 0.0% 0xc107730d 1 0.0% 0xc1097063 2 0.0% 0xc108a253 73 0.0% kernel 874 0.4% 0xc10981a5 213781 99.6% The procsystime script captures and prints the system call time usage for a given process ID (PID) or process name. In the following example, a new instance of /bin/csh was spawned. Then, procsystime was executed and remained waiting while a few commands were typed on the other incarnation of csh. These are the results of this test: &prompt.root; ./procsystime -n csh Tracing... Hit Ctrl-C to end... ^C Elapsed Times for processes csh, SYSCALL TIME (ns) getpid 6131 sigreturn 8121 close 19127 fcntl 19959 dup 26955 setpgid 28070 stat 31899 setitimer 40938 wait4 62717 sigaction 67372 sigprocmask 119091 gettimeofday 183710 write 263242 execve 492547 ioctl 770073 vfork 3258923 sigsuspend 6985124 read 3988049784 As shown, the read() system call used the most time in nanoseconds while the getpid() system call used the least amount of time. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/filesystems/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/filesystems/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/filesystems/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,217 +1,218 @@ - - + Other File Systems TomRhodesWritten by Synopsis File Systems File Systems Support File Systems File systems are an integral part of any operating system. They allow users to upload and store files, provide access to data, and make hard drives useful. Different operating systems differ in their native file system. Traditionally, the native &os; file system has been the Unix File System UFS which has been modernized as UFS2. Since &os; 7.0, the Z File System (ZFS) is also available as a native file system. See for more information. In addition to its native file systems, &os; supports a multitude of other file systems so that data from other operating systems can be accessed locally, such as data stored on locally attached USB storage devices, flash drives, and hard disks. This includes support for the &linux; Extended File System (EXT) and the Reiser file system. There are different levels of &os; support for the various file systems. Some require a kernel module to be loaded and others may require a toolset to be installed. Some non-native file system support is full read-write while others are read-only. After reading this chapter, you will know: The difference between native and supported file systems. Which file systems are supported by &os;. How to enable, configure, access, and make use of non-native file systems. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand &unix; and &os; basics. Be familiar with the basics of kernel configuration and compilation. Feel comfortable installing software in &os;. Have some familiarity with disks, storage, and device names in &os;. &linux; File Systems &os; provides built-in support for several &linux; file systems. This section demonstrates how to load support for and how to mount the supported &linux; file systems. <acronym>ext2</acronym> Kernel support for ext2 file systems has been available since &os; 2.2. In &os; 8.x and earlier, the code is licensed under the GPL. Since &os; 9.0, the code has been rewritten and is now BSD licensed. The &man.ext2fs.5; driver allows the &os; kernel to both read and write to ext2 file systems. This driver can also be used to access ext3 and ext4 file systems. However, ext3 journaling, extended attributes, and inodes greater than 128-bytes are not supported. Support for ext4 is read-only. To access an ext file system, first load the kernel loadable module: &prompt.root; kldload ext2fs Then, mount the ext volume by specifying its &os; partition name and an existing mount point. This example mounts /dev/ad1s1 on /mnt: &prompt.root; mount -t ext2fs /dev/ad1s1 /mnt XFS A &os; kernel can be configured to provide read-only support for XFS file systems. To compile in XFS support, add the following option to a custom kernel configuration file and recompile the kernel using the instructions in : options XFS Then, to mount an XFS volume located on /dev/ad1s1: &prompt.root; mount -t xfs /dev/ad1s1 /mnt The sysutils/xfsprogs package or port provides additional utilities, with man pages, for using, analyzing, and repairing XFS file systems. ReiserFS &os; provides read-only support for The Reiser file system, ReiserFS. To load the &man.reiserfs.5; driver: &prompt.root; kldload reiserfs Then, to mount a ReiserFS volume located on /dev/ad1s1: &prompt.root; mount -t reiserfs /dev/ad1s1 /mnt Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,4623 +1,4624 @@ - - + Installing &os; 8.<replaceable>X</replaceable> JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten by RandyPrattThe sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general copy by Synopsis installation &os; provides a text-based, easy to use installation program. &os; 9.0-RELEASE and later use the installation program known as &man.bsdinstall.8; while &os; 8.X uses &man.sysinstall.8;. This chapter describes how to use &man.sysinstall.8;. The use of &man.bsdinstall.8; is covered in . After reading this chapter, you will know: How to create the &os; installation media. How &os; refers to and subdivides hard disks. How to start &man.sysinstall.8;. The questions &man.sysinstall.8; asks, what they mean, and how to answer them. Before reading this chapter, you should: Read the supported hardware list that shipped with the version of &os; to install, and verify that the system's hardware is supported. In general, these installation instructions are written for the &i386; and &os;/&arch.amd64; architectures. Where applicable, instructions specific to other platforms will be listed. There may be minor differences between the installer and what is shown here. This chapter should be used as a general guide rather than a literal installation manual. Hardware Requirements Minimal Configuration The minimal configuration to install &os; varies with the &os; version and the hardware architecture. A summary of this information is given in the following sections. Depending on the method chosen to install &os;, a floppy drive, CDROM drive, or network adapter may be needed. Instructions on how to prepare the installation media can be found in . &os;/&arch.i386; and &os;/&arch.pc98; Both &os;/&arch.i386; and &os;/&arch.pc98; require a 486 or better processor, at least 24 MB of RAM, and at least 150 MB of free hard drive space for the most minimal installation. In the case of older hardware, installing more RAM and more hard drive space is often more important than a faster processor. &os;/&arch.amd64; There are two classes of processors capable of running &os;/&arch.amd64;. The first are AMD64 processors, including the &amd.athlon;64, &amd.athlon;64-FX, and &amd.opteron; or better processors. The second class of processors includes those using the &intel; EM64T architecture. Examples of these processors include the &intel; &core; 2 Duo, Quad, Extreme processor families, and the &intel; &xeon; 3000, 5000, and 7000 sequences of processors. If the machine is based on an nVidia nForce3 Pro-150, the BIOS setup must be used to disable the IO APIC. If this option does not exist, disable ACPI instead as there are bugs in the Pro-150 chipset. &os;/&arch.sparc64; To install &os;/&arch.sparc64;, use a supported platform (see ). A dedicated disk is needed for &os;/&arch.sparc64; as it is not possible to share a disk with another operating system at this time. Supported Hardware A list of supported hardware is provided with each &os; release in the &os; Hardware Notes. This document can usually be found in a file named HARDWARE.TXT, in the top-level directory of a CDROM or FTP distribution, or in &man.sysinstall.8;'s documentation menu. It lists, for a given architecture, which hardware devices are known to be supported by each release of &os;. Copies of the supported hardware list for various releases and architectures can also be found on the Release Information page of the &os; website. Pre-installation Tasks Inventory the Computer Before installing &os; it is recommended to inventory the components in the computer. The &os; installation routines will show components such as hard disks, network cards, and CDROM drives with their model number and manufacturer. &os; will also attempt to determine the correct configuration for these devices, including information about IRQ and I/O port usage. Due to the vagaries of computer hardware, this process is not always completely successful, and &os; may need some manual configuration. If another operating system is already installed, use the facilities provided by that operating systems to view the hardware configuration. If the settings of an expansion card are not obvious, check if they are printed on the card itself. Popular IRQ numbers are 3, 5, and 7, and I/O port addresses are normally written as hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x330. It is recommended to print or write down this information before installing &os;. It may help to use a table, as seen in this example: Sample Device Inventory Device Name IRQ I/O port(s) Notes First hard disk N/A N/A 40 GB, made by Seagate, first IDE master CDROM N/A N/A First IDE slave Second hard disk N/A N/A 20 GB, made by IBM, second IDE master First IDE controller 14 0x1f0 Network card N/A N/A &intel; 10/100 Modem N/A N/A &tm.3com; 56K faxmodem, on COM1 …
Once the inventory of the components in the computer is complete, check if it matches the hardware requirements of the &os; release to install. Make a Backup If the computer contains valuable data, ensure it is backed up, and that the backup has been tested before installing &os;. The &os; installer will prompt before writing any data to disk, but once that process has started, it cannot be undone. Decide Where to Install &os; If &os; is to be installed on the entire hard disk, skip this section. However, if &os; will co-exist with other operating systems, a rough understanding of how data is laid out on the disk is useful. Disk Layouts for &os;/&arch.i386; A PC disk can be divided into discrete chunks known as partitions. Since &os; also has partitions, naming can quickly become confusing. Therefore, these disk chunks are referred to as slices in &os;. For example, the &os; version of &man.fdisk.8; refers to slices instead of partitions. By design, the PC only supports four partitions per disk. These partitions are called primary partitions. To work around this limitation and allow more than four partitions, a new partition type was created, the extended partition. A disk may contain only one extended partition. Special partitions, called logical partitions, can be created inside this extended partition. Each partition has a partition ID, which is a number used to identify the type of data on the partition. &os; partitions have the partition ID of 165. In general, each operating system will identify partitions in a particular way. For example, &windows;, assigns each primary and logical partition a drive letter, starting with C:. &os; must be installed into a primary partition. If there are multiple disks, a &os; partition can be created on all, or some, of them. When &os; is installed, at least one partition must be available. This might be a blank partition or it might be an existing partition whose data can be overwritten. If all the partitions on all the disks are in use, free one of them for &os; using the tools provided by an existing operating system, such as &windows; fdisk. If there is a spare partition, use that. If it is too small, shrink one or more existing partitions to create more available space. A minimal installation of &os; takes as little as 100 MB of disk space. However, that is a very minimal install, leaving almost no space for files. A more realistic minimum is 250 MB without a graphical environment, and 350 MB or more for a graphical user interface. If other third-party software will be installed, even more space is needed. You can use a tool such as GParted to resize your partitions and make space for &os;. GParted is known to work on NTFS and is available on a number of Live CD Linux distributions, such as SystemRescueCD. Incorrect use of a shrinking tool can delete the data on the disk. Always have a recent, working backup before using this type of tool. Using an Existing Partition Unchanged Consider a computer with a single 4 GB disk that already has a version of &windows; installed, where the disk has been split into two drive letters, C: and D:, each of which is 2 GB in size. There is 1 GB of data on C:, and 0.5 GB of data on D:. This disk has two partitions, one per drive letter. Copy all existing data from D: to C:, which will free up the second partition, ready for &os;. Shrinking an Existing Partition Consider a computer with a single 4 GB disk that already has a version of &windows; installed. When &windows; was installed, it created one large partition, a C: drive that is 4 GB in size. Currently, 1.5 GB of space is used, and &os; should have 2 GB of space. In order to install &os;, either: Backup the &windows; data and then reinstall &windows;, asking for a 2 GB partition at install time. Use one of the tools described above to shrink your &windows; partition. Collect the Network Configuration Details Before installing from an FTP site or an NFS server, make note of the network configuration. The installer will prompt for this information so that it can connect to the network to complete the installation. Connecting to an Ethernet Network or Cable/DSL Modem If using an Ethernet network or an Internet connection using an Ethernet adapter via cable or DSL, the following information is needed: IP address IP address of the default gateway Hostname DNS server IP addresses Subnet Mask If this information is unknown, ask the system administrator or service provider. Make note if this information is assigned automatically using DHCP. Connecting Using a Modem If using a dialup modem, &os; can still be installed over the Internet, it will just take a very long time. You will need to know: The phone number to dial the Internet Service Provider (ISP) The COM: port the modem is connected to The username and password for the ISP account Check for &os; Errata Although the &os; Project strives to ensure that each release of &os; is as stable as possible, bugs do occasionally creep into the process. On rare occasions those bugs affect the installation process. As these problems are discovered and fixed, they are noted in the &os; Errata, which is found on the &os; website. Check the errata before installing to make sure that there are no late-breaking problems to be aware of. Information about all releases, including the errata for each release, can be found on the release information section of the &os; website. Obtain the &os; Installation Files The &os; installer can install &os; from files located in any of the following places: Local Media A CDROM or DVD A USB Memory Stick A &ms-dos; partition on the same computer Floppy disks (&os;/&arch.pc98; only) Network An FTP site through a firewall or using an HTTP proxy An NFS server A dedicated parallel or serial connection If installing from a purchased &os; CD/DVD, skip ahead to . To obtain the &os; installation files, skip ahead to which explains how to prepare the installation media. After reading that section, come back here and read on to . Prepare the Boot Media The &os; installation process is started by booting the computer into the &os; installer. It is not a program that can be run within another operating system. The computer normally boots using the operating system installed on the hard disk, but it can also be configured to boot from a CDROM or from a USB disk. If installing from a CD/DVD to a computer whose BIOS supports booting from the CD/DVD, skip this section. The &os; CD/DVD images are bootable and can be used to install &os; without any other special preparation. To create a bootable memory stick, follow these steps: Acquire the Memory Stick Image Memory stick images for &os; 8.X can be downloaded from the ISO-IMAGES/ directory at ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/arch/ISO-IMAGES/version/&os;-version-RELEASE-arch-memstick.img. Replace arch and version with the architecture and the version number to install. For example, the memory stick images for &os;/&arch.i386; &rel2.current;-RELEASE are available from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/&arch.i386;/ISO-IMAGES/&rel2.current;/&os;-&rel2.current;-RELEASE-&arch.i386;-memstick.img. A different directory path is used for &os; 9.0-RELEASE and later versions. How to download and install &os; 9.X is covered in . The memory stick image has a .img extension. The ISO-IMAGES/ directory contains a number of different images and the one to use depends on the version of &os; and the type of media supported by the hardware being installed to. Before proceeding, back up the data on the USB stick, as this procedure will erase it. Write the Image File to the Memory Stick Using &os; to Write the Image The example below lists /dev/da0 as the target device where the image will be written. Be very careful that you have the correct device as the output target, or you may destroy your existing data. Writing the Image with &man.dd.1; The .img file is not a regular file that can just be copied to the memory stick. It is an image of the complete contents of the disk. This means that &man.dd.1; must be used to write the image directly to the disk: &prompt.root; dd if=&os;-&rel2.current;-RELEASE-&arch.i386;-memstick.img of=/dev/da0 bs=64k If an Operation not permitted error is displayed, make certain that the target device is not in use, mounted, or being automounted by another program. Then try again. Using &windows; to Write the Image Make sure to use the correct drive letter as the output target, as this command will overwrite and destroy any existing data on the specified device. Obtaining <application>Image Writer for Windows</application> Image Writer for Windows is a free application that can correctly write an image file to a memory stick. Download it from https://launchpad.net/win32-image-writer/ and extract it into a folder. Writing the Image with Image Writer Double-click the Win32DiskImager icon to start the program. Verify that the drive letter shown under Device is the drive with the memory stick. Click the folder icon and select the image to be written to the memory stick. Click Save to accept the image file name. Verify that everything is correct, and that no folders on the memory stick are open in other windows. Finally, click Write to write the image file to the drive. To create the boot floppy images for a &os;/&arch.pc98; installation, follow these steps: Acquire the Boot Floppy Images The &os;/&arch.pc98; boot disks can be downloaded from the floppies directory, ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/pc98/version-RELEASE/floppies/. Replace version with the version number to install. The floppy images have a .flp extension. floppies/ contains a number of different images. Download boot.flp as well as the number of files associated with the type of installation, such as kern.small* or kern*. The FTP program must use binary mode to download these disk images. Some web browsers use text or ASCII mode, which will be apparent if the disks are not bootable. Prepare the Floppy Disks Prepare one floppy disk per downloaded image file. It is imperative that these disks are free from defects. The easiest way to test this is to reformat the disks. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies. The format utility in &windows; will not tell about the presence of bad blocks, it simply marks them as bad and ignores them. It is advised to use brand new floppies. If the installer crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves, one of the first things to suspect is the floppies. Write the floppy image files to new disks and try again. Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks The .flp files are not regular files that can be copied to the disk. They are images of the complete contents of the disk. Specific tools must be used to write the images directly to the disk. DOS &os; provides a tool called rawrite for creating the floppies on a computer running &windows;. This tool can be downloaded from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/pc98/ version-RELEASE/tools/ on the &os; FTP site. Download this tool, insert a floppy, then specify the filename to write to the floppy drive: C:\> rawrite boot.flp A: Repeat this command for each .flp file, replacing the floppy disk each time, being sure to label the disks with the name of the file. Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where the .flp files are located. When writing the floppies on a &unix;-like system, such as another &os; system, use &man.dd.1; to write the image files directly to disk. On &os;, run: &prompt.root; dd if=boot.flp of=/dev/fd0 On &os;, /dev/fd0 refers to the first floppy disk. Other &unix; variants might have different names for the floppy disk device, so check the documentation for the system as necessary. You are now ready to start installing &os;. Starting the Installation By default, the installer will not make any changes to the disk(s) until after the following message: Last Chance: Are you SURE you want continue the installation? If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding! We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents! The install can be exited at any time prior to this final warning without changing the contents of the hard drive. If there is a concern that something is configured incorrectly, turn the computer off before this point, and no damage will be done. Booting Booting for the &i386; Turn on the computer. As it starts it should display an option to enter the system set up menu, or BIOS, commonly reached by keys like F2, F10, Del, or Alt S . Use whichever keystroke is indicated on screen. In some cases the computer may display a graphic while it starts. Typically, pressing Esc will dismiss the graphic and display the boot messages. Find the setting that controls which devices the system boots from. This is usually labeled as the Boot Order and commonly shown as a list of devices, such as Floppy, CDROM, First Hard Disk, and so on. If booting from the CD/DVD, make sure that the CDROM drive is selected. If booting from a USB disk, make sure that it is selected instead. When in doubt, consult the manual that came with the computer or its motherboard. Make the change, then save and exit. The computer should now restart. If using a prepared a bootable USB stick, as described in , plug in the USB stick before turning on the computer. If booting from CD/DVD, turn on the computer, and insert the CD/DVD at the first opportunity. For &os;/&arch.pc98;, installation boot floppies are available and can be prepared as described in . The first floppy disc will contain boot.flp. Put this floppy in the floppy drive to boot into the installer. If the computer starts up as normal and loads the existing operating system, then either: The disks were not inserted early enough in the boot process. Leave them in, and try restarting the computer. The BIOS changes did not work correctly. Redo that step until the right option is selected. That particular BIOS does not support booting from the desired media. &os; will start to boot. If booting from CD/DVD, messages will be displayed, similar to these: Booting from CD-Rom... 645MB medium detected CD Loader 1.2 Building the boot loader arguments Looking up /BOOT/LOADER... Found Relocating the loader and the BTX Starting the BTX loader BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.02 Consoles: internal video/keyboard BIOS CD is cd0 BIOS drive C: is disk0 BIOS drive D: is disk1 BIOS 636kB/261056kB available memory FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 1.1 Loading /boot/defaults/loader.conf /boot/kernel/kernel text=0x64daa0 data=0xa4e80+0xa9e40 syms=[0x4+0x6cac0+0x4+0x88e9d] \ If booting from floppy disc, a display similar to this will be shown: Booting from Floppy... Uncompressing ... done BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01 Console: internal video/keyboard BIOS drive A: is disk0 BIOS drive C: is disk1 BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 1.1 Loading /boot/defaults/loader.conf /kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 | Insert disk labelled "Kernel floppy 1" and press any key... Remove the boot.flp floppy, insert the next floppy, and press Enter. When prompted, insert the other disks as required. The boot process will then display the &os; boot loader menu:
&os; Boot Loader Menu
Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. Booting for &sparc64; Most &sparc64; systems are set to boot automatically from disk. To install &os;, boot over the network or from a CD/DVD and wait until the boot message appears. The message depends on the model, but should look similar to: Sun Blade 100 (UltraSPARC-IIe), Keyboard Present Copyright 1998-2001 Sun Microsystems, Inc. All rights reserved. OpenBoot 4.2, 128 MB memory installed, Serial #51090132. Ethernet address 0:3:ba:b:92:d4, Host ID: 830b92d4. If the system proceeds to boot from disk, press L1A or StopA on the keyboard, or send a BREAK over the serial console using ~# in &man.tip.1; or &man.cu.1; to get to the PROM prompt. It looks like this: ok ok {0} This is the prompt used on systems with just one CPU. This is the prompt used on SMP systems and the digit indicates the number of the active CPU. At this point, place the CD/DVD into the drive and from the PROM prompt, type boot cdrom. Reviewing the Device Probe Results The last few hundred lines that have been displayed on screen are stored and can be reviewed. To review this buffer, press Scroll Lock to turn on scrolling in the display. Use the arrow keys or PageUp and PageDown to view the results. Press Scroll Lock again to stop scrolling. Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when the kernel was carrying out the device probes. Text similar to will be displayed, although it will differ depending on the devices in the computer.
Typical Device Probe Results avail memory = 253050880 (247120K bytes) Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0817000. Preloaded mfs_root "/mfsroot" at 0xc0817084. md0: Preloaded image </mfsroot> 4423680 bytes at 0xc03ddcd4 md1: Malloc disk Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60 npx0: <math processor> on motherboard npx0: INT 16 interface pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0 pcib1:<VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0 pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1 pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11 isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0 isa0: <iSA bus> on isab0 atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0 ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0 ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0 uhci0 <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci 0 usb0: <VIA 83572 USB controller> on uhci0 usb0: USB revision 1.0 uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr1 uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered pci0: <unknown card> (vendor=0x1106, dev=0x3040) at 7.3 dc0: <ADMtek AN985 10/100BaseTX> port 0xe800-0xe8ff mem 0xdb000000-0xeb0003ff ir q 11 at device 8.0 on pci0 dc0: Ethernet address: 00:04:5a:74:6b:b5 miibus0: <MII bus> on dc0 ukphy0: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus0 ukphy0: 10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xec00-0xec1f irq 9 at device 10. 0 on pci0 ed0 address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit) isa0: too many dependant configs (8) isa0: unexpected small tag 14 orm0: <Option ROM> at iomem 0xc0000-0xc7fff on isa0 fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq2 on isa0 fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold fd0: <1440-KB 3.5” drive> on fdc0 drive 0 atkbdc0: <Keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60,0x64 on isa0 atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq1 on atkbdc0 kbd0 at atkbd0 psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: model Generic PS/@ mouse, device ID 0 vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0 sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0 sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300> sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0 sio0: type 16550A sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0 sio1: type 16550A ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 pppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0 ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33 acd0: CD-RW <LITE-ON LTR-1210B> at ata1-slave PIO4 Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c /stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0
Check the probe results carefully to make sure that &os; found all the devices. If a device was not found, it will not be listed. A custom kernel can be used to add in support for devices which are not in the GENERIC kernel. After the device probe, the menu shown in will be displayed. Use the arrow key to choose a country, region, or group. Then press Enter to set the country.
Selecting Country Menu
If United States is selected as the country, the standard American keyboard map will be used. If a different country is chosen, the following menu will be displayed. Use the arrow keys to choose the correct keyboard map and press Enter.
Selecting Keyboard Menu
After the country selection, the &man.sysinstall.8; main menu will display. Introducing &man.sysinstall.8; The &os; 8.X installer, &man.sysinstall.8;, is console based and is divided into a number of menus and screens that can be used to configure and control the installation process. This menu system is controlled by the arrow keys, Enter, Tab, Space, and other keys. To view a detailed description of these keys and what they do, ensure that the Usage entry is highlighted and that the [Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter. The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main Menu.
Selecting Usage from Sysinstall Main Menu
Selecting the Documentation Menu From the Main Menu, select Doc with the arrow keys and press Enter.
Selecting Documentation Menu
This will display the Documentation Menu.
Sysinstall Documentation Menu
It is important to read the documents provided. To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and press Enter. When finished reading a document, press Enter to return to the Documentation Menu. To return to the Main Installation Menu, select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter. Selecting the Keymap Menu To change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select Keymap from the menu and press Enter. This is only required when using a non-standard or non-US keyboard.
Sysinstall Main Menu
A different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the menu item using the up and down arrow keys and pressing Space. Pressing Space again will unselect the item. When finished, choose the &gui.ok; using the arrow keys and press Enter. Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation. Selecting &gui.cancel; by pressing Tab will use the default keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.
Sysinstall Keymap Menu
Installation Options Screen Select Options and press Enter.
Sysinstall Main Menu
Sysinstall Options
The default values are usually fine for most users and do not need to be changed. The release name will vary according to the version being installed. The description of the selected item will appear at the bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the options is Use Defaults to reset all values to startup defaults. Press F1 to read the help screen about the various options. Press Q to return to the Main Install menu. Begin a Standard Installation The Standard installation is the option recommended for those new to &unix; or &os;. Use the arrow keys to select Standard and then press Enter to start the installation.
Begin Standard Installation
Allocating Disk Space The first task is to allocate disk space for &os;, and label that space so that &man.sysinstall.8; can prepare it. In order to do this you need to know how &os; expects to find information on the disk. BIOS Drive Numbering Before installing and configuring &os; it is important to be aware how &os; deals with BIOS drive mappings. MS-DOS Microsoft Windows In a PC running a BIOS-dependent operating system such as µsoft.windows;, the BIOS is able to abstract the normal disk drive order and the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user to boot from a disk drive other than the "primary master". This is especially convenient for users buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive. If the first drive fails, is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an operating system defect, they can easily recover by instructing the BIOS to logically swap the drives. It is like switching the cables on the drives, without having to open the case. SCSI BIOS Systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar fashion for up to seven drives. A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may become surprised when the results with &os; are not as expected. &os; does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry and have been made as data clones of one another. When using &os;, always restore the BIOS to natural drive numbering before installing &os;, and then leave it that way. If drives need to be switched around, take the time to open the case and move the jumpers and cables. An Illustration from the Files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional Adventures: Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another &os; box for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero and installs &os; on it. Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous errors. To address the situation, Bill grabs an identical SCSI drive and installs this drive as SCSI unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning, Bill decides to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. &os; boots and runs just fine. Fred continues his work and soon decides that it is time to upgrade to a newer version of &os;. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was a bit flaky and replaces it with another identical disk drive. Bill then installs the new version of &os; onto the new SCSI unit zero and the installation goes well. Fred uses the new version of &os; for a few days, and certifies that it is good enough for use in the engineering department. It is time to copy all of his work from the old version, so Fred mounts SCSI unit four which should contain the latest copy of the older &os; version. Fred is dismayed to find that none of his work is present on SCSI unit four. It turns out that when Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto SCSI unit four, unit four became the new clone. When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, &os; was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change causes some or all of the boot and loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive. But when the &os; kernel drivers take over, the BIOS drive numbering is ignored, and &os; transitions back to normal drive numbering. In this example, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations. Fortunately, the older SCSI unit zero was retrieved and all of Fred's work was restored. Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts apply equally to IDE drives. Creating Slices Using FDisk After choosing to begin a standard installation in &man.sysinstall.8;, this message will appear: Message In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk") partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default partitioning scheme followed by a (Q)uit. If you wish to allocate only free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the (C)reate command. [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] Press Enter and a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it carried out the device probes will be displayed. shows an example from a system with two IDE disks called ad0 and ad2.
Select Drive for FDisk
Note that ad1 is not listed here. Consider two IDE hard disks where one is the master on the first IDE controller and one is the master on the second IDE controller. If &os; numbered these as ad0 and ad1, everything would work. But if a third disk is later added as the slave device on the first IDE controller, it would now be ad1, and the previous ad1 would become ad2. Because device names are used to find filesystems, some filesystems may no longer appear correctly, requiring a change to the &os; configuration. To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE disks based on where they are and not the order in which they were found. With this scheme, the master disk on the second IDE controller will always be ad2, even if there are no ad0 or ad1 devices. This configuration is the default for the &os; kernel, which is why the display in this example shows ad0 and ad2. The machine on which this screenshot was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE controllers and no disks on the slave channels. Select the disk on which to install &os;, and then press &gui.ok;. FDisk will start, with a display similar to that shown in . The FDisk display is broken into three sections. The first section, covering the first two lines of the display, shows details about the currently selected disk, including its &os; name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk. The second section shows the slices that are currently on the disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name &os; gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two small unused slices which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which appears as C: in &windows;, and an extended slice, which may contain other drive letters in &windows;. The third section shows the commands that are available in FDisk.
Typical Default <application>FDisk</application> Partitions
This step varies, depending on how the disk is to be sliced. To install &os; to the entire disk, which will delete all the other data on this disk, press A, which corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option. The existing slices will be removed and replaced with a small area flagged as unused and one large slice for &os;. Then, select the newly created &os; slice using the arrow keys and press S to mark the slice as being bootable. The screen will then look similar to . Note the A in the Flags column, which indicates that this slice is active, and will be booted from. If an existing slice needs to be deleted to make space for &os;, select the slice using the arrow keys and press D. Then, press C to be prompted for the size of the slice to create. Enter the appropriate value and press Enter. The default value in this box represents the largest possible slice to make, which could be the largest contiguous block of unallocated space or the size of the entire hard disk. If you have already made space for &os; then you can press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.
Fdisk Partition Using Entire Disk
When finished, press Q. Any changes will be saved in &man.sysinstall.8;, but will not yet be written to disk. Install a Boot Manager The next menu provides the option to install a boot manager. In general, install the &os; boot manager if: There is more than one drive and &os; will be installed onto a drive other than the first one. &os; will be installed alongside another operating system on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start &os; or the other operating system when the computer starts. If &os; is going to be the only operating system on this machine, installed on the first hard disk, then the Standard boot manager will suffice. Choose None if using a third-party boot manager capable of booting &os;. Make a selection and press Enter.
Sysinstall Boot Manager Menu
The help screen, reached by pressing F1, discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share the hard disk between operating systems. Creating Slices on Another Drive If there is more than one drive, it will return to the Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. To install &os; on to more than one disk, select another disk and repeat the slice process using FDisk. If installing &os; on a drive other than the first drive, the &os; boot manager needs to be installed on both drives.
Exit Select Drive
Use Tab to toggle between the last drive selected, &gui.ok;, and &gui.cancel;. Press Tab once to toggle to &gui.ok;, then press Enter to continue with the installation. Creating Partitions Using <application>Disklabel</application> Next, create some partitions inside each slice. Remember that each partition is lettered, from a through to h, and that partitions b, c, and d have conventional meanings that should be adhered to. Certain applications can benefit from particular partition schemes, especially when laying out partitions across more than one disk. However, for a first &os; installation, do not give too much thought to how to partition the disk. It is more important to install &os; and start learning how to use it. You can always re-install &os; to change the partition scheme after becoming more familiar with the operating system. The following scheme features four partitions: one for swap space and three for filesystems. Partition Layout for First Disk Partition Filesystem Size Description a / 1 GB This is the root filesystem. Every other filesystem will be mounted somewhere under this one. 1 GB is a reasonable size for this filesystem as user files should not be stored here and a regular &os; install will put about 128 MB of data here. b N/A 2-3 x RAM The system's swap space is kept on the b partition. Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an art. A good rule of thumb is that swap space should be two or three times as much as the available physical memory (RAM). There should be at least 64 MB of swap, so if there is less than 32 MB of RAM in the computer, set the swap amount to 64 MB. If there is more than one disk, swap space can be put on each disk. &os; will then use each disk for swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In this case, calculate the total amount of swap needed and divide this by the number of disks to give the amount of swap to put on each disk. e /var 512 MB to 4096 MB /var contains files that are constantly varying, such as log files and other administrative files. Many of these files are read from or written to extensively during &os;'s day-to-day running. Putting these files on another filesystem allows &os; to optimize the access of these files without affecting other files in other directories that do not have the same access pattern. f /usr Rest of disk (at least 8 GB) All other files will typically be stored in /usr and its subdirectories.
The values above are given as example and should be used by experienced users only. Users are encouraged to use the automatic partition layout called Auto Defaults by the &os; partition editor. If installing &os; on to more than one disk, create partitions in the other configured slices. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem. Partition Layout for Subsequent Disks Partition Filesystem Size Description b N/A See description Swap space can be split across each disk. Even though the a partition is free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the b partition. e /diskn Rest of disk The rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition. This could easily be put on the a partition, instead of the e partition. However, convention says that the a partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will be the root (/) filesystem. Following this convention is not necessary, but &man.sysinstall.8; uses it, so following it makes the installation slightly cleaner. This filesystem can be mounted anywhere; this example mounts it as /diskn, where n is a number that changes for each disk.
Having chosen the partition layout, create it using &man.sysinstall.8;. Message Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk space (1GB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by (A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout. [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] Press Enter to start the &os; partition editor, called Disklabel. shows the display when Disklabel starts. The display is divided into three sections. The first few lines show the name of the disk being worked on and the slice that contains the partitions to create. At this point, Disklabel calls this the Partition name rather than slice name. This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice; that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet been assigned to a partition. The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains, their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the filesystem. The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid in Disklabel.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
Disklabel can automatically create partitions and assign them default sizes. The default sizes are calculated with the help of an internal partition sizing algorithm based on the disk size. Press A to see a display similar to that shown in . Depending on the size of the disk, the defaults may or may not be appropriate. The default partitioning assigns /tmp its own partition instead of being part of the / partition. This helps avoid filling the / partition with temporary files.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor with Auto Defaults
To replace the default partitions, use the arrow keys to select the first partition and press D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the suggested partitions. To create the first partition, a, mounted as /, make sure the proper disk slice at the top of the screen is selected and press C. A dialog box will appear, prompting for the size of the new partition, as shown in . The size can be entered as the number of disk blocks to use or as a number followed by either M for megabytes, G for gigabytes, or C for cylinders.
Free Space for Root Partition
The default size shown will create a partition that takes up the rest of the slice. If using the partition sizes described in the earlier example, delete the existing figure using Backspace, and then type in 512M, as shown in . Then press &gui.ok;.
Edit Root Partition Size
After choosing the partition's size, the installer will ask whether this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog box is shown in . This first partition will contain a filesystem, so check that FS is selected and press Enter.
Choose the Root Partition Type
Finally, tell Disklabel where the filesystem will be mounted. The dialog box is shown in . Type /, and then press Enter.
Choose the Root Mount Point
The display will then update to show the newly created partition. Repeat this procedure for the other partitions. When creating the swap partition, it will not prompt for the filesystem mount point. When creating the final partition, /usr, leave the suggested size as is to use the rest of the slice. The final &os; DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to , although the values chosen may be different. Press Q to finish.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
Choosing What to Install Select the Distribution Set Deciding which distribution set to install will depend largely on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space available. The predefined options range from installing the smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are new to &unix; or &os; should select one of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is typically for the more experienced user. Press F1 for more information on the distribution set options and what they contain. When finished reviewing the help, press Enter to return to the Select Distributions Menu. If a graphical user interface is desired, the configuration of &xorg; and selection of a default desktop must be done after the installation of &os;. More information regarding the installation and configuration of a &xorg; can be found in . If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option which includes the source code. For more information on why a custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel, see . The most versatile system is one that includes everything. If there is adequate disk space, select All, as shown in , by using the arrow keys and pressing Enter. If there is a concern about disk space, consider using an option that is more suitable for the situation. Do not fret over the perfect choice, as other distributions can be added after installation.
Choose Distributions
Installing the Ports Collection After selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to install the &os; Ports Collection is presented. The Ports Collection is an easy and convenient way to install software as it provides a collection of files that automate the downloading, compiling, and installation of third-party software packages. discusses how to use the Ports Collection. The installation program does not check to see if you have adequate space. Select this option only if you have adequate hard disk space. As of &os; &rel.current;, the &os; Ports Collection takes up about &ports.size; of disk space. You can safely assume a larger value for more recent versions of &os;. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection? This will give you ready access to over &os.numports; ported software packages, at a cost of around &ports.size; of disk space when "clean" and possibly much more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded (unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less of a problem). The Ports Collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option. For more information on the Ports Collection & the latest ports, visit: http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; with the arrow keys to install the Ports Collection or &gui.no; to skip this option. Press Enter to continue. The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.
Confirm Distributions
Once satisfied with the options, select Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that &gui.ok; is highlighted, and press Enter to continue. Choosing the Installation Media If installing from a CD/DVD, use the arrow keys to highlight Install from a &os; CD/DVD. Ensure that &gui.ok; is highlighted, then press Enter to proceed with the installation. For other methods of installation, select the appropriate option and follow the instructions. Press F1 to display the Online Help for installation media. Press Enter to return to the media selection menu.
Choose Installation Media
FTP Installation Modes installation network FTP There are three FTP installation modes to choose from: active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy. FTP Active: Install from an FTP server This option makes all FTP transfers use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If the connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try using active mode. FTP Passive: Install from an FTP server through a firewall This option instructs &man.sysinstall.8; to use passive mode FTP passive mode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random TCP ports. FTP via a HTTP proxy: Install from an FTP server through a http proxy This option instructs &man.sysinstall.8; to use the HTTP protocol to connect to a proxy for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate the requests and send them to the FTP server. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow FTP, but offer a HTTP proxy FTP via a HTTP proxy . In this case, specify the proxy in addition to the FTP server. For a proxy FTP server, give the name of the server as part of the username, after an @ sign. The proxy server then fakes the real server. For example, to install from ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.example.com, listening on port 1234, go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org and the password to an email address. As the installation media, specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL ftp://foo.example.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD. Since /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under foo.example.com, the proxy will fetch the files from ftp.FreeBSD.org as the installer requests them. Committing to the Installation The installation can now proceed if desired. This is also the last chance for aborting the installation to prevent changes to the hard drive. User Confirmation Requested Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation? If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding! We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents! [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to proceed. The installation time will vary according to the distribution chosen, installation media, and the speed of the computer. There will be a series of messages displayed, indicating the status. The installation is complete when the following message is displayed: Message Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system. We will now move on to the final configuration questions. For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No. If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may do so by typing: /usr/sbin/sysinstall. [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] Press Enter to proceed with post-installation configurations. Selecting &gui.no; and pressing Enter will abort the installation so no changes will be made to the system. The following message will appear: Message Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature. You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the installation menus to retry whichever operations have failed. [ OK ] This message is generated because nothing was installed. Pressing Enter will return to the Main Installation Menu to exit the installation. Post-installation Configuration of various options can be performed after a successful installation. An option can be configured by re-entering the configuration menus before booting the new &os; system or after boot using &man.sysinstall.8; and then selecting the Configure menu. Network Device Configuration If PPP was previously configured for an FTP install, this screen will not display and can be configured after boot as described above. For detailed information on Local Area Networks and configuring &os; as a gateway/router refer to the Advanced Networking chapter. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to configure any Ethernet or PPP network devices? [ Yes ] No To configure a network device, select &gui.yes; and press Enter. Otherwise, select &gui.no; to continue.
Selecting an Ethernet Device
Select the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface? Yes [ No ] In this private local area network, the current Internet type protocol (IPv4) was sufficient and &gui.no; was selected with the arrow keys and Enter pressed. If connected to an existing IPv6 network with an RA server, choose &gui.yes; and press Enter. It will take several seconds to scan for RA servers. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface? Yes [ No ] If Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol DHCP) is not required, select &gui.no; with the arrow keys and press Enter. Selecting &gui.yes; will execute &man.dhclient.8; and, if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to for more information. The following Network Configuration screen shows the configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act as the gateway for a Local Area Network.
Set Network Configuration for <replaceable>ed0</replaceable>
Use Tab to select the information fields and fill in appropriate information: Host The fully-qualified hostname, such as k6-2.example.com in this case. Domain The name of the domain that the machine is in, such as example.com for this case. IPv4 Gateway IP address of host forwarding packets to non-local destinations. This must be filled in if the machine is a node on the network. Leave this field blank if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the network. The IPv4 Gateway is also known as the default gateway or default route. Name server IP address of the local DNS server. There is no local DNS server on this private local area network so the IP address of the provider's DNS server (208.163.10.2) was used. IPv4 address The IP address to be used for this interface was 192.168.0.1 Netmask The address block being used for this local area network is 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 with a netmask of 255.255.255.0. Extra options to &man.ifconfig.8; Any additional interface-specific options to &man.ifconfig.8;. There were none in this case. Use Tab to select &gui.ok; when finished and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to bring the ed0 interface up right now? [ Yes ] No Choosing &gui.yes; and pressing Enter will bring the machine up on the network so it is ready for use. However, this does not accomplish much during installation, since the machine still needs to be rebooted. Configure Gateway User Confirmation Requested Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway? [ Yes ] No If the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area network and forwarding packets between other machines, select &gui.yes; and press Enter. If the machine is a node on a network, select &gui.no; and press Enter to continue. Configure Internet Services User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides? Yes [ No ] If &gui.no; is selected, various services will not be enabled. These services can be enabled after installation by editing /etc/inetd.conf with a text editor. See for more information. Otherwise, select &gui.yes; to configure these services during install. An additional confirmation will display: User Confirmation Requested The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing the exposure of your system. With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; to continue. User Confirmation Requested inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for IPv6 must be separately enabled from IPv4 services. Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to use the current settings. [ Yes ] No Selecting &gui.yes; allows services to be enabled by deleting the # at the beginning of the lines representing those services.
Editing <filename>inetd.conf</filename>
Once the edits are complete, press Esc to display a menu which will exit the editor and save the changes. Enabling SSH Login SSH sshd User Confirmation Requested Would you like to enable SSH login? Yes [ No ] Selecting &gui.yes; will enable &man.sshd.8;, the daemon for OpenSSH. This allows secure remote access to the machine. For more information about OpenSSH, see . Anonymous FTP FTP anonymous User Confirmation Requested Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine? Yes [ No ] Deny Anonymous FTP Selecting the default &gui.no; and pressing Enter will still allow users who have accounts with passwords to use FTP to access the machine. Allow Anonymous FTP Anyone can access the machine if anonymous FTP connections are allowed. The security implications should be considered before enabling this option. For more information about security, see . To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select &gui.yes; and press Enter. An additional confirmation will display: User Confirmation Requested Anonymous FTP permits un-authenticated users to connect to the system FTP server, if FTP service is enabled. Anonymous users are restricted to a specific subset of the file system, and the default configuration provides a drop-box incoming directory to which uploads are permitted. You must separately enable both inetd(8), and enable ftpd(8) in inetd.conf(5) for FTP services to be available. If you did not do so earlier, you will have the opportunity to enable inetd(8) again later. If you want the server to be read-only you should leave the upload directory option empty and add the -r command-line option to ftpd(8) in inetd.conf(5) Do you wish to continue configuring anonymous FTP? [ Yes ] No This message indicates that the FTP service will also have to be enabled in /etc/inetd.conf to allow anonymous FTP connections. Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to continue. The following screen will display:
Default Anonymous FTP Configuration
Use Tab to select the information fields and fill in appropriate information: UID The user ID to assign to the anonymous FTP user. All files uploaded will be owned by this ID. Group Which group to place the anonymous FTP user into. Comment String describing this user in /etc/passwd. FTP Root Directory Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept. Upload Subdirectory Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go. The FTP root directory will be put in /var by default. If there is not enough room there for the anticipated FTP needs, use /usr instead by setting the FTP root directory to /usr/ftp. Once satisfied with the values, press Enter to continue. User Confirmation Requested Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users? [ Yes ] No If &gui.yes; is selected, press Enter and the &man.ee.1; editor will automatically start.
Edit the FTP Welcome Message
Use the instructions to change the message. Note the file name location at the bottom of the editor screen. Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to a) leave editor. Press Enter to exit and continue. Press Enter again to save any changes. Configure the Network File System The Network File System (NFS) allows sharing of files across a network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or both. Refer to for more information. NFS Server User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server? Yes [ No ] If there is no need for a NFS server, select &gui.no; and press Enter. If &gui.yes; is chosen, a message will pop-up indicating that /etc/exports must be created. Message Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an /etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of access to your local filesystems. Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports [ OK ] Press Enter to continue. A text editor will start, allowing /etc/exports to be edited.
Editing <filename>exports</filename>
Use the instructions to add the exported filesystems. Note the file name location at the bottom of the editor screen. Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to a) leave editor. Press Enter to exit and continue. <acronym>NFS</acronym> Client The NFS client allows the machine to access NFS servers. User Confirmation Requested Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client? Yes [ No ] With the arrow keys, select &gui.yes; or &gui.no; as appropriate and press Enter. System Console Settings There are several options available to customize the system console. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to customize your system console settings? [ Yes ] No To view and configure the options, select &gui.yes; and press Enter.
System Console Configuration Options
A commonly used option is the screen saver. Use the arrow keys to select Saver and then press Enter.
Screen Saver Options
Select the desired screen saver using the arrow keys and then press Enter. The System Console Configuration menu will redisplay. The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time interval, select Saver again. At the Screen Saver Options menu, select Timeout using the arrow keys and press Enter. A pop-up menu will appear:
Screen Saver Timeout
The value can be changed, then select &gui.ok; and press Enter to return to the System Console Configuration menu.
System Console Configuration Exit
Select Exit and press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. Setting the Time Zone Setting the time zone allows the system to automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform other time zone related functions properly. The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern time zone of the United States. The selections will vary according to the geographic location. User Confirmation Requested Would you like to set this machine's time zone now? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to set the time zone. User Confirmation Requested Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time or you don't know, please choose NO here! Yes [ No ] Select &gui.yes; or &gui.no; according to how the machine's clock is configured, then press Enter.
Select the Region
The appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys and then pressing Enter.
Select the Country
Select the appropriate country using the arrow keys and press Enter.
Select the Time Zone
The appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow keys and pressing Enter. Confirmation Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable? [ Yes ] No Confirm that the abbreviation for the time zone is correct. If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. Mouse Settings This option allows cut and paste in the console and user programs using a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button mouse, refer to &man.moused.8; for details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a non-USB mouse configuration: User Confirmation Requested Does this system have a PS/2, serial, or bus mouse? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; for a PS/2, serial, or bus mouse, or &gui.no; for a USB mouse, then press Enter.
Select Mouse Protocol Type
Use the arrow keys to select Type and press Enter.
Set Mouse Protocol
The mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default Auto is appropriate. To change the mouse protocol, use the arrow keys to select another option. Ensure that &gui.ok; is highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.
Configure Mouse Port
Use the arrow keys to select Port and press Enter.
Setting the Mouse Port
This system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default PS/2 is appropriate. To change the port, use the arrow keys and then press Enter.
Enable the Mouse Daemon
Last, use the arrow keys to select Enable, and press Enter to enable and test the mouse daemon.
Test the Mouse Daemon
Move the mouse around the screen to verify that the cursor responds properly. If it does, select &gui.yes; and press Enter. If not, the mouse has not been configured correctly. Select &gui.no; and try using different configuration options. Select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter to continue with the post-installation configuration. Install Packages Packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient way to install software. Installation of one package is shown for purposes of illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this time if desired. After installation, &man.sysinstall.8; can be used to add additional packages. User Confirmation Requested The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers and more. Would you like to browse the collection now? [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to be presented with the Package Selection screens:
Select Package Category
Only packages on the current installation media are available for installation at any given time. All packages available will be displayed if All is selected. Otherwise, select a particular category. Highlight the selection with the arrow keys and press Enter. A menu will display showing all the packages available for the selection made:
Select Packages
The bash shell is shown as selected. Select as many packages as desired by highlighting the package and pressing Space. A short description of each package will appear in the lower left corner of the screen. Press Tab to toggle between the last selected package, &gui.ok;, and &gui.cancel;. Once finished marking the packages for installation, press Tab once to toggle to &gui.ok; and press Enter to return to the Package Selection menu. The left and right arrow keys will also toggle between &gui.ok; and &gui.cancel;. This method can also be used to select &gui.ok; and press Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.
Install Packages
Use the Tab and arrow keys to select [ Install ] and press Enter to see the installation confirmation message:
Confirm Package Installation
Select &gui.ok; and press Enter to start the package installation. Installation messages will appear until all of the installations have completed. Make note if there are any error messages. The final configuration continues after packages are installed. If no packages are selected, select Install to return to the final configuration. Add Users/Groups Add at least one user during the installation so that the system can be used without logging in as root. The root partition is generally small and running applications as root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below: User Confirmation Requested Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which adversely affect the entire system). [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes; and press Enter to continue with adding a user.
Select User
Select User with the arrow keys and press Enter.
Add User Information
The following descriptions will appear in the lower part of the screen as the items are selected with Tab to assist with entering the required information: Login ID The login name of the new user (mandatory). UID The numerical ID for this user (leave blank for automatic choice). Group The login group name for this user (leave blank for automatic choice). Password The password for this user (enter this field with care!). Full name The user's full name (comment). Member groups The groups this user belongs to. Home directory The user's home directory (leave blank for default). Login shell The user's login shell (leave blank for default of /bin/sh). In this example, the login shell was changed from /bin/sh to /usr/local/bin/bash to use the bash shell that was previously installed as a package. Do not use a shell that does not exist or the user will not be able to login. The most common shell used in &os; is the C shell, /bin/tcsh. The user was also added to the wheel group to be able to become a superuser with root privileges. Once satisfied, press &gui.ok; and the User and Group Management menu will redisplay:
Exit User and Group Management
Groups can also be added at this time. Otherwise, this menu may be accessed using &man.sysinstall.8; at a later time. When finished adding users, select Exit with the arrow keys and press Enter to continue the installation. Set the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> Password Message Now you must set the system manager's password. This is the password you'll use to log in as "root". [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] Press Enter to set the root password. The password will need to be typed in twice correctly. Do not forget this password. Notice that the typed password is not echoed, nor are asterisks displayed. New password: Retype new password : The installation will continue after the password is successfully entered. Exiting Install A message will ask if configuration is complete: User Confirmation Requested Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last options? Yes [ No ] Select &gui.no; with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to the Main Installation Menu.
Exit Install
Select [X Exit Install] with the arrow keys and press Enter. The installer will prompt to confirm exiting the installation: User Confirmation Requested Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot. [ Yes ] No Select &gui.yes;. If booting from the CDROM drive, the following message will remind you to remove the disk: Message Be sure to remove the media from the drive. [ OK ] [ Press enter or space ] The CDROM drive is locked until the machine starts to reboot, then the disk can quickly be removed from the drive. Press &gui.ok; to reboot. The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that may appear, see for more details. Configure Additional Network Services TomRhodesContributed by Configuring network services can be a daunting task for users that lack previous knowledge in this area. Since networking and the Internet are critical to all modern operating systems, it is useful to have some understanding of &os;'s extensive networking capabilities. Network services are programs that accept input from anywhere on the network. Since there have been cases where bugs in network services have been exploited by attackers, it is important to only enable needed network services. If in doubt, do not enable a network service until it is needed. Services can be enabled with &man.sysinstall.8; or by editing /etc/rc.conf. Selecting the Networking option will display a menu similar to the one below:
Network Configuration Upper-level
The first option, Interfaces, is covered in . Selecting the AMD option adds support for &man.amd.8;. This is usually used in conjunction with NFS for automatically mounting remote filesystems. Next is the AMD Flags option. When selected, a menu will pop up where specific AMD flags can be entered. The menu already contains a set of default options: -a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map sets the default mount location which is specified here as /.amd_mnt. specifies the default log; however, when &man.syslogd.8; is used, all log activity will be sent to the system log daemon. /host is used to mount an exported file system from a remote host, while /net is used to mount an exported filesystem from an IP address. The default options for AMD exports are defined in /etc/amd.map. FTP anonymous The Anon FTP option permits anonymous FTP connections. Select this option to make this machine an anonymous FTP server. Be aware of the security risks involved with this option. Another menu will be displayed to explain the security risks and configuration in depth. The Gateway menu will configure the machine to be a gateway. This menu can also be used to unset the Gateway option if it was accidentally selected during installation. The Inetd option can be used to configure or completely disable &man.inetd.8;. The Mail option is used to configure the system's default Mail Transfer Agent (MTA). Selecting this option will bring up the following menu:
Select a Default MTA
This menu offers a choice as to which MTA to install and set as the default. An MTA is a mail server which delivers email to users on the system or the Internet. Select Sendmail to install Sendmail as the default MTA. Select Sendmail local to set Sendmail as the default MTA, but disable its ability to receive incoming email from the Internet. The other options, Postfix and Exim, provide alternatives to Sendmail. The next menu after the MTA menu is NFS client. This menu is used to configure the system to communicate with a NFS server which in turn is used to make filesystems available to other machines on the network over the NFS protocol. See for more information about client and server configuration. Below that option is the NFS server option, for setting the system up as an NFS server. This adds the required information to start up the Remote Procedure Call RPC services. RPC is used to coordinate connections between hosts and programs. Next in line is the Ntpdate option, which deals with time synchronization. When selected, a menu like the one below shows up:
Ntpdate Configuration
From this menu, select the server which is geographically closest. This will make the time synchronization more accurate as a farther server may have more connection latency. The next option is the PCNFSD selection. This option will install the net/pcnfsd package from the Ports Collection. This is a useful utility which provides NFS authentication services for systems which are unable to provide their own, such as Microsoft's &ms-dos; operating system. Now, scroll down a bit to see the other options:
Network Configuration Lower-level
RPC communication between NFS servers and clients is managed by &man.rpcbind.8; which is required for NFS servers to operate correctly. Status monitoring is provided by &man.rpc.statd.8; and the reported status is usually held in /var/db/statd.status. The next option is for &man.rpc.lockd.8; which provides file locking services. This is usually used with &man.rpc.statd.8; to monitor which hosts are requesting locks and how frequently they request them. While these last two options are useful for debugging, they are not required for NFS servers and clients to operate correctly. The next menu, Routed, configures the routing daemon. &man.routed.8;, manages network routing tables, discovers multicast routers, and supplies a copy of the routing tables to any physically connected host on the network upon request. This is mainly used for machines which act as a gateway for the local network. If selected, a menu will request the default location of the utility. To accept the default location, press Enter. Yet another menu will ask for the flags to pass to &man.routed.8;. The default of should appear on the screen. The next menu, Rwhod, starts &man.rwhod.8; during system initialization. This utility broadcasts system messages across the network periodically, or collects them when in consumer mode. More information can be found in &man.ruptime.1; and &man.rwho.1;. The next to last option in the list is for &man.sshd.8;, the secure shell server for OpenSSH. It is highly recommended over the standard &man.telnetd.8; and &man.ftpd.8; servers as it is used to create a secure, encrypted connection from one host to another. The final option is TCP Extensions which are defined in RFC 1323 and RFC 1644. While on many hosts this can speed up connections, it can also cause some connections to be dropped. It is not recommended for servers, but may be beneficial for stand alone machines. Once the network services are configured, scroll up to the very top item which is X Exit and continue on to the next configuration item or simply exit &man.sysinstall.8; by selecting X Exit twice then [X Exit Install]. &os; Bootup &os;/&arch.i386; Bootup If everything went well, messages will scroll along the screen and a login prompt will appear. To view these messages, press Scroll-Lock then use PgUp and PgDn. Press Scroll-Lock again to return to the prompt. All of the messages may not display due to buffer limitations, but they can be read after logging using &man.dmesg.8;. Login using the username and password which were set during installation. Avoid logging in as root except when necessary. Typical boot messages (version information omitted): Copyright (c) 1992-2002 The FreeBSD Project. Copyright (c) 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU) Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0 Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX> AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!> real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes) config> di sn0 config> di lnc0 config> di le0 config> di ie0 config> di fe0 config> di cs0 config> di bt0 config> di aic0 config> di aha0 config> di adv0 config> q avail memory = 256311296 (250304K bytes) Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0491000. Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc049109c. md0: Malloc disk Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60 npx0: <math processor> on motherboard npx0: INT 16 interface pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0 pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0 pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1 pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11 isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0 isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0 atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0 ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0 ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0 uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0 usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0 usb0: USB revision 1.0 uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1 uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0 ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at device 10.0 on pci0 ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit) isa0: too many dependant configs (8) isa0: unexpected small tag 14 fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0 fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0 atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x64 on isa0 atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0 kbd0 at atkbd0 psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0 vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0 sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0 sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300> sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0 sio0: type 16550A sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0 sio1: type 16550A ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold ppbus0: IEEE1284 device found /NIBBLE Probing for PnP devices on ppbus0: plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0 lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0 lpt0: Interrupt-driven port ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0 ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33 ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33 acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4 Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device Automatic boot in progress... /dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1a: clean, 48752 free (552 frags, 6025 blocks, 0.9% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1f: clean, 128997 free (21 frags, 16122 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1g: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1g: clean, 3036299 free (43175 frags, 374073 blocks, 1.3% fragmentation) /dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS /dev/ad0s1e: clean, 128193 free (17 frags, 16022 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation) Doing initial network setup: hostname. ed0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255 inet6 fe80::5054::5ff::fede:731b%ed0 prefixlen 64 tentative scopeid 0x1 ether 52:54:05:de:73:1b lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384 inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8 inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128 inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000 Additional routing options: IP gateway=YES TCP keepalive=YES routing daemons:. additional daemons: syslogd. Doing additional network setup:. Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key Generating public/private rsa1 key pair. Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key. Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: cd:76:89:16:69:0e:d0:6e:f8:66:d0:07:26:3c:7e:2d root@k6-2.example.com creating ssh DSA host key Generating public/private dsa key pair. Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key. Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub. The key fingerprint is: f9:a1:a9:47:c4:ad:f9:8d:52:b8:b8:ff:8c:ad:2d:e6 root@k6-2.example.com. setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib /usr/local/lib a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout /usr/X11R6/lib/aout starting standard daemons: inetd cron sshd usbd sendmail. Initial rc.i386 initialization:. rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused. Additional ABI support: linux. Local package initialization:. Additional TCP options:. FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.example.com) (ttyv0) login: rpratt Password: Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new installation. Subsequent boots will be faster. If &xorg; has been configured and a default desktop chosen, it can be started by typing startx at the command line. &os; Shutdown It is important to properly shutdown the operating system. Do not just turn off the power. First, become the superuser using &man.su.1; and entering the root password. This will work only if the user is a member of wheel. Otherwise, login as root. To shutdown the system, type shutdown -h now. The operating system has halted. Please press any key to reboot. It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command has been issued and the message Please press any key to reboot appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power switch, the system will reboot. The Ctrl Alt Del key combination can also be used to reboot the system; however, this is not recommended. Troubleshooting installation troubleshooting This section covers basic installation troubleshooting of common problems. There are also a few questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot &os; with &windows;. If Something Goes Wrong Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for device probing to be 100% reliable. However, there are a few things to try if it fails. Check the Hardware Notes document for the version of &os; to make sure the hardware is supported. If the hardware is supported but still experiences lock-ups or other problems, build a custom kernel to add in support for devices which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. The default kernel assumes that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, I/O addresses, and DMA channels. If the hardware has been reconfigured, create a custom kernel configuration file and recompile to tell &os; where to find things. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Some installation problems can be avoided or alleviated by updating the firmware on various hardware components, most notably the motherboard BIOS. Most motherboard and computer manufacturers have a website where upgrade information may be located. Most manufacturers strongly advise against upgrading the motherboard BIOS unless there is a good reason for doing so, such as a critical update. The upgrade process can go wrong, causing permanent damage to the BIOS chip. Using &windows; Filesystems At this time, &os; does not support file systems compressed with the Double Space™ application. Therefore the file system will need to be uncompressed before &os; can access the data. This can be done by running the Compression Agent located in the Start> Programs > System Tools menu. &os; can support &ms-dos; file systems (sometimes called FAT file systems). The &man.mount.msdosfs.8; command grafts such file systems onto the existing directory hierarchy, allowing the file system's contents to be accessed. The &man.mount.msdosfs.8; program is not usually invoked directly; instead, it is called by the system through a line in /etc/fstab or by using &man.mount.8; with the appropriate parameters. A typical line in /etc/fstab is: /dev/ad0sN /dos msdosfs rw 0 0 /dos must already exist for this to work. For details about the format of /etc/fstab, see &man.fstab.5;. A typical call to &man.mount.8; for a FAT filesystem looks like: &prompt.root; mount -t msdosfs /dev/ad0s1 /mnt In this example, the FAT filesystem is located on the first partition of the primary hard disk. The output from &man.dmesg.8; and &man.mount.8; should produce enough information to give an idea of the partition layout. &os; may number FAT partitions differently than other operating systems. In particular, extended partitions are usually given higher slice numbers than primary partitions. Use &man.fdisk.8; to help determine which slices belong to &os; and which belong to other operating systems. Troubleshooting Questions and Answers My system hangs while probing hardware during boot or it behaves strangely during install. &os; makes extensive use of the system ACPI service on the i386, amd64, and ia64 platforms to aid in system configuration if it is detected during boot. Unfortunately, some bugs still exist in the ACPI driver and various system motherboards. The use of ACPI can be disabled by setting hint.acpi.0.disabled in the third stage boot loader: set hint.acpi.0.disabled="1" This is reset each time the system is booted, so it is necessary to add hint.acpi.0.disabled="1" to /boot/loader.conf to make this change permanent. More information about the boot loader can be found in . When booting from the hard disk for the first time after installing &os;, the kernel loads and probes hardware, but stops with messages like: changing root device to ad1s1a panic: cannot mount root What is wrong? This can occur when the boot disk is not the first disk in the system. The BIOS uses a different numbering scheme to &os;, and working out which numbers correspond to which is difficult to get right. If this occurs, tell &os; where the root filesystem is by specifying the BIOS disk number, the disk type, and the &os; disk number for that type. Consider two IDE disks, each configured as the master on their respective IDE bus, where &os; should be booted from the second disk. The BIOS sees these as disk 0 and disk 1, while &os; sees them as ad0 and ad2. If &os; is on BIOS disk 1, of type ad and the &os; disk number is 2, this is the correct value: 1:ad(2,a)kernel Note that if there is a slave on the primary bus, the above is not necessary and is effectively wrong. The second situation involves booting from a SCSI disk when there are one or more IDE disks in the system. In this case, the &os; disk number is lower than the BIOS disk number. For two IDE disks and a SCSI disk, where the SCSI disk is BIOS disk 2, type da, and &os; disk number 0, the correct value is: 2:da(0,a)kernel This tells &os; to boot from BIOS disk 2, which is the first SCSI disk in the system. If there is only IDE disk, use 1: instead. Once the correct value to use is determined, put the command in /boot.config using a text editor. Unless instructed otherwise, &os; will use the contents of this file as the default response to the boot: prompt. When booting from the hard disk for the first time after installing &os;, the Boot Manager prompt just prints F? at the boot menu and the boot will not go any further. The hard disk geometry was set incorrectly in the partition editor when &os; was installed. Go back into the partition editor and specify the actual geometry of the hard disk. &os; must be reinstalled again from the beginning with the correct geometry. For a dedicated &os; system that does not need future compatibility with another operating system, use the entire disk by selecting A in the installer's partition editor. The system finds the &man.ed.4; network card but continuously displays device timeout errors. The card is probably on a different IRQ from what is specified in /boot/device.hints. The &man.ed.4; driver does not use software configuration by default, but it will if -1 is specified in the hints for the interface. Either move the jumper on the card to the configuration setting or specify the IRQ as -1 by setting the hint hint.ed.0.irq="-1". This tells the kernel to use the software configuration. Another possibility is that the card is at IRQ 9, which is shared by IRQ 2 and frequently a cause of problems, especially if a VGA card is using IRQ 2. Do not use IRQ 2 or 9 if at all possible. When &man.sysinstall.8; is usedin an &xorg; terminal, the yellow font is difficult to read against the light gray background. Is there a way to provide higher contrastcolor contrast for this application? If the default colors chosen by &man.sysinstall.8; make text illegible while using x11/xterm or x11/rxvt, add the following to ~/.Xdefaults to get a darker background gray: XTerm*color7: #c0c0c0 Advanced Installation Guide ValentinoVaschettoContributed by MarcFonvieilleUpdated by This section describes how to install &os; in exceptional cases. Installing &os; on a System Without a Monitor or Keyboard installation headless (serial console) serial console This type of installation is called a headless install because the machine to be installed does not have either an attached monitor or a VGA output. This type of installation is possible using a serial console, another machine which acts as the main display and keyboard. To do this, follow the steps to create an installation USB stick, explained in , or download the correct installation ISO image as described in . To modify the installation media to boot into a serial console, follow these steps. If using a CD/DVD media, skip the first step): Enabling the Installation USB Stick to Boot into a Serial Console &man.mount.8; By default, booting into the USB stick boots into the installer. To instead boot into a serial console, mount the USB disk onto a &os; system using &man.mount.8;: &prompt.root; mount /dev/da0a /mnt Adapt the device node and the mount point to the situation. Once the USB stick is mounted, set it to boot into a serial console. Add this line to /boot/loader.conf on the USB stick: &prompt.root; echo 'console="comconsole"' >> /mnt/boot/loader.conf Now that the USB is stick configured correctly, unmount the disk using &man.umount.8;: &prompt.root; umount /mnt Now, unplug the USB stick and jump directly to the third step of this procedure. Enabling the Installation CD/DVD to Boot into a Serial Console &man.mount.8; By default, when booting into the installation CD/DVD, &os; boots into its normal install mode. To instead boot into a serial console, extract, modify, and regenerate the ISO image before burning it to the CD/DVD media. From the &os; system with the saved installation ISO image, use &man.tar.1; to extract all the files: &prompt.root; mkdir /path/to/headless-iso &prompt.root; tar -C /path/to/headless-iso -pxvf &os;-&rel.current;-RELEASE-i386-disc1.iso Next, set the installation media to boot into a serial console. Add this line to the /boot/loader.conf of the extracted ISO image: &prompt.root; echo 'console="comconsole"' >> /path/to/headless-iso/boot/loader.conf Then, create a new ISO image from the modified tree. This example uses &man.mkisofs.8; from the sysutils/cdrtools package or port: &prompt.root; mkisofs -v -b boot/cdboot -no-emul-boot -r -J -V "Headless_install" \ -o Headless-&os;-&rel2.current;-RELEASE-i386-disc1.iso/path/to/headless-iso Now that the ISO image is configured correctly, burn it to a CD/DVD media using a burning application. Connecting the Null-modem Cable null-modem cable Connect a null-modem cable to the serial ports of the two machines. A normal serial cable will not work. A null-modem cable is required. Booting Up for the Install It is now time to go ahead and start the install. Plug in the USB stick or insert the CD/DVD media in the headless install machine and power it on. Connecting to the Headless Machine &man.cu.1; Next, connect to that machine with &man.cu.1;: &prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuau0 The headless machine can now be controlled using &man.cu.1;. It will load the kernel and then display a selection of which type of terminal to use. Select the &os; color console and proceed with the installation. Preparing Custom Installation Media Some situations may require a customized &os; installation media and/or source. This might be physical media or a source that &man.sysinstall.8; can use to retrieve the installation files. Some example situations include: A local network with many machines has a private FTP server hosting the &os; installation files which the machines should use for installation. &os; does not recognize the CD/DVD drive but &windows; does. In this case, copy the &os; installation files to a &windows; partition on the same computer, and then install &os; using those files. The computer to install does not have a CD/DVD drive or a network card, but can be connected using a null-printer cable to a computer that does. A tape will be used to install &os;. Creating an Installation ISO As part of each release, the &os; Project provides ISO images for each supported architecture. These images can be written (burned) to CD or DVD media using a burning application, and then used to install &os;. If a CD/DVD writer is available, this is the easiest way to install &os;. Download the Correct ISO Images The ISO images for each release can be downloaded from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ISO-IMAGES-arch/version or the closest mirror. Substitute arch and version as appropriate. An image directory normally contains the following images: &os; ISO Image Names and Meanings Filename Contents &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-bootonly.iso This CD image starts the installation process by booting from a CD-ROM drive but it does not contain the support for installing &os; from the CD itself. Perform a network based install, such as from an FTP server, after booting from this CD. &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-dvd1.iso.gz This DVD image contains everything necessary to install the base &os; operating system, a collection of pre-built packages, and the documentation. It also supports booting into a livefs based rescue mode. &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-memstick.img This image can be written to a USB memory stick in order to install machines capable of booting from USB drives. It also supports booting into a livefs based rescue mode. The only included package is the documentation package. &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-disc1.iso This image can be written to a USB memory stick in order to install machines capable of booting from USB drives. Similar to the bootonly.iso image, it does not contain the distribution sets on the medium itself, but does support network-based installations (for example, via ftp). &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-disc1.iso This CD image contains the base &os; operating system and the documentation package but no other packages. &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-disc2.iso A CD image with as many third-party packages as would fit on the disc. This image is not available for &os; 9.X. &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-disc3.iso Another CD image with as many third-party packages as would fit on the disc. This image is not available for &os; 9.X. &os;-version-RELEASE-arch-livefs.iso This CD image contains support for booting into a livefs based rescue mode but does not support doing an install from the CD itself.
When performing a CD installation, download either the bootonly ISO image or disc1. Do not download both, since disc1 contains everything that the bootonly ISO image contains. Use the bootonly ISO to perform a network install over the Internet. Additional software can be installed as needed using the Ports Collection as described in . Use dvd1 to install &os; and a selection of third-party packages from the disc. Burn the Media Next, write the downloaded image(s) to disc. If using another &os; system, refer to for instructions. If using another platform, use any burning utility that exists for that platform. The images are in the standard ISO format which most CD writing applications support. To build a customized release of &os;, refer to the Release Engineering Article. Creating a Local FTP Site with a &os; Disc installation network FTP &os; discs are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This makes it easy to create a local FTP site that can be used by other machines on a network to install &os;. On the &os; computer that will host the FTP site, ensure that the CD/DVD is in the drive and mounted: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom Create an account for anonymous FTP. Use &man.vipw.8; to insert this line: ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Ensure that the FTP service is enabled in /etc/inetd.conf. Anyone with network connectivity to the machine can now chose a media type of FTP and type in ftp://your machine after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during the install. If the boot media for the FTP clients is not precisely the same version as that provided by the local FTP site, &man.sysinstall.8; will not complete the installation. To override this, go into the Options menu and change the distribution name to any. This approach is acceptable for a machine on the local network which is protected by a firewall. Offering anonymous FTP services to other machines over the Internet exposes the computer to increased security risks. It is strongly recommended to follow good security practices when providing services over the Internet. Installing from an &windows; Partition installation from &windows; To prepare for an installation from a &windows; partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory in the root directory of the partition, such as c:\freebsd. Since the directory structure must be reproduced, it is recommended to use robocopy when copying from a CD/DVD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of &os;: C:\> md c:\freebsd C:\> robocopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /s C:\> robocopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /s This example assumes that C: has enough free space and E: is where the CD/DVD is mounted. Alternatively, download the distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the base distribution can be found in the &rel2.current;/base/ directory. Copy the distributions to install from a &windows; partition to c:\freebsd. Both the base and kernel distributions are needed for the most minimal installation. Before Installing over a Network installation network serial (PPP) installation network parallel (PLIP) installation network Ethernet There are three types of network installations available: Ethernet, PPP, and PLIP. For the fastest possible network installation, use an Ethernet adapter. &os; supports most common Ethernet cards. A list of supported cards is provided in the Hardware Notes for each release of &os;. If using a supported PCMCIA Ethernet card, be sure that it is plugged in before the system is powered on as &os; does not support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. Make note of the system's IP address, subnet mask, hostname, default gateway address, and DNS server addresses if these values are statically assigned. If installing by FTP through a HTTP proxy, make note of the proxy's address. If you do not know these values, ask the system administrator or ISP before trying this type of installation. If using a dialup modem, have the service provider's PPP information handy as it is needed early in the installation process. If PAP or CHAP are used to connect to the ISP without using a script, type dial at the &os; ppp prompt. Otherwise, know how to dial the ISP using the AT commands specific to the modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a simple terminal emulator. Refer to and &url.books.faq;/ppp.html for further information. Logging can be directed to the screen using set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another &os; machine is available, the installation can occur over a null-modem parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is higher than what is typically possible over a serial line. Before Installing via <acronym>NFS</acronym> installation network NFS To perform an NFS installation, copy the needed &os; distribution files to an NFS server and then point the installer's NFS media selection to it. If the server supports only a privileged port, set the option NFS Secure in the Options menu so that the installation can proceed. If using a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers from slow transfer rates, toggle the NFS Slow flag to on. In order for an NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts. For example, if the &os; &rel.current; distribution lives on: ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In &os;, this is controlled by using in /etc/exports. Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If the server is displaying permission denied messages, it is likely that this is not enabled properly. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/jails/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/jails/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/jails/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1622 +1,1623 @@ - - + Jails MatteoRiondatoContributed by jails Synopsis Since system administration is a difficult task, many tools have been developed to make life easier for the administrator. These tools often enhance the way systems are installed, configured, and maintained. One of the tools which can be used to enhance the security of a &os; system is jails. Jails have been available since &os; 4.X and continue to be enhanced in their usefulness, performance, reliability, and security. Jails build upon the &man.chroot.2; concept, which is used to change the root directory of a set of processes, creating a safe environment, separate from the rest of the system. Processes created in the chrooted environment can not access files or resources outside of it. For that reason, compromising a service running in a chrooted environment should not allow the attacker to compromise the entire system. However, a chroot has several limitations. It is suited to easy tasks which do not require much flexibility or complex, advanced features. Over time many ways have been found to escape from a chrooted environment, making it a less than ideal solution for securing services. Jails improve on the concept of the traditional chroot environment in several ways. In a traditional chroot environment, processes are only limited in the part of the file system they can access. The rest of the system resources, system users, running processes, and the networking subsystem are shared by the chrooted processes and the processes of the host system. Jails expand this model by virtualizing access to the file system, the set of users, and the networking subsystem. More fine-grained controls are available for tuning the access of a jailed environment. Jails can be considered as a type of operating system-level virtualization. A jail is characterized by four elements: A directory subtree: the starting point from which a jail is entered. Once inside the jail, a process is not permitted to escape outside of this subtree. A hostname: which will be used by the jail. An IP address: which is assigned to the jail. The IP address of a jail is often an alias address for an existing network interface. A command: the path name of an executable to run inside the jail. The path is relative to the root directory of the jail environment. Jails have their own set of users and their own root account which are limited to the jail environment. The root account of a jail is not allowed to perform operations to the system outside of the associated jail environment. This chapter provides an overview of jail terminology are how to use &os; jails. Jails are a powerful tool for system administrators, but their basic usage can also be useful for advanced users. After reading this chapter, you will know: What a jail is and what purpose it may serve in &os; installations. How to build, start, and stop a jail. The basics of jail administration, both from inside and outside the jail. Jails are a powerful tool, but they are not a security panacea. While it is not possible for a jailed process to break out on its own, there are several ways in which an unprivileged user outside the jail can cooperate with a privileged user inside the jail to obtain elevated privileges in the host environment. Most of these attacks can be mitigated by ensuring that the jail root is not accessible to unprivileged users in the host environment. As a general rule, untrusted users with privileged access to a jail should not be given access to the host environment. Terms Related to Jails To facilitate better understanding of parts of the &os; system related to jails, their internals and the way they interact with the rest of &os;, the following terms are used further in this chapter: &man.chroot.8; (command) Utility, which uses &man.chroot.2; &os; system call to change the root directory of a process and all its descendants. &man.chroot.2; (environment) The environment of processes running in a chroot. This includes resources such as the part of the file system which is visible, user and group IDs which are available, network interfaces and other IPC mechanisms, etc. &man.jail.8; (command) The system administration utility which allows launching of processes within a jail environment. host (system, process, user, etc.) The controlling system of a jail environment. The host system has access to all the hardware resources available, and can control processes both outside of and inside a jail environment. One of the important differences of the host system from a jail is that the limitations which apply to superuser processes inside a jail are not enforced for processes of the host system. hosted (system, process, user, etc.) A process, user or other entity, whose access to resources is restricted by a &os; jail. Creating and Controlling Jails Some administrators divide jails into the following two types: complete jails, which resemble a real &os; system, and service jails, dedicated to one application or service, possibly running with privileges. This is only a conceptual division and the process of building a jail is not affected by it. When creating a complete jail there are two options for the source of the userland: use prebuilt binaries (such as those supplied on an install media) or build from source. To install the userland from installation media, first create the root directory for the jail. This can be done by setting the DESTDIR variable to the proper location. The command to use depends on which shell is being used. When using &man.sh.1;: &prompt.root; export DESTDIR=/here/is/the/jail If csh/tcsh is used, execute this instead: &prompt.root; setenv DESTDIR /here/is/the/jail Mount the install media as covered in &man.mdconfig.8; when using the install ISO: &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/`mdconfig -f cdimage.iso` /mnt Extract the binaries from the tarballs on the install media into the declared destination. Minimally, only the base set needs to be extracted, but a complete install can be performed when preferred. To install just the base system, run the next command when using &os; 9.x or newer: &prompt.root; tar -xf /mnt/freebsd_install/usr/freebsd_dist/base.txz -C $DESTDIR On &os; 8.x systems, use this command instead: &prompt.root; /mnt/8.4-RELEASE/base/install.sh To install everything but the kernel, issue this command: When using &man.sh.1; on &os; 9.x and newer, issue this command: &prompt.root; for sets in BASE DOC GAMES PORTS; do (tar -xf /mnt/FREEBSD_INSTALL/USR/FREEBSD_DIST/$sets.TXZ -C $DESTDIR) ; done When using &os; 8.x, run this: &prompt.root; cd /mnt/8.4-RELEASE; for dir in base catpages dict doc games info manpages ports; do (cd $dir; ./install.sh) ; done If csh/tcsh is used on &os; 9.x and newer, execute this command: &prompt.root; foreach sets ( BASE DOC GAMES PORTS ) tar -xf /mnt/FREEBSD_INSTALL/USR/FREEBSD_DIST/$sets.TXZ -C $DESTDIR done On &os; 8.x, run this command: &prompt.root; foreach dir ( base catpages dict doc games info manpages ports ) cd /mnt/8.4-RELEASE/$dir; ./install.sh done The &man.jail.8; manual page explains the procedure for building a jail: &prompt.root; setenv D /here/is/the/jail &prompt.root; mkdir -p $D &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make buildworld &prompt.root; make installworld DESTDIR=$D &prompt.root; make distribution DESTDIR=$D &prompt.root; mount -t devfs devfs $D/dev Selecting a location for a jail is the best starting point. This is where the jail will physically reside within the file system of the jail's host. A good choice can be /usr/jail/jailname, where jailname is the hostname identifying the jail. The /usr/ file system usually has enough space for the jail file system, which for complete jails is, essentially, a replication of every file present in a default installation of the &os; base system. If you have already rebuilt your userland using make world or make buildworld, you can skip this step and install your existing userland into the new jail. This command will populate the directory subtree chosen as jail's physical location on the file system with the necessary binaries, libraries, manual pages and so on. The distribution target for make installs every needed configuration file. In simple words, it installs every installable file of /usr/src/etc/ to the /etc directory of the jail environment: $D/etc/. Mounting the &man.devfs.8; file system inside a jail is not required. On the other hand, any, or almost any application requires access to at least one device, depending on the purpose of the given application. It is very important to control access to devices from inside a jail, as improper settings could permit an attacker to do nasty things in the jail. Control over &man.devfs.8; is managed through rulesets which are described in the &man.devfs.8; and &man.devfs.conf.5; manual pages. Once a jail is installed, it can be started by using the &man.jail.8; utility. The &man.jail.8; utility takes four mandatory arguments which are described in the . Other arguments may be specified too, e.g., to run the jailed process with the credentials of a specific user. The argument depends on the type of the jail; for a virtual system, /etc/rc is a good choice, since it will replicate the startup sequence of a real &os; system. For a service jail, it depends on the service or application that will run within the jail. Jails are often started at boot time and the &os; rc mechanism provides an easy way to do this. A list of the jails which are enabled to start at boot time should be added to the &man.rc.conf.5; file: jail_enable="YES" # Set to NO to disable starting of any jails jail_list="www" # Space separated list of names of jails Jail names in jail_list should contain alphanumeric characters only. For each jail listed in jail_list, a group of &man.rc.conf.5; settings, which describe the particular jail, should be added: jail_www_rootdir="/usr/jail/www" # jail's root directory jail_www_hostname="www.example.org" # jail's hostname jail_www_ip="192.168.0.10" # jail's IP address jail_www_devfs_enable="YES" # mount devfs in the jail The default startup of jails configured in &man.rc.conf.5;, will run the /etc/rc script of the jail, which assumes the jail is a complete virtual system. For service jails, the default startup command of the jail should be changed, by setting the jail_jailname_exec_start option appropriately. For a full list of available options, please see the &man.rc.conf.5; manual page. &man.service.8; can be used to start or stop a jail by hand, if an entry for it exists in rc.conf: &prompt.root; service jail start www &prompt.root; service jail stop www A clean way to shut down a &man.jail.8; is not available at the moment. This is because commands normally used to accomplish a clean system shutdown cannot be used inside a jail. The best way to shut down a jail is to run the following command from within the jail itself or using the &man.jexec.8; utility from outside the jail: &prompt.root; sh /etc/rc.shutdown More information about this can be found in the &man.jail.8; manual page. Fine Tuning and Administration There are several options which can be set for any jail, and various ways of combining a host &os; system with jails, to produce higher level applications. This section presents: Some of the options available for tuning the behavior and security restrictions implemented by a jail installation. Some of the high-level applications for jail management, which are available through the &os; Ports Collection, and can be used to implement overall jail-based solutions. System Tools for Jail Tuning in &os; Fine tuning of a jail's configuration is mostly done by setting &man.sysctl.8; variables. A special subtree of sysctl exists as a basis for organizing all the relevant options: the security.jail.* hierarchy of &os; kernel options. Here is a list of the main jail-related sysctls, complete with their default value. Names should be self-explanatory, but for more information about them, please refer to the &man.jail.8; and &man.sysctl.8; manual pages. security.jail.set_hostname_allowed: 1 security.jail.socket_unixiproute_only: 1 security.jail.sysvipc_allowed: 0 security.jail.enforce_statfs: 2 security.jail.allow_raw_sockets: 0 security.jail.chflags_allowed: 0 security.jail.jailed: 0 These variables can be used by the system administrator of the host system to add or remove some of the limitations imposed by default on the root user. Note that there are some limitations which cannot be removed. The root user is not allowed to mount or unmount file systems from within a &man.jail.8;. The root inside a jail may not load or unload &man.devfs.8; rulesets, set firewall rules, or do many other administrative tasks which require modifications of in-kernel data, such as setting the securelevel of the kernel. The base system of &os; contains a basic set of tools for viewing information about the active jails, and attaching to a jail to run administrative commands. The &man.jls.8; and &man.jexec.8; commands are part of the base &os; system, and can be used to perform the following simple tasks: Print a list of active jails and their corresponding jail identifier (JID), IP address, hostname and path. Attach to a running jail, from its host system, and run a command inside the jail or perform administrative tasks inside the jail itself. This is especially useful when the root user wants to cleanly shut down a jail. The &man.jexec.8; utility can also be used to start a shell in a jail to do administration in it; for example: &prompt.root; jexec 1 tcsh High-Level Administrative Tools in the &os; Ports Collection Among the many third-party utilities for jail administration, one of the most complete and useful is sysutils/ezjail. It is a set of scripts that contribute to &man.jail.8; management. Please refer to the handbook section on ezjail for more information. Keeping Jails Patched and up to Date Jails should be kept up to date from the host operating system as attempting to patch userland from within the jail may likely fail as the default behaviour in FreeBSD is to disallow the use of &man.chflags.1; in a jail which prevents the replacement of some files. It is possible to change this behavior but it is recommended to use &man.freebsd-update.8; to maintain jails instead. Use to specify the path of the jail to be updated. &prompt.root; freebsd-update -b /here/is/the/jail fetch &prompt.root; freebsd-update -b /here/is/the/jail install Updating Multiple Jails Daniel Gerzo Contributed by Simon L. B. Nielsen Based upon an idea presented by Ken Tom And an article written by The management of multiple jails can become problematic because every jail has to be rebuilt from scratch whenever it is upgraded. This can be time consuming and tedious if a lot of jails are created and manually updated. This section demonstrates one method to resolve this issue by safely sharing as much as is possible between jails using read-only &man.mount.nullfs.8; mounts, so that updating is simpler. This makes it more attractive to put single services, such as HTTP, DNS, and SMTP, into individual jails. Additionally, it provides a simple way to add, remove, and upgrade jails. Simpler solutions exist, such as ezjail, which provides an easier method of administering &os; jails but is less versatile than this setup. ezjail is covered in more detail in . The goals of the setup described in this section are: Create a simple and easy to understand jail structure that does not require running a full installworld on each and every jail. Make it easy to add new jails or remove existing ones. Make it easy to update or upgrade existing jails. Make it possible to run a customized &os; branch. Be paranoid about security, reducing as much as possible the possibility of compromise. Save space and inodes, as much as possible. This design relies on a single, read-only master template which is mounted into each jail and one read-write device per jail. A device can be a separate physical disc, a partition, or a vnode backed memory device. This example uses read-write nullfs mounts. The file system layout is as follows: The jails are based under the /home partition. Each jail will be mounted under the /home/j directory. The template for each jail and the read-only partition for all of the jails is /home/j/mroot. A blank directory will be created for each jail under the /home/j directory. Each jail will have a /s directory that will be linked to the read-write portion of the system. Each jail will have its own read-write system that is based upon /home/j/skel. The read-write portion of each jail will be created in /home/js. Creating the Template This section describes the steps needed to create the master template. It is recommended to first update the host &os; system to the latest -RELEASE branch using the instructions in . Additionally, this template uses the sysutils/cpdup package or port and portsnap will be used to download the &os; Ports Collection. First, create a directory structure for the read-only file system which will contain the &os; binaries for the jails. Then, change directory to the &os; source tree and install the read-only file system to the jail template: &prompt.root; mkdir /home/j /home/j/mroot &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make installworld DESTDIR=/home/j/mroot Next, prepare a &os; Ports Collection for the jails as well as a &os; source tree, which is required for mergemaster: &prompt.root; cd /home/j/mroot &prompt.root; mkdir usr/ports &prompt.root; portsnap -p /home/j/mroot/usr/ports fetch extract &prompt.root; cpdup /usr/src /home/j/mroot/usr/src Create a skeleton for the read-write portion of the system: &prompt.root; mkdir /home/j/skel /home/j/skel/home /home/j/skel/usr-X11R6 /home/j/skel/distfiles &prompt.root; mv etc /home/j/skel &prompt.root; mv usr/local /home/j/skel/usr-local &prompt.root; mv tmp /home/j/skel &prompt.root; mv var /home/j/skel &prompt.root; mv root /home/j/skel Use mergemaster to install missing configuration files. Then, remove the extra directories that mergemaster creates: &prompt.root; mergemaster -t /home/j/skel/var/tmp/temproot -D /home/j/skel -i &prompt.root; cd /home/j/skel &prompt.root; rm -R bin boot lib libexec mnt proc rescue sbin sys usr dev Now, symlink the read-write file system to the read-only file system. Ensure that the symlinks are created in the correct s/ locations as the creation of directories in the wrong locations will cause the installation to fail. &prompt.root; cd /home/j/mroot &prompt.root; mkdir s &prompt.root; ln -s s/etc etc &prompt.root; ln -s s/home home &prompt.root; ln -s s/root root &prompt.root; ln -s s/usr-local usr/local &prompt.root; ln -s s/usr-X11R6 usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; ln -s s/distfiles usr/ports/distfiles &prompt.root; ln -s s/tmp tmp &prompt.root; ln -s s/var var As a last step, create a generic /home/j/skel/etc/make.conf containing this line: WRKDIRPREFIX?= /s/portbuild This makes it possible to compile &os; ports inside each jail. Remember that the ports directory is part of the read-only system. The custom path for WRKDIRPREFIX allows builds to be done in the read-write portion of every jail. Creating Jails The jail template can now be used to setup and configure the jails in /etc/rc.conf. This example demonstrates the creation of 3 jails: NS, MAIL and WWW. Add the following lines to /etc/fstab, so that the read-only template for the jails and the read-write space will be available in the respective jails: /home/j/mroot /home/j/ns nullfs ro 0 0 /home/j/mroot /home/j/mail nullfs ro 0 0 /home/j/mroot /home/j/www nullfs ro 0 0 /home/js/ns /home/j/ns/s nullfs rw 0 0 /home/js/mail /home/j/mail/s nullfs rw 0 0 /home/js/www /home/j/www/s nullfs rw 0 0 To prevent fsck from checking nullfs mounts during boot and dump from backing up the read-only nullfs mounts of the jails, the last two columns are both set to 0. Configure the jails in /etc/rc.conf: jail_enable="YES" jail_set_hostname_allow="NO" jail_list="ns mail www" jail_ns_hostname="ns.example.org" jail_ns_ip="192.168.3.17" jail_ns_rootdir="/usr/home/j/ns" jail_ns_devfs_enable="YES" jail_mail_hostname="mail.example.org" jail_mail_ip="192.168.3.18" jail_mail_rootdir="/usr/home/j/mail" jail_mail_devfs_enable="YES" jail_www_hostname="www.example.org" jail_www_ip="62.123.43.14" jail_www_rootdir="/usr/home/j/www" jail_www_devfs_enable="YES" The jail_name_rootdir variable is set to /usr/home instead of /home because the physical path of /home on a default &os; installation is /usr/home. The jail_name_rootdir variable must not be set to a path which includes a symbolic link, otherwise the jails will refuse to start. Create the required mount points for the read-only file system of each jail: &prompt.root; mkdir /home/j/ns /home/j/mail /home/j/www Install the read-write template into each jail using sysutils/cpdup: &prompt.root; mkdir /home/js &prompt.root; cpdup /home/j/skel /home/js/ns &prompt.root; cpdup /home/j/skel /home/js/mail &prompt.root; cpdup /home/j/skel /home/js/www In this phase, the jails are built and prepared to run. First, mount the required file systems for each jail, and then start them: &prompt.root; mount -a &prompt.root; service jail start The jails should be running now. To check if they have started correctly, use jls. Its output should be similar to the following: &prompt.root; jls JID IP Address Hostname Path 3 192.168.3.17 ns.example.org /home/j/ns 2 192.168.3.18 mail.example.org /home/j/mail 1 62.123.43.14 www.example.org /home/j/www At this point, it should be possible to log onto each jail, add new users, or configure daemons. The JID column indicates the jail identification number of each running jail. Use the following command to perform administrative tasks in the jail whose JID is 3: &prompt.root; jexec 3 tcsh Upgrading The design of this setup provides an easy way to upgrade existing jails while minimizing their downtime. Also, it provides a way to roll back to the older version should a problem occur. The first step is to upgrade the host system. Then, create a new temporary read-only template in /home/j/mroot2. &prompt.root; mkdir /home/j/mroot2 &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make installworld DESTDIR=/home/j/mroot2 &prompt.root; cd /home/j/mroot2 &prompt.root; cpdup /usr/src usr/src &prompt.root; mkdir s The installworld creates a few unnecessary directories, which should be removed: &prompt.root; chflags -R 0 var &prompt.root; rm -R etc var root usr/local tmp Recreate the read-write symlinks for the master file system: &prompt.root; ln -s s/etc etc &prompt.root; ln -s s/root root &prompt.root; ln -s s/home home &prompt.root; ln -s ../s/usr-local usr/local &prompt.root; ln -s ../s/usr-X11R6 usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; ln -s s/tmp tmp &prompt.root; ln -s s/var var Next, stop the jails: &prompt.root; service jail stop Unmount the original file systems as the read-write systems are attached to the read-only system (/s): &prompt.root; umount /home/j/ns/s &prompt.root; umount /home/j/ns &prompt.root; umount /home/j/mail/s &prompt.root; umount /home/j/mail &prompt.root; umount /home/j/www/s &prompt.root; umount /home/j/www Move the old read-only file system and replace it with the new one. This will serve as a backup and archive of the old read-only file system should something go wrong. The naming convention used here corresponds to when a new read-only file system has been created. Move the original &os; Ports Collection over to the new file system to save some space and inodes: &prompt.root; cd /home/j &prompt.root; mv mroot mroot.20060601 &prompt.root; mv mroot2 mroot &prompt.root; mv mroot.20060601/usr/ports mroot/usr At this point the new read-only template is ready, so the only remaining task is to remount the file systems and start the jails: &prompt.root; mount -a &prompt.root; service jail start Use jls to check if the jails started correctly. Run mergemaster in each jail to update the configuration files. Managing Jails with <application>ezjail</application> Warren Block Originally contributed by Creating and managing multiple jails can quickly become tedious and error-prone. Dirk Engling's ezjail automates and greatly simplifies many jail tasks. A basejail is created as a template. Additional jails use &man.mount.nullfs.8; to share many of the basejail directories without using additional disk space. Each additional jail takes only a few megabytes of disk space before applications are installed. Upgrading the copy of the userland in the basejail automatically upgrades all of the other jails. Additional benefits and features are described in detail on the ezjail web site, . Installing <application>ezjail</application> Installing ezjail consists of adding a loopback interface for use in jails, installing the port or package, and enabling the service. To keep jail loopback traffic off the host's loopback network interface lo0, a second loopback interface is created by adding an entry to /etc/rc.conf: cloned_interfaces="${cloned_interfaces} lo1" The second loopback interface lo1 will be created when the system starts. It can also be created manually without a restart: &prompt.root; service netif cloneup Created clone interfaces: lo1. Jails can be allowed to use aliases of this secondary loopback interface without interfering with the host. Inside a jail, access to the loopback address 127.0.0.1 is redirected to the first IP address assigned to the jail. To make the jail loopback correspond with the new lo1 interface, that interface must be specified first in the list of interfaces and IP addresses given when creating a new jail. Give each jail a unique loopback address in the 127.0.0.0/8 netblock. Install sysutils/ezjail: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/ezjail &prompt.root; make install clean Enable ezjail by adding this line to /etc/rc.conf: ezjail_enable="YES" The service will automatically start on system boot. It can be started immediately for the current session: &prompt.root; service ezjail start Initial Setup With ezjail installed, the basejail directory structure can be created and populated. This step is only needed once on the jail host computer. In both of these examples, causes the ports tree to be retrieved with &man.portsnap.8; into the basejail. That single copy of the ports directory will be shared by all the jails. Using a separate copy of the ports directory for jails isolates them from the host. The ezjail FAQ explains in more detail: . To Populate the Jail with &os;-RELEASE For a basejail based on the &os; RELEASE matching that of the host computer, use install. For example, on a host computer running &os; 10-STABLE, the latest RELEASE version of &os; -10 will be installed in the jail): &prompt.root; ezjail-admin install -p To Populate the Jail with <command>installworld</command> The basejail can be installed from binaries created by buildworld on the host with ezjail-admin update. In this example, &os; 10-STABLE has been built from source. The jail directories are created. Then installworld is executed, installing the host's /usr/obj into the basejail. &prompt.root; ezjail-admin update -i -p The host's /usr/src is used by default. A different source directory on the host can be specified with and a path, or set with ezjail_sourcetree in /usr/local/etc/ezjail.conf. The basejail's ports tree is shared by other jails. However, downloaded distfiles are stored in the jail that downloaded them. By default, these files are stored in /var/ports/distfiles within each jail. /var/ports inside each jail is also used as a work directory when building ports. Creating and Starting a New Jail New jails are created with ezjail-admin create. In these examples, the lo1 loopback interface is used as described above. Create and Start a New Jail Create the jail, specifying a name and the loopback and network interfaces to use, along with their IP addresses. In this example, the jail is named dnsjail. &prompt.root; ezjail-admin create dnsjail 'lo1|127.0.1.1,em0|192.168.1.50' Most network services run in jails without problems. A few network services, most notably &man.ping.8;, use raw network sockets. In jails, raw network sockets are disabled by default for security. Services that require them will not work. Occasionally, a jail genuinely needs raw sockets. For example, network monitoring applications often use &man.ping.8; to check the availability of other computers. When raw network sockets are actually needed in a jail, they can be enabled by editing the ezjail configuration file for the individual jail, /usr/local/etc/ezjail/jailname. Modify the parameters entry: export jail_jailname_parameters="allow.raw_sockets=1" Do not enable raw network sockets unless services in the jail actually require them. Start the jail: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin start dnsjail Use a console on the jail: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin console dnsjail The jail is operating and additional configuration can be completed. Typical settings added at this point include: Set the <systemitem class="username">root</systemitem> Password Connect to the jail and set the root user's password: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin console dnsjail &prompt.root; passwd Changing local password for root New Password: Retype New Password: Time Zone Configuration The jail's time zone can be set with &man.tzsetup.8;. To avoid spurious error messages, the &man.adjkerntz.8; entry in /etc/crontab can be commented or removed. This job attempts to update the computer's hardware clock with time zone changes, but jails are not allowed to access that hardware. <acronym>DNS</acronym> Servers Enter domain name server lines in /etc/resolv.conf so DNS works in the jail. Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> Change the address and add the jail name to the localhost entries in /etc/hosts. Configure <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> Enter configuration settings in /etc/rc.conf. This is much like configuring a full computer. The host name and IP address are not set here. Those values are already provided by the jail configuration. With the jail configured, the applications for which the jail was created can be installed. Some ports must be built with special options to be used in a jail. For example, both of the network monitoring plugin packages net-mgmt/nagios-plugins and net-mgmt/monitoring-plugins have a JAIL option which must be enabled for them to work correctly inside a jail. Updating Jails Updating the Operating System Because the basejail's copy of the userland is shared by the other jails, updating the basejail automatically updates all of the other jails. Either source or binary updates can be used. To build the world from source on the host, then install it in the basejail, use: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin update -b If the world has already been compiled on the host, install it in the basejail with: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin update -i Binary updates use &man.freebsd-update.8;. These updates have the same limitations as if &man.freebsd-update.8; were being run directly. The most important one is that only -RELEASE versions of &os; are available with this method. To update the basejail to the latest patched release of the version of &os; on the host computer, use: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin update -r After updating the basejail, &man.mergemaster.8; can be run to update each jail's configuration files. How to use &man.mergemaster.8; depends on the purpose and trustworthiness of a jail. If a jail's services or users are not trusted, then &man.mergemaster.8; should only be run from within that jail: &man.mergemaster.8; on Untrusted Jail Delete the link from the jail's /usr/src into the basejail and create a new /usr/src in the jail as a mountpoint. Mount the host computer's /usr/src read-only on the jail's new /usr/src mountpoint: &prompt.root; rm /usr/jails/jailname/usr/src &prompt.root; mkdir /usr/jails/jailname/usr/src &prompt.root; mount -t nullfs -o ro /usr/src /usr/jails/jailname/usr/src Get a console in the jail: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin console jailname Inside the jail, run mergemaster. Then exit the jail console: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; mergemaster -U &prompt.root; exit Finally, unmount the jail's /usr/src: &prompt.root; umount /usr/jails/jailname/usr/src &man.mergemaster.8; on Trusted Jail If the users and services in a jail are trusted, &man.mergemaster.8; can be run from the host: &prompt.root; mergemaster -U -D /usr/jails/jailname Updating Ports The ports tree in the basejail is shared by the other jails. Updating that copy of the ports tree gives the other jails the updated version also. The basejail ports tree is updated with &man.portsnap.8;: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin update -P Controlling Jails Stopping and Starting Jails ezjail automatically starts jails when the computer is started. Jails can be manually stopped and restarted with stop and start: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin stop sambajail Stopping jails: sambajail. By default, jails are started automatically when the host computer starts. Autostarting can be disabled with config: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin config -r norun seldomjail This takes effect the next time the host computer is started. A jail that is already running will not be stopped. Enabling autostart is very similar: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin config -r run oftenjail Archiving and Restoring Jails Use archive to create a .tar.gz archive of a jail. The file name is composed from the name of the jail and the current date. Archive files are written to the archive directory, /usr/jails/ezjail_archives. A different archive directory can be chosen by setting ezjail_archivedir in the configuration file. The archive file can be copied elsewhere as a backup, or an existing jail can be restored from it with restore. A new jail can be created from the archive, providing a convenient way to clone existing jails. Stop and archive a jail named wwwserver: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin stop wwwserver Stopping jails: wwwserver. &prompt.root; ezjail-admin archive wwwserver &prompt.root; ls /usr/jails/ezjail-archives/ wwwserver-201407271153.13.tar.gz Create a new jail named wwwserver-clone from the archive created in the previous step. Use the em1 interface and assign a new IP address to avoid conflict with the original: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin create -a /usr/jails/ezjail_archives/wwwserver-201407271153.13.tar.gz wwwserver-clone 'lo1|127.0.3.1,em1|192.168.1.51' Full Example: <application>BIND</application> in a Jail Putting the BIND DNS server in a jail improves security by isolating it. This example creates a simple caching-only name server. The jail will be called dns1. The jail will use IP address 192.168.1.240 on the host's re0 interface. The upstream ISP's DNS servers are at 10.0.0.62 and 10.0.0.61. The basejail has already been created and a ports tree installed. Running BIND in a Jail Create a cloned loopback interface by adding a line to /etc/rc.conf: cloned_interfaces="${cloned_interfaces} lo1" Immediately create the new loopback interface: &prompt.root; service netif cloneup Created clone interfaces: lo1. Create the jail: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin create dns1 'lo1|127.0.2.1,re0|192.168.1.240' Start the jail, connect to a console running on it, and perform some basic configuration: &prompt.root; ezjail-admin start dns1 &prompt.root; ezjail-admin console dns1 &prompt.root; passwd Changing local password for root New Password: Retype New Password: &prompt.root; tzsetup &prompt.root; sed -i .bak -e '/adjkerntz/ s/^/#/' /etc/crontab &prompt.root; sed -i .bak -e 's/127.0.0.1/127.0.2.1/g; s/localhost.my.domain/dns1.my.domain dns1/' /etc/hosts Temporarily set the upstream DNS servers in /etc/resolv.conf so ports can be downloaded: nameserver 10.0.0.62 nameserver 10.0.0.61 Still using the jail console, install dns/bind99. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/dns/bind99 &prompt.root; make -C /usr/ports/dns/bind99 install clean Configure the name server by editing /usr/local/etc/namedb/named.conf. Create an Access Control List (ACL) of addresses and networks that are permitted to send DNS queries to this name server. This section is added just before the options section already in the file: ... // or cause huge amounts of useless Internet traffic. acl "trusted" { 192.168.1.0/24; localhost; localnets; }; options { ... Use the jail IP address in the listen-on setting to accept DNS queries from other computers on the network: listen-on { 192.168.1.240; }; A simple caching-only DNS name server is created by changing the forwarders section. The original file contains: /* forwarders { 127.0.0.1; }; */ Uncomment the section by removing the /* and */ lines. Enter the IP addresses of the upstream DNS servers. Immediately after the forwarders section, add references to the trusted ACL defined earlier: forwarders { 10.0.0.62; 10.0.0.61; }; allow-query { any; }; allow-recursion { trusted; }; allow-query-cache { trusted; }; Enable the service in /etc/rc.conf: named_enable="YES" Start and test the name server: &prompt.root; service named start wrote key file "/usr/local/etc/namedb/rndc.key" Starting named. &prompt.root; /usr/local/bin/dig @192.168.1.240 freebsd.org A response that includes ;; Got answer; shows that the new DNS server is working. A long delay followed by a response including ;; connection timed out; no servers could be reached shows a problem. Check the configuration settings and make sure any local firewalls allow the new DNS access to the upstream DNS servers. The new DNS server can use itself for local name resolution, just like other local computers. Set the address of the DNS server in the client computer's /etc/resolv.conf: nameserver 192.168.1.240 A local DHCP server can be configured to provide this address for a local DNS server, providing automatic configuration on DHCP clients. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1339 +1,1341 @@ - + Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Synopsis kernel building a custom kernel The kernel is the core of the &os; operating system. It is responsible for managing memory, enforcing security controls, networking, disk access, and much more. While much of &os; is dynamically configurable, it is still occasionally necessary to configure and compile a custom kernel. After reading this chapter, you will know: When to build a custom kernel. How to take a hardware inventory. How to customize a kernel configuration file. How to use the kernel configuration file to create and build a new kernel. How to install the new kernel. How to troubleshoot if things go wrong. All of the commands listed in the examples in this chapter should be executed as root. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Traditionally, &os; used a monolithic kernel. The kernel was one large program, supported a fixed list of devices, and in order to change the kernel's behavior, one had to compile and then reboot into a new kernel. Today, most of the functionality in the &os; kernel is contained in modules which can be dynamically loaded and unloaded from the kernel as necessary. This allows the running kernel to adapt immediately to new hardware or for new functionality to be brought into the kernel. This is known as a modular kernel. Occasionally, it is still necessary to perform static kernel configuration. Sometimes the needed functionality is so tied to the kernel that it can not be made dynamically loadable. Some security environments prevent the loading and unloading of kernel modules and require that only needed functionality is statically compiled into the kernel. Building a custom kernel is often a rite of passage for advanced BSD users. This process, while time consuming, can provide benefits to the &os; system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a wide range of hardware, a custom kernel can be stripped down to only provide support for that computer's hardware. This has a number of benefits, such as: Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the hardware on the system, the time it takes the system to boot can decrease. Lower memory usage. A custom kernel often uses less memory than the GENERIC kernel by omitting unused features and device drivers. This is important because the kernel code remains resident in physical memory at all times, preventing that memory from being used by applications. For this reason, a custom kernel is useful on a system with a small amount of RAM. Additional hardware support. A custom kernel can add support for devices which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Before building a custom kernel, consider the reason for doing so. If there is a need for specific hardware support, it may already exist as a module. Kernel modules exist in /boot/kernel and may be dynamically loaded into the running kernel using &man.kldload.8;. Most kernel drivers have a loadable module and manual page. For example, the &man.ath.4; wireless Ethernet driver has the following information in its manual page: Alternatively, to load the driver as a module at boot time, place the following line in &man.loader.conf.5;: if_ath_load="YES" Adding if_ath_load="YES" to /boot/loader.conf will load this module dynamically at boot time. In some cases, there is no associated module in /boot/kernel. This is mostly true for certain subsystems. Finding the System Hardware Before editing the kernel configuration file, it is recommended to perform an inventory of the machine's hardware. On a dual-boot system, the inventory can be created from the other operating system. For example, µsoft;'s Device Manager contains information about installed devices. Some versions of µsoft.windows; have a System icon which can be used to access Device Manager. If &os; is the only installed operating system, use &man.dmesg.8; to determine the hardware that was found and listed during the boot probe. Most device drivers on &os; have a manual page which lists the hardware supported by that driver. For example, the following lines indicate that the &man.psm.4; driver found a mouse: psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0 psm0: [GIANT-LOCKED] psm0: [ITHREAD] psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0 Since this hardware exists, this driver should not be removed from a custom kernel configuration file. If the output of dmesg does not display the results of the boot probe output, instead read the contents of /var/run/dmesg.boot. Another tool for finding hardware is &man.pciconf.8;, which provides more verbose output. For example: &prompt.user; pciconf -lv ath0@pci0:3:0:0: class=0x020000 card=0x058a1014 chip=0x1014168c rev=0x01 hdr=0x00 vendor = 'Atheros Communications Inc.' device = 'AR5212 Atheros AR5212 802.11abg wireless' class = network subclass = ethernet This output shows that the ath driver located a wireless Ethernet device. The flag of &man.man.1; can be used to provide useful information. For example, to display a list of manual pages which contain the specified word: &prompt.root; man -k Atheros ath(4) - Atheros IEEE 802.11 wireless network driver ath_hal(4) - Atheros Hardware Access Layer (HAL) Once the hardware inventory list is created, refer to it to ensure that drivers for installed hardware are not removed as the custom kernel configuration is edited. The Configuration File In order to create a custom kernel configuration file and build a custom kernel, the full &os; source tree must first be installed. If /usr/src/ does not exist or it is empty, source has not been installed. Source can be installed using Subversion and the instructions in . Once source is installed, review the contents of /usr/src/sys. This directory contains a number of subdirectories, including those which represent the following supported architectures: amd64, i386, ia64, pc98, powerpc, and sparc64. Everything inside a particular architecture's directory deals with that architecture only and the rest of the code is machine independent code common to all platforms. Each supported architecture has a conf subdirectory which contains the GENERIC kernel configuration file for that architecture. Do not make edits to GENERIC. Instead, copy the file to a different name and make edits to the copy. The convention is to use a name with all capital letters. When maintaining multiple &os; machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after the machine's hostname. This example creates a copy, named MYKERNEL, of the GENERIC configuration file for the amd64 architecture: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/amd64/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL MYKERNEL can now be customized with any ASCII text editor. The default editor is vi, though an easier editor for beginners, called ee, is also installed with &os;. kernel NOTES NOTES kernel configuration file The format of the kernel configuration file is simple. Each line contains a keyword that represents a device or subsystem, an argument, and a brief description. Any text after a # is considered a comment and ignored. To remove kernel support for a device or subsystem, put a # at the beginning of the line representing that device or subsystem. Do not add or remove a # for any line that you do not understand. It is easy to remove support for a device or option and end up with a broken kernel. For example, if the &man.ata.4; driver is removed from the kernel configuration file, a system using ATA disk drivers may not boot. When in doubt, just leave support in the kernel. In addition to the brief descriptions provided in this file, additional descriptions are contained in NOTES, which can be found in the same directory as GENERIC for that architecture. For architecture independent options, refer to /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES. When finished customizing the kernel configuration file, save a backup copy to a location outside of /usr/src. Alternately, keep the kernel configuration file elsewhere and create a symbolic link to the file: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/amd64/conf &prompt.root; mkdir /root/kernels &prompt.root; cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL An include directive is available for use in configuration files. This allows another configuration file to be included in the current one, making it easy to maintain small changes relative to an existing file. If only a small number of additional options or drivers are required, this allows a delta to be maintained with respect to GENERIC, as seen in this example: include GENERIC ident MYKERNEL options IPFIREWALL options DUMMYNET options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options IPDIVERT Using this method, the local configuration file expresses local differences from a GENERIC kernel. As upgrades are performed, new features added to GENERIC will also be added to the local kernel unless they are specifically prevented using nooptions or nodevice. A comprehensive list of configuration directives and their descriptions may be found in &man.config.5;. To build a file which contains all available options, run the following command as root: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/arch/conf && make LINT Building and Installing a Custom Kernel Once the edits to the custom configuration file have been saved, the source code for the kernel can be compiled using the following steps: Building a Kernel kernel building / installing Change to this directory: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src Compile the new kernel by specifying the name of the custom kernel configuration file: &prompt.root; make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL Install the new kernel associated with the specified kernel configuration file. This command will copy the new kernel to /boot/kernel/kernel and save the old kernel to /boot/kernel.old/kernel: &prompt.root; make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL Shutdown the system and reboot into the new kernel. If something goes wrong, refer to . By default, when a custom kernel is compiled, all kernel modules are rebuilt. To update a kernel faster or to build only custom modules, edit /etc/make.conf before starting to build the kernel. For example, this variable specifies the list of modules to build instead of using the default of building all modules: MODULES_OVERRIDE = linux acpi Alternately, this variable lists which modules to exclude from the build process: WITHOUT_MODULES = linux acpi sound Additional variables are available. Refer to &man.make.conf.5; for details. /boot/kernel.old If Something Goes Wrong There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel: config fails If config fails, it will print the line number that is incorrect. As an example, for the following message, make sure that line 17 is typed correctly by comparing it to GENERIC or NOTES: config: line 17: syntax error make fails If make fails, it is usually due to an error in the kernel configuration file which is not severe enough for config to catch. Review the configuration, and if the problem is not apparent, send an email to the &a.questions; which contains the kernel configuration file. The kernel does not boot If the new kernel does not boot or fails to recognize devices, do not panic! Fortunately, &os; has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply choose the kernel to boot from at the &os; boot loader. This can be accessed when the system boot menu appears by selecting the Escape to a loader prompt option. At the prompt, type boot kernel.old, or the name of any other kernel that is known to boot properly. After booting with a good kernel, check over the configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is /var/log/messages which records the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, &man.dmesg.8; will print the kernel messages from the current boot. When troubleshooting a kernel, make sure to keep a copy of GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work, as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. This is important because every time a new kernel is installed, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel, which may or may not be bootable. As soon as possible, move the working kernel by renaming the directory containing the good kernel: &prompt.root; mv /boot/kernel /boot/kernel.bad &prompt.root; mv /boot/kernel.good /boot/kernel The kernel works, but &man.ps.1; does not If the kernel version differs from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, a kernel built from -CURRENT sources is installed on a -RELEASE system, many system status commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work. To fix this, recompile and install a world built with the same version of the source tree as the kernel. It is never a good idea to use a different version of the kernel than the rest of the operating system. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1038 +1,1039 @@ - - + Localization - <acronym>i18n</acronym>/<acronym>L10n</acronym> Usage and Setup AndreyChernovContributed by Michael C.WuRewritten by Synopsis &os; is a distributed project with users and contributors located all over the world. As such, &os; supports localization into many languages, allowing users to view, input, or process data in non-English languages. One can choose from most of the major languages, including, but not limited to: Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, French, Russian, and Vietnamese. internationalization localization localization The term internationalization has been shortened to i18n, which represents the number of letters between the first and the last letters of internationalization. L10n uses the same naming scheme, but from localization. The i18n/L10n methods, protocols, and applications allow users to use languages of their choice. This chapter discusses the internationalization and localization features of &os;. After reading this chapter, you will know: How locale names are constructed. How to set the locale for a login shell. How to configure the console for non-English languages. How to configure Xorg for different languages. How to find i18n-compliant applications. Where to find more information for configuring specific languages. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party applications. Using Localization locale Localization settings are based on three components: the language code, country code, and encoding. Locale names are constructed from these parts as follows: LanguageCode_CountryCode.Encoding language codes country codes The LanguageCode and CountryCode are used to determine the country and the specific language variation. provides some examples of LanguageCode_CountryCode: Common Language and Country Codes LanguageCode_Country Code Description en_US English, United States ru_RU Russian, Russia zh_TW Traditional Chinese, Taiwan
A complete listing of available locales can be found by typing: &prompt.user; locale -a | more To determine the current locale setting: &prompt.user; locale encodings ASCII Language specific character sets, such as ISO8859-1, ISO8859-15, KOI8-R, and CP437, are described in &man.multibyte.3;. The active list of character sets can be found at the IANA Registry. Some languages, such as Chinese or Japanese, cannot be represented using ASCII characters and require an extended language encoding using either wide or multibyte characters. Examples of wide or multibyte encodings include EUC and Big5. Older applications may mistake these encodings for control characters while newer applications usually recognize these characters. Depending on the implementation, users may be required to compile an application with wide or multibyte character support, or to configure it correctly. &os; uses Xorg-compatible locale encodings. The rest of this section describes the various methods for configuring the locale on a &os; system. The next section will discuss the considerations for finding and compiling applications with i18n support. Setting Locale for Login Shell Locale settings are configured either in a user's ~/.login_conf or in the startup file of the user's shell: ~/.profile, ~/.bashrc, or ~/.cshrc. Two environment variables should be set: LANG, which sets the locale POSIX MIME MM_CHARSET, which sets the MIME character set used by applications In addition to the user's shell configuration, these variables should also be set for specific application configuration and Xorg configuration. locale login class Two methods are available for making the needed variable assignments: the login class method, which is the recommended method, and the startup file method. The next two sections demonstrate how to use both methods. Login Classes Method This first method is the recommended method as it assigns the required environment variables for locale name and MIME character sets for every possible shell. This setup can either be performed by each user or it can be configured for all users by the superuser. This minimal example sets both variables for Latin-1 encoding in the .login_conf of an individual user's home directory: me:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1: Traditional Chinese BIG-5 encoding Here is an example of a user's ~/.login_conf that sets the variables for Traditional Chinese in BIG-5 encoding. More variables are needed because some applications do not correctly respect locale variables for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean: #Users who do not wish to use monetary units or time formats #of Taiwan can manually change each variable me:\ :lang=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_ALL=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_COLLATE=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_CTYPE=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_MESSAGES=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_MONETARY=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_NUMERIC=zh_TW.Big5:\ :setenv=LC_TIME=zh_TW.Big5:\ :charset=big5:\ :xmodifiers="@im=gcin": #Set gcin as the XIM Input Server Alternately, the superuser can configure all users of the system for localization. The following variables in /etc/login.conf are used to set the locale and MIME character set: language_name|Account Type Description:\ :charset=MIME_charset:\ :lang=locale_name:\ :tc=default: So, the previous Latin-1 example would look like this: german|German Users Accounts:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:\ :tc=default: See &man.login.conf.5; for more details about these variables. Whenever /etc/login.conf is edited, remember to execute the following command to update the capability database: &prompt.root; cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf Utilities Which Change Login Classes vipw In addition to manually editing /etc/login.conf, several utilities are available for setting the locale for newly created users. When using vipw to add new users, specify the language to set the locale: user:password:1111:11:language:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh adduser login class When using adduser to add new users, the default language can be pre-configured for all new users or specified for an individual user. If all new users use the same language, set defaultclass = language in /etc/adduser.conf. To override this setting when creating a user, either input the required locale at this prompt: Enter login class: default []: or specify the locale to set when invoking adduser: &prompt.root; adduser -class language pw If pw is used to add new users, specify the locale as follows: &prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L language Shell Startup File Method This second method is not recommended as each shell that is used requires manual configuration, where each shell has a different configuration file and differing syntax. As an example, to set the German language for the sh shell, these lines could be added to ~/.profile to set the shell for that user only. These lines could also be added to /etc/profile or /usr/share/skel/dot.profile to set that shell for all users: LANG=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export LANG MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET However, the name of the configuration file and the syntax used differs for the csh shell. These are the equivalent settings for ~/.csh.login, /etc/csh.login, or /usr/share/skel/dot.login: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO8859-1 setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1 To complicate matters, the syntax needed to configure Xorg in ~/.xinitrc also depends upon the shell. The first example is for the sh shell and the second is for the csh shell: LANG=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export LANG setenv LANG de_DE.ISO8859-1 Console Setup Several localized fonts are available for the console. To see a listing of available fonts, type ls /usr/share/syscons/fonts. To configure the console font, specify the font_name, without the .fnt suffix, in /etc/rc.conf: font8x16=font_name font8x14=font_name font8x8=font_name keymap screenmap The keymap and screenmap can be set by adding the following to /etc/rc.conf: scrnmap=screenmap_name keymap=keymap_name keychange="fkey_number sequence" To see the list of available screenmaps, type ls /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps. Do not include the .scm suffix when specifying screenmap_name. A screenmap with a corresponding mapped font is usually needed as a workaround for expanding bit 8 to bit 9 on a VGA adapter's font character matrix so that letters are moved out of the pseudographics area if the screen font uses a bit 8 column. To see the list of available keymaps, type ls /usr/share/syscons/keymaps. When specifying the keymap_name, do not include the .kbd suffix. To test keymaps without rebooting, use &man.kbdmap.1;. The keychange entry is usually needed to program function keys to match the selected terminal type because function key sequences cannot be defined in the keymap. Next, set the correct console terminal type in /etc/ttys for all virtual terminal entries. summarizes the available terminal types.: Defined Terminal Types for Character Sets Character Set Terminal Type ISO8859-1 or ISO8859-15 cons25l1 ISO8859-2 cons25l2 ISO8859-7 cons25l7 KOI8-R cons25r KOI8-U cons25u CP437 (VGA default) cons25 US-ASCII cons25w
moused For languages with wide or multibyte characters, install a console for that language from the &os; Ports Collection. The available ports are summarized in . Once installed, refer to the port's pkg-message or man pages for configuration and usage instructions. Available Console From Ports Collection Language Port Location Traditional Chinese (BIG-5) chinese/big5con Chinese/Japanese/Korean chinese/cce Chinese/Japanese/Korean chinese/zhcon Japanese chinese/kon2 Japanese japanese/kon2-14dot Japanese japanese/kon2-16dot
If moused is enabled in /etc/rc.conf, additional configuration may be required. By default, the mouse cursor of the &man.syscons.4; driver occupies the 0xd0-0xd3 range in the character set. If the language uses this range, move the cursor's range by adding the following line to /etc/rc.conf: mousechar_start=3 Xorg Setup describes how to install and configure Xorg. When configuring Xorg for localization, additional fonts and input methods are available from the &os; Ports Collection. Application specific i18n settings such as fonts and menus can be tuned in ~/.Xresources and should allow users to view their selected language in graphical application menus. X Input Method (XIM) The X Input Method (XIM) protocol is an Xorg standard for inputting non-English characters. summarizes the input method applications which are available in the &os; Ports Collection. Additional Fcitx and Uim applications are also available. Available Input Methods Language Input Method Chinese chinese/gcin Chinese chinese/ibus-chewing Chinese chinese/ibus-pinyin Chinese chinese/oxim Chinese chinese/scim-fcitx Chinese chinese/scim-pinyin Chinese chinese/scim-tables Japanese japanese/ibus-anthy Japanese japanese/ibus-mozc Japanese japanese/ibus-skk Japanese japanese/im-ja Japanese japanese/kinput2 Japanese japanese/scim-anthy Japanese japanese/scim-canna Japanese japanese/scim-honoka Japanese japanese/scim-honoka-plugin-romkan Japanese japanese/scim-honoka-plugin-wnn Japanese japanese/scim-prime Japanese japanese/scim-skk Japanese japanese/scim-tables Japanese japanese/scim-tomoe Japanese japanese/scim-uim Japanese japanese/skkinput Japanese japanese/skkinput3 Japanese japanese/uim-anthy Korean korean/ibus-hangul Korean korean/imhangul Korean korean/nabi Korean korean/scim-hangul Korean korean/scim-tables Vietnamese vietnamese/xvnkb Vietnamese vietnamese/x-unikey
Finding <acronym>i18n</acronym> Applications i18n applications are programmed using i18n kits under libraries. These allow developers to write a simple file and translate displayed menus and texts to each language. The &os; Ports Collection contains many applications with built-in support for wide or multibyte characters for several languages. Such applications include i18n in their names for easy identification. However, they do not always support the language needed. Some applications can be compiled with the specific charset. This is usually done in the port's Makefile or by passing a value to configure. Refer to the i18n documentation in the respective &os; port's source for more information on how to determine the needed configure value or the port's Makefile to determine which compile options to use when building the port. Locale Configuration for Specific Languages This section provides configuration examples for localizing a &os; system for the Russian language. It then provides some additional resources for localizing other languages. Russian Language (KOI8-R Encoding) AndreyChernovOriginally contributed by localization Russian This section shows the specific settings needed to localize a &os; system for the Russian language. Refer to Using Localization for a more complete description of each type of setting. To set this locale for the login shell, add the following lines to each user's ~/.login_conf: me:My Account:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R: To configure the console, add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf: keymap="ru.koi8-r" scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866" font8x16="cp866b-8x16" font8x14="cp866-8x14" font8x8="cp866-8x8" mousechar_start=3 For each ttyv entry in /etc/ttys, use cons25r as the terminal type. printers To configure printing, a special output filter is needed to convert from KOI8-R to CP866 since most printers with Russian characters come with hardware code page CP866. &os; includes a default filter for this purpose, /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. To use this filter, add this entry to /etc/printcap: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: Refer to &man.printcap.5; for a more detailed explanation. To configure support for Russian filenames in mounted &ms-dos; file systems, include and the locale name when adding an entry to /etc/fstab: /dev/ad0s2 /dos/c msdos rw,-Lru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 Refer to &man.mount.msdosfs.8; for more details. To configure Russian fonts for &xorg;, install the x11-fonts/xorg-fonts-cyrillic package. Then, check the "Files" section in /etc/X11/xorg.conf. The following line must be added before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic" Additional Cyrillic fonts are available in the Ports Collection. To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the "Keyboard" section of /etc/xorg.conf: Option "XkbLayout" "us,ru" Option "XkbOptions" "grp:toggle" Make sure that XkbDisable is commented out in that file. For grp:toggle use Right Alt, for grp:ctrl_shift_toggle use CtrlShift. For grp:caps_toggle use CapsLock. The old CapsLock function is still available in LAT mode only using ShiftCapsLock. grp:caps_toggle does not work in &xorg; for some unknown reason. If the keyboard has &windows; keys, and some non-alphabetical keys are mapped incorrectly, add the following line to /etc/xorg.conf: Option "XkbVariant" ",winkeys" The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with non-localized applications. Minimally localized applications should call a XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program. See http://koi8.pp.ru/xwin.html for more instructions on localizing Xorg applications. For more general information about KOI8-R encoding, refer to http://koi8.pp.ru/. Additional Language-Specific Resources This section lists some additional resources for configuring other locales. localization Traditional Chinese localization German localization Greek localization Japanese localization Korean Traditional Chinese for Taiwan The &os;-Taiwan Project has a Chinese HOWTO for &os; at http://netlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw/~statue/freebsd/zh-tut/. German Language Localization for All ISO 8859-1 Languages A tutorial on using umlauts on &os; is available in German at http://user.cs.tu-berlin.de/~eserte/FreeBSD/doc/umlaute/umlaute.html. Greek Language Localization A complete article on Greek support in &os; is available here, in Greek only, as part of the official &os; Greek documentation. Japanese and Korean Language Localization For Japanese, refer to http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/, and for Korean, refer to http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/. Non-English &os; Documentation Some &os; contributors have translated parts of the &os; documentation to other languages. They are available through links on the &os; web site or in /usr/share/doc. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mac/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mac/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mac/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1774 +1,1775 @@ - - + Mandatory Access Control TomRhodesWritten by Synopsis MAC Mandatory Access Control MAC &os; supports security extensions based on the &posix;.1e draft. These security mechanisms include file system Access Control Lists () and Mandatory Access Control (MAC). MAC allows access control modules to be loaded in order to implement security policies. Some modules provide protections for a narrow subset of the system, hardening a particular service. Others provide comprehensive labeled security across all subjects and objects. The mandatory part of the definition indicates that enforcement of controls is performed by administrators and the operating system. This is in contrast to the default security mechanism of Discretionary Access Control (DAC) where enforcement is left to the discretion of users. This chapter focuses on the MAC framework and the set of pluggable security policy modules &os; provides for enabling various security mechanisms. After reading this chapter, you will know: The terminology associated with the MAC framework. The capabilities of MAC security policy modules as well as the difference between a labeled and non-labeled policy. The considerations to take into account before configuring a system to use the MAC framework. Which MAC security policy modules are included in &os; and how to configure them. How to implement a more secure environment using the MAC framework. How to test the MAC configuration to ensure the framework has been properly implemented. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand &unix; and &os; basics (). Have some familiarity with security and how it pertains to &os; (). Improper MAC configuration may cause loss of system access, aggravation of users, or inability to access the features provided by Xorg. More importantly, MAC should not be relied upon to completely secure a system. The MAC framework only augments an existing security policy. Without sound security practices and regular security checks, the system will never be completely secure. The examples contained within this chapter are for demonstration purposes and the example settings should not be implemented on a production system. Implementing any security policy takes a good deal of understanding, proper design, and thorough testing. While this chapter covers a broad range of security issues relating to the MAC framework, the development of new MAC security policy modules will not be covered. A number of security policy modules included with the MAC framework have specific characteristics which are provided for both testing and new module development. Refer to &man.mac.test.4;, &man.mac.stub.4; and &man.mac.none.4; for more information on these security policy modules and the various mechanisms they provide. Key Terms The following key terms are used when referring to the MAC framework: compartment: a set of programs and data to be partitioned or separated, where users are given explicit access to specific component of a system. A compartment represents a grouping, such as a work group, department, project, or topic. Compartments make it possible to implement a need-to-know-basis security policy. integrity: the level of trust which can be placed on data. As the integrity of the data is elevated, so does the ability to trust that data. level: the increased or decreased setting of a security attribute. As the level increases, its security is considered to elevate as well. label: a security attribute which can be applied to files, directories, or other items in the system. It could be considered a confidentiality stamp. When a label is placed on a file, it describes the security properties of that file and will only permit access by files, users, and resources with a similar security setting. The meaning and interpretation of label values depends on the policy configuration. Some policies treat a label as representing the integrity or secrecy of an object while other policies might use labels to hold rules for access. multilabel: this property is a file system option which can be set in single-user mode using &man.tunefs.8;, during boot using &man.fstab.5;, or during the creation of a new file system. This option permits an administrator to apply different MAC labels on different objects. This option only applies to security policy modules which support labeling. single label: a policy where the entire file system uses one label to enforce access control over the flow of data. Whenever is not set, all files will conform to the same label setting. object: an entity through which information flows under the direction of a subject. This includes directories, files, fields, screens, keyboards, memory, magnetic storage, printers or any other data storage or moving device. An object is a data container or a system resource. Access to an object effectively means access to its data. subject: any active entity that causes information to flow between objects such as a user, user process, or system process. On &os;, this is almost always a thread acting in a process on behalf of a user. policy: a collection of rules which defines how objectives are to be achieved. A policy usually documents how certain items are to be handled. This chapter considers a policy to be a collection of rules which controls the flow of data and information and defines who has access to that data and information. high-watermark: this type of policy permits the raising of security levels for the purpose of accessing higher level information. In most cases, the original level is restored after the process is complete. Currently, the &os; MAC framework does not include this type of policy. low-watermark: this type of policy permits lowering security levels for the purpose of accessing information which is less secure. In most cases, the original security level of the user is restored after the process is complete. The only security policy module in &os; to use this is &man.mac.lomac.4;. sensitivity: usually used when discussing Multilevel Security (MLS). A sensitivity level describes how important or secret the data should be. As the sensitivity level increases, so does the importance of the secrecy, or confidentiality, of the data. Understanding MAC Labels A MAC label is a security attribute which may be applied to subjects and objects throughout the system. When setting a label, the administrator must understand its implications in order to prevent unexpected or undesired behavior of the system. The attributes available on an object depend on the loaded policy module, as policy modules interpret their attributes in different ways. The security label on an object is used as a part of a security access control decision by a policy. With some policies, the label contains all of the information necessary to make a decision. In other policies, the labels may be processed as part of a larger rule set. There are two types of label policies: single label and multi label. By default, the system will use single label. The administrator should be aware of the pros and cons of each in order to implement policies which meet the requirements of the system's security model. A single label security policy only permits one label to be used for every subject or object. Since a single label policy enforces one set of access permissions across the entire system, it provides lower administration overhead, but decreases the flexibility of policies which support labeling. However, in many environments, a single label policy may be all that is required. A single label policy is somewhat similar to DAC as root configures the policies so that users are placed in the appropriate categories and access levels. A notable difference is that many policy modules can also restrict root. Basic control over objects will then be released to the group, but root may revoke or modify the settings at any time. When appropriate, a multi label policy can be set on a UFS file system by passing to &man.tunefs.8;. A multi label policy permits each subject or object to have its own independent MAC label. The decision to use a multi label or single label policy is only required for policies which implement the labeling feature, such as biba, lomac, and mls. Some policies, such as seeotheruids, portacl and partition, do not use labels at all. Using a multi label policy on a partition and establishing a multi label security model can increase administrative overhead as everything in that file system has a label. This includes directories, files, and even device nodes. The following command will set on the specified UFS file system. This may only be done in single-user mode and is not a requirement for the swap file system: &prompt.root; tunefs -l enable / Some users have experienced problems with setting the flag on the root partition. If this is the case, please review . Since the multi label policy is set on a per-file system basis, a multi label policy may not be needed if the file system layout is well designed. Consider an example security MAC model for a &os; web server. This machine uses the single label, biba/high, for everything in the default file systems. If the web server needs to run at biba/low to prevent write up capabilities, it could be installed to a separate UFS /usr/local file system set at biba/low. Label Configuration Virtually all aspects of label policy module configuration will be performed using the base system utilities. These commands provide a simple interface for object or subject configuration or the manipulation and verification of the configuration. All configuration may be done using setfmac, which is used to set MAC labels on system objects, and setpmac, which is used to set the labels on system subjects. For example, to set the biba MAC label to high on test: &prompt.root; setfmac biba/high test If the configuration is successful, the prompt will be returned without error. A common error is Permission denied which usually occurs when the label is being set or modified on a restricted object. Other conditions may produce different failures. For instance, the file may not be owned by the user attempting to relabel the object, the object may not exist, or the object may be read-only. A mandatory policy will not allow the process to relabel the file, maybe because of a property of the file, a property of the process, or a property of the proposed new label value. For example, if a user running at low integrity tries to change the label of a high integrity file, or a user running at low integrity tries to change the label of a low integrity file to a high integrity label, these operations will fail. The system administrator may use setpmac to override the policy module's settings by assigning a different label to the invoked process: &prompt.root; setfmac biba/high test Permission denied &prompt.root; setpmac biba/low setfmac biba/high test &prompt.root; getfmac test test: biba/high For currently running processes, such as sendmail, getpmac is usually used instead. This command takes a process ID (PID) in place of a command name. If users attempt to manipulate a file not in their access, subject to the rules of the loaded policy modules, the Operation not permitted error will be displayed. Predefined Labels A few &os; policy modules which support the labeling feature offer three predefined labels: low, equal, and high, where: low is considered the lowest label setting an object or subject may have. Setting this on objects or subjects blocks their access to objects or subjects marked high. equal sets the subject or object to be disabled or unaffected and should only be placed on objects considered to be exempt from the policy. high grants an object or subject the highest setting available in the Biba and MLS policy modules. Such policy modules include &man.mac.biba.4;, &man.mac.mls.4; and &man.mac.lomac.4;. Each of the predefined labels establishes a different information flow directive. Refer to the manual page of the module to determine the traits of the generic label configurations. Numeric Labels The Biba and MLS policy modules support a numeric label which may be set to indicate the precise level of hierarchical control. This numeric level is used to partition or sort information into different groups of classification, only permitting access to that group or a higher group level. For example: biba/10:2+3+6(5:2+3-20:2+3+4+5+6) may be interpreted as Biba Policy Label/Grade 10:Compartments 2, 3 and 6: (grade 5 ...) In this example, the first grade would be considered the effective grade with effective compartments, the second grade is the low grade, and the last one is the high grade. In most configurations, such fine-grained settings are not needed as they are considered to be advanced configurations. System objects only have a current grade and compartment. System subjects reflect the range of available rights in the system, and network interfaces, where they are used for access control. The grade and compartments in a subject and object pair are used to construct a relationship known as dominance, in which a subject dominates an object, the object dominates the subject, neither dominates the other, or both dominate each other. The both dominate case occurs when the two labels are equal. Due to the information flow nature of Biba, a user has rights to a set of compartments that might correspond to projects, but objects also have a set of compartments. Users may have to subset their rights using su or setpmac in order to access objects in a compartment from which they are not restricted. User Labels Users are required to have labels so that their files and processes properly interact with the security policy defined on the system. This is configured in /etc/login.conf using login classes. Every policy module that uses labels will implement the user class setting. To set the user class default label which will be enforced by MAC, add a entry. An example entry containing every policy module is displayed below. Note that in a real configuration, the administrator would never enable every policy module. It is recommended that the rest of this chapter be reviewed before any configuration is implemented. default:\ :copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\ :welcome=/etc/motd:\ :setenv=MAIL=/var/mail/$,BLOCKSIZE=K:\ :path=~/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:\ :manpath=/usr/share/man /usr/local/man:\ :nologin=/usr/sbin/nologin:\ :cputime=1h30m:\ :datasize=8M:\ :vmemoryuse=100M:\ :stacksize=2M:\ :memorylocked=4M:\ :memoryuse=8M:\ :filesize=8M:\ :coredumpsize=8M:\ :openfiles=24:\ :maxproc=32:\ :priority=0:\ :requirehome:\ :passwordtime=91d:\ :umask=022:\ :ignoretime@:\ :label=partition/13,mls/5,biba/10(5-15),lomac/10[2]: While users can not modify the default value, they may change their label after they login, subject to the constraints of the policy. The example above tells the Biba policy that a process's minimum integrity is 5, its maximum is 15, and the default effective label is 10. The process will run at 10 until it chooses to change label, perhaps due to the user using setpmac, which will be constrained by Biba to the configured range. After any change to login.conf, the login class capability database must be rebuilt using cap_mkdb. Many sites have a large number of users requiring several different user classes. In depth planning is required as this can become difficult to manage. Network Interface Labels Labels may be set on network interfaces to help control the flow of data across the network. Policies using network interface labels function in the same way that policies function with respect to objects. Users at high settings in Biba, for example, will not be permitted to access network interfaces with a label of low. When setting the MAC label on network interfaces, may be passed to ifconfig: &prompt.root; ifconfig bge0 maclabel biba/equal This example will set the MAC label of biba/equal on the bge0 interface. When using a setting similar to biba/high(low-high), the entire label should be quoted to prevent an error from being returned. Each policy module which supports labeling has a tunable which may be used to disable the MAC label on network interfaces. Setting the label to will have a similar effect. Review the output of sysctl, the policy manual pages, and the information in the rest of this chapter for more information on those tunables. Planning the Security Configuration Before implementing any MAC policies, a planning phase is recommended. During the planning stages, an administrator should consider the implementation requirements and goals, such as: How to classify information and resources available on the target systems. Which information or resources to restrict access to along with the type of restrictions that should be applied. Which MAC modules will be required to achieve this goal. A trial run of the trusted system and its configuration should occur before a MAC implementation is used on production systems. Since different environments have different needs and requirements, establishing a complete security profile will decrease the need of changes once the system goes live. Consider how the MAC framework augments the security of the system as a whole. The various security policy modules provided by the MAC framework could be used to protect the network and file systems or to block users from accessing certain ports and sockets. Perhaps the best use of the policy modules is to load several security policy modules at a time in order to provide a MLS environment. This approach differs from a hardening policy, which typically hardens elements of a system which are used only for specific purposes. The downside to MLS is increased administrative overhead. The overhead is minimal when compared to the lasting effect of a framework which provides the ability to pick and choose which policies are required for a specific configuration and which keeps performance overhead down. The reduction of support for unneeded policies can increase the overall performance of the system as well as offer flexibility of choice. A good implementation would consider the overall security requirements and effectively implement the various security policy modules offered by the framework. A system utilizing MAC guarantees that a user will not be permitted to change security attributes at will. All user utilities, programs, and scripts must work within the constraints of the access rules provided by the selected security policy modules and control of the MAC access rules is in the hands of the system administrator. It is the duty of the system administrator to carefully select the correct security policy modules. For an environment that needs to limit access control over the network, the &man.mac.portacl.4;, &man.mac.ifoff.4;, and &man.mac.biba.4; policy modules make good starting points. For an environment where strict confidentiality of file system objects is required, consider the &man.mac.bsdextended.4; and &man.mac.mls.4; policy modules. Policy decisions could be made based on network configuration. If only certain users should be permitted access to &man.ssh.1;, the &man.mac.portacl.4; policy module is a good choice. In the case of file systems, access to objects might be considered confidential to some users, but not to others. As an example, a large development team might be broken off into smaller projects where developers in project A might not be permitted to access objects written by developers in project B. Yet both projects might need to access objects created by developers in project C. Using the different security policy modules provided by the MAC framework, users could be divided into these groups and then given access to the appropriate objects. Each security policy module has a unique way of dealing with the overall security of a system. Module selection should be based on a well thought out security policy which may require revision and reimplementation. Understanding the different security policy modules offered by the MAC framework will help administrators choose the best policies for their situations. The rest of this chapter covers the available modules, describes their use and configuration, and in some cases, provides insight on applicable situations. Implementing MAC is much like implementing a firewall since care must be taken to prevent being completely locked out of the system. The ability to revert back to a previous configuration should be considered and the implementation of MAC over a remote connection should be done with extreme caution. Available MAC Policies Beginning with &os; 8.0, the default &os; kernel includes options MAC. This means that every module included with the MAC framework can be loaded with kldload as a run-time kernel module. After testing the module, add the module name to /boot/loader.conf so that it will load during boot. Each module also provides a kernel option for those administrators who choose to compile their own custom kernel. &os; includes a group of policies that will cover most security requirements. Each policy is summarized below. The last three policies support integer settings in place of the three default labels. The MAC See Other UIDs Policy MAC See Other UIDs Policy Module name: mac_seeotheruids.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_SEEOTHERUIDS Boot option: mac_seeotheruids_load="YES" The &man.mac.seeotheruids.4; module extends the security.bsd.see_other_uids and security.bsd.see_other_gids sysctl tunables. This option does not require any labels to be set before configuration and can operate transparently with other modules. After loading the module, the following sysctl tunables may be used to control its features: security.mac.seeotheruids.enabled enables the module and implements the default settings which deny users the ability to view processes and sockets owned by other users. security.mac.seeotheruids.specificgid_enabled allows specified groups to be exempt from this policy. To exempt specific groups, use the security.mac.seeotheruids.specificgid=XXX sysctl tunable, replacing XXX with the numeric group ID to be exempted. security.mac.seeotheruids.primarygroup_enabled is used to exempt specific primary groups from this policy. When using this tunable, security.mac.seeotheruids.specificgid_enabled may not be set. The MAC BSD Extended Policy MAC File System Firewall Policy Module name: mac_bsdextended.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_BSDEXTENDED Boot option: mac_bsdextended_load="YES" The &man.mac.bsdextended.4; module enforces a file system firewall. It provides an extension to the standard file system permissions model, permitting an administrator to create a firewall-like ruleset to protect files, utilities, and directories in the file system hierarchy. When access to a file system object is attempted, the list of rules is iterated until either a matching rule is located or the end is reached. This behavior may be changed using security.mac.bsdextended.firstmatch_enabled. Similar to other firewall modules in &os;, a file containing the access control rules can be created and read by the system at boot time using an &man.rc.conf.5; variable. The rule list may be entered using &man.ugidfw.8; which has a syntax similar to &man.ipfw.8;. More tools can be written by using the functions in the &man.libugidfw.3; library. After the &man.mac.bsdextended.4; module has been loaded, the following command may be used to list the current rule configuration: &prompt.root; ugidfw list 0 slots, 0 rules By default, no rules are defined and everything is completely accessible. To create a rule which blocks all access by users but leaves root unaffected: &prompt.root; ugidfw add subject not uid root new object not uid root mode n While this rule is simple to implement, it is a very bad idea as it blocks all users from issuing any commands. A more realistic example blocks user1 all access, including directory listings, to user2's home directory: &prompt.root; ugidfw set 2 subject uid user1 object uid user2 mode n &prompt.root; ugidfw set 3 subject uid user1 object gid user2 mode n Instead of user1, could be used in order to enforce the same access restrictions for all users. However, the root user is unaffected by these rules. Extreme caution should be taken when working with this module as incorrect use could block access to certain parts of the file system. The MAC Interface Silencing Policy MAC Interface Silencing Policy Module name: mac_ifoff.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_IFOFF Boot option: mac_ifoff_load="YES" The &man.mac.ifoff.4; module is used to disable network interfaces on the fly and to keep network interfaces from being brought up during system boot. It does not use labels and does not depend on any other MAC modules. Most of this module's control is performed through these sysctl tunables: security.mac.ifoff.lo_enabled enables or disables all traffic on the loopback, &man.lo.4;, interface. security.mac.ifoff.bpfrecv_enabled enables or disables all traffic on the Berkeley Packet Filter interface, &man.bpf.4;. security.mac.ifoff.other_enabled enables or disables traffic on all other interfaces. One of the most common uses of &man.mac.ifoff.4; is network monitoring in an environment where network traffic should not be permitted during the boot sequence. Another use would be to write a script which uses an application such as security/aide to automatically block network traffic if it finds new or altered files in protected directories. The MAC Port Access Control List Policy MAC Port Access Control List Policy Module name: mac_portacl.ko Kernel configuration line: MAC_PORTACL Boot option: mac_portacl_load="YES" The &man.mac.portacl.4; module is used to limit binding to local TCP and UDP ports, making it possible to allow non-root users to bind to specified privileged ports below 1024. Once loaded, this module enables the MAC policy on all sockets. The following tunables are available: security.mac.portacl.enabled enables or disables the policy completely. security.mac.portacl.port_high sets the highest port number that &man.mac.portacl.4; protects. security.mac.portacl.suser_exempt, when set to a non-zero value, exempts the root user from this policy. security.mac.portacl.rules specifies the policy as a text string of the form rule[,rule,...], with as many rules as needed, and where each rule is of the form idtype:id:protocol:port. The idtype is either uid or gid. The protocol parameter can be tcp or udp. The port parameter is the port number to allow the specified user or group to bind to. Only numeric values can be used for the user ID, group ID, and port parameters. By default, ports below 1024 can only be used by privileged processes which run as root. For &man.mac.portacl.4; to allow non-privileged processes to bind to ports below 1024, set the following tunables as follows: &prompt.root; sysctl security.mac.portacl.port_high=1023 &prompt.root; sysctl net.inet.ip.portrange.reservedlow=0 &prompt.root; sysctl net.inet.ip.portrange.reservedhigh=0 To prevent the root user from being affected by this policy, set security.mac.portacl.suser_exempt to a non-zero value. &prompt.root; sysctl security.mac.portacl.suser_exempt=1 To allow the www user with UID 80 to bind to port 80 without ever needing root privilege: &prompt.root; sysctl security.mac.portacl.rules=uid:80:tcp:80 This next example permits the user with the UID of 1001 to bind to TCP ports 110 (POP3) and 995 (POP3s): &prompt.root; sysctl security.mac.portacl.rules=uid:1001:tcp:110,uid:1001:tcp:995 The MAC Partition Policy MAC Process Partition Policy Module name: mac_partition.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_PARTITION Boot option: mac_partition_load="YES" The &man.mac.partition.4; policy drops processes into specific partitions based on their MAC label. Most configuration for this policy is done using &man.setpmac.8;. One sysctl tunable is available for this policy: security.mac.partition.enabled enables the enforcement of MAC process partitions. When this policy is enabled, users will only be permitted to see their processes, and any others within their partition, but will not be permitted to work with utilities outside the scope of this partition. For instance, a user in the insecure class will not be permitted to access top as well as many other commands that must spawn a process. This example adds top to the label set on users in the insecure class. All processes spawned by users in the insecure class will stay in the partition/13 label. &prompt.root; setpmac partition/13 top This command displays the partition label and the process list: &prompt.root; ps Zax This command displays another user's process partition label and that user's currently running processes: &prompt.root; ps -ZU trhodes Users can see processes in root's label unless the &man.mac.seeotheruids.4; policy is loaded. The MAC Multi-Level Security Module MAC Multi-Level Security Policy Module name: mac_mls.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_MLS Boot option: mac_mls_load="YES" The &man.mac.mls.4; policy controls access between subjects and objects in the system by enforcing a strict information flow policy. In MLS environments, a clearance level is set in the label of each subject or object, along with compartments. Since these clearance levels can reach numbers greater than several thousand, it would be a daunting task to thoroughly configure every subject or object. To ease this administrative overhead, three labels are included in this policy: mls/low, mls/equal, and mls/high, where: Anything labeled with mls/low will have a low clearance level and not be permitted to access information of a higher level. This label also prevents objects of a higher clearance level from writing or passing information to a lower level. mls/equal should be placed on objects which should be exempt from the policy. mls/high is the highest level of clearance possible. Objects assigned this label will hold dominance over all other objects in the system; however, they will not permit the leaking of information to objects of a lower class. MLS provides: A hierarchical security level with a set of non-hierarchical categories. Fixed rules of no read up, no write down. This means that a subject can have read access to objects on its own level or below, but not above. Similarly, a subject can have write access to objects on its own level or above, but not beneath. Secrecy, or the prevention of inappropriate disclosure of data. A basis for the design of systems that concurrently handle data at multiple sensitivity levels without leaking information between secret and confidential. The following sysctl tunables are available: security.mac.mls.enabled is used to enable or disable the MLS policy. security.mac.mls.ptys_equal labels all &man.pty.4; devices as mls/equal during creation. security.mac.mls.revocation_enabled revokes access to objects after their label changes to a label of a lower grade. security.mac.mls.max_compartments sets the maximum number of compartment levels allowed on a system. To manipulate MLS labels, use &man.setfmac.8;. To assign a label to an object: &prompt.root; setfmac mls/5 test To get the MLS label for the file test: &prompt.root; getfmac test Another approach is to create a master policy file in /etc/ which specifies the MLS policy information and to feed that file to setfmac. When using the MLS policy module, an administrator plans to control the flow of sensitive information. The default block read up block write down sets everything to a low state. Everything is accessible and an administrator slowly augments the confidentiality of the information. Beyond the three basic label options, an administrator may group users and groups as required to block the information flow between them. It might be easier to look at the information in clearance levels using descriptive words, such as classifications of Confidential, Secret, and Top Secret. Some administrators instead create different groups based on project levels. Regardless of the classification method, a well thought out plan must exist before implementing a restrictive policy. Some example situations for the MLS policy module include an e-commerce web server, a file server holding critical company information, and financial institution environments. The MAC Biba Module MAC Biba Integrity Policy Module name: mac_biba.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_BIBA Boot option: mac_biba_load="YES" The &man.mac.biba.4; module loads the MAC Biba policy. This policy is similar to the MLS policy with the exception that the rules for information flow are slightly reversed. This is to prevent the downward flow of sensitive information whereas the MLS policy prevents the upward flow of sensitive information. In Biba environments, an integrity label is set on each subject or object. These labels are made up of hierarchical grades and non-hierarchical components. As a grade ascends, so does its integrity. Supported labels are biba/low, biba/equal, and biba/high, where: biba/low is considered the lowest integrity an object or subject may have. Setting this on objects or subjects blocks their write access to objects or subjects marked as biba/high, but will not prevent read access. biba/equal should only be placed on objects considered to be exempt from the policy. biba/high permits writing to objects set at a lower label, but does not permit reading that object. It is recommended that this label be placed on objects that affect the integrity of the entire system. Biba provides: Hierarchical integrity levels with a set of non-hierarchical integrity categories. Fixed rules are no write up, no read down, the opposite of MLS. A subject can have write access to objects on its own level or below, but not above. Similarly, a subject can have read access to objects on its own level or above, but not below. Integrity by preventing inappropriate modification of data. Integrity levels instead of MLS sensitivity levels. The following tunables can be used to manipulate the Biba policy: security.mac.biba.enabled is used to enable or disable enforcement of the Biba policy on the target machine. security.mac.biba.ptys_equal is used to disable the Biba policy on &man.pty.4; devices. security.mac.biba.revocation_enabled forces the revocation of access to objects if the label is changed to dominate the subject. To access the Biba policy setting on system objects, use setfmac and getfmac: &prompt.root; setfmac biba/low test &prompt.root; getfmac test test: biba/low Integrity, which is different from sensitivity, is used to guarantee that information is not manipulated by untrusted parties. This includes information passed between subjects and objects. It ensures that users will only be able to modify or access information they have been given explicit access to. The &man.mac.biba.4; security policy module permits an administrator to configure which files and programs a user may see and invoke while assuring that the programs and files are trusted by the system for that user. During the initial planning phase, an administrator must be prepared to partition users into grades, levels, and areas. The system will default to a high label once this policy module is enabled, and it is up to the administrator to configure the different grades and levels for users. Instead of using clearance levels, a good planning method could include topics. For instance, only allow developers modification access to the source code repository, source code compiler, and other development utilities. Other users would be grouped into other categories such as testers, designers, or end users and would only be permitted read access. A lower integrity subject is unable to write to a higher integrity subject and a higher integrity subject cannot list or read a lower integrity object. Setting a label at the lowest possible grade could make it inaccessible to subjects. Some prospective environments for this security policy module would include a constrained web server, a development and test machine, and a source code repository. A less useful implementation would be a personal workstation, a machine used as a router, or a network firewall. The MAC Low-watermark Module MAC LOMAC Module name: mac_lomac.ko Kernel configuration line: options MAC_LOMAC Boot option: mac_lomac_load="YES" Unlike the MAC Biba policy, the &man.mac.lomac.4; policy permits access to lower integrity objects only after decreasing the integrity level to not disrupt any integrity rules. The Low-watermark integrity policy works almost identically to Biba, with the exception of using floating labels to support subject demotion via an auxiliary grade compartment. This secondary compartment takes the form [auxgrade]. When assigning a policy with an auxiliary grade, use the syntax lomac/10[2], where 2 is the auxiliary grade. This policy relies on the ubiquitous labeling of all system objects with integrity labels, permitting subjects to read from low integrity objects and then downgrading the label on the subject to prevent future writes to high integrity objects using [auxgrade]. The policy may provide greater compatibility and require less initial configuration than Biba. Like the Biba and MLS policies, setfmac and setpmac are used to place labels on system objects: &prompt.root; setfmac /usr/home/trhodes lomac/high[low] &prompt.root; getfmac /usr/home/trhodes lomac/high[low] The auxiliary grade low is a feature provided only by the MAC LOMAC policy. User Lock Down This example considers a relatively small storage system with fewer than fifty users. Users will have login capabilities and are permitted to store data and access resources. For this scenario, the &man.mac.bsdextended.4; and &man.mac.seeotheruids.4; policy modules could co-exist and block access to system objects while hiding user processes. Begin by adding the following line to /boot/loader.conf: mac_seeotheruids_load="YES" The &man.mac.bsdextended.4; security policy module may be activated by adding this line to /etc/rc.conf: ugidfw_enable="YES" Default rules stored in /etc/rc.bsdextended will be loaded at system initialization. However, the default entries may need modification. Since this machine is expected only to service users, everything may be left commented out except the last two lines in order to force the loading of user owned system objects by default. Add the required users to this machine and reboot. For testing purposes, try logging in as a different user across two consoles. Run ps aux to see if processes of other users are visible. Verify that running &man.ls.1; on another user's home directory fails. Do not try to test with the root user unless the specific sysctls have been modified to block super user access. When a new user is added, their &man.mac.bsdextended.4; rule will not be in the ruleset list. To update the ruleset quickly, unload the security policy module and reload it again using &man.kldunload.8; and &man.kldload.8;. Nagios in a MAC Jail Nagios in a MAC Jail This section demonstrates the steps that are needed to implement the Nagios network monitoring system in a MAC environment. This is meant as an example which still requires the administrator to test that the implemented policy meets the security requirements of the network before using in a production environment. This example requires to be set on each file system. It also assumes that net-mgmt/nagios-plugins, net-mgmt/nagios, and www/apache22 are all installed, configured, and working correctly before attempting the integration into the MAC framework. Create an Insecure User Class Begin the procedure by adding the following user class to /etc/login.conf: insecure:\ :copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\ :welcome=/etc/motd:\ :setenv=MAIL=/var/mail/$,BLOCKSIZE=K:\ :path=~/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin :manpath=/usr/share/man /usr/local/man:\ :nologin=/usr/sbin/nologin:\ :cputime=1h30m:\ :datasize=8M:\ :vmemoryuse=100M:\ :stacksize=2M:\ :memorylocked=4M:\ :memoryuse=8M:\ :filesize=8M:\ :coredumpsize=8M:\ :openfiles=24:\ :maxproc=32:\ :priority=0:\ :requirehome:\ :passwordtime=91d:\ :umask=022:\ :ignoretime@:\ :label=biba/10(10-10): Then, add the following line to the default user class section: :label=biba/high: Save the edits and issue the following command to rebuild the database: &prompt.root; cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf Configure Users Set the root user to the default class using: &prompt.root; pw usermod root -L default All user accounts that are not root will now require a login class. The login class is required, otherwise users will be refused access to common commands. The following sh script should do the trick: &prompt.root; for x in `awk -F: '($3 >= 1001) && ($3 != 65534) { print $1 }' \ /etc/passwd`; do pw usermod $x -L default; done; Next, drop the nagios and www accounts into the insecure class: &prompt.root; pw usermod nagios -L insecure &prompt.root; pw usermod www -L insecure Create the Contexts File A contexts file should now be created as /etc/policy.contexts: # This is the default BIBA policy for this system. # System: /var/run(/.*)? biba/equal /dev/(/.*)? biba/equal /var biba/equal /var/spool(/.*)? biba/equal /var/log(/.*)? biba/equal /tmp(/.*)? biba/equal /var/tmp(/.*)? biba/equal /var/spool/mqueue biba/equal /var/spool/clientmqueue biba/equal # For Nagios: /usr/local/etc/nagios(/.*)? biba/10 /var/spool/nagios(/.*)? biba/10 # For apache /usr/local/etc/apache(/.*)? biba/10 This policy enforces security by setting restrictions on the flow of information. In this specific configuration, users, including root, should never be allowed to access Nagios. Configuration files and processes that are a part of Nagios will be completely self contained or jailed. This file will be read after running setfsmac on every file system. This example sets the policy on the root file system: &prompt.root; setfsmac -ef /etc/policy.contexts / Next, add these edits to the main section of /etc/mac.conf: default_labels file ?biba default_labels ifnet ?biba default_labels process ?biba default_labels socket ?biba Loader Configuration To finish the configuration, add the following lines to /boot/loader.conf: mac_biba_load="YES" mac_seeotheruids_load="YES" security.mac.biba.trust_all_interfaces=1 And the following line to the network card configuration stored in /etc/rc.conf. If the primary network configuration is done via DHCP, this may need to be configured manually after every system boot: maclabel biba/equal Testing the Configuration MAC Configuration Testing First, ensure that the web server and Nagios will not be started on system initialization and reboot. Ensure that root cannot access any of the files in the Nagios configuration directory. If root can list the contents of /var/spool/nagios, something is wrong. Instead, a permission denied error should be returned. If all seems well, Nagios, Apache, and Sendmail can now be started: &prompt.root; cd /etc/mail && make stop && \ setpmac biba/equal make start && setpmac biba/10\(10-10\) apachectl start && \ setpmac biba/10\(10-10\) /usr/local/etc/rc.d/nagios.sh forcestart Double check to ensure that everything is working properly. If not, check the log files for error messages. If needed, use &man.sysctl.8; to disable the &man.mac.biba.4; security policy module and try starting everything again as usual. The root user can still change the security enforcement and edit its configuration files. The following command will permit the degradation of the security policy to a lower grade for a newly spawned shell: &prompt.root; setpmac biba/10 csh To block this from happening, force the user into a range using &man.login.conf.5;. If &man.setpmac.8; attempts to run a command outside of the compartment's range, an error will be returned and the command will not be executed. In this case, set root to biba/high(high-high). Troubleshooting the MAC Framework MAC Troubleshooting This section discusses common configuration errors and how to resolve them. The flag does not stay enabled on the root (/) partition: The following steps may resolve this transient error: Edit /etc/fstab and set the root partition to for read-only. Reboot into single user mode. Run tunefs on /. Reboot the system. Run mount / and change the back to in /etc/fstab and reboot the system again. Double-check the output from mount to ensure that has been properly set on the root file system. After establishing a secure environment with MAC, Xorg no longer starts: This could be caused by the MAC partition policy or by a mislabeling in one of the MAC labeling policies. To debug, try the following: Check the error message. If the user is in the insecure class, the partition policy may be the culprit. Try setting the user's class back to the default class and rebuild the database with cap_mkdb. If this does not alleviate the problem, go to step two. Double-check that the label policies are set correctly for the user, Xorg, and the /dev entries. If neither of these resolve the problem, send the error message and a description of the environment to the &a.questions;. The _secure_path: unable to stat .login_conf error appears: This error can appear when a user attempts to switch from the root user to another user in the system. This message usually occurs when the user has a higher label setting than that of the user they are attempting to become. For instance, if joe has a default label of and root has a label of , root cannot view joe's home directory. This will happen whether or not root has used su to become joe as the Biba integrity model will not permit root to view objects set at a lower integrity level. The system no longer recognizes root: When this occurs, whoami returns 0 and su returns who are you?. This can happen if a labeling policy has been disabled by &man.sysctl.8; or the policy module was unloaded. If the policy is disabled, the login capabilities database needs to be reconfigured. Double check /etc/login.conf to ensure that all options have been removed and rebuild the database with cap_mkdb. This may also happen if a policy restricts access to master.passwd. This is usually caused by an administrator altering the file under a label which conflicts with the general policy being used by the system. In these cases, the user information would be read by the system and access would be blocked as the file has inherited the new label. Disable the policy using &man.sysctl.8; and everything should return to normal. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1912 +1,1913 @@ - - + Electronic Mail BillLloydOriginal work by JimMockRewritten by Synopsis email Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. This chapter provides a basic introduction to running a mail server on &os;, as well as an introduction to sending and receiving email using &os;. For more complete coverage of this subject, refer to the books listed in . After reading this chapter, you will know: Which software components are involved in sending and receiving electronic mail. Where basic sendmail configuration files are located in &os;. The difference between remote and local mailboxes. How to block spammers from illegally using a mail server as a relay. How to install and configure an alternate Mail Transfer Agent, replacing sendmail. How to troubleshoot common mail server problems. How to set up the system to send mail only. How to use mail with a dialup connection. How to configure SMTP authentication for added security. How to install and use a Mail User Agent, such as mutt, to send and receive email. How to download mail from a remote POP or IMAP server. How to automatically apply filters and rules to incoming email. Before reading this chapter, you should: Properly set up a network connection (). Properly set up the DNS information for a mail host (). Know how to install additional third-party software (). Mail Components POP IMAP DNS mail server daemons Sendmail mail server daemons Postfix mail server daemons qmail mail server daemons Exim email receiving MX record mail host There are five major parts involved in an email exchange: the Mail User Agent (MUA), the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA), a mail host, a remote or local mailbox, and DNS. This section provides an overview of these components. Mail User Agent (MUA) The Mail User Agent (MUA) is an application which is used to compose, send, and receive emails. This application can be a command line program, such as the built-in mail utility or a third-party application from the Ports Collection, such as mutt, alpine, or elm. Dozens of graphical programs are also available in the Ports Collection, including Claws Mail, Evolution, and Thunderbird. Some organizations provide a web mail program which can be accessed through a web browser. More information about installing and using a MUA on &os; can be found in . Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) The Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) is responsible for receiving incoming mail and delivering outgoing mail. &os; ships with Sendmail as the default MTA, but it also supports numerous other mail server daemons, including Exim, Postfix, and qmail. Sendmail configuration is described in . If another MTA is installed using the Ports Collection, refer to its post-installation message for &os;-specific configuration details and the application's website for more general configuration instructions. Mail Host and Mailboxes The mail host is a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for a host or a network. The mail host collects all mail sent to the domain and stores it either in the default mbox or the alternative Maildir format, depending on the configuration. Once mail has been stored, it may either be read locally using a MUA or remotely accessed and collected using protocols such as POP or IMAP. If mail is read locally, a POP or IMAP server does not need to be installed. To access mailboxes remotely, a POP or IMAP server is required as these protocols allow users to connect to their mailboxes from remote locations. IMAP offers several advantages over POP. These include the ability to store a copy of messages on a remote server after they are downloaded and concurrent updates. IMAP can be useful over low-speed links as it allows users to fetch the structure of messages without downloading them. It can also perform tasks such as searching on the server in order to minimize data transfer between clients and servers. Several POP and IMAP servers are available in the Ports Collection. These include mail/qpopper, mail/imap-uw, mail/courier-imap, and mail/dovecot2. It should be noted that both POP and IMAP transmit information, including username and password credentials, in clear-text. To secure the transmission of information across these protocols, consider tunneling sessions over &man.ssh.1; () or using SSL (). Domain Name System (DNS) The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from one site to another, the MTA will look up the remote site in DNS to determine which host will receive mail for the destination. This process also occurs when mail is sent from a remote host to the MTA. In addition to mapping hostnames to IP addresses, DNS is responsible for storing information specific to mail delivery, known as Mail eXchanger MX records. The MX record specifies which hosts will receive mail for a particular domain. To view the MX records for a domain, specify the type of record. Refer to &man.host.1;, for more details about this command: &prompt.user; host -t mx FreeBSD.org FreeBSD.org mail is handled by 10 mx1.FreeBSD.org Refer to for more information about DNS and its configuration. <application>Sendmail</application> Configuration Files ChristopherShumwayContributed by Sendmail Sendmail is the default MTA installed with &os;. It accepts mail from MUAs and delivers it to the appropriate mail host, as defined by its configuration. Sendmail can also accept network connections and deliver mail to local mailboxes or to another program. The configuration files for Sendmail are located in /etc/mail. This section describes these files in more detail. /etc/mail/access /etc/mail/aliases /etc/mail/local-host-names /etc/mail/mailer.conf /etc/mail/mailertable /etc/mail/sendmail.cf /etc/mail/virtusertable /etc/mail/access This access database file defines which hosts or IP addresses have access to the local mail server and what kind of access they have. Hosts listed as , which is the default option, are allowed to send mail to this host as long as the mail's final destination is the local machine. Hosts listed as are rejected for all mail connections. Hosts listed as are allowed to send mail for any destination using this mail server. Hosts listed as will have their mail returned with the specified mail error. If a host is listed as , Sendmail will abort the current search for this entry without accepting or rejecting the mail. Hosts listed as will have their messages held and will receive the specified text as the reason for the hold. Examples of using these options for both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses can be found in the &os; sample configuration, /etc/mail/access.sample: # $FreeBSD$ # # Mail relay access control list. Default is to reject mail unless the # destination is local, or listed in /etc/mail/local-host-names # ## Examples (commented out for safety) #From:cyberspammer.com ERROR:"550 We don't accept mail from spammers" #From:okay.cyberspammer.com OK #Connect:sendmail.org RELAY #To:sendmail.org RELAY #Connect:128.32 RELAY #Connect:128.32.2 SKIP #Connect:IPv6:1:2:3:4:5:6:7 RELAY #Connect:suspicious.example.com QUARANTINE:Mail from suspicious host #Connect:[127.0.0.3] OK #Connect:[IPv6:1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8] OK To configure the access database, use the format shown in the sample to make entries in /etc/mail/access, but do not put a comment symbol (#) in front of the entries. Create an entry for each host or network whose access should be configured. Mail senders that match the left side of the table are affected by the action on the right side of the table. Whenever this file is updated, update its database and restart Sendmail: &prompt.root; makemap hash /etc/mail/access < /etc/mail/access &prompt.root; service sendmail restart /etc/mail/aliases This database file contains a list of virtual mailboxes that are expanded to users, files, programs, or other aliases. Here are a few entries to illustrate the file format: root: localuser ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul bit.bucket: /dev/null procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail" The mailbox name on the left side of the colon is expanded to the target(s) on the right. The first entry expands the root mailbox to the localuser mailbox, which is then looked up in the /etc/mail/aliases database. If no match is found, the message is delivered to localuser. The second entry shows a mail list. Mail to ftp-bugs is expanded to the three local mailboxes joe, eric, and paul. A remote mailbox could be specified as user@example.com. The third entry shows how to write mail to a file, in this case /dev/null. The last entry demonstrates how to send mail to a program, /usr/local/bin/procmail, through a &unix; pipe. Refer to &man.aliases.5; for more information about the format of this file. Whenever this file is updated, run newaliases to update and initialize the aliases database. /etc/mail/sendmail.cf This is the master configuration file for Sendmail. It controls the overall behavior of Sendmail, including everything from rewriting email addresses to printing rejection messages to remote mail servers. Accordingly, this configuration file is quite complex. Fortunately, this file rarely needs to be changed for standard mail servers. The master Sendmail configuration file can be built from &man.m4.1; macros that define the features and behavior of Sendmail. Refer to /usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README for some of the details. Whenever changes to this file are made, Sendmail needs to be restarted for the changes to take effect. /etc/mail/virtusertable This database file maps mail addresses for virtual domains and users to real mailboxes. These mailboxes can be local, remote, aliases defined in /etc/mail/aliases, or files. This allows multiple virtual domains to be hosted on one machine. &os; provides a sample configuration file in /etc/mail/virtusertable.sample to further demonstrate its format. The following example demonstrates how to create custom entries using that format: root@example.com root postmaster@example.com postmaster@noc.example.net @example.com joe This file is processed in a first match order. When an email address matches the address on the left, it is mapped to the local mailbox listed on the right. The format of the first entry in this example maps a specific email address to a local mailbox, whereas the format of the second entry maps a specific email address to a remote mailbox. Finally, any email address from example.com which has not matched any of the previous entries will match the last mapping and be sent to the local mailbox joe. When creating custom entries, use this format and add them to /etc/mail/virtusertable. Whenever this file is edited, update its database and restart Sendmail: &prompt.root; makemap hash /etc/mail/virtusertable < /etc/mail/virtusertable &prompt.root; service sendmail restart /etc/mail/relay-domains In a default &os; installation, Sendmail is configured to only send mail from the host it is running on. For example, if a POP server is available, users will be able to check mail from remote locations but they will not be able to send outgoing emails from outside locations. Typically, a few moments after the attempt, an email will be sent from MAILER-DAEMON with a 5.7 Relaying Denied message. The most straightforward solution is to add the ISP's FQDN to /etc/mail/relay-domains. If multiple addresses are needed, add them one per line: your.isp.example.com other.isp.example.net users-isp.example.org www.example.org After creating or editing this file, restart Sendmail with service sendmail restart. Now any mail sent through the system by any host in this list, provided the user has an account on the system, will succeed. This allows users to send mail from the system remotely without opening the system up to relaying SPAM from the Internet. Changing the Mail Transfer Agent AndrewBoothmanWritten by GregoryNeil ShapiroInformation taken from emails written by email change mta &os; comes with Sendmail already installed as the MTA which is in charge of outgoing and incoming mail. However, the system administrator can change the system's MTA. A wide choice of alternative MTAs is available from the mail category of the &os; Ports Collection. Once a new MTA is installed, configure and test the new software before replacing Sendmail. Refer to the documentation of the new MTA for information on how to configure the software. Once the new MTA is working, use the instructions in this section to disable Sendmail and configure &os; to use the replacement MTA. Disable <application>Sendmail</application> If Sendmail's outgoing mail service is disabled, it is important that it is replaced with an alternative mail delivery system. Otherwise, system functions such as &man.periodic.8; will be unable to deliver their results by email. Many parts of the system expect a functional MTA. If applications continue to use Sendmail's binaries to try to send email after they are disabled, mail could go into an inactive Sendmail queue and never be delivered. In order to completely disable Sendmail, add or edit the following lines in /etc/rc.conf: sendmail_enable="NO" sendmail_submit_enable="NO" sendmail_outbound_enable="NO" sendmail_msp_queue_enable="NO" To only disable Sendmail's incoming mail service, use only this entry in /etc/rc.conf: sendmail_enable="NO" More information on Sendmail's startup options is available in &man.rc.sendmail.8;. Replace the Default <acronym>MTA</acronym> When a new MTA is installed using the Ports Collection, its startup script is also installed and startup instructions are mentioned in its package message. Before starting the new MTA, stop the running Sendmail processes. This example stops all of these services, then starts the Postfix service: &prompt.root; service sendmail stop &prompt.root; service postfix start To start the replacement MTA at system boot, add its configuration line to /etc/rc.conf. This entry enables the Postfix MTA: postfix_enable="YES" Some extra configuration is needed as Sendmail is so ubiquitous that some software assumes it is already installed and configured. Check /etc/periodic.conf and make sure that these values are set to NO. If this file does not exist, create it with these entries: daily_clean_hoststat_enable="NO" daily_status_mail_rejects_enable="NO" daily_status_include_submit_mailq="NO" daily_submit_queuerun="NO" Some alternative MTAs provide their own compatible implementations of the Sendmail command-line interface in order to facilitate using them as drop-in replacements for Sendmail. However, some MUAs may try to execute standard Sendmail binaries instead of the new MTA's binaries. &os; uses /etc/mail/mailer.conf to map the expected Sendmail binaries to the location of the new binaries. More information about this mapping can be found in &man.mailwrapper.8;. The default /etc/mail/mailer.conf looks like this: # $FreeBSD$ # # Execute the "real" sendmail program, named /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail # sendmail /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail send-mail /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail mailq /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail newaliases /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail hoststat /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail purgestat /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail When any of the commands listed on the left are run, the system actually executes the associated command shown on the right. This system makes it easy to change what binaries are executed when these default binaries are invoked. Some MTAs, when installed using the Ports Collection, will prompt to update this file for the new binaries. For example, Postfix will update the file like this: # # Execute the Postfix sendmail program, named /usr/local/sbin/sendmail # sendmail /usr/local/sbin/sendmail send-mail /usr/local/sbin/sendmail mailq /usr/local/sbin/sendmail newaliases /usr/local/sbin/sendmail If the installation of the MTA does not automatically update /etc/mail/mailer.conf, edit this file in a text editor so that it points to the new binaries. This example points to the binaries installed by mail/ssmtp: sendmail /usr/local/sbin/ssmtp send-mail /usr/local/sbin/ssmtp mailq /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail newaliases /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail hoststat /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail purgestat /usr/libexec/sendmail/sendmail Once everything is configured, it is recommended to reboot the system. Rebooting provides the opportunity to ensure that the system is correctly configured to start the new MTA automatically on boot. Troubleshooting email troubleshooting Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? The host may actually be in a different domain. For example, in order for a host in foo.bar.edu to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, refer to it by the Fully-Qualified Domain Name FQDN, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. This is because the version of BIND BIND which ships with &os; no longer provides default abbreviations for non-FQDNs other than the local domain. An unqualified host such as mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. In older versions of BIND, the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. RFC 1535 details why this is considered bad practice or even a security hole. As a good workaround, place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. How can I run a mail server on a dial-up PPP host? Connect to a &os; mail gateway on the LAN. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. One way to do this is to get a full-time Internet server to provide secondary MX MX record services for the domain. In this example, the domain is example.com and the ISP has configured example.net to provide secondary MX services to the domain: example.com. MX 10 example.com. MX 20 example.net. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient. For Sendmail, add Cw example.com in /etc/mail/sendmail.cf on example.com. When the sending MTA attempts to deliver mail, it will try to connect to the system, example.com, over the PPP link. This will time out if the destination is offline. The MTA will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site at the Internet Service Provider (ISP), example.net. The secondary MX site will periodically try to connect to the primary MX host, example.com. Use something like this as a login script: #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppmyisp ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppmyisp When creating a separate login script for users, instead use sendmail -qRexample.com in the script above. This will force all mail in the queue for example.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation can be seen from this example from the &a.isp;: > we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary MX. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine customer.com as well as hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for customer.com. Advanced Topics This section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for an entire domain. Basic Configuration email configuration Out of the box, one can send email to external hosts as long as /etc/resolv.conf is configured or the network has access to a configured DNS server. To have email delivered to the MTA on the &os; host, do one of the following: Run a DNS server for the domain. Get mail delivered directly to to the FQDN for the machine. SMTP In order to have mail delivered directly to a host, it must have a permanent static IP address, not a dynamic IP address. If the system is behind a firewall, it must be configured to allow SMTP traffic. To receive mail directly at a host, one of these two must be configured: Make sure that the lowest-numbered MXMX record record in DNS points to the host's static IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in the DNS for the host. Either of the above will allow mail to be received directly at the host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX In this example, mail sent directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems, assuming Sendmail is running correctly on example.FreeBSD.org. For this example: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to example.FreeBSD.org will be collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by the DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the MX entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that receives mail directly, if available. If it is not accessible for some reason, the next lower-numbered host will accept messages temporarily, and pass it along when a lower-numbered host becomes available. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections in order to be most useful. Your ISP can provide this service. Mail for a Domain When configuring a MTA for a network, any mail sent to hosts in its domain should be diverted to the MTA so that users can receive their mail on the master mail server. DNS To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both the MTA and the system with the MUA. Use &man.adduser.8; to create the user accounts. The MTA must be the designated mail exchanger for each workstation on the network. This is done in theDNS configuration with an MX record: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the MTA no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. This must be configured on a DNS server. If the network does not run its own DNS server, talk to the ISP or DNS provider. The following is an example of virtual email hosting. Consider a customer with the domain customer1.org, where all the mail for customer1.org should be sent to mail.myhost.com. The DNS entry should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com An A> record is not needed for customer1.org in order to only handle email for that domain. However, running ping against customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. Tell the MTA which domains and/or hostnames it should accept mail for. Either of the following will work for Sendmail: Add the hosts to /etc/mail/local-host-names when using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). For versions of Sendmail earlier than 8.10, edit /etc/sendmail.cw instead. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to /etc/sendmail.cf. For Sendmail 8.10 or higher, add that line to /etc/mail/sendmail.cf. Setting Up to Send Only BillMoranContributed by There are many instances where one may only want to send mail through a relay. Some examples are: The computer is a desktop machine that needs to use programs such as &man.send-pr.1;, using the ISP's mail relay. The computer is a server that does not handle mail locally, but needs to pass off all mail to a relay for processing. While any MTA is capable of filling this particular niche, it can be difficult to properly configure a full-featured MTA just to handle offloading mail. Programs such as Sendmail and Postfix are overkill for this use. Additionally, a typical Internet access service agreement may forbid one from running a mail server. The easiest way to fulfill those needs is to install the mail/ssmtp port: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/mail/ssmtp &prompt.root; make install replace clean Once installed, mail/ssmtp can be configured with /usr/local/etc/ssmtp/ssmtp.conf: root=yourrealemail@example.com mailhub=mail.example.com rewriteDomain=example.com hostname=_HOSTNAME_ Use the real email address for root. Enter the ISP's outgoing mail relay in place of mail.example.com. Some ISPs call this the outgoing mail server or SMTP server). Make sure to disable Sendmail, including the outgoing mail service. See for details. mail/ssmtp has some other options available. Refer to the examples in /usr/local/etc/ssmtp or the manual page of ssmtp for more information. Setting up ssmtp in this manner allows any software on the computer that needs to send mail to function properly, while not violating the ISP's usage policy or allowing the computer to be hijacked for spamming. Using Mail with a Dialup Connection When using a static IP address, one should not need to adjust the default configuration. Set the hostname to the assigned Internet name and Sendmail will do the rest. When using a dynamically assigned IP address and a dialup PPP connection to the Internet, one usually has a mailbox on the ISP's mail server. In this example, the ISP's domain is example.net, the user name is user, the hostname is bsd.home, and the ISP has allowed relay.example.net as a mail relay. In order to retrieve mail from the ISP's mailbox, install a retrieval agent from the Ports Collection. mail/fetchmail is a good choice as it supports many different protocols. Usually, the ISP will provide POP. When using user PPP, email can be automatically fetched when an Internet connection is established with the following entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup: MYADDR: !bg su user -c fetchmail When using Sendmail to deliver mail to non-local accounts, configure Sendmail to process the mail queue as soon as the Internet connection is established. To do this, add this line after the above fetchmail entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup: !bg su user -c "sendmail -q" In this example, there is an account for user on bsd.home. In the home directory of user on bsd.home, create a .fetchmailrc which contains this line: poll example.net protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecret This file should not be readable by anyone except user as it contains the password MySecret. In order to send mail with the correct from: header, configure Sendmail to use user@example.net rather than user@bsd.home and to send all mail via relay.example.net, allowing quicker mail transmission. The following .mc file should suffice: VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0') OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl FEATURE(nouucp)dnl MAILER(local)dnl MAILER(smtp)dnl Cwlocalhost Cwbsd.home MASQUERADE_AS(`example.net')dnl FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl FEATURE(nodns)dnl define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.example.net') Dmbsd.home define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnl Refer to the previous section for details of how to convert this file into the sendmail.cf format. Do not forget to restart Sendmail after updating sendmail.cf. SMTP Authentication JamesGorhamWritten by Configuring SMTP authentication on the MTA provides a number of benefits. SMTP authentication adds a layer of security to Sendmail, and provides mobile users who switch hosts the ability to use the same MTA without the need to reconfigure their mail client's settings each time. Install security/cyrus-sasl2 from the Ports Collection. This port supports a number of compile-time options. For the SMTP authentication method demonstrated in this example, make sure that is not disabled. After installing security/cyrus-sasl2, edit /usr/local/lib/sasl2/Sendmail.conf, or create it if it does not exist, and add the following line: pwcheck_method: saslauthd Next, install security/cyrus-sasl2-saslauthd and add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: saslauthd_enable="YES" Finally, start the saslauthd daemon: &prompt.root; service saslauthd start This daemon serves as a broker for sendmail to authenticate against the &os; &man.passwd.5; database. This saves the trouble of creating a new set of usernames and passwords for each user that needs to use SMTP authentication, and keeps the login and mail password the same. Next, edit /etc/make.conf and add the following lines: SENDMAIL_CFLAGS=-I/usr/local/include/sasl -DSASL SENDMAIL_LDFLAGS=-L/usr/local/lib SENDMAIL_LDADD=-lsasl2 These lines provide Sendmail the proper configuration options for linking to cyrus-sasl2 at compile time. Make sure that cyrus-sasl2 has been installed before recompiling Sendmail. Recompile Sendmail by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/libsmutil &prompt.root; make cleandir && make obj && make &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lib/libsm &prompt.root; make cleandir && make obj && make &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail &prompt.root; make cleandir && make obj && make && make install This compile should not have any problems if /usr/src has not changed extensively and the shared libraries it needs are available. After Sendmail has been compiled and reinstalled, edit /etc/mail/freebsd.mc or the local .mc file. Many administrators choose to use the output from &man.hostname.1; as the name of the .mc file for uniqueness. Add these lines: dnl set SASL options TRUST_AUTH_MECH(`GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl define(`confAUTH_MECHANISMS', `GSSAPI DIGEST-MD5 CRAM-MD5 LOGIN')dnl These options configure the different methods available to Sendmail for authenticating users. To use a method other than pwcheck, refer to the Sendmail documentation. Finally, run &man.make.1; while in /etc/mail. That will run the new .mc and create a .cf named either freebsd.cf or the name used for the local .mc. Then, run make install restart, which will copy the file to sendmail.cf, and properly restart Sendmail. For more information about this process, refer to /etc/mail/Makefile. To test the configuration, use a MUA to send a test message. For further investigation, set the of Sendmail to 13 and watch /var/log/maillog for any errors. For more information, refer to SMTP authentication. Mail User Agents MarcSilverContributed by Mail User Agents A MUA is an application that is used to send and receive email. As email evolves and becomes more complex, MUAs are becoming increasingly powerful and provide users increased functionality and flexibility. The mail category of the &os; Ports Collection contains numerous MUAs. These include graphical email clients such as Evolution or Balsa and console based clients such as mutt or alpine. <command>mail</command> &man.mail.1; is the default MUA installed with &os;. It is a console based MUA that offers the basic functionality required to send and receive text-based email. It provides limited attachment support and can only access local mailboxes. Although mail does not natively support interaction with POP or IMAP servers, these mailboxes may be downloaded to a local mbox using an application such as fetchmail. In order to send and receive email, run mail: &prompt.user; mail The contents of the user's mailbox in /var/mail are automatically read by mail. Should the mailbox be empty, the utility exits with a message indicating that no mail could be found. If mail exists, the application interface starts, and a list of messages will be displayed. Messages are automatically numbered, as can be seen in the following example: Mail version 8.1 6/6/93. Type ? for help. "/var/mail/marcs": 3 messages 3 new >N 1 root@localhost Mon Mar 8 14:05 14/510 "test" N 2 root@localhost Mon Mar 8 14:05 14/509 "user account" N 3 root@localhost Mon Mar 8 14:05 14/509 "sample" Messages can now be read by typing t followed by the message number. This example reads the first email: & t 1 Message 1: From root@localhost Mon Mar 8 14:05:52 2004 X-Original-To: marcs@localhost Delivered-To: marcs@localhost To: marcs@localhost Subject: test Date: Mon, 8 Mar 2004 14:05:52 +0200 (SAST) From: root@localhost (Charlie Root) This is a test message, please reply if you receive it. As seen in this example, the message will be displayed with full headers. To display the list of messages again, press h. If the email requires a reply, press either R or r mail keys. R instructs mail to reply only to the sender of the email, while r replies to all other recipients of the message. These commands can be suffixed with the mail number of the message to reply to. After typing the response, the end of the message should be marked by a single . on its own line. An example can be seen below: & R 1 To: root@localhost Subject: Re: test Thank you, I did get your email. . EOT In order to send a new email, press m, followed by the recipient email address. Multiple recipients may be specified by separating each address with the , delimiter. The subject of the message may then be entered, followed by the message contents. The end of the message should be specified by putting a single . on its own line. & mail root@localhost Subject: I mastered mail Now I can send and receive email using mail ... :) . EOT While using mail, press ? to display help at any time. Refer to &man.mail.1; for more help on how to use mail. &man.mail.1; was not designed to handle attachments and thus deals with them poorly. Newer MUAs handle attachments in a more intelligent way. Users who prefer to use mail may find the converters/mpack port to be of considerable use. <application>mutt</application> mutt is a powerful MUA, with many features, including: The ability to thread messages. PGP support for digital signing and encryption of email. MIME support. Maildir support. Highly customizable. Refer to http://www.mutt.org for more information on mutt. mutt may be installed using the mail/mutt port. After the port has been installed, mutt can be started by issuing the following command: &prompt.user; mutt mutt will automatically read and display the contents of the user mailbox in /var/mail. If no mails are found, mutt will wait for commands from the user. The example below shows mutt displaying a list of messages: To read an email, select it using the cursor keys and press Enter. An example of mutt displaying email can be seen below: Similar to &man.mail.1;, mutt can be used to reply only to the sender of the message as well as to all recipients. To reply only to the sender of the email, press r. To send a group reply to the original sender as well as all the message recipients, press g. By default, mutt uses the &man.vi.1; editor for creating and replying to emails. Each user can customize this by creating or editing the .muttrc in their home directory and setting the editor variable or by setting the EDITOR environment variable. Refer to http://www.mutt.org/ for more information about configuring mutt. To compose a new mail message, press m. After a valid subject has been given, mutt will start &man.vi.1; so the email can be written. Once the contents of the email are complete, save and quit from vi. mutt will resume, displaying a summary screen of the mail that is to be delivered. In order to send the mail, press y. An example of the summary screen can be seen below: mutt contains extensive help which can be accessed from most of the menus by pressing ?. The top line also displays the keyboard shortcuts where appropriate. <application>alpine</application> alpine is aimed at a beginner user, but also includes some advanced features. alpine has had several remote vulnerabilities discovered in the past, which allowed remote attackers to execute arbitrary code as users on the local system, by the action of sending a specially-prepared email. While known problems have been fixed, alpine code is written in an insecure style and the &os; Security Officer believes there are likely to be other undiscovered vulnerabilities. Users install alpine at their own risk. The current version of alpine may be installed using the mail/alpine port. Once the port has installed, alpine can be started by issuing the following command: &prompt.user; alpine The first time alpine runs, it displays a greeting page with a brief introduction, as well as a request from the alpine development team to send an anonymous email message allowing them to judge how many users are using their client. To send this anonymous message, press Enter. Alternatively, press E to exit the greeting without sending an anonymous message. An example of the greeting page is shown below: The main menu is then presented, which can be navigated using the cursor keys. This main menu provides shortcuts for the composing new mails, browsing mail directories, and administering address book entries. Below the main menu, relevant keyboard shortcuts to perform functions specific to the task at hand are shown. The default directory opened by alpine is inbox. To view the message index, press I, or select the MESSAGE INDEX option shown below: The message index shows messages in the current directory and can be navigated by using the cursor keys. Highlighted messages can be read by pressing Enter. In the screenshot below, a sample message is displayed by alpine. Contextual keyboard shortcuts are displayed at the bottom of the screen. An example of one of a shortcut is r, which tells the MUA to reply to the current message being displayed. Replying to an email in alpine is done using the pico editor, which is installed by default with alpine. pico makes it easy to navigate the message and is easier for novice users to use than &man.vi.1; or &man.mail.1;. Once the reply is complete, the message can be sent by pressing CtrlX . alpine will ask for confirmation before sending the message. alpine can be customized using the SETUP option from the main menu. Consult http://www.washington.edu/alpine/ for more information. Using <application>fetchmail</application> MarcSilverContributed by fetchmail fetchmail is a full-featured IMAP and POP client. It allows users to automatically download mail from remote IMAP and POP servers and save it into local mailboxes where it can be accessed more easily. fetchmail can be installed using the mail/fetchmail port, and offers various features, including: Support for the POP3, APOP, KPOP, IMAP, ETRN and ODMR protocols. Ability to forward mail using SMTP, which allows filtering, forwarding, and aliasing to function normally. May be run in daemon mode to check periodically for new messages. Can retrieve multiple mailboxes and forward them, based on configuration, to different local users. This section explains some of the basic features of fetchmail. This utility requires a .fetchmailrc configuration in the user's home directory in order to run correctly. This file includes server information as well as login credentials. Due to the sensitive nature of the contents of this file, it is advisable to make it readable only by the user, with the following command: &prompt.user; chmod 600 .fetchmailrc The following .fetchmailrc serves as an example for downloading a single user mailbox using POP. It tells fetchmail to connect to example.com using a username of joesoap and a password of XXX. This example assumes that the user joesoap exists on the local system. poll example.com protocol pop3 username "joesoap" password "XXX" The next example connects to multiple POP and IMAP servers and redirects to different local usernames where applicable: poll example.com proto pop3: user "joesoap", with password "XXX", is "jsoap" here; user "andrea", with password "XXXX"; poll example2.net proto imap: user "john", with password "XXXXX", is "myth" here; fetchmail can be run in daemon mode by running it with , followed by the interval (in seconds) that fetchmail should poll servers listed in .fetchmailrc. The following example configures fetchmail to poll every 600 seconds: &prompt.user; fetchmail -d 600 More information on fetchmail can be found at http://www.fetchmail.info/. Using <application>procmail</application> MarcSilverContributed by procmail procmail is a powerful application used to filter incoming mail. It allows users to define rules which can be matched to incoming mails to perform specific functions or to reroute mail to alternative mailboxes or email addresses. procmail can be installed using the mail/procmail port. Once installed, it can be directly integrated into most MTAs. Consult the MTA documentation for more information. Alternatively, procmail can be integrated by adding the following line to a .forward in the home directory of the user: "|exec /usr/local/bin/procmail || exit 75" The following section displays some basic procmail rules, as well as brief descriptions of what they do. Rules must be inserted into a .procmailrc, which must reside in the user's home directory. The majority of these rules can be found in &man.procmailex.5;. To forward all mail from user@example.com to an external address of goodmail@example2.com: :0 * ^From.*user@example.com ! goodmail@example2.com To forward all mails shorter than 1000 bytes to an external address of goodmail@example2.com: :0 * < 1000 ! goodmail@example2.com To send all mail sent to alternate@example.com to a mailbox called alternate: :0 * ^TOalternate@example.com alternate To send all mail with a subject of Spam to /dev/null: :0 ^Subject:.*Spam /dev/null A useful recipe that parses incoming &os;.org mailing lists and places each list in its own mailbox: :0 * ^Sender:.owner-freebsd-\/[^@]+@FreeBSD.ORG { LISTNAME=${MATCH} :0 * LISTNAME??^\/[^@]+ FreeBSD-${MATCH} } Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,932 +1,933 @@ - - Obtaining &os; + Obtaining &os; <acronym>CD</acronym> and <acronym>DVD</acronym> Sets &os; CD and DVD sets are available from several online retailers:
&os; Mall, Inc. 2420 Sand Creek Rd C-1 #347 Brentwood, CA 94513 USA Phone: +1 925 240-6652 Fax: +1 925 674-0821 Email: info@freebsdmall.com WWW: http://www.freebsdmall.com/
Getlinux 78 Rue de la Croix Rochopt Épinay-sous-Sénart 91860 France Email: contact@getlinux.fr WWW: http://www.getlinux.fr/
Dr. Hinner EDV Kochelseestr. 11 D-81371 München Germany Phone: (0177) 428 419 0 Email: infow@hinner.de WWW: http://www.hinner.de/linux/freebsd.html
Linux Center Galernaya Street, 55 Saint-Petersburg 190000 Russia Phone: +7-812-309-06-86 Email: info@linuxcenter.ru WWW: http://linuxcenter.ru/shop/freebsd
<acronym>FTP</acronym> Sites The official sources for &os; are available via anonymous FTP from a worldwide set of mirror sites. The site ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ is well connected and allows a large number of connections to it, but you are probably better off finding a closer mirror site (especially if you decide to set up some sort of mirror site). Additionally, &os; is available via anonymous FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain &os; via anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you. The mirror sites listed as Primary Mirror Sites typically have the entire &os; archive (all the currently available versions for each of the architectures) but you will probably have faster download times from a site that is in your country or region. The regional sites carry the most recent versions for the most popular architecture(s) but might not carry the entire &os; archive. All sites provide access via anonymous FTP but some sites also provide access via other methods. The access methods available for each site are provided in parentheses after the hostname. &chap.mirrors.ftp.index.inc; &chap.mirrors.lastmod.inc; &chap.mirrors.ftp.inc; Using CTM CTM CTM is a method for keeping a remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It is built into &os; and can be used to synchronize a system with &os;'s source repositories. It supports synchronization of an entire repository or just a specified set of branches. CTM is specifically designed for use on lousy or non-existent TCP/IP connections and provides the ability for changes to be automatically sent by email. It requires the user to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active branches. Update sizes are always kept as small as possible and are typically less than 5K. About one in very ten updates is 10-50K in size, and there will occasionally be an update larger than 100K+. When using CTM to track &os; development, refer to the caveats related to working directly from the development sources rather than a pre-packaged release. These are discussed in Tracking a Development Branch. Little documentation exists on the process of creating deltas or using CTM for other purposes. Contact the &a.ctm-users.name; mailing list for answers to questions on using CTM. Getting Deltas The deltas used by CTM can be obtained either through anonymous FTP or email. FTP deltas can be obtained from the following mirror sites. When using anonymous FTP to obtain CTM deltas, select a mirror that is geographically nearby. In case of problems, contact the &a.ctm-users.name; mailing list. California, Bay Area, official source ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CTM/ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/ South Africa, backup server for old deltas ftp://ftp.za.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/CTM/ Taiwan/R.O.C. ftp://ctm.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CTM/ ftp://ctm2.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CTM/ ftp://ctm3.tw.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CTM/ To instead receive deltas through email, subscribe to one of the ctm-src distribution lists available from http://lists.freebsd.org/mailman/listinfo. For example, &a.ctm-src-cur.name; supports the head development branch and &a.ctm-src-9.name; supports the 9.X release branch. As CTM updates arrive through email, use ctm_rmail to unpack and apply them. This command can be run directly from an entry in /etc/aliases in order to automate this process. Refer to &man.ctm.rmail.1; for more details. Regardless of the method which is used to get deltas, CTM users should subscribe to the &a.ctm-announce.name; mailing list as this is the only mechanism by which CTM announcements are posted. <application>CTM</application> Usage Before CTM deltas can be used for the first time, a starting point must be produced. One method is to apply a starter delta to an empty directory. A starter delta can be recognized by the XEmpty in its name, such as src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz. The designation following the X corresponds to the origin of the initial seed, where Empty is an empty directory. As a rule, a base transition from Empty is produced every 100 deltas. Be aware that starter deltas are large and 70 to 80 Megabytes of gzip'd data is common for the XEmpty deltas. Another method is to copy or extract an initial source from a RELEASE media as this can save a significant transfer of data from the Internet. Once a base delta has been created, apply all deltas with higher numbers. To apply the deltas: &prompt.root; cd /directory/to/store/the/stuff &prompt.root; ctm -v -v /directory/which/stores/the/deltas/src-xxx.* Multiple deltas can be applied with a single command as they will be processed one at a time and any deltas that are already applied will be ignored. CTM understands gzip compressed deltas, which saves disk space. To verify a delta without applying it, include in the command line. CTM will not actually modify the local tree but will instead verify the integrity of the delta to see if it would apply cleanly. Refer to &man.ctm.1; for more information about available options and an overview of the process CTM uses when applying deltas. To keep the local source tree up-to-date, every time a new delta becomes available, apply it through CTM. Once applied, it is recommended to not delete the deltas if it is a burden to download them again. This way, a local copy is available in case it is needed for future disaster recovery. Keeping Local Changes Developers often experiment with and change files in their local source tree. CTM supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking for the presence of a file, it first looks for a file with the same name and a .ctm extension. If this file exists, CTM will operate on it instead of the original filename. This behavior provides a simple way to maintain local changes. Before modifying a file, make a copy with a .ctm suffix. Make any changes to the original filename, knowing that CTM will only apply updates to the file with the .ctm suffix. Other <application>CTM</application> Options Finding Out Exactly What Would Be Touched by an Update To determine the list of changes that CTM will make to the local source repository, use . This option is useful for creating logs of the changes or when performing pre- or post-processing on any of the modified files. Making Backups Before Updating To backup all of the files that would be changed by a CTM update, specify . This option tells CTM to backup all files touched by the applied CTM delta to backup-file. Restricting the Files Touched by an Update To restrict the scope of a given CTM update, or to extract just a few files from a sequence of deltas, filtering regular expressions can be specified using , which specifies which files to process, or , which specifies which files to ignore. For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of lib/libc/Makefile from a collection of saved CTM deltas: &prompt.root; cd /directory/to/extract/to/ &prompt.root; ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' /directory/which/stores/the/deltas/src-xxx.* For every file specified in a CTM delta, and are applied in the order given on the command line. A file is processed by CTM only if it is marked as eligible after all and options are applied. Using <application>Subversion</application> Subversion Introduction As of July 2012, &os; uses Subversion as the primary version control system for storing all of &os;'s source code, documentation, and the Ports Collection. Subversion is generally a developer tool. Most users should use freebsd-update () to update the &os; base system, and portsnap () to update the &os; Ports Collection. This chapter demonstrates how to install Subversion on a &os; system and then use it to create a local copy of a &os; repository. It includes a list of the available &os; Subversion mirrors and resources to additional information on how to use Subversion. Installation Subversion must be installed before it can be used to check out the contents of any of the repositories. If a copy of the ports tree is already present, one can install Subversion like this: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/subversion &prompt.root; make install clean If the ports tree is not available, Subversion can be installed as a package: &prompt.root; pkg install devel/subversion Running <application>Subversion</application> The svn command is used to fetch a clean copy of the sources into a local directory. The files in this directory are called a local working copy. Move or delete the local directory before using checkout. Checkout over an existing non-svn directory can cause conflicts between the existing files and those brought in from the repository. Subversion uses URLs to designate a repository, taking the form of protocol://hostname/path. Mirrors may support different protocols as specified below. The first component of the path is the &os; repository to access. There are three different repositories, base for the &os; base system source code, ports for the Ports Collection, and doc for documentation. For example, the URL svn://svn0.us-east.FreeBSD.org/ports/head/ specifies the main branch of the ports repository on the svn0.us-east.FreeBSD.org mirror, using the svn protocol. A checkout from a given repository is performed with a command like this: &prompt.root; svn checkout svn-mirror/repository/branch lwcdir where: svn-mirror is a URL for one of the Subversion mirror sites. repository is one of the Project repositories, i.e., base, ports, or doc. branch depends on the repository used. ports and doc are mostly updated in the head branch, while base maintains the latest version of -CURRENT under head and the respective latest versions of the -STABLE branches under stable/8 (for 8.x), stable/9 (9.x) and stable/10 (10.x). lwcdir is the target directory where the contents of the specified branch should be placed. This is usually /usr/ports for ports, /usr/src for base, and /usr/doc for doc. This example checks out the Ports Collection from the western US repository using the HTTPS protocol, placing the local working copy in /usr/ports. If /usr/ports is already present but was not created by svn, remember to rename or delete it before the checkout. &prompt.root; svn checkout https://svn0.us-west.FreeBSD.org/ports/head /usr/ports Because the initial checkout has to download the full branch of the remote repository, it can take a while. Please be patient. After the initial checkout, the local working copy can be updated by running: &prompt.root; svn update lwcdir To update /usr/ports created in the example above, use: &prompt.root; svn update /usr/ports The update is much quicker than a checkout, only transferring files that have changed. An alternate way of updating the local working copy after checkout is provided by the Makefile in the /usr/ports, /usr/src, and /usr/doc directories. Set SVN_UPDATE and use the update target. For example, to update /usr/src: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src &prompt.root; make update SVN_UPDATE=yes <application>Subversion</application> Mirror Sites Subversion Repository Mirror Sites All mirrors carry all repositories. The master &os; Subversion server, svn.FreeBSD.org, is publicly accessible, read-only. That may change in the future, so users are encouraged to use one of the official mirrors. To view the &os; Subversion repositories through a browser, use http://svnweb.FreeBSD.org/. The &os; Subversion mirror network is still in its early days, and will likely change. Do not count on this list of mirrors being static. In particular, the SSL certificates of the servers will likely change at some point. Name Protocols Location SSL Fingerprint svn0.us-west.FreeBSD.org svn, http, https USA, California SHA1 1C:BD:85:95:11:9F:EB:75:A5:4B:C8:A3:FE:08:E4:02:73:06:1E:61 svn0.us-east.FreeBSD.org svn, http, https, rsync USA, New Jersey SHA1 1C:BD:85:95:11:9F:EB:75:A5:4B:C8:A3:FE:08:E4:02:73:06:1E:61 svn0.eu.FreeBSD.org svn, http, https, rsync Europe, UK SHA1 39:B0:53:35:CE:60:C7:BB:00:54:96:96:71:10:94:BB:CE:1C:07:A7 svn0.ru.FreeBSD.org svn, http, https, rsync Russia, Moscow SHA1 F6:44:AA:B9:03:89:0E:3E:8C:4D:4D:14:F0:27:E6:C7:C1:8B:17:C5 HTTPS is the preferred protocol, providing protection against another computer pretending to be the &os; mirror (commonly known as a man in the middle attack) or otherwise trying to send bad content to the end user. On the first connection to an HTTPS mirror, the user will be asked to verify the server fingerprint: Error validating server certificate for 'https://svn0.us-west.freebsd.org:443': - The certificate is not issued by a trusted authority. Use the fingerprint to validate the certificate manually! - The certificate hostname does not match. Certificate information: - Hostname: svnmir.ysv.FreeBSD.org - Valid: from Jul 29 22:01:21 2013 GMT until Dec 13 22:01:21 2040 GMT - Issuer: clusteradm, FreeBSD.org, (null), CA, US (clusteradm@FreeBSD.org) - Fingerprint: 1C:BD:85:95:11:9F:EB:75:A5:4B:C8:A3:FE:08:E4:02:73:06:1E:61 (R)eject, accept (t)emporarily or accept (p)ermanently? Compare the fingerprint shown to those listed in the table above. If the fingerprint matches, the server security certificate can be accepted temporarily or permanently. A temporary certificate will expire after a single session with the server, and the verification step will be repeated on the next connection. Accepting the certificate permanently will store the authentication credentials in ~/.subversion/auth/ and the user will not be asked to verify the fingerprint again until the certificate expires. If https cannot be used due to firewall or other problems, svn is the next choice, with slightly faster transfers. When neither can be used, use http. For More Information For other information about using Subversion, please see the Subversion Book, titled Version Control with Subversion, or the Subversion Documentation. Using <application>rsync</application> The following sites make &os; available through the rsync protocol. The rsync utility works in much the same way as the &man.rcp.1; command, but has more options and uses the rsync remote-update protocol which transfers only the differences between two sets of files, thus greatly speeding up the synchronization over the network. This is most useful if you are a mirror site for the &os; FTP server, or the CVS repository. The rsync suite is available for many operating systems, on &os;, see the net/rsync port or use the package. Czech Republic rsync://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: ftp: A partial mirror of the &os; FTP server. &os;: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. Netherlands rsync://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: &os;: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. Russia rsync://ftp.mtu.ru/ Available collections: &os;: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. &os;-Archive: The mirror of &os; Archive FTP server. Sweden rsync://ftp4.se.freebsd.org/ Available collections: &os;: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. Taiwan rsync://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org/ rsync://ftp2.tw.FreeBSD.org/ rsync://ftp6.tw.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: &os;: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. United Kingdom rsync://rsync.mirrorservice.org/ Available collections: ftp.freebsd.org: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. United States of America rsync://ftp-master.FreeBSD.org/ This server may only be used by &os; primary mirror sites. Available collections: &os;: The master archive of the &os; FTP server. acl: The &os; master ACL list. rsync://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/ Available collections: &os;: A full mirror of the &os; FTP server. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1618 +1,1620 @@ - + Multimedia Ross Lippert Edited by Synopsis &os; supports a wide variety of sound cards, allowing users to enjoy high fidelity output from a &os; system. This includes the ability to record and playback audio in the MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3), Waveform Audio File (WAV), Ogg Vorbis, and other formats. The &os; Ports Collection contains many applications for editing recorded audio, adding sound effects, and controlling attached MIDI devices. &os; also supports the playback of video files and DVDs. The &os; Ports Collection contains applications to encode, convert, and playback various video media. This chapter describes how to configure sound cards, video playback, TV tuner cards, and scanners on &os;. It also describes some of the applications which are available for using these devices. After reading this chapter, you will know how to: Configure a sound card on &os;. Troubleshoot the sound setup. Playback and encode MP3s and other audio. Prepare a &os; system for video playback. Play DVDs, .mpg, and .avi files. Rip CD and DVD content into files. Configure a TV card. Install and setup MythTV on &os; Configure an image scanner. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install applications as described in . Setting Up the Sound Card Moses Moore Contributed by Marc Fonvieille Enhanced by PCI sound cards Before beginning the configuration, determine the model of the sound card and the chip it uses. &os; supports a wide variety of sound cards. Check the supported audio devices list of the Hardware Notes to see if the card is supported and which &os; driver it uses. kernel configuration In order to use the sound device, its device driver must be loaded. The easiest way is to load a kernel module for the sound card with &man.kldload.8;. This example loads the driver for a built-in audio chipset based on the Intel specification: &prompt.root; kldload snd_hda To automate the loading of this driver at boot time, add the driver to /boot/loader.conf. The line for this driver is: snd_hda_load="YES" Other available sound modules are listed in /boot/defaults/loader.conf. When unsure which driver to use, load the snd_driver module: &prompt.root; kldload snd_driver This is a metadriver which loads all of the most common sound drivers and can be used to speed up the search for the correct driver. It is also possible to load all sound drivers by adding the metadriver to /boot/loader.conf. To determine which driver was selected for the sound card after loading the snd_driver metadriver, type cat /dev/sndstat. Configuring a Custom Kernel with Sound Support This section is for users who prefer to statically compile in support for the sound card in a custom kernel. For more information about recompiling a kernel, refer to . When using a custom kernel to provide sound support, make sure that the audio framework driver exists in the custom kernel configuration file: device sound Next, add support for the sound card. To continue the example of the built-in audio chipset based on the Intel specification from the previous section, use the following line in the custom kernel configuration file: device snd_hda Be sure to read the manual page of the driver for the device name to use for the driver. Non-PnP ISA sound cards may require the IRQ and I/O port settings of the card to be added to /boot/device.hints. During the boot process, &man.loader.8; reads this file and passes the settings to the kernel. For example, an old Creative &soundblaster; 16 ISA non-PnP card will use the &man.snd.sbc.4; driver in conjunction with snd_sb16. For this card, the following lines must be added to the kernel configuration file: device snd_sbc device snd_sb16 If the card uses the 0x220 I/O port and IRQ 5, these lines must also be added to /boot/device.hints: hint.sbc.0.at="isa" hint.sbc.0.port="0x220" hint.sbc.0.irq="5" hint.sbc.0.drq="1" hint.sbc.0.flags="0x15" In this case, the card uses the 0x220 I/O port and the IRQ 5. The syntax used in /boot/device.hints is described in &man.sound.4; and the manual page for the driver of the sound card. The settings shown above are the defaults. In some cases, the IRQ or other settings may need to be changed to match the card. Refer to &man.snd.sbc.4; for more information about this card. Testing Sound After loading the required module or rebooting into the custom kernel, the sound card should be detected. To confirm, run dmesg | grep pcm. This example is from a system with a built-in Conexant CX20590 chipset: pcm0: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> at nid 5 on hdaa0 pcm1: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> at nid 6 on hdaa0 pcm2: <Conexant CX20590 (Analog 2.0+HP/2.0)> at nid 31,25 and 35,27 on hdaa1 The status of the sound card may also be checked using this command: &prompt.root; cat /dev/sndstat FreeBSD Audio Driver (newpcm: 64bit 2009061500/amd64) Installed devices: pcm0: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> (play) pcm1: <NVIDIA (0x001c) (HDMI/DP 8ch)> (play) pcm2: <Conexant CX20590 (Analog 2.0+HP/2.0)> (play/rec) default The output will vary depending upon the sound card. If no pcm devices are listed, double-check that the correct device driver was loaded or compiled into the kernel. The next section lists some common problems and their solutions. If all goes well, the sound card should now work in os;. If the CD or DVD drive is properly connected to the sound card, one can insert an audio CD in the drive and play it with &man.cdcontrol.1;: &prompt.user; cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0 play 1 Audio CDs have specialized encodings which means that they should not be mounted using &man.mount.8;. Various applications, such as audio/workman, provide a friendlier interface. The audio/mpg123 port can be installed to listen to MP3 audio files. Another quick way to test the card is to send data to /dev/dsp: &prompt.user; cat filename > /dev/dsp where filename can be any type of file. This command should produce some noise, confirming that the sound card is working. The /dev/dsp* device nodes will be created automatically as needed. When not in use, they do not exist and will not appear in the output of &man.ls.1;. Troubleshooting Sound device nodes I/O port IRQ DSP Table 8.1 lists some common error messages and their solutions: Common Error Messages Error Solution sb_dspwr(XX) timed out The I/O port is not set correctly. bad irq XX The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory There is not enough available memory to use the device. xxx: can't open /dev/dsp! Type fstat | grep dsp to check if another application is holding the device open. Noteworthy troublemakers are esound and KDE's sound support.
Modern graphics cards often come with their own sound driver for use with HDMI. This sound device is sometimes enumerated before the sound card meaning that the sound card will not be used as the default playback device. To check if this is the case, run dmesg and look for pcm. The output looks something like this: ... hdac0: HDA Driver Revision: 20100226_0142 hdac1: HDA Driver Revision: 20100226_0142 hdac0: HDA Codec #0: NVidia (Unknown) hdac0: HDA Codec #1: NVidia (Unknown) hdac0: HDA Codec #2: NVidia (Unknown) hdac0: HDA Codec #3: NVidia (Unknown) pcm0: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 0 nid 1 on hdac0 pcm1: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 1 nid 1 on hdac0 pcm2: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac0 pcm3: <HDA NVidia (Unknown) PCM #0 DisplayPort> at cad 3 nid 1 on hdac0 hdac1: HDA Codec #2: Realtek ALC889 pcm4: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #0 Analog> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1 pcm5: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #1 Analog> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1 pcm6: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #2 Digital> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1 pcm7: <HDA Realtek ALC889 PCM #3 Digital> at cad 2 nid 1 on hdac1 ... In this example, the graphics card (NVidia) has been enumerated before the sound card (Realtek ALC889). To use the sound card as the default playback device, change hw.snd.default_unit to the unit that should be used for playback: &prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.default_unit=n where n is the number of the sound device to use. In this example, it should be 4. Make this change permanent by adding the following line to /etc/sysctl.conf: hw.snd.default_unit=4 Utilizing Multiple Sound Sources Munish Chopra Contributed by It is often desirable to have multiple sources of sound that are able to play simultaneously. &os; uses Virtual Sound Channels to multiplex the sound card's playback by mixing sound in the kernel. Three &man.sysctl.8; knobs are available for configuring virtual channels: &prompt.root; sysctl dev.pcm.0.play.vchans=4 &prompt.root; sysctl dev.pcm.0.rec.vchans=4 &prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4 This example allocates four virtual channels, which is a practical number for everyday use. Both dev.pcm.0.play.vchans=4 and dev.pcm.0.rec.vchans=4 are configurable after a device has been attached and represent the number of virtual channels pcm0 has for playback and recording. Since the pcm module can be loaded independently of the hardware drivers, hw.snd.maxautovchans indicates how many virtual channels will be given to an audio device when it is attached. Refer to &man.pcm.4; for more information. The number of virtual channels for a device cannot be changed while it is in use. First, close any programs using the device, such as music players or sound daemons. The correct pcm device will automatically be allocated transparently to a program that requests /dev/dsp0. Setting Default Values for Mixer Channels Josef El-Rayes Contributed by The default values for the different mixer channels are hardcoded in the source code of the &man.pcm.4; driver. While sound card mixer levels can be changed using &man.mixer.8; or third-party applications and daemons, this is not a permanent solution. To instead set default mixer values at the driver level, define the appropriate values in /boot/device.hints, as seen in this example: hint.pcm.0.vol="50" This will set the volume channel to a default value of 50 when the &man.pcm.4; module is loaded. MP3 Audio Chern Lee Contributed by This section describes some MP3 players available for &os;, how to rip audio CD tracks, and how to encode and decode MP3s. MP3 Players A popular graphical MP3 player is XMMS. It supports Winamp skins and additional plugins. The interface is intuitive, with a playlist, graphic equalizer, and more. Those familiar with Winamp will find XMMS simple to use. On &os;, XMMS can be installed from the multimedia/xmms port or package. The audio/mpg123 package or port provides an alternative, command-line MP3 player. Once installed, specify the MP3 file to play on the command line. If the system has multiple audio devices, the sound device can also be specifed: &prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layers 1, 2 and 3 version 1.18.1; written and copyright by Michael Hipp and others free software (LGPL) without any warranty but with best wishes Playing MPEG stream from Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 ... MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo Additional MP3 players are available in the &os; Ports Collection. Ripping <acronym>CD</acronym> Audio Tracks Before encoding a CD or CD track to MP3, the audio data on the CD must be ripped to the hard drive. This is done by copying the raw CD Digital Audio (CDDA) data to WAV files. The cdda2wav tool, which is installed with the sysutils/cdrtools suite, can be used to rip audio information from CDs. With the audio CD in the drive, the following command can be issued as root to rip an entire CD into individual, per track, WAV files: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B In this example, the indicates the SCSI device 0,1,0 containing the CD to rip. Use cdrecord -scanbus to determine the correct device parameters for the system. To rip individual tracks, use to specify the track: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7 To rip a range of tracks, such as track one to seven, specify a range: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7 To rip from an ATAPI (IDE) CDROM drive, specify the device name in place of the SCSI unit numbers. For example, to rip track 7 from an IDE drive: &prompt.root; cdda2wav -D /dev/acd0 -t 7 Alternately, dd can be used to extract audio tracks on ATAPI drives, as described in . Encoding and Decoding MP3s Lame is a popular MP3 encoder which can be installed from the audio/lame port. Due to patent issues, a package is not available. The following command will convert the ripped WAV file audio01.wav to audio01.mp3: &prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 --tt "Foo Song Title" --ta "FooBar Artist" --tl "FooBar Album" \ --ty "2014" --tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo" --tg "Genre" audio01.wav audio01.mp3 The specified 128 kbits is a standard MP3 bitrate while the 160 and 192 bitrates provide higher quality. The higher the bitrate, the larger the size of the resulting MP3. The turns on the higher quality but a little slower mode. The options beginning with indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain song information, to be embedded within the MP3 file. Additional encoding options can be found in the lame manual page. In order to burn an audio CD from MP3s, they must first be converted to a non-compressed file format. XMMS can be used to convert to the WAV format, while mpg123 can be used to convert to the raw Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM) audio data format. To convert audio01.mp3 using mpg123, specify the name of the PCM file: &prompt.root; mpg123 -s audio01.mp3 > audio01.pcm To use XMMS to convert a MP3 to WAV format, use these steps: Converting to <acronym>WAV</acronym> Format in <application>XMMS</application> Launch XMMS. Right-click the window to bring up the XMMS menu. Select Preferences under Options. Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer Plugin. Press Configure. Enter or browse to a directory to write the uncompressed files to. Load the MP3 file into XMMS as usual, with volume at 100% and EQ settings turned off. Press Play. The XMMS will appear as if it is playing the MP3, but no music will be heard. It is actually playing the MP3 to a file. When finished, be sure to set the default Output Plugin back to what it was before in order to listen to MP3s again. Both the WAV and PCM formats can be used with cdrecord. When using WAV files, there will be a small tick sound at the beginning of each track. This sound is the header of the WAV file. The audio/sox port or package can be used to remove the header: &prompt.user; sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 track.wav track.raw Refer to for more information on using a CD burner in &os;. Video Playback Ross Lippert Contributed by Before configuring video playback, determine the model and chipset of the video card. While &xorg; supports a wide variety of video cards, not all provide good playback performance. To obtain a list of extensions supported by the &xorg; server using the card, run xdpyinfo while &xorg; is running. It is a good idea to have a short MPEG test file for evaluating various players and options. Since some DVD applications look for DVD media in /dev/dvd by default, or have this device name hardcoded in them, it might be useful to make a symbolic link to the proper device: &prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/cd0 /dev/dvd Due to the nature of &man.devfs.5;, manually created links will not persist after a system reboot. In order to recreate the symbolic link automatically when the system boots, add the following line to /etc/devfs.conf: link cd0 dvd DVD decryption invokes certain functions that require write permission to the DVD device. To enhance the shared memory &xorg; interface, it is recommended to increase the values of these &man.sysctl.8; variables: kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864 kern.ipc.shmall=32768 Determining Video Capabilities XVideo SDL DGA There are several possible ways to display video under &xorg; and what works is largely hardware dependent. Each method described below will have varying quality across different hardware. Common video interfaces include: &xorg;: normal output using shared memory. XVideo: an extension to the &xorg; interface which allows video to be directly displayed in drawable objects through a special acceleration. This extension provides good quality playback even on low-end machines. The next section describes how to determine if this extension is running. SDL: the Simple Directmedia Layer is a porting layer for many operating systems, allowing cross-platform applications to be developed which make efficient use of sound and graphics. SDL provides a low-level abstraction to the hardware which can sometimes be more efficient than the &xorg; interface. On &os;, SDL can be installed using the devel/sdl20 package or port. DGA: the Direct Graphics Access is an &xorg; extension which allows a program to bypass the &xorg; server and directly alter the framebuffer. Because it relies on a low level memory mapping, programs using it must be run as root. The DGA extension can be tested and benchmarked using &man.dga.1;. When dga is running, it changes the colors of the display whenever a key is pressed. To quit, press q. SVGAlib: a low level console graphics layer. XVideo To check whether this extension is running, use xvinfo: &prompt.user; xvinfo XVideo is supported for the card if the result is similar to: X-Video Extension version 2.2 screen #0 Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine" number of ports: 1 port base: 43 operations supported: PutImage supported visuals: depth 16, visualID 0x22 depth 16, visualID 0x23 number of attributes: 5 "XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 2110) "XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 0) "XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 128) "XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 128) "XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180) client settable attribute client gettable attribute (current value is 0) maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024 Number of image formats: 7 id: 0x32595559 (YUY2) guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: YUV (packed) id: 0x32315659 (YV12) guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 12 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (planar) id: 0x30323449 (I420) guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 12 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (planar) id: 0x36315652 (RV16) guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: RGB (packed) depth: 0 red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00 id: 0x35315652 (RV15) guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 16 number of planes: 1 type: RGB (packed) depth: 0 red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800 id: 0x31313259 (Y211) guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71 bits per pixel: 6 number of planes: 3 type: YUV (packed) id: 0x0 guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 bits per pixel: 0 number of planes: 0 type: RGB (packed) depth: 1 red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0 The formats listed, such as YUV2 and YUV12, are not present with every implementation of XVideo and their absence may hinder some players. If the result instead looks like: X-Video Extension version 2.2 screen #0 no adaptors present XVideo is probably not supported for the card. This means that it will be more difficult for the display to meet the computational demands of rendering video, depending on the video card and processor. Ports and Packages Dealing with Video video ports video packages This section introduces some of the software available from the &os; Ports Collection which can be used for video playback. <application>MPlayer</application> and <application>MEncoder</application> MPlayer is a command-line video player with an optional graphical interface which aims to provide speed and flexibility. Other graphical front-ends to MPlayer are available from the &os; Ports Collection. MPlayer MPlayer can be installed using the multimedia/mplayer package or port. Several compile options are available and a variety of hardware checks occur during the build process. For these reasons, some users prefer to build the port rather than install the package. When compiling the port, the menu options should be reviewed to determine the type of support to compile into the port. If an option is not selected, MPlayer will not be able to display that type of video format. Use the arrow keys and spacebar to select the required formats. When finished, press Enter to continue the port compile and installation. By default, the package or port will build the mplayer command line utility and the gmplayer graphical utility. To encode videos, compile the multimedia/mencoder port. Due to licensing restrictions, a package is not available for MEncoder. The first time MPlayer is run, it will create ~/.mplayer in the user's home directory. This subdirectory contains default versions of the user-specific configuration files. This section describes only a few common uses. Refer to mplayer(1) for a complete description of its numerous options. To play the file testfile.avi, specify the video interfaces with , as seen in the following examples: &prompt.user; mplayer -vo xv testfile.avi &prompt.user; mplayer -vo sdl testfile.avi &prompt.user; mplayer -vo x11 testfile.avi &prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga testfile.avi &prompt.root; mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' testfile.avi It is worth trying all of these options, as their relative performance depends on many factors and will vary significantly with hardware. To play a DVD, replace testfile.avi with , where N is the title number to play and DEVICE is the device node for the DVD. For example, to play title 3 from /dev/dvd: &prompt.root; mplayer -vo xv dvd://3 -dvd-device /dev/dvd The default DVD device can be defined during the build of the MPlayer port by including the WITH_DVD_DEVICE=/path/to/desired/device option. By default, the device is /dev/cd0. More details can be found in the port's Makefile.options. To stop, pause, advance, and so on, use a keybinding. To see the list of keybindings, run mplayer -h or read mplayer(1). Additional playback options include , which engages fullscreen mode, and , which helps performance. Each user can add commonly used options to their ~/.mplayer/config like so: vo=xv fs=yes zoom=yes mplayer can be used to rip a DVD title to a .vob. To dump the second title from a DVD: &prompt.root; mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob dvd://2 -dvd-device /dev/dvd The output file, out.vob, will be in MPEG format. Anyone wishing to obtain a high level of expertise with &unix; video should consult mplayerhq.hu/DOCS as it is technically informative. This documentation should be considered as required reading before submitting any bug reports. mencoder Before using mencoder, it is a good idea to become familiar with the options described at mplayerhq.hu/DOCS/HTML/en/mencoder.html. There are innumerable ways to improve quality, lower bitrate, and change formats, and some of these options may make the difference between good or bad performance. Improper combinations of command line options can yield output files that are unplayable even by mplayer. Here is an example of a simple copy: &prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac copy -ovc copy -o output.avi To rip to a file, use with mplayer. To convert input.avi to the MPEG4 codec with MPEG3 audio encoding, first install the audio/lame port. Due to licensing restrictions, a package is not available. Once installed, type: &prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \ -ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o output.avi This will produce output playable by applications such as mplayer and xine. input.avi can be replaced with and run as root to re-encode a DVD title directly. Since it may take a few tries to get the desired result, it is recommended to instead dump the title to a file and to work on the file. The <application>xine</application> Video Player xine is a video player with a reusable base library and a modular executable which can be extended with plugins. It can be installed using the multimedia/xine package or port. In practice, xine requires either a fast CPU with a fast video card, or support for the XVideo extension. The xine video player performs best on XVideo interfaces. By default, the xine player starts a graphical user interface. The menus can then be used to open a specific file. Alternatively, xine may be invoked from the command line by specifying the name of the file to play: &prompt.user; xine -g -p mymovie.avi Refer to xine-project.org/faq for more information and troubleshooting tips. The <application>Transcode</application> Utilities Transcode provides a suite of tools for re-encoding video and audio files. Transcode can be used to merge video files or repair broken files using command line tools with stdin/stdout stream interfaces. In &os;, Transcode can be installed using the multimedia/transcode package or port. Many users prefer to compile the port as it provides a menu of compile options for specifying the support and codecs to compile in. If an option is not selected, Transcode will not be able to encode that format. Use the arrow keys and spacebar to select the required formats. When finished, press Enter to continue the port compile and installation. This example demonstrates how to convert a DivX file into a PAL MPEG-1 file (PAL VCD): &prompt.user; transcode -i input.avi -V --export_prof vcd-pal -o output_vcd &prompt.user; mplex -f 1 -o output_vcd.mpg output_vcd.m1v output_vcd.mpa The resulting MPEG file, output_vcd.mpg, is ready to be played with MPlayer. The file can be burned on a CD media to create a video CD using a utility such as multimedia/vcdimager or sysutils/cdrdao. In addition to the manual page for transcode, refer to transcoding.org/cgi-bin/transcode for further information and examples. TV Cards Josef El-Rayes Original contribution by Marc Fonvieille Enhanced and adapted by TV cards TV cards can be used to watch broadcast or cable TV on a computer. Most cards accept composite video via an RCA or S-video input and some cards include a FM radio tuner. &os; provides support for PCI-based TV cards using a Brooktree Bt848/849/878/879 video capture chip with the &man.bktr.4; driver. This driver supports most Pinnacle PCTV video cards. Before purchasing a TV card, consult &man.bktr.4; for a list of supported tuners. Loading the Driver In order to use the card, the &man.bktr.4; driver must be loaded. To automate this at boot time, add the following line to /boot/loader.conf: bktr_load="YES" Alternatively, one can statically compile support for the TV card into a custom kernel. In that case, add the following lines to the custom kernel configuration file: device bktr device iicbus device iicbb device smbus These additional devices are necessary as the card components are interconnected via an I2C bus. Then, build and install a new kernel. To test that the tuner is correctly detected, reboot the system. The TV card should appear in the boot messages, as seen in this example: bktr0: <BrookTree 848A> mem 0xd7000000-0xd7000fff irq 10 at device 10.0 on pci0 iicbb0: <I2C bit-banging driver> on bti2c0 iicbus0: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only iicbus1: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only smbus0: <System Management Bus> on bti2c0 bktr0: Pinnacle/Miro TV, Philips SECAM tuner. The messages will differ according to the hardware. If necessary, it is possible to override some of the detected parameters using &man.sysctl.8; or custom kernel configuration options. For example, to force the tuner to a Philips SECAM tuner, add the following line to a custom kernel configuration file: options OVERRIDE_TUNER=6 or, use &man.sysctl.8;: &prompt.root; sysctl hw.bt848.tuner=6 Refer to &man.bktr.4; for a description of the available &man.sysctl.8; parameters and kernel options. Useful Applications To use the TV card, install one of the following applications: multimedia/fxtv provides TV-in-a-window and image/audio/video capture capabilities. multimedia/xawtv is another TV application with similar features. audio/xmradio provides an application for using the FM radio tuner of a TV card. More applications are available in the &os; Ports Collection. Troubleshooting If any problems are encountered with the TV card, check that the video capture chip and the tuner are supported by &man.bktr.4; and that the right configuration options were used. For more support or to ask questions about supported TV cards, refer to the &a.multimedia.name; mailing list. MythTV MythTV is a popular, open source Personal Video Recorder (PVR) application. This section demonstrates how to install and setup MythTV on &os;. Refer to mythtv.org/wiki for more information on how to use MythTV. MythTV requires a frontend and a backend. These components can either be installed on the same system or on different machines. The frontend can be installed on &os; using the multimedia/mythtv-frontend package or port. &xorg; must also be installed and configured as described in . Ideally, this system has a video card that supports X-Video Motion Compensation (XvMC) and, optionally, a Linux Infrared Remote Control (LIRC)-compatible remote. To install both the backend and the frontend on &os;, use the multimedia/mythtv package or port. A &mysql; database server is also required and should automatically be installed as a dependency. Optionally, this system should have a tuner card and sufficient storage to hold recorded data. Hardware MythTV uses Video for Linux (V4L) to access video input devices such as encoders and tuners. In &os;, MythTV works best with USB DVB-S/C/T cards as they are well supported by the multimedia/webcamd package or port which provides a V4L userland application. Any Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) card supported by webcamd should work with MythTV. A list of known working cards can be found at wiki.freebsd.org/WebcamCompat. Drivers are also available for Hauppauge cards in the multimedia/pvr250 and multimedia/pvrxxx ports, but they provide a non-standard driver interface that does not work with versions of MythTV greater than 0.23. Due to licensing restrictions, no packages are available and these two ports must be compiled. The wiki.freebsd.org/HTPC page contains a list of all available DVB drivers. Setting up the MythTV Backend To install MythTV using the port: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mythtv &prompt.root; make install Once installed, set up the MythTV database: &prompt.root; mysql -uroot -p < /usr/local/share/mythtv/database/mc.sql Then, configure the backend: &prompt.root; mythtv-setup Finally, start the backend: &prompt.root; echo 'mythbackend_enable="YES"' >> /etc/rc.conf &prompt.root; service mythbackend start Image Scanners Marc Fonvieille Written by image scanners In &os;, access to image scanners is provided by SANE (Scanner Access Now Easy), which is available in the &os; Ports Collection. SANE will also use some &os; device drivers to provide access to the scanner hardware. &os; supports both SCSI and USB scanners. Depending upon the scanner interface, different device drivers are required. Be sure the scanner is supported by SANE prior to performing any configuration. Refer to http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html for more information about supported scanners. This chapter describes how to determine if the scanner has been detected by &os;. It then provides an overview of how to configure and use SANE on a &os; system. Checking the Scanner The GENERIC kernel includes the device drivers needed to support USB scanners. Users with a custom kernel should ensure that the following lines are present in the custom kernel configuration file: device usb device uhci device ohci device ehci To determine if the USB scanner is detected, plug it in and use dmesg to determine whether the scanner appears in the system message buffer. If it does, it should display a message similar to this: ugen0.2: <EPSON> at usbus0 In this example, an &epson.perfection; 1650 USB scanner was detected on /dev/ugen0.2. If the scanner uses a SCSI interface, it is important to know which SCSI controller board it will use. Depending upon the SCSI chipset, a custom kernel configuration file may be needed. The GENERIC kernel supports the most common SCSI controllers. Refer to /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES to determine the correct line to add to a custom kernel configuration file. In addition to the SCSI adapter driver, the following lines are needed in a custom kernel configuration file: device scbus device pass Verify that the device is displayed in the system message buffer: pass2 at aic0 bus 0 target 2 lun 0 pass2: <AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> Fixed Scanner SCSI-2 device pass2: 3.300MB/s transfers If the scanner was not powered-on at system boot, it is still possible to manually force detection by performing a SCSI bus scan with camcontrol: &prompt.root; camcontrol rescan all Re-scan of bus 0 was successful Re-scan of bus 1 was successful Re-scan of bus 2 was successful Re-scan of bus 3 was successful The scanner should now appear in the SCSI devices list: &prompt.root; camcontrol devlist <IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 5 lun 0 (pass0,da0) <IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 6 lun 0 (pass1,da1) <AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> at scbus1 target 2 lun 0 (pass3) <PHILIPS CDD3610 CD-R/RW 1.00> at scbus2 target 0 lun 0 (pass2,cd0) Refer to &man.scsi.4; and &man.camcontrol.8; for more details about SCSI devices on &os;. <application>SANE</application> Configuration The SANE system is split in two parts: the backends (graphics/sane-backends) and the frontends (graphics/sane-frontends or graphics/xsane). The backends provide access to the scanner. Refer to http://www.sane-project.org/sane-supported-devices.html to determine which backend supports the scanner. The frontends provide the graphical scanning interface. graphics/sane-frontends installs xscanimage while graphics/xsane installs xsane. After installing the graphics/sane-backends port or package, use sane-find-scanner to check the scanner detection by the SANE system: &prompt.root; sane-find-scanner -q found SCSI scanner "AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10" at /dev/pass3 The output should show the interface type of the scanner and the device node used to attach the scanner to the system. The vendor and the product model may or may not appear. Some USB scanners require firmware to be loaded. Refer to sane-find-scanner(1) and sane(7) for details. Next, check if the scanner will be identified by a scanning frontend. The SANE backends include scanimage which can be used to list the devices and perform an image acquisition. Use to list the scanner devices. The first example is for a SCSI scanner and the second is for a USB scanner: &prompt.root; scanimage -L device `snapscan:/dev/pass3' is a AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 flatbed scanner &prompt.root; scanimage -L device 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scanner In this second example, 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is the backend name (epson2) and /dev/ugen0.2 is the device node used by the scanner. If scanimage is unable to identify the scanner, this message will appear: &prompt.root; scanimage -L No scanners were identified. If you were expecting something different, check that the scanner is plugged in, turned on and detected by the sane-find-scanner tool (if appropriate). Please read the documentation which came with this software (README, FAQ, manpages). If this happens, edit the backend configuration file in /usr/local/etc/sane.d/ and define the scanner device used. For example, if the undetected scanner model is an &epson.perfection; 1650 and it uses the epson2 backend, edit /usr/local/etc/sane.d/epson2.conf. When editing, add a line specifying the interface and the device node used. In this case, add the following line: usb /dev/ugen0.2 Save the edits and verify that the scanner is identified with the right backend name and the device node: &prompt.root; scanimage -L device 'epson2:libusb:/dev/usb:/dev/ugen0.2' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scanner Once scanimage -L sees the scanner, the configuration is complete and the scanner is now ready to use. While scanimage can be used to perform an image acquisition from the command line, it is often preferable to use a graphical interface to perform image scanning. The graphics/sane-frontends package or port installs a simple but efficient graphical interface, xscanimage. Alternately, xsane, which is installed with the graphics/xsane package or port, is another popular graphical scanning frontend. It offers advanced features such as various scanning modes, color correction, and batch scans. Both of these applications are usable as a GIMP plugin. Scanner Permissions In order to have access to the scanner, a user needs read and write permissions to the device node used by the scanner. In the previous example, the USB scanner uses the device node /dev/ugen0.2 which is really a symlink to the real device node /dev/usb/0.2.0. The symlink and the device node are owned, respectively, by the wheel and operator groups. While adding the user to these groups will allow access to the scanner, it is considered insecure to add a user to wheel. A better solution is to create a group and make the scanner device accessible to members of this group. This example creates a group called usb: &prompt.root; pw groupadd usb Then, make the /dev/ugen0.2 symlink and the /dev/usb/0.2.0 device node accessible to the usb group with write permissions of 0660 or 0664 by adding the following lines to /etc/devfs.rules: [system=5] add path ugen0.2 mode 0660 group usb add path usb/0.2.0 mode 0666 group usb Finally, add the users to usb in order to allow access to the scanner: &prompt.root; pw groupmod usb -m joe For more details refer to &man.pw.8;. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/network-servers/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,5788 +1,5790 @@ - + Network Servers Synopsis This chapter covers some of the more frequently used network services on &unix; systems. This includes installing, configuring, testing, and maintaining many different types of network services. Example configuration files are included throughout this chapter for reference. By the end of this chapter, readers will know: How to manage the inetd daemon. How to set up the Network File System (NFS). How to set up the Network Information Server (NIS) for centralizing and sharing user accounts. How to set &os; up to act as an LDAP server or client How to set up automatic network settings using DHCP. How to set up a Domain Name Server (DNS). How to set up the Apache HTTP Server. How to set up a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server. How to set up a file and print server for &windows; clients using Samba. How to synchronize the time and date, and set up a time server using the Network Time Protocol (NTP). How to set up iSCSI. This chapter assumes a basic knowledge of: /etc/rc scripts. Network terminology. Installation of additional third-party software (). The <application>inetd</application> Super-Server The &man.inetd.8; daemon is sometimes referred to as a Super-Server because it manages connections for many services. Instead of starting multiple applications, only the inetd service needs to be started. When a connection is received for a service that is managed by inetd, it determines which program the connection is destined for, spawns a process for that program, and delegates the program a socket. Using inetd for services that are not heavily used can reduce system load, when compared to running each daemon individually in stand-alone mode. Primarily, inetd is used to spawn other daemons, but several trivial protocols are handled internally, such as chargen, auth, time, echo, discard, and daytime. This section covers the basics of configuring inetd. Configuration File Configuration of inetd is done by editing /etc/inetd.conf. Each line of this configuration file represents an application which can be started by inetd. By default, every line starts with a comment (#), meaning that inetd is not listening for any applications. To configure inetd to listen for an application's connections, remove the # at the beginning of the line for that application. After saving your edits, configure inetd to start at system boot by editing /etc/rc.conf: inetd_enable="YES" To start inetd now, so that it listens for the service you configured, type: &prompt.root; service inetd start Once inetd is started, it needs to be notified whenever a modification is made to /etc/inetd.conf: Reloading the <application>inetd</application> Configuration File &prompt.root; service inetd reload Typically, the default entry for an application does not need to be edited beyond removing the #. In some situations, it may be appropriate to edit the default entry. As an example, this is the default entry for &man.ftpd.8; over IPv4: ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/ftpd ftpd -l The seven columns in an entry are as follows: service-name socket-type protocol {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute[/max-child-per-ip]]] user[:group][/login-class] server-program server-program-arguments where: service-name The service name of the daemon to start. It must correspond to a service listed in /etc/services. This determines which port inetd listens on for incoming connections to that service. When using a custom service, it must first be added to /etc/services. socket-type Either stream, dgram, raw, or seqpacket. Use stream for TCP connections and dgram for UDP services. protocol Use one of the following protocol names: Protocol Name Explanation tcp or tcp4 TCP IPv4 udp or udp4 UDP IPv4 tcp6 TCP IPv6 udp6 UDP IPv6 tcp46 Both TCP IPv4 and IPv6 udp46 Both UDP IPv4 and IPv6 {wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute[/max-child-per-ip]]] In this field, or must be specified. , and are optional. indicates whether or not the service is able to handle its own socket. socket types must use while daemons, which are usually multi-threaded, should use . usually hands off multiple sockets to a single daemon, while spawns a child daemon for each new socket. The maximum number of child daemons inetd may spawn is set by . For example, to limit ten instances of the daemon, place a /10 after . Specifying /0 allows an unlimited number of children. limits the number of connections from any particular IP address per minute. Once the limit is reached, further connections from this IP address will be dropped until the end of the minute. For example, a value of /10 would limit any particular IP address to ten connection attempts per minute. limits the number of child processes that can be started on behalf on any single IP address at any moment. These options can limit excessive resource consumption and help to prevent Denial of Service attacks. An example can be seen in the default settings for &man.fingerd.8;: finger stream tcp nowait/3/10 nobody /usr/libexec/fingerd fingerd -k -s user The username the daemon will run as. Daemons typically run as root, daemon, or nobody. server-program The full path to the daemon. If the daemon is a service provided by inetd internally, use . server-program-arguments Used to specify any command arguments to be passed to the daemon on invocation. If the daemon is an internal service, use . Command-Line Options Like most server daemons, inetd has a number of options that can be used to modify its behaviour. By default, inetd is started with -wW -C 60. These options enable TCP wrappers for all services, including internal services, and prevent any IP address from requesting any service more than 60 times per minute. To change the default options which are passed to inetd, add an entry for inetd_flags in /etc/rc.conf. If inetd is already running, restart it with service inetd restart. The available rate limiting options are: -c maximum Specify the default maximum number of simultaneous invocations of each service, where the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis by using in /etc/inetd.conf. -C rate Specify the default maximum number of times a service can be invoked from a single IP address per minute. May be overridden on a per-service basis by using in /etc/inetd.conf. -R rate Specify the maximum number of times a service can be invoked in one minute, where the default is 256. A rate of 0 allows an unlimited number. -s maximum Specify the maximum number of times a service can be invoked from a single IP address at any one time, where the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a per-service basis by using in /etc/inetd.conf. Additional options are available. Refer to &man.inetd.8; for the full list of options. Security Considerations Many of the daemons which can be managed by inetd are not security-conscious. Some daemons, such as fingerd, can provide information that may be useful to an attacker. Only enable the services which are needed and monitor the system for excessive connection attempts. max-connections-per-ip-per-minute, max-child and max-child-per-ip can be used to limit such attacks. By default, TCP wrappers is enabled. Consult &man.hosts.access.5; for more information on placing TCP restrictions on various inetd invoked daemons. Network File System (NFS) Tom Rhodes Reorganized and enhanced by Bill Swingle Written by NFS &os; supports the Network File System (NFS), which allows a server to share directories and files with clients over a network. With NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems as if they were stored locally. NFS has many practical uses. Some of the more common uses include: Data that would otherwise be duplicated on each client can be kept in a single location and accessed by clients on the network. Several clients may need access to the /usr/ports/distfiles directory. Sharing that directory allows for quick access to the source files without having to download them to each client. On large networks, it is often more convenient to configure a central NFS server on which all user home directories are stored. Users can log into a client anywhere on the network and have access to their home directories. Administration of NFS exports is simplified. For example, there is only one file system where security or backup policies must be set. Removable media storage devices can be used by other machines on the network. This reduces the number of devices throughout the network and provides a centralized location to manage their security. It is often more convenient to install software on multiple machines from a centralized installation media. NFS consists of a server and one or more clients. The client remotely accesses the data that is stored on the server machine. In order for this to function properly, a few processes have to be configured and running. These daemons must be running on the server: NFS server file server UNIX clients rpcbind mountd nfsd Daemon Description nfsd The NFS daemon which services requests from NFS clients. mountd The NFS mount daemon which carries out requests received from nfsd. rpcbind This daemon allows NFS clients to discover which port the NFS server is using. Running &man.nfsiod.8; on the client can improve performance, but is not required. Configuring the Server NFS configuration The file systems which the NFS server will share are specified in /etc/exports. Each line in this file specifies a file system to be exported, which clients have access to that file system, and any access options. When adding entries to this file, each exported file system, its properties, and allowed hosts must occur on a single line. If no clients are listed in the entry, then any client on the network can mount that file system. NFS export examples The following /etc/exports entries demonstrate how to export file systems. The examples can be modified to match the file systems and client names on the reader's network. There are many options that can be used in this file, but only a few will be mentioned here. See &man.exports.5; for the full list of options. This example shows how to export /cdrom to three hosts named alpha, bravo, and charlie: /cdrom -ro alpha bravo charlie The -ro flag makes the file system read-only, preventing clients from making any changes to the exported file system. This example assumes that the host names are either in DNS or in /etc/hosts. Refer to &man.hosts.5; if the network does not have a DNS server. The next example exports /home to three clients by IP address. This can be useful for networks without DNS or /etc/hosts entries. The -alldirs flag allows subdirectories to be mount points. In other words, it will not automatically mount the subdirectories, but will permit the client to mount the directories that are required as needed. /home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 This next example exports /a so that two clients from different domains may access that file system. The allows root on the remote system to write data on the exported file system as root. If -maproot=root is not specified, the client's root user will be mapped to the server's nobody account and will be subject to the access limitations defined for nobody. /a -maproot=root host.example.com box.example.org A client can only be specified once per file system. For example, if /usr is a single file system, these entries would be invalid as both entries specify the same host: # Invalid when /usr is one file system /usr/src client /usr/ports client The correct format for this situation is to use one entry: /usr/src /usr/ports client The following is an example of a valid export list, where /usr and /exports are local file systems: # Export src and ports to client01 and client02, but only # client01 has root privileges on it /usr/src /usr/ports -maproot=root client01 /usr/src /usr/ports client02 # The client machines have root and can mount anywhere # on /exports. Anyone in the world can mount /exports/obj read-only /exports -alldirs -maproot=root client01 client02 /exports/obj -ro To enable the processes required by the NFS server at boot time, add these options to /etc/rc.conf: rpcbind_enable="YES" nfs_server_enable="YES" mountd_flags="-r" The server can be started now by running this command: &prompt.root; service nfsd start Whenever the NFS server is started, mountd also starts automatically. However, mountd only reads /etc/exports when it is started. To make subsequent /etc/exports edits take effect immediately, force mountd to reread it: &prompt.root; service mountd reload Configuring the Client To enable NFS clients, set this option in each client's /etc/rc.conf: nfs_client_enable="YES" Then, run this command on each NFS client: &prompt.root; service nfsclient start The client now has everything it needs to mount a remote file system. In these examples, the server's name is server and the client's name is client. To mount /home on server to the /mnt mount point on client: NFS mounting &prompt.root; mount server:/home /mnt The files and directories in /home will now be available on client, in the /mnt directory. To mount a remote file system each time the client boots, add it to /etc/fstab: server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0 Refer to &man.fstab.5; for a description of all available options. Locking Some applications require file locking to operate correctly. To enable locking, add these lines to /etc/rc.conf on both the client and server: rpc_lockd_enable="YES" rpc_statd_enable="YES" Then start the applications: &prompt.root; service lockd start &prompt.root; service statd start If locking is not required on the server, the NFS client can be configured to lock locally by including when running mount. Refer to &man.mount.nfs.8; for further details. Automating Mounts With &man.amd.8; Wylie Stilwell Contributed by Chern Lee Rewritten by amd automatic mounter daemon The automatic mounter daemon, amd, automatically mounts a remote file system whenever a file or directory within that file system is accessed. File systems that are inactive for a period of time will be automatically unmounted by amd. This daemon provides an alternative to modifying /etc/fstab to list every client. It operates by attaching itself as an NFS server to the /host and /net directories. When a file is accessed within one of these directories, amd looks up the corresponding remote mount and automatically mounts it. /net is used to mount an exported file system from an IP address while /host is used to mount an export from a remote hostname. For instance, an attempt to access a file within /host/foobar/usr would tell amd to mount the /usr export on the host foobar. Mounting an Export with <application>amd</application> In this example, showmount -e shows the exported file systems that can be mounted from the NFS server, foobar: &prompt.user; showmount -e foobar Exports list on foobar: /usr 10.10.10.0 /a 10.10.10.0 &prompt.user; cd /host/foobar/usr The output from showmount shows /usr as an export. When changing directories to /host/foobar/usr, amd intercepts the request and attempts to resolve the hostname foobar. If successful, amd automatically mounts the desired export. To enable amd at boot time, add this line to /etc/rc.conf: amd_enable="YES" To start amd now: &prompt.root; service amd start Custom flags can be passed to amd from the amd_flags environment variable. By default, amd_flags is set to: amd_flags="-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map" The default options with which exports are mounted are defined in /etc/amd.map. Some of the more advanced features of amd are defined in /etc/amd.conf. Consult &man.amd.8; and &man.amd.conf.5; for more information. Automating Mounts with &man.autofs.5; The &man.autofs.5; automount facility is supported starting with &os; 10.1-RELEASE. To use the automounter functionality in older versions of &os;, use &man.amd.8; instead. This chapter only describes the &man.autofs.5; automounter. autofs automounter subsystem The &man.autofs.5; facility is a common name for several components that, together, allow for automatic mounting of remote and local filesystems whenever a file or directory within that file system is accessed. It consists of the kernel component, &man.autofs.5;, and several userspace applications: &man.automount.8;, &man.automountd.8; and &man.autounmountd.8;. It serves as an alternative for &man.amd.8; from previous &os; releases. Amd is still provided for backward compatibility purposes, as the two use different map format; the one used by autofs is the same as with other SVR4 automounters, such as the ones in Solaris, MacOS X, and Linux. The &man.autofs.5; virtual filesystem is mounted on specified mountpoints by &man.automount.8;, usually invoked during boot. Whenever a process attempts to access file within the &man.autofs.5; mountpoint, the kernel will notify &man.automountd.8; daemon and pause the triggering process. The &man.automountd.8; daemon will handle kernel requests by finding the proper map and mounting the filesystem according to it, then signal the kernel to release blocked process. The &man.autounmountd.8; daemon automatically unmounts automounted filesystems after some time, unless they are still being used. The primary autofs configuration file is /etc/auto_master. It assigns individual maps to top-level mounts. For an explanation of auto_master and the map syntax, refer to &man.auto.master.5;. There is a special automounter map mounted on /net. When a file is accessed within this directory, &man.autofs.5; looks up the corresponding remote mount and automatically mounts it. For instance, an attempt to access a file within /net/foobar/usr would tell &man.automountd.8; to mount the /usr export from the host foobar. Mounting an Export With &man.autofs.5; In this example, showmount -e shows the exported file systems that can be mounted from the NFS server, foobar: &prompt.user; showmount -e foobar Exports list on foobar: /usr 10.10.10.0 /a 10.10.10.0 &prompt.user; cd /net/foobar/usr The output from showmount shows /usr as an export. When changing directories to /host/foobar/usr, &man.automountd.8; intercepts the request and attempts to resolve the hostname foobar. If successful, &man.automountd.8; automatically mounts the source export. To enable &man.autofs.5; at boot time, add this line to /etc/rc.conf: autofs_enable="YES" Then &man.autofs.5; can be started by running: &prompt.root; service automount start &prompt.root; service automountd start &prompt.root; service autounmountd start The &man.autofs.5; map format is the same as in other operating systems, it might be desirable to consult information from other operating systems, such as the Mac OS X document. Consult the &man.automount.8;, &man.automountd.8;, &man.autounmountd.8;, and &man.auto.master.5; manual pages for more information. Network Information System (<acronym>NIS</acronym>) NIS Solaris HP-UX AIX Linux NetBSD OpenBSD yellow pages NIS Network Information System (NIS) is designed to centralize administration of &unix;-like systems such as &solaris;, HP-UX, &aix;, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and &os;. NIS was originally known as Yellow Pages but the name was changed due to trademark issues. This is the reason why NIS commands begin with yp. NIS domains NIS is a Remote Procedure Call (RPC)-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and to add, remove, or modify configuration data from a single location. &os; uses version 2 of the NIS protocol. <acronym>NIS</acronym> Terms and Processes Table 28.1 summarizes the terms and important processes used by NIS: rpcbind portmap <acronym>NIS</acronym> Terminology Term Description NIS domain name NIS servers and clients share an NIS domain name. Typically, this name does not have anything to do with DNS. &man.rpcbind.8; This service enables RPC and must be running in order to run an NIS server or act as an NIS client. &man.ypbind.8; This service binds an NIS client to its NIS server. It will take the NIS domain name and use RPC to connect to the server. It is the core of client/server communication in an NIS environment. If this service is not running on a client machine, it will not be able to access the NIS server. &man.ypserv.8; This is the process for the NIS server. If this service stops running, the server will no longer be able to respond to NIS requests so hopefully, there is a slave server to take over. Some non-&os; clients will not try to reconnect using a slave server and the ypbind process may need to be restarted on these clients. &man.rpc.yppasswdd.8; This process only runs on NIS master servers. This daemon allows NIS clients to change their NIS passwords. If this daemon is not running, users will have to login to the NIS master server and change their passwords there.
Machine Types NIS master server NIS slave server NIS client There are three types of hosts in an NIS environment: NIS master server This server acts as a central repository for host configuration information and maintains the authoritative copy of the files used by all of the NIS clients. The passwd, group, and other various files used by NIS clients are stored on the master server. While it is possible for one machine to be an NIS master server for more than one NIS domain, this type of configuration will not be covered in this chapter as it assumes a relatively small-scale NIS environment. NIS slave servers NIS slave servers maintain copies of the NIS master's data files in order to provide redundancy. Slave servers also help to balance the load of the master server as NIS clients always attach to the NIS server which responds first. NIS clients NIS clients authenticate against the NIS server during log on. Information in many files can be shared using NIS. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the NIS server that it is bound to instead. Planning Considerations This section describes a sample NIS environment which consists of 15 &os; machines with no centralized point of administration. Each machine has its own /etc/passwd and /etc/master.passwd. These files are kept in sync with each other only through manual intervention. Currently, when a user is added to the lab, the process must be repeated on all 15 machines. The configuration of the lab will be as follows: Machine name IP address Machine role ellington 10.0.0.2 NIS master coltrane 10.0.0.3 NIS slave basie 10.0.0.4 Faculty workstation bird 10.0.0.5 Client machine cli[1-11] 10.0.0.[6-17] Other client machines If this is the first time an NIS scheme is being developed, it should be thoroughly planned ahead of time. Regardless of network size, several decisions need to be made as part of the planning process. Choosing a <acronym>NIS</acronym> Domain Name NIS domain name When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domain name as the name for a group of hosts. Some organizations choose to use their Internet domain name for their NIS domain name. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domain name should be unique within the network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the acme-art NIS domain. This example will use the domain name test-domain. However, some non-&os; operating systems require the NIS domain name to be the same as the Internet domain name. If one or more machines on the network have this restriction, the Internet domain name must be used as the NIS domain name. Physical Server Requirements There are several things to keep in mind when choosing a machine to use as a NIS server. Since NIS clients depend upon the availability of the server, choose a machine that is not rebooted frequently. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose is to be an NIS server. If the network is not heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services. However, if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will adversely affect all NIS clients. Configuring the <acronym>NIS</acronym> Master Server The canonical copies of all NIS files are stored on the master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In &os;, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain. Since multiple domains are supported, it is possible to have several directories, one for each domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps. NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests through &man.ypserv.8;. This daemon is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file, and transmitting data from the database back to the client. NIS server configuration Setting up a master NIS server can be relatively straight forward, depending on environmental needs. Since &os; provides built-in NIS support, it only needs to be enabled by adding the following lines to /etc/rc.conf: nisdomainname="test-domain" This line sets the NIS domain name to test-domain. nis_server_enable="YES" This automates the start up of the NIS server processes when the system boots. nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES" This enables the &man.rpc.yppasswdd.8; daemon so that users can change their NIS password from a client machine. Care must be taken in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon it. Eventually, all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again. A server that is also a client can be forced to bind to a particular server by adding these additional lines to /etc/rc.conf: nis_client_enable="YES" # run client stuff as well nis_client_flags="-S NIS domain,server" After saving the edits, type /etc/netstart to restart the network and apply the values defined in /etc/rc.conf. Before initializing the NIS maps, start &man.ypserv.8;: &prompt.root; service ypserv start Initializing the <acronym>NIS</acronym> Maps NIS maps NIS maps are generated from the configuration files in /etc on the NIS master, with one exception: /etc/master.passwd. This is to prevent the propagation of passwords to all the servers in the NIS domain. Therefore, before the NIS maps are initialized, configure the primary password files: &prompt.root; cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; vi master.passwd It is advisable to remove all entries for system accounts as well as any user accounts that do not need to be propagated to the NIS clients, such as the root and any other administrative accounts. Ensure that the /var/yp/master.passwd is neither group or world readable by setting its permissions to 600. After completing this task, initialize the NIS maps. &os; includes the &man.ypinit.8; script to do this. When generating maps for the master server, include and specify the NIS domain name: ellington&prompt.root; ypinit -m test-domain Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If not, something might not work. At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers. rod.darktech.org is already known as master server. Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are done with the list, type a <control D>. master server : ellington next host to add: coltrane next host to add: ^D The current list of NIS servers looks like this: ellington coltrane Is this correct? [y/n: y] y [..output from map generation..] NIS Map update completed. ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors. This will create /var/yp/Makefile from /var/yp/Makefile.dist. By default, this file assumes that the environment has a single NIS server with only &os; clients. Since test-domain has a slave server, edit this line in /var/yp/Makefile so that it begins with a comment (#): NOPUSH = "True" Adding New Users Every time a new user is created, the user account must be added to the master NIS server and the NIS maps rebuilt. Until this occurs, the new user will not be able to login anywhere except on the NIS master. For example, to add the new user jsmith to the test-domain domain, run these commands on the master server: &prompt.root; pw useradd jsmith &prompt.root; cd /var/yp &prompt.root; make test-domain The user could also be added using adduser jsmith instead of pw useradd smith. Setting up a <acronym>NIS</acronym> Slave Server NIS slave server To set up an NIS slave server, log on to the slave server and edit /etc/rc.conf as for the master server. Do not generate any NIS maps, as these already exist on the master server. When running ypinit on the slave server, use (for slave) instead of (for master). This option requires the name of the NIS master in addition to the domain name, as seen in this example: coltrane&prompt.root; ypinit -s ellington test-domain Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If not, something might not work. There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington. Transferring netgroup... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byuser... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netgroup.byhost... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.bygid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring group.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring services.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring rpc.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring master.passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring networks.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring netid.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring protocols.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring ypservers... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred Transferring hosts.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors. Remember to update map ypservers on ellington. This will generate a directory on the slave server called /var/yp/test-domain which contains copies of the NIS master server's maps. Adding these /etc/crontab entries on each slave server will force the slaves to sync their maps with the maps on the master server: 20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname 21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid These entries are not mandatory because the master server automatically attempts to push any map changes to its slaves. However, since clients may depend upon the slave server to provide correct password information, it is recommended to force frequent password map updates. This is especially important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete. To finish the configuration, run /etc/netstart on the slave server in order to start the NIS services. Setting Up an <acronym>NIS</acronym> Client An NIS client binds to an NIS server using &man.ypbind.8;. This daemon broadcasts RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the domain name configured on the client. If an NIS server in the same domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available, the client will use the address of the first server to respond and will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. The client will automatically ping the server on a regular basis to make sure it is still available. If it fails to receive a reply within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server. NIS client configuration To configure a &os; machine to be an NIS client: Edit /etc/rc.conf and add the following lines in order to set the NIS domain name and start &man.ypbind.8; during network startup: nisdomainname="test-domain" nis_client_enable="YES" To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, use vipw to remove all user accounts except one from /etc/master.passwd. When removing the accounts, keep in mind that at least one local account should remain and this account should be a member of wheel. If there is a problem with NIS, this local account can be used to log in remotely, become the superuser, and fix the problem. Before saving the edits, add the following line to the end of the file: +::::::::: This line configures the client to provide anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account on the client. There are many ways to configure the NIS client by modifying this line. One method is described in . For more detailed reading, refer to the book Managing NFS and NIS, published by O'Reilly Media. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to /etc/group: +:*:: To start the NIS client immediately, execute the following commands as the superuser: &prompt.root; /etc/netstart &prompt.root; service ypbind start After completing these steps, running ypcat passwd on the client should show the server's passwd map. <acronym>NIS</acronym> Security Since RPC is a broadcast-based service, any system running ypbind within the same domain can retrieve the contents of the NIS maps. To prevent unauthorized transactions, &man.ypserv.8; supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. By default, this information is stored in /var/yp/securenets, unless &man.ypserv.8; is started with and an alternate path. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated by white space. Lines starting with # are considered to be comments. A sample securenets might look like this: # allow connections from local host -- mandatory 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 # allow connections from any host # on the 192.168.128.0 network 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0 # allow connections from any host # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255 # this includes the machines in the testlab 10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 If &man.ypserv.8; receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the securenets does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host. is an alternate mechanism for providing access control instead of securenets. While either access control mechanism adds some security, they are both vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. All NIS-related traffic should be blocked at the firewall. Servers using securenets may fail to serve legitimate NIS clients with archaic TCP/IP implementations. Some of these implementations set all host bits to zero when doing broadcasts or fail to observe the subnet mask when calculating the broadcast address. While some of these problems can be fixed by changing the client configuration, other problems may force the retirement of these client systems or the abandonment of securenets. TCP Wrapper The use of TCP Wrapper increases the latency of the NIS server. The additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in client programs, especially in busy networks with slow NIS servers. If one or more clients suffer from latency, convert those clients into NIS slave servers and force them to bind to themselves. Barring Some Users In this example, the basie system is a faculty workstation within the NIS domain. The passwd map on the master NIS server contains accounts for both faculty and students. This section demonstrates how to allow faculty logins on this system while refusing student logins. To prevent specified users from logging on to a system, even if they are present in the NIS database, use vipw to add -username with the correct number of colons towards the end of /etc/master.passwd on the client, where username is the username of a user to bar from logging in. The line with the blocked user must be before the + line that allows NIS users. In this example, bill is barred from logging on to basie: basie&prompt.root; cat /etc/master.passwd root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &:/:/sbin/nologin bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin -bill::::::::: +::::::::: basie&prompt.root; Using Netgroups netgroups Barring specified users from logging on to individual systems becomes unscaleable on larger networks and quickly loses the main benefit of NIS: centralized administration. Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks with hundreds of users and machines. Their use is comparable to &unix; groups, where the main difference is the lack of a numeric ID and the ability to define a netgroup by including both user accounts and other netgroups. To expand on the example used in this chapter, the NIS domain will be extended to add the users and systems shown in Tables 28.2 and 28.3: Additional Users User Name(s) Description alpha, beta IT department employees charlie, delta IT department apprentices echo, foxtrott, golf, ... employees able, baker, ... interns
Additional Systems Machine Name(s) Description war, death, famine, pollution Only IT employees are allowed to log onto these servers. pride, greed, envy, wrath, lust, sloth All members of the IT department are allowed to login onto these servers. one, two, three, four, ... Ordinary workstations used by employees. trashcan A very old machine without any critical data. Even interns are allowed to use this system.
When using netgroups to configure this scenario, each user is assigned to one or more netgroups and logins are then allowed or forbidden for all members of the netgroup. When adding a new machine, login restrictions must be defined for all netgroups. When a new user is added, the account must be added to one or more netgroups. If the NIS setup is planned carefully, only one central configuration file needs modification to grant or deny access to machines. The first step is the initialization of the NIS netgroup map. In &os;, this map is not created by default. On the NIS master server, use an editor to create a map named /var/yp/netgroup. This example creates four netgroups to represent IT employees, IT apprentices, employees, and interns: IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) USERS (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) \ (,golf,test-domain) INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) Each entry configures a netgroup. The first column in an entry is the name of the netgroup. Each set of brackets represents either a group of one or more users or the name of another netgroup. When specifying a user, the three comma-delimited fields inside each group represent: The name of the host(s) where the other fields representing the user are valid. If a hostname is not specified, the entry is valid on all hosts. The name of the account that belongs to this netgroup. The NIS domain for the account. Accounts may be imported from other NIS domains into a netgroup. If a group contains multiple users, separate each user with whitespace. Additionally, each field may contain wildcards. See &man.netgroup.5; for details. netgroups Netgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be The names are case sensitive and using capital letters for netgroup names is an easy way to distinguish between user, machine and netgroup names. Some non-&os; NIS clients cannot handle netgroups containing more than 15 entries. This limit may be circumvented by creating several sub-netgroups with 15 users or fewer and a real netgroup consisting of the sub-netgroups, as seen in this example: BIGGRP1 (,joe1,domain) (,joe2,domain) (,joe3,domain) [...] BIGGRP2 (,joe16,domain) (,joe17,domain) [...] BIGGRP3 (,joe31,domain) (,joe32,domain) BIGGROUP BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3 Repeat this process if more than 225 (15 times 15) users exist within a single netgroup. To activate and distribute the new NIS map: ellington&prompt.root; cd /var/yp ellington&prompt.root; make This will generate the three NIS maps netgroup, netgroup.byhost and netgroup.byuser. Use the map key option of &man.ypcat.1; to check if the new NIS maps are available: ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byhost ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byuser The output of the first command should resemble the contents of /var/yp/netgroup. The second command only produces output if host-specific netgroups were created. The third command is used to get the list of netgroups for a user. To configure a client, use &man.vipw.8; to specify the name of the netgroup. For example, on the server named war, replace this line: +::::::::: with +@IT_EMP::::::::: This specifies that only the users defined in the netgroup IT_EMP will be imported into this system's password database and only those users are allowed to login to this system. This configuration also applies to the ~ function of the shell and all routines which convert between user names and numerical user IDs. In other words, cd ~user will not work, ls -l will show the numerical ID instead of the username, and find . -user joe -print will fail with the message No such user. To fix this, import all user entries without allowing them to login into the servers. This can be achieved by adding an extra line: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin This line configures the client to import all entries but to replace the shell in those entries with /sbin/nologin. Make sure that extra line is placed after +@IT_EMP:::::::::. Otherwise, all user accounts imported from NIS will have /sbin/nologin as their login shell and no one will be able to login to the system. To configure the less important servers, replace the old +::::::::: on the servers with these lines: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@IT_APP::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin The corresponding lines for the workstations would be: +@IT_EMP::::::::: +@USERS::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin NIS supports the creation of netgroups from other netgroups which can be useful if the policy regarding user access changes. One possibility is the creation of role-based netgroups. For example, one might create a netgroup called BIGSRV to define the login restrictions for the important servers, another netgroup called SMALLSRV for the less important servers, and a third netgroup called USERBOX for the workstations. Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups that are allowed to login onto these machines. The new entries for the NIS netgroup map would look like this: BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS This method of defining login restrictions works reasonably well when it is possible to define groups of machines with identical restrictions. Unfortunately, this is the exception and not the rule. Most of the time, the ability to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis is required. Machine-specific netgroup definitions are another possibility to deal with the policy changes. In this scenario, the /etc/master.passwd of each system contains two lines starting with +. The first line adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto this machine and the second line adds all other accounts with /sbin/nologin as shell. It is recommended to use the ALL-CAPS version of the hostname as the name of the netgroup: +@BOXNAME::::::::: +:::::::::/sbin/nologin Once this task is completed on all the machines, there is no longer a need to modify the local versions of /etc/master.passwd ever again. All further changes can be handled by modifying the NIS map. Here is an example of a possible netgroup map for this scenario: # Define groups of users first IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain) IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain) DEPT1 (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) DEPT2 (,golf,test-domain) (,hotel,test-domain) DEPT3 (,india,test-domain) (,juliet,test-domain) ITINTERN (,kilo,test-domain) (,lima,test-domain) D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain) # # Now, define some groups based on roles USERS DEPT1 DEPT2 DEPT3 BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS # # And a groups for a special tasks # Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine SECURITY IT_EMP (,echo,test-domain) (,golf,test-domain) # # machine-based netgroups # Our main servers WAR BIGSRV FAMINE BIGSRV # User india needs access to this server POLLUTION BIGSRV (,india,test-domain) # # This one is really important and needs more access restrictions DEATH IT_EMP # # The anti-virus-machine mentioned above ONE SECURITY # # Restrict a machine to a single user TWO (,hotel,test-domain) # [...more groups to follow] It may not always be advisable to use machine-based netgroups. When deploying a couple of dozen or hundreds of systems, role-based netgroups instead of machine-based netgroups may be used to keep the size of the NIS map within reasonable limits. Password Formats NIS password formats NIS requires that all hosts within an NIS domain use the same format for encrypting passwords. If users have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, it may be due to a differing password format. In a heterogeneous network, the format must be supported by all operating systems, where DES is the lowest common standard. To check which format a server or client is using, look at this section of /etc/login.conf: default:\ :passwd_format=des:\ :copyright=/etc/COPYRIGHT:\ [Further entries elided] In this example, the system is using the DES format. Other possible values are blf for Blowfish and md5 for MD5 encrypted passwords. If the format on a host needs to be edited to match the one being used in the NIS domain, the login capability database must be rebuilt after saving the change: &prompt.root; cap_mkdb /etc/login.conf The format of passwords for existing user accounts will not be updated until each user changes their password after the login capability database is rebuilt. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (<acronym>LDAP</acronym>) Tom Rhodes Written by LDAP The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is an application layer protocol used to access, modify, and authenticate objects using a distributed directory information service. Think of it as a phone or record book which stores several levels of hierarchical, homogeneous information. It is used in Active Directory and OpenLDAP networks and allows users to access to several levels of internal information utilizing a single account. For example, email authentication, pulling employee contact information, and internal website authentication might all make use of a single user account in the LDAP server's record base. This section provides a quick start guide for configuring an LDAP server on a &os; system. It assumes that the administrator already has a design plan which includes the type of information to store, what that information will be used for, which users should have access to that information, and how to secure this information from unauthorized access. <acronym>LDAP</acronym> Terminology and Structure LDAP uses several terms which should be understood before starting the configuration. All directory entries consist of a group of attributes. Each of these attribute sets contains a unique identifier known as a Distinguished Name (DN) which is normally built from several other attributes such as the common or Relative Distinguished Name (RDN). Similar to how directories have absolute and relative paths, consider a DN as an absolute path and the RDN as the relative path. An example LDAP entry looks like the following. This example searches for the entry for the specified user account (uid), organizational unit (ou), and organization (o): &prompt.user; ldapsearch -xb "uid=trhodes,ou=users,o=example.com" # extended LDIF # # LDAPv3 # base <uid=trhodes,ou=users,o=example.com> with scope subtree # filter: (objectclass=*) # requesting: ALL # # trhodes, users, example.com dn: uid=trhodes,ou=users,o=example.com mail: trhodes@example.com cn: Tom Rhodes uid: trhodes telephoneNumber: (123) 456-7890 # search result search: 2 result: 0 Success # numResponses: 2 # numEntries: 1 This example entry shows the values for the dn, mail, cn, uid, and telephoneNumber attributes. The cn attribute is the RDN. More information about LDAP and its terminology can be found at http://www.openldap.org/doc/admin24/intro.html. Configuring an <acronym>LDAP</acronym> Server LDAP Server &os; does not provide a built-in LDAP server. Begin the configuration by installing the net/openldap24-server package or port. Since the port has many configurable options, it is recommended that the default options are reviewed to see if the package is sufficient, and to instead compile the port if any options should be changed. In most cases, the defaults are fine. However, if SQL support is needed, this option must be enabled and the port compiled using the instructions in . Next, create the directories to hold the data and to store the certificates: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/db/openldap-data &prompt.root; mkdir /usr/local/etc/openldap/private Copy over the database configuration file: &prompt.root; cp /usr/local/etc/openldap/DB_CONFIG.example /var/db/openldap-data/DB_CONFIG The next phase is to configure the certificate authority. The following commands must be executed from /usr/local/etc/openldap/private. This is important as the file permissions need to be restrictive and users should not have access to these files. To create the certificate authority, start with this command and follow the prompts: &prompt.root; openssl req -days 365 -nodes -new -x509 -keyout ca.key -out ../ca.crt The entries for the prompts may be generic except for the Common Name. This entry must be different than the system hostname. If this will be a self signed certificate, prefix the hostname with CA for certificate authority. The next task is to create a certificate signing request and a private key. Input this command and follow the prompts: &prompt.root; openssl req -days 365 -nodes -new -keyout server.key -out server.csr During the certificate generation process, be sure to correctly set the Common Name attribute. Once complete, sign the key: &prompt.root; openssl x509 -req -days 365 -in server.csr -out ../server.crt -CA ../ca.crt -CAkey ca.key -CAcreateserial The final part of the certificate generation process is to generate and sign the client certificates: &prompt.root; openssl req -days 365 -nodes -new -keyout client.key -out client.csr &prompt.root; openssl x509 -req -days 3650 -in client.csr -out ../client.crt -CA ../ca.crt -CAkey ca.key Remember to use the same Common Name attribute when prompted. When finished, ensure that a total of eight (8) new files have been generated through the proceeding commands. If so, the next step is to edit /usr/local/etc/openldap/slapd.conf and add the following options: TLSCipherSuite HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3 TLSCertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/server.crt TLSCertificateKeyFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/private/server.key TLSCACertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt Then, edit /usr/local/etc/openldap/ldap.conf and add the following lines: TLS_CACERT /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt TLS_CIPHER_SUITE HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3 While editing this file, uncomment the following entries and set them to the desired values: , , and . Set the to contain and . Then, add two entries pointing to the certificate authority. When finished, the entries should look similar to the following: BASE dc=example,dc=com URI ldap:// ldaps:// SIZELIMIT 12 TIMELIMIT 15 TLS_CACERT /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt TLS_CIPHER_SUITE HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3 The default password for the server should then be changed: &prompt.root; slappasswd -h "{SHA}" >> /usr/local/etc/openldap/slapd.conf This command will prompt for the password and, if the process does not fail, a password hash will be added to the end of slapd.conf. Several hashing formats are supported. Refer to the manual page for slappasswd for more information. Next, edit /usr/local/etc/openldap/slapd.conf and add the following lines: password-hash {sha} allow bind_v2 The in this file must be updated to match the used in /usr/local/etc/openldap/ldap.conf and should also be set. A recommended value for is something like . Before saving this file, place the in front of the password output from slappasswd and delete the old . The end result should look similar to this: TLSCipherSuite HIGH:MEDIUM:+SSLv3 TLSCertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/server.crt TLSCertificateKeyFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/private/server.key TLSCACertificateFile /usr/local/etc/openldap/ca.crt rootpw {SHA}W6ph5Mm5Pz8GgiULbPgzG37mj9g= Finally, enable the OpenLDAP service in /etc/rc.conf and set the URI: slapd_enable="YES" slapd_flags="-4 -h ldaps:///" At this point the server can be started and tested: &prompt.root; service slapd start If everything is configured correctly, a search of the directory should show a successful connection with a single response as in this example: &prompt.root; ldapsearch -Z # extended LDIF # # LDAPv3 # base <dc=example,dc=com> (default) with scope subtree # filter: (objectclass=*) # requesting: ALL # # search result search: 3 result: 32 No such object # numResponses: 1 If the command fails and the configuration looks correct, stop the slapd service and restart it with debugging options: &prompt.root; service slapd stop &prompt.root; /usr/local/libexec/slapd -d -1 Once the service is responding, the directory can be populated using ldapadd. In this example, a file containing this list of users is first created. Each user should use the following format: dn: dc=example,dc=com objectclass: dcObject objectclass: organization o: Example dc: Example dn: cn=Manager,dc=example,dc=com objectclass: organizationalRole cn: Manager To import this file, specify the file name. The following command will prompt for the password specified earlier and the output should look something like this: &prompt.root; ldapadd -Z -D "cn=Manager,dc=example,dc=com" -W -f import.ldif Enter LDAP Password: adding new entry "dc=example,dc=com" adding new entry "cn=Manager,dc=example,dc=com" Verify the data was added by issuing a search on the server using ldapsearch: &prompt.user; ldapsearch -Z # extended LDIF # # LDAPv3 # base <dc=example,dc=com> (default) with scope subtree # filter: (objectclass=*) # requesting: ALL # # example.com dn: dc=example,dc=com objectClass: dcObject objectClass: organization o: Example dc: Example # Manager, example.com dn: cn=Manager,dc=example,dc=com objectClass: organizationalRole cn: Manager # search result search: 3 result: 0 Success # numResponses: 3 # numEntries: 2 At this point, the server should be configured and functioning properly. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (<acronym>DHCP</acronym>) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol DHCP Internet Systems Consortium (ISC) The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) allows a system to connect to a network in order to be assigned the necessary addressing information for communication on that network. &os; includes the OpenBSD version of dhclient which is used by the client to obtain the addressing information. &os; does not install a DHCP server, but several servers are available in the &os; Ports Collection. The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. Informational resources are also available at isc.org/downloads/dhcp/. This section describes how to use the built-in DHCP client. It then describes how to install and configure a DHCP server. In &os;, the &man.bpf.4; device is needed by both the DHCP server and DHCP client. This device is included in the GENERIC kernel that is installed with &os;. Users who prefer to create a custom kernel need to keep this device if DHCP is used. It should be noted that bpf also allows privileged users to run network packet sniffers on that system. Configuring a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> Client DHCP client support is included in the &os; installer, making it easy to configure a newly installed system to automatically receive its networking addressing information from an existing DHCP server. Refer to for examples of network configuration. UDP When dhclient is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests use UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP port 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as a subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server addresses. This information is in the form of a DHCP lease and is valid for a configurable time. This allows stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network to automatically be reused. DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in &man.dhcp-options.5;. By default, when a &os; system boots, its DHCP client runs in the background, or asynchronously. Other startup scripts continue to run while the DHCP process completes, which speeds up system startup. Background DHCP works well when the DHCP server responds quickly to the client's requests. However, DHCP may take a long time to complete on some systems. If network services attempt to run before DHCP has assigned the network addressing information, they will fail. Using DHCP in synchronous mode prevents this problem as it pauses startup until the DHCP configuration has completed. This line in /etc/rc.conf is used to configure background or asynchronous mode: ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP" This line may already exist if the system was configured to use DHCP during installation. Replace the fxp0 shown in these examples with the name of the interface to be dynamically configured, as described in . To instead configure the system to use synchronous mode, and to pause during startup while DHCP completes, use SYNCDHCP: ifconfig_fxp0="SYNCDHCP" Additional client options are available. Search for dhclient in &man.rc.conf.5; for details. DHCP configuration files The DHCP client uses the following files: /etc/dhclient.conf The configuration file used by dhclient. Typically, this file contains only comments as the defaults are suitable for most clients. This configuration file is described in &man.dhclient.conf.5;. /sbin/dhclient More information about the command itself can be found in &man.dhclient.8;. /sbin/dhclient-script The &os;-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in &man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user modification to function properly. /var/db/dhclient.leases.interface The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log and is described in &man.dhclient.leases.5;. Installing and Configuring a <acronym>DHCP</acronym> Server This section demonstrates how to configure a &os; system to act as a DHCP server using the Internet Systems Consortium (ISC) implementation of the DHCP server. This implementation and its documentation can be installed using the net/isc-dhcp42-server package or port. DHCP server DHCP installation The installation of net/isc-dhcp42-server installs a sample configuration file. Copy /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf.example to /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf and make any edits to this new file. DHCP dhcpd.conf The configuration file is comprised of declarations for subnets and hosts which define the information that is provided to DHCP clients. For example, these lines configure the following: option domain-name "example.org"; option domain-name-servers ns1.example.org; option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0; default-lease-time 600; max-lease-time 72400; ddns-update-style none; subnet 10.254.239.0 netmask 255.255.255.224 { range 10.254.239.10 10.254.239.20; option routers rtr-239-0-1.example.org, rtr-239-0-2.example.org; } host fantasia { hardware ethernet 08:00:07:26:c0:a5; fixed-address fantasia.fugue.com; } This option specifies the default search domain that will be provided to clients. Refer to &man.resolv.conf.5; for more information. This option specifies a comma separated list of DNS servers that the client should use. They can be listed by their Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN), as seen in the example, or by their IP addresses. The subnet mask that will be provided to clients. The default lease expiry time in seconds. A client can be configured to override this value. The maximum allowed length of time, in seconds, for a lease. Should a client request a longer lease, a lease will still be issued, but it will only be valid for max-lease-time. The default of disables dynamic DNS updates. Changing this to configures the DHCP server to update a DNS server whenever it hands out a lease so that the DNS server knows which IP addresses are associated with which computers in the network. Do not change the default setting unless the DNS server has been configured to support dynamic DNS. This line creates a pool of available IP addresses which are reserved for allocation to DHCP clients. The range of addresses must be valid for the network or subnet specified in the previous line. Declares the default gateway that is valid for the network or subnet specified before the opening { bracket. Specifies the hardware MAC address of a client so that the DHCP server can recognize the client when it makes a request. Specifies that this host should always be given the same IP address. Using the hostname is correct, since the DHCP server will resolve the hostname before returning the lease information. This configuration file supports many more options. Refer to dhcpd.conf(5), installed with the server, for details and examples. Once the configuration of dhcpd.conf is complete, enable the DHCP server in /etc/rc.conf: dhcpd_enable="YES" dhcpd_ifaces="dc0" Replace the dc0 with the interface (or interfaces, separated by whitespace) that the DHCP server should listen on for DHCP client requests. Start the server by issuing the following command: &prompt.root; service isc-dhcpd start Any future changes to the configuration of the server will require the dhcpd service to be stopped and then started using &man.service.8;. The DHCP server uses the following files. Note that the manual pages are installed with the server software. DHCP configuration files /usr/local/sbin/dhcpd More information about the dhcpd server can be found in dhcpd(8). /usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf The server configuration file needs to contain all the information that should be provided to clients, along with information regarding the operation of the server. This configuration file is described in dhcpd.conf(5). /var/db/dhcpd.leases The DHCP server keeps a database of leases it has issued in this file, which is written as a log. Refer to dhcpd.leases(5), which gives a slightly longer description. /usr/local/sbin/dhcrelay This daemon is used in advanced environments where one DHCP server forwards a request from a client to another DHCP server on a separate network. If this functionality is required, install the net/isc-dhcp42-relay package or port. The installation includes dhcrelay(8) which provides more detail. Domain Name System (<acronym>DNS</acronym>) DNS Domain Name System (DNS) is the protocol through which domain names are mapped to IP addresses, and vice versa. DNS is coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat complex system of authoritative root, Top Level Domain (TLD), and other smaller-scale name servers, which host and cache individual domain information. It is not necessary to run a name server to perform DNS lookups on a system. BIND In &os; 10, the Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) has been removed from the base system and replaced with Unbound. Unbound as configured in the &os; Base is a local caching resolver. BIND is still available from The Ports Collection as dns/bind99 or dns/bind98. In &os; 9 and lower, BIND is included in &os; Base. The &os; version provides enhanced security features, a new file system layout, and automated &man.chroot.8; configuration. BIND is maintained by the Internet Systems Consortium. resolver reverse DNS root zone The following table describes some of the terms associated with DNS: <acronym>DNS</acronym> Terminology Term Definition Forward DNS Mapping of hostnames to IP addresses. Origin Refers to the domain covered in a particular zone file. named, BIND Common names for the BIND name server package within &os;. Resolver A system process through which a machine queries a name server for zone information. Reverse DNS Mapping of IP addresses to hostnames. Root zone The beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy. All zones fall under the root zone, similar to how all files in a file system fall under the root directory. Zone An individual domain, subdomain, or portion of the DNS administered by the same authority.
zones examples Examples of zones: . is how the root zone is usually referred to in documentation. org. is a Top Level Domain (TLD) under the root zone. example.org. is a zone under the org. TLD. 1.168.192.in-addr.arpa is a zone referencing all IP addresses which fall under the 192.168.1.* IP address space. As one can see, the more specific part of a hostname appears to its left. For example, example.org. is more specific than org., as org. is more specific than the root zone. The layout of each part of a hostname is much like a file system: the /dev directory falls within the root, and so on. Reasons to Run a Name Server Name servers generally come in two forms: authoritative name servers, and caching (also known as resolving) name servers. An authoritative name server is needed when: One wants to serve DNS information to the world, replying authoritatively to queries. A domain, such as example.org, is registered and IP addresses need to be assigned to hostnames under it. An IP address block requires reverse DNS entries (IP to hostname). A backup or second name server, called a slave, will reply to queries. A caching name server is needed when: A local DNS server may cache and respond more quickly than querying an outside name server. When one queries for www.FreeBSD.org, the resolver usually queries the uplink ISP's name server, and retrieves the reply. With a local, caching DNS server, the query only has to be made once to the outside world by the caching DNS server. Additional queries will not have to go outside the local network, since the information is cached locally. <acronym>DNS</acronym> Server Configuration in &os; 10.0 and Later In &os; 10.0, BIND has been replaced with Unbound. Unbound is a validating caching resolver only. If an authoritative server is needed, many are available from the Ports Collection. Unbound is provided in the &os; base system. By default, it will provide DNS resolution to the local machine only. While the base system package can be configured to provide resolution services beyond the local machine, it is recommended that such requirements be addressed by installing Unbound from the &os; Ports Collection. To enable Unbound, add the following to /etc/rc.conf: local_unbound_enable="YES" Any existing nameservers in /etc/resolv.conf will be configured as forwarders in the new Unbound configuration. If any of the listed nameservers do not support DNSSEC, local DNS resolution will fail. Be sure to test each nameserver and remove any that fail the test. The following command will show the trust tree or a failure for a nameserver running on 192.168.1.1: &prompt.user; drill -S FreeBSD.org @192.168.1.1 Once each nameserver is confirmed to support DNSSEC, start Unbound: &prompt.root; service local_unbound onestart This will take care of updating /etc/resolv.conf so that queries for DNSSEC secured domains will now work. For example, run the following to validate the FreeBSD.org DNSSEC trust tree: &prompt.user; drill -S FreeBSD.org ;; Number of trusted keys: 1 ;; Chasing: freebsd.org. A DNSSEC Trust tree: freebsd.org. (A) |---freebsd.org. (DNSKEY keytag: 36786 alg: 8 flags: 256) |---freebsd.org. (DNSKEY keytag: 32659 alg: 8 flags: 257) |---freebsd.org. (DS keytag: 32659 digest type: 2) |---org. (DNSKEY keytag: 49587 alg: 7 flags: 256) |---org. (DNSKEY keytag: 9795 alg: 7 flags: 257) |---org. (DNSKEY keytag: 21366 alg: 7 flags: 257) |---org. (DS keytag: 21366 digest type: 1) | |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 40926 alg: 8 flags: 256) | |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 19036 alg: 8 flags: 257) |---org. (DS keytag: 21366 digest type: 2) |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 40926 alg: 8 flags: 256) |---. (DNSKEY keytag: 19036 alg: 8 flags: 257) ;; Chase successful DNS Server Configuration in &os; 9.<replaceable>X</replaceable> and Earlier In &os;, the BIND daemon is called named. File Description &man.named.8; The BIND daemon. &man.rndc.8; Name server control utility. /etc/namedb Directory where BIND zone information resides. /etc/namedb/named.conf Configuration file of the daemon. Depending on how a given zone is configured on the server, the files related to that zone can be found in the master, slave, or dynamic subdirectories of the /etc/namedb directory. These files contain the DNS information that will be given out by the name server in response to queries. Starting BIND BIND starting Since BIND is installed by default, configuring it is relatively simple. The default named configuration is that of a basic resolving name server, running in a &man.chroot.8; environment, and restricted to listening on the local IPv4 loopback address (127.0.0.1). To start the server one time with this configuration, use the following command: &prompt.root; service named onestart To ensure the named daemon is started at boot each time, put the following line into the /etc/rc.conf: named_enable="YES" There are many configuration options for /etc/namedb/named.conf that are beyond the scope of this document. Other startup options for named on &os; can be found in the named_* flags in /etc/defaults/rc.conf and in &man.rc.conf.5;. The section is also a good read. Configuration Files BIND configuration files Configuration files for named currently reside in /etc/namedb directory and will need modification before use unless all that is needed is a simple resolver. This is where most of the configuration will be performed. <filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename> // $FreeBSD$ // // Refer to the named.conf(5) and named(8) man pages, and the documentation // in /usr/share/doc/bind9 for more details. // // If you are going to set up an authoritative server, make sure you // understand the hairy details of how DNS works. Even with // simple mistakes, you can break connectivity for affected parties, // or cause huge amounts of useless Internet traffic. options { // All file and path names are relative to the chroot directory, // if any, and should be fully qualified. directory "/etc/namedb/working"; pid-file "/var/run/named/pid"; dump-file "/var/dump/named_dump.db"; statistics-file "/var/stats/named.stats"; // If named is being used only as a local resolver, this is a safe default. // For named to be accessible to the network, comment this option, specify // the proper IP address, or delete this option. listen-on { 127.0.0.1; }; // If you have IPv6 enabled on this system, uncomment this option for // use as a local resolver. To give access to the network, specify // an IPv6 address, or the keyword "any". // listen-on-v6 { ::1; }; // These zones are already covered by the empty zones listed below. // If you remove the related empty zones below, comment these lines out. disable-empty-zone "255.255.255.255.IN-ADDR.ARPA"; disable-empty-zone "0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.ARPA"; disable-empty-zone "1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.ARPA"; // If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter // its IP address here, and enable the line below. This will make you // benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the Internet. /* forwarders { 127.0.0.1; }; */ // If the 'forwarders' clause is not empty the default is to 'forward first' // which will fall back to sending a query from your local server if the name // servers in 'forwarders' do not have the answer. Alternatively you can // force your name server to never initiate queries of its own by enabling the // following line: // forward only; // If you wish to have forwarding configured automatically based on // the entries in /etc/resolv.conf, uncomment the following line and // set named_auto_forward=yes in /etc/rc.conf. You can also enable // named_auto_forward_only (the effect of which is described above). // include "/etc/namedb/auto_forward.conf"; Just as the comment says, to benefit from an uplink's cache, forwarders can be enabled here. Under normal circumstances, a name server will recursively query the Internet looking at certain name servers until it finds the answer it is looking for. Having this enabled will have it query the uplink's name server (or name server provided) first, taking advantage of its cache. If the uplink name server in question is a heavily trafficked, fast name server, enabling this may be worthwhile. 127.0.0.1 will not work here. Change this IP address to a name server at the uplink. /* Modern versions of BIND use a random UDP port for each outgoing query by default in order to dramatically reduce the possibility of cache poisoning. All users are strongly encouraged to utilize this feature, and to configure their firewalls to accommodate it. AS A LAST RESORT in order to get around a restrictive firewall policy you can try enabling the option below. Use of this option will significantly reduce your ability to withstand cache poisoning attacks, and should be avoided if at all possible. Replace NNNNN in the example with a number between 49160 and 65530. */ // query-source address * port NNNNN; }; // If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1 // first in your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried. // Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf. // The traditional root hints mechanism. Use this, OR the slave zones below. zone "." { type hint; file "/etc/namedb/named.root"; }; /* Slaving the following zones from the root name servers has some significant advantages: 1. Faster local resolution for your users 2. No spurious traffic will be sent from your network to the roots 3. Greater resilience to any potential root server failure/DDoS On the other hand, this method requires more monitoring than the hints file to be sure that an unexpected failure mode has not incapacitated your server. Name servers that are serving a lot of clients will benefit more from this approach than individual hosts. Use with caution. To use this mechanism, uncomment the entries below, and comment the hint zone above. As documented at http://dns.icann.org/services/axfr/ these zones: "." (the root), ARPA, IN-ADDR.ARPA, IP6.ARPA, and ROOT-SERVERS.NET are available for AXFR from these servers on IPv4 and IPv6: xfr.lax.dns.icann.org, xfr.cjr.dns.icann.org */ /* zone "." { type slave; file "/etc/namedb/slave/root.slave"; masters { 192.5.5.241; // F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. }; notify no; }; zone "arpa" { type slave; file "/etc/namedb/slave/arpa.slave"; masters { 192.5.5.241; // F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. }; notify no; }; */ /* Serving the following zones locally will prevent any queries for these zones leaving your network and going to the root name servers. This has two significant advantages: 1. Faster local resolution for your users 2. No spurious traffic will be sent from your network to the roots */ // RFCs 1912 and 5735 (and BCP 32 for localhost) zone "localhost" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/localhost-forward.db"; }; zone "127.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/localhost-reverse.db"; }; zone "255.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // RFC 1912-style zone for IPv6 localhost address zone "0.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/localhost-reverse.db"; }; // "This" Network (RFCs 1912 and 5735) zone "0.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // Private Use Networks (RFCs 1918 and 5735) zone "10.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "16.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "17.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "18.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "19.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "20.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "21.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "22.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "23.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "24.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "25.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "26.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "27.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "28.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "29.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "30.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "31.172.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // Link-local/APIPA (RFCs 3927 and 5735) zone "254.169.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IETF protocol assignments (RFCs 5735 and 5736) zone "0.0.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // TEST-NET-[1-3] for Documentation (RFCs 5735 and 5737) zone "2.0.192.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "100.51.198.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "113.0.203.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IPv6 Range for Documentation (RFC 3849) zone "8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // Domain Names for Documentation and Testing (BCP 32) zone "test" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "example" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "invalid" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "example.com" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "example.net" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "example.org" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // Router Benchmark Testing (RFCs 2544 and 5735) zone "18.198.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "19.198.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IANA Reserved - Old Class E Space (RFC 5735) zone "240.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "241.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "242.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "243.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "244.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "245.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "246.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "247.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "248.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "249.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "250.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "251.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "252.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "253.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "254.in-addr.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IPv6 Unassigned Addresses (RFC 4291) zone "1.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "3.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "4.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "5.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "6.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "7.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "8.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "9.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "a.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "b.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "c.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "d.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "e.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "0.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "1.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "2.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "3.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "4.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "5.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "6.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "7.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "8.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "9.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "a.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "b.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "0.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "1.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "2.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "3.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "4.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "5.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "6.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "7.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IPv6 ULA (RFC 4193) zone "c.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "d.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IPv6 Link Local (RFC 4291) zone "8.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "9.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "a.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "b.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IPv6 Deprecated Site-Local Addresses (RFC 3879) zone "c.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "d.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "e.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; zone "f.e.f.ip6.arpa" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // IP6.INT is Deprecated (RFC 4159) zone "ip6.int" { type master; file "/etc/namedb/master/empty.db"; }; // NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only // serve demonstration/documentation purposes! // // Example slave zone config entries. It can be convenient to become // a slave at least for the zone your own domain is in. Ask // your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible // master name server. // // Do not forget to include the reverse lookup zone! // This is named after the first bytes of the IP address, in reverse // order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended, or ".IP6.ARPA" for IPv6. // // Before starting to set up a master zone, make sure you fully // understand how DNS and BIND work. There are sometimes // non-obvious pitfalls. Setting up a slave zone is usually simpler. // // NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-) Use actual names // and addresses instead. /* An example dynamic zone key "exampleorgkey" { algorithm hmac-md5; secret "sf87HJqjkqh8ac87a02lla=="; }; zone "example.org" { type master; allow-update { key "exampleorgkey"; }; file "/etc/namedb/dynamic/example.org"; }; */ /* Example of a slave reverse zone zone "1.168.192.in-addr.arpa" { type slave; file "/etc/namedb/slave/1.168.192.in-addr.arpa"; masters { 192.168.1.1; }; }; */ In named.conf, these are examples of slave entries for a forward and reverse zone. For each new zone served, a new zone entry must be added to named.conf. For example, the simplest zone entry for example.org can look like: zone "example.org" { type master; file "master/example.org"; }; The zone is a master, as indicated by the statement, holding its zone information in /etc/namedb/master/example.org indicated by the statement. zone "example.org" { type slave; file "slave/example.org"; }; In the slave case, the zone information is transferred from the master name server for the particular zone, and saved in the file specified. If and when the master server dies or is unreachable, the slave name server will have the transferred zone information and will be able to serve it. Zone Files BIND zone files An example master zone file for example.org (existing within /etc/namedb/master/example.org) is as follows: $TTL 3600 ; 1 hour default TTL example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. ( 2006051501 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 300 ; Negative Response TTL ) ; DNS Servers IN NS ns1.example.org. IN NS ns2.example.org. ; MX Records IN MX 10 mx.example.org. IN MX 20 mail.example.org. IN A 192.168.1.1 ; Machine Names localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 192.168.1.2 ns2 IN A 192.168.1.3 mx IN A 192.168.1.4 mail IN A 192.168.1.5 ; Aliases www IN CNAME example.org. Note that every hostname ending in a . is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing . is relative to the origin. For example, ns1 is translated into ns1.example.org. The format of a zone file follows: recordname IN recordtype value DNS records The most commonly used DNS records: SOA start of zone authority NS an authoritative name server A a host address CNAME the canonical name for an alias MX mail exchanger PTR a domain name pointer (used in reverse DNS) example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. ( 2006051501 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh after 3 hours 3600 ; Retry after 1 hour 604800 ; Expire after 1 week 300 ) ; Negative Response TTL example.org. the domain name, also the origin for this zone file. ns1.example.org. the primary/authoritative name server for this zone. admin.example.org. the responsible person for this zone, email address with @ replaced. (admin@example.org becomes admin.example.org) 2006051501 the serial number of the file. This must be incremented each time the zone file is modified. Nowadays, many admins prefer a yyyymmddrr format for the serial number. 2006051501 would mean last modified 05/15/2006, the latter 01 being the first time the zone file has been modified this day. The serial number is important as it alerts slave name servers for a zone when it is updated. IN NS ns1.example.org. This is an NS entry. Every name server that is going to reply authoritatively for the zone must have one of these entries. localhost IN A 127.0.0.1 ns1 IN A 192.168.1.2 ns2 IN A 192.168.1.3 mx IN A 192.168.1.4 mail IN A 192.168.1.5 The A record indicates machine names. As seen above, ns1.example.org would resolve to 192.168.1.2. IN A 192.168.1.1 This line assigns IP address 192.168.1.1 to the current origin, in this case example.org. www IN CNAME @ The canonical name record is usually used for giving aliases to a machine. In the example, www is aliased to the master machine whose name happens to be the same as the domain name example.org (192.168.1.1). CNAMEs can never be used together with another kind of record for the same hostname. MX record IN MX 10 mail.example.org. The MX record indicates which mail servers are responsible for handling incoming mail for the zone. mail.example.org is the hostname of a mail server, and 10 is the priority of that mail server. One can have several mail servers, with priorities of 10, 20 and so on. A mail server attempting to deliver to example.org would first try the highest priority MX (the record with the lowest priority number), then the second highest, etc, until the mail can be properly delivered. For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse DNS), the same format is used, except with PTR entries instead of A or CNAME. $TTL 3600 1.168.192.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. ( 2006051501 ; Serial 10800 ; Refresh 3600 ; Retry 604800 ; Expire 300 ) ; Negative Response TTL IN NS ns1.example.org. IN NS ns2.example.org. 1 IN PTR example.org. 2 IN PTR ns1.example.org. 3 IN PTR ns2.example.org. 4 IN PTR mx.example.org. 5 IN PTR mail.example.org. This file gives the proper IP address to hostname mappings for the above fictitious domain. It is worth noting that all names on the right side of a PTR record need to be fully qualified (i.e., end in a .). Caching Name Server BIND caching name server A caching name server is a name server whose primary role is to resolve recursive queries. It simply asks queries of its own, and remembers the answers for later use. <acronym role="Domain Name Security Extensions">DNSSEC</acronym> BIND DNS security extensions Domain Name System Security Extensions, or DNSSEC for short, is a suite of specifications to protect resolving name servers from forged DNS data, such as spoofed DNS records. By using digital signatures, a resolver can verify the integrity of the record. Note that DNSSEC only provides integrity via digitally signing the Resource Records (RRs). It provides neither confidentiality nor protection against false end-user assumptions. This means that it cannot protect against people going to example.net instead of example.com. The only thing DNSSEC does is authenticate that the data has not been compromised in transit. The security of DNS is an important step in securing the Internet in general. For more in-depth details of how DNSSEC works, the relevant RFCs are a good place to start. See the list in . The following sections will demonstrate how to enable DNSSEC for an authoritative DNS server and a recursive (or caching) DNS server running BIND 9. While all versions of BIND 9 support DNSSEC, it is necessary to have at least version 9.6.2 in order to be able to use the signed root zone when validating DNS queries. This is because earlier versions lack the required algorithms to enable validation using the root zone key. It is strongly recommended to use the latest version of BIND 9.7 or later to take advantage of automatic key updating for the root key, as well as other features to automatically keep zones signed and signatures up to date. Where configurations differ between 9.6.2 and 9.7 and later, differences will be pointed out. Recursive <acronym>DNS</acronym> Server Configuration Enabling DNSSEC validation of queries performed by a recursive DNS server requires a few changes to named.conf. Before making these changes the root zone key, or trust anchor, must be acquired. Currently the root zone key is not available in a file format BIND understands, so it has to be manually converted into the proper format. The key itself can be obtained by querying the root zone for it using dig. By running &prompt.user; dig +multi +noall +answer DNSKEY . > root.dnskey the key will end up in root.dnskey. The contents should look something like this: . 93910 IN DNSKEY 257 3 8 ( AwEAAagAIKlVZrpC6Ia7gEzahOR+9W29euxhJhVVLOyQ bSEW0O8gcCjFFVQUTf6v58fLjwBd0YI0EzrAcQqBGCzh /RStIoO8g0NfnfL2MTJRkxoXbfDaUeVPQuYEhg37NZWA JQ9VnMVDxP/VHL496M/QZxkjf5/Efucp2gaDX6RS6CXp oY68LsvPVjR0ZSwzz1apAzvN9dlzEheX7ICJBBtuA6G3 LQpzW5hOA2hzCTMjJPJ8LbqF6dsV6DoBQzgul0sGIcGO Yl7OyQdXfZ57relSQageu+ipAdTTJ25AsRTAoub8ONGc LmqrAmRLKBP1dfwhYB4N7knNnulqQxA+Uk1ihz0= ) ; key id = 19036 . 93910 IN DNSKEY 256 3 8 ( AwEAAcaGQEA+OJmOzfzVfoYN249JId7gx+OZMbxy69Hf UyuGBbRN0+HuTOpBxxBCkNOL+EJB9qJxt+0FEY6ZUVjE g58sRr4ZQ6Iu6b1xTBKgc193zUARk4mmQ/PPGxn7Cn5V EGJ/1h6dNaiXuRHwR+7oWh7DnzkIJChcTqlFrXDW3tjt ) ; key id = 34525 Do not be alarmed if the obtained keys differ from this example. They might have changed since these instructions were last updated. This output actually contains two keys. The first key in the listing, with the value 257 after the DNSKEY record type, is the one needed. This value indicates that this is a Secure Entry Point (SEP), commonly known as a Key Signing Key (KSK). The second key, with value 256, is a subordinate key, commonly called a Zone Signing Key (ZSK). More on the different key types later in . Now the key must be verified and formatted so that BIND can use it. To verify the key, generate a DS RR set. Create a file containing these RRs with &prompt.user; dnssec-dsfromkey -f root.dnskey . > root.ds These records use SHA-1 and SHA-256 respectively, and should look similar to the following example, where the longer is using SHA-256. . IN DS 19036 8 1 B256BD09DC8DD59F0E0F0D8541B8328DD986DF6E . IN DS 19036 8 2 49AAC11D7B6F6446702E54A1607371607A1A41855200FD2CE1CDDE32F24E8FB5 The SHA-256 RR can now be compared to the digest in https://data.iana.org/root-anchors/root-anchors.xml. To be absolutely sure that the key has not been tampered with the data in the XML file can be verified using the PGP signature in https://data.iana.org/root-anchors/root-anchors.asc. Next, the key must be formatted properly. This differs a little between BIND versions 9.6.2 and 9.7 and later. In version 9.7 support was added to automatically track changes to the key and update it as necessary. This is done using managed-keys as seen in the example below. When using the older version, the key is added using a trusted-keys statement and updates must be done manually. For BIND 9.6.2 the format should look like: trusted-keys { "." 257 3 8 "AwEAAagAIKlVZrpC6Ia7gEzahOR+9W29euxhJhVVLOyQbSEW0O8gcCjF FVQUTf6v58fLjwBd0YI0EzrAcQqBGCzh/RStIoO8g0NfnfL2MTJRkxoX bfDaUeVPQuYEhg37NZWAJQ9VnMVDxP/VHL496M/QZxkjf5/Efucp2gaD X6RS6CXpoY68LsvPVjR0ZSwzz1apAzvN9dlzEheX7ICJBBtuA6G3LQpz W5hOA2hzCTMjJPJ8LbqF6dsV6DoBQzgul0sGIcGOYl7OyQdXfZ57relS Qageu+ipAdTTJ25AsRTAoub8ONGcLmqrAmRLKBP1dfwhYB4N7knNnulq QxA+Uk1ihz0="; }; For 9.7 the format will instead be: managed-keys { "." initial-key 257 3 8 "AwEAAagAIKlVZrpC6Ia7gEzahOR+9W29euxhJhVVLOyQbSEW0O8gcCjF FVQUTf6v58fLjwBd0YI0EzrAcQqBGCzh/RStIoO8g0NfnfL2MTJRkxoX bfDaUeVPQuYEhg37NZWAJQ9VnMVDxP/VHL496M/QZxkjf5/Efucp2gaD X6RS6CXpoY68LsvPVjR0ZSwzz1apAzvN9dlzEheX7ICJBBtuA6G3LQpz W5hOA2hzCTMjJPJ8LbqF6dsV6DoBQzgul0sGIcGOYl7OyQdXfZ57relS Qageu+ipAdTTJ25AsRTAoub8ONGcLmqrAmRLKBP1dfwhYB4N7knNnulq QxA+Uk1ihz0="; }; The root key can now be added to named.conf either directly or by including a file containing the key. After these steps, configure BIND to do DNSSEC validation on queries by editing named.conf and adding the following to the options directive: dnssec-enable yes; dnssec-validation yes; To verify that it is actually working use dig to make a query for a signed zone using the resolver just configured. A successful reply will contain the AD flag to indicate the data was authenticated. Running a query such as &prompt.user; dig @resolver +dnssec se ds should return the DS RR for the .se zone. In the flags: section the AD flag should be set, as seen in: ... ;; flags: qr rd ra ad; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 3, AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 1 ... The resolver is now capable of authenticating DNS queries. Authoritative <acronym>DNS</acronym> Server Configuration In order to get an authoritative name server to serve a DNSSEC signed zone a little more work is required. A zone is signed using cryptographic keys which must be generated. It is possible to use only one key for this. The preferred method however is to have a strong well-protected Key Signing Key (KSK) that is not rotated very often and a Zone Signing Key (ZSK) that is rotated more frequently. Information on recommended operational practices can be found in RFC 4641: DNSSEC Operational Practices. Practices regarding the root zone can be found in DNSSEC Practice Statement for the Root Zone KSK operator and DNSSEC Practice Statement for the Root Zone ZSK operator. The KSK is used to build a chain of authority to the data in need of validation and as such is also called a Secure Entry Point (SEP) key. A message digest of this key, called a Delegation Signer (DS) record, must be published in the parent zone to establish the trust chain. How this is accomplished depends on the parent zone owner. The ZSK is used to sign the zone, and only needs to be published there. To enable DNSSEC for the example.com zone depicted in previous examples, the first step is to use dnssec-keygen to generate the KSK and ZSK key pair. This key pair can utilize different cryptographic algorithms. It is recommended to use RSA/SHA256 for the keys and 2048 bits key length should be enough. To generate the KSK for example.com, run &prompt.user; dnssec-keygen -f KSK -a RSASHA256 -b 2048 -n ZONE example.com and to generate the ZSK, run &prompt.user; dnssec-keygen -a RSASHA256 -b 2048 -n ZONE example.com dnssec-keygen outputs two files, the public and the private keys in files named similar to Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.key (public) and Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.private (private). The nnnnn part of the file name is a five digit key ID. Keep track of which key ID belongs to which key. This is especially important when having more than one key in a zone. It is also possible to rename the keys. For each KSK file do: &prompt.user; mv Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.key Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK.key &prompt.user; mv Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.private Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK.private For the ZSK files, substitute KSK for ZSK as necessary. The files can now be included in the zone file, using the $include statement. It should look something like this: $include Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK.key ; KSK $include Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.ZSK.key ; ZSK Finally, sign the zone and tell BIND to use the signed zone file. To sign a zone dnssec-signzone is used. The command to sign the zone example.com, located in example.com.db would look similar to &prompt.user; dnssec-signzone -o example.com -k Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.KSK example.com.db Kexample.com.+005+nnnnn.ZSK.key The key supplied to the argument is the KSK and the other key file is the ZSK that should be used in the signing. It is possible to supply more than one KSK and ZSK, which will result in the zone being signed with all supplied keys. This can be needed to supply zone data signed using more than one algorithm. The output of dnssec-signzone is a zone file with all RRs signed. This output will end up in a file with the extension .signed, such as example.com.db.signed. The DS records will also be written to a separate file dsset-example.com. To use this signed zone just modify the zone directive in named.conf to use example.com.db.signed. By default, the signatures are only valid 30 days, meaning that the zone needs to be resigned in about 15 days to be sure that resolvers are not caching records with stale signatures. It is possible to make a script and a cron job to do this. See relevant manuals for details. Be sure to keep private keys confidential, as with all cryptographic keys. When changing a key it is best to include the new key into the zone, while still signing with the old one, and then move over to using the new key to sign. After these steps are done the old key can be removed from the zone. Failure to do this might render the DNS data unavailable for a time, until the new key has propagated through the DNS hierarchy. For more information on key rollovers and other DNSSEC operational issues, see RFC 4641: DNSSEC Operational practices. Automation Using <acronym>BIND</acronym> 9.7 or Later Beginning with BIND version 9.7 a new feature called Smart Signing was introduced. This feature aims to make the key management and signing process simpler by automating parts of the task. By putting the keys into a directory called a key repository, and using the new option auto-dnssec, it is possible to create a dynamic zone which will be resigned as needed. To update this zone use nsupdate with the new option . rndc has also grown the ability to sign zones with keys in the key repository, using the option . To tell BIND to use this automatic signing and zone updating for example.com, add the following to named.conf: zone example.com { type master; key-directory "/etc/named/keys"; update-policy local; auto-dnssec maintain; file "/etc/named/dynamic/example.com.zone"; }; After making these changes, generate keys for the zone as explained in , put those keys in the key repository given as the argument to the key-directory in the zone configuration and the zone will be signed automatically. Updates to a zone configured this way must be done using nsupdate, which will take care of re-signing the zone with the new data added. For further details, see and the BIND documentation. Security Although BIND is the most common implementation of DNS, there is always the issue of security. Possible and exploitable security holes are sometimes found. While &os; automatically drops named into a &man.chroot.8; environment; there are several other security mechanisms in place which could help to lure off possible DNS service attacks. It is always good idea to read CERT's security advisories and to subscribe to the &a.security-notifications; to stay up to date with the current Internet and &os; security issues. If a problem arises, keeping sources up to date and having a fresh build of named may help. Further Reading BIND/named manual pages: &man.rndc.8; &man.named.8; &man.named.conf.5; &man.nsupdate.1; &man.dnssec-signzone.8; &man.dnssec-keygen.8; Official ISC BIND Page Official ISC BIND Forum O'Reilly DNS and BIND 5th Edition Root DNSSEC DNSSEC Trust Anchor Publication for the Root Zone RFC1034 - Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities RFC1035 - Domain Names - Implementation and Specification RFC4033 - DNS Security Introduction and Requirements RFC4034 - Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions RFC4035 - Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions RFC4641 - DNSSEC Operational Practices RFC 5011 - Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC Trust Anchors Apache HTTP Server Murray Stokely Contributed by web servers setting up Apache The open source Apache HTTP Server is the most widely used web server. &os; does not install this web server by default, but it can be installed from the www/apache24 package or port. This section summarizes how to configure and start version 2.x of the Apache HTTP Server on &os;. For more detailed information about Apache 2.X and its configuration directives, refer to httpd.apache.org. Configuring and Starting Apache Apache configuration file In &os;, the main Apache HTTP Server configuration file is installed as /usr/local/etc/apache2x/httpd.conf, where x represents the version number. This ASCII text file begins comment lines with a #. The most frequently modified directives are: ServerRoot "/usr/local" Specifies the default directory hierarchy for the Apache installation. Binaries are stored in the bin and sbin subdirectories of the server root and configuration files are stored in the etc/apache2x subdirectory. ServerAdmin you@example.com Change this to the email address to receive problems with the server. This address also appears on some server-generated pages, such as error documents. ServerName www.example.com:80 Allows an administrator to set a hostname which is sent back to clients for the server. For example, www can be used instead of the actual hostname. If the system does not have a registered DNS name, enter its IP address instead. If the server will listen on an alternate report, change 80 to the alternate port number. DocumentRoot "/usr/local/www/apache2x/data" The directory where documents will be served from. By default, all requests are taken from this directory, but symbolic links and aliases may be used to point to other locations. It is always a good idea to make a backup copy of the default Apache configuration file before making changes. When the configuration of Apache is complete, save the file and verify the configuration using apachectl. Running apachectl configtest should return Syntax OK. Apache starting or stopping To launch Apache at system startup, add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: apache24_enable="YES" If Apache should be started with non-default options, the following line may be added to /etc/rc.conf to specify the needed flags: apache24_flags="" If apachectl does not report configuration errors, start httpd now: &prompt.root; service apache24 start The httpd service can be tested by entering http://localhost in a web browser, replacing localhost with the fully-qualified domain name of the machine running httpd. The default web page that is displayed is /usr/local/www/apache24/data/index.html. The Apache configuration can be tested for errors after making subsequent configuration changes while httpd is running using the following command: &prompt.root; service apache24 configtest It is important to note that configtest is not an &man.rc.8; standard, and should not be expected to work for all startup scripts. Virtual Hosting Virtual hosting allows multiple websites to run on one Apache server. The virtual hosts can be IP-based or name-based. IP-based virtual hosting uses a different IP address for each website. Name-based virtual hosting uses the clients HTTP/1.1 headers to figure out the hostname, which allows the websites to share the same IP address. To setup Apache to use name-based virtual hosting, add a VirtualHost block for each website. For example, for the webserver named www.domain.tld with a virtual domain of www.someotherdomain.tld, add the following entries to httpd.conf: <VirtualHost *> ServerName www.domain.tld DocumentRoot /www/domain.tld </VirtualHost> <VirtualHost *> ServerName www.someotherdomain.tld DocumentRoot /www/someotherdomain.tld </VirtualHost> For each virtual host, replace the values for ServerName and DocumentRoot with the values to be used. For more information about setting up virtual hosts, consult the official Apache documentation at: http://httpd.apache.org/docs/vhosts/. Apache Modules Apache modules Apache uses modules to augment the functionality provided by the basic server. Refer to http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/mod/ for a complete listing of and the configuration details for the available modules. In &os;, some modules can be compiled with the www/apache24 port. Type make config within /usr/ports/www/apache24 to see which modules are available and which are enabled by default. If the module is not compiled with the port, the &os; Ports Collection provides an easy way to install many modules. This section describes three of the most commonly used modules. <filename>mod_ssl</filename> web servers secure SSL cryptography The mod_ssl module uses the OpenSSL library to provide strong cryptography via the Secure Sockets Layer (SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security (TLSv1) protocols. This module provides everything necessary to request a signed certificate from a trusted certificate signing authority to run a secure web server on &os;. In &os;, mod_ssl module is enabled by default in both the package and the port. The available configuration directives are explained at http://httpd.apache.org/docs/current/mod/mod_ssl.html. <filename>mod_perl</filename> mod_perl Perl The mod_perl module makes it possible to write Apache modules in Perl. In addition, the persistent interpreter embedded in the server avoids the overhead of starting an external interpreter and the penalty of Perl start-up time. The mod_perl can be installed using the www/mod_perl2 package or port. Documentation for using this module can be found at http://perl.apache.org/docs/2.0/index.html. <filename>mod_php</filename> Tom Rhodes Written by mod_php PHP PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) is a general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for web development. Capable of being embedded into HTML, its syntax draws upon C, &java;, and Perl with the intention of allowing web developers to write dynamically generated webpages quickly. To gain support for PHP5 for the Apache web server, install the www/mod_php5 package or port. This will install and configure the modules required to support dynamic PHP applications. The installation will automatically add this line to /usr/local/etc/apache24/httpd.conf: LoadModule php5_module libexec/apache24/libphp5.so Then, perform a graceful restart to load the PHP module: &prompt.root; apachectl graceful The PHP support provided by www/mod_php5 is limited. Additional support can be installed using the lang/php5-extensions port which provides a menu driven interface to the available PHP extensions. Alternatively, individual extensions can be installed using the appropriate port. For instance, to add PHP support for the MySQL database server, install databases/php5-mysql. After installing an extension, the Apache server must be reloaded to pick up the new configuration changes: &prompt.root; apachectl graceful Dynamic Websites web servers dynamic In addition to mod_perl and mod_php, other languages are available for creating dynamic web content. These include Django and Ruby on Rails. Django Python Django Django is a BSD-licensed framework designed to allow developers to write high performance, elegant web applications quickly. It provides an object-relational mapper so that data types are developed as Python objects. A rich dynamic database-access API is provided for those objects without the developer ever having to write SQL. It also provides an extensible template system so that the logic of the application is separated from the HTML presentation. Django depends on mod_python, and an SQL database engine. In &os;, the www/py-django port automatically installs mod_python and supports the PostgreSQL, MySQL, or SQLite databases, with the default being SQLite. To change the database engine, type make config within /usr/ports/www/py-django, then install the port. Once Django is installed, the application will need a project directory along with the Apache configuration in order to use the embedded Python interpreter. This interpreter is used to call the application for specific URLs on the site. To configure Apache to pass requests for certain URLs to the web application, add the following to httpd.conf, specifying the full path to the project directory: <Location "/"> SetHandler python-program PythonPath "['/dir/to/the/django/packages/'] + sys.path" PythonHandler django.core.handlers.modpython SetEnv DJANGO_SETTINGS_MODULE mysite.settings PythonAutoReload On PythonDebug On </Location> Refer to https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.6/ for more information on how to use Django. Ruby on Rails Ruby on Rails Ruby on Rails is another open source web framework that provides a full development stack. It is optimized to make web developers more productive and capable of writing powerful applications quickly. On &os;, it can be installed using the www/rubygem-rails package or port. Refer to http://rubyonrails.org/documentation for more information on how to use Ruby on Rails. File Transfer Protocol (<acronym>FTP</acronym>) FTP servers The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) provides users with a simple way to transfer files to and from an FTP server. &os; includes FTP server software, ftpd, in the base system. &os; provides several configuration files for controlling access to the FTP server. This section summarizes these files. Refer to &man.ftpd.8; for more details about the built-in FTP server. Configuration The most important configuration step is deciding which accounts will be allowed access to the FTP server. A &os; system has a number of system accounts which should not be allowed FTP access. The list of users disallowed any FTP access can be found in /etc/ftpusers. By default, it includes system accounts. Additional users that should not be allowed access to FTP can be added. In some cases it may be desirable to restrict the access of some users without preventing them completely from using FTP. This can be accomplished be creating /etc/ftpchroot as described in &man.ftpchroot.5;. This file lists users and groups subject to FTP access restrictions. FTP anonymous To enable anonymous FTP access to the server, create a user named ftp on the &os; system. Users will then be able to log on to the FTP server with a username of ftp or anonymous. When prompted for the password, any input will be accepted, but by convention, an email address should be used as the password. The FTP server will call &man.chroot.2; when an anonymous user logs in, to restrict access to only the home directory of the ftp user. There are two text files that can be created to specify welcome messages to be displayed to FTP clients. The contents of /etc/ftpwelcome will be displayed to users before they reach the login prompt. After a successful login, the contents of /etc/ftpmotd will be displayed. Note that the path to this file is relative to the login environment, so the contents of ~ftp/etc/ftpmotd would be displayed for anonymous users. Once the FTP server has been configured, set the appropriate variable in /etc/rc.conf to start the service during boot: ftpd_enable="YES" To start the service now: &prompt.root; service ftpd start Test the connection to the FTP server by typing: &prompt.user; ftp localhost syslog log files FTP The ftpd daemon uses &man.syslog.3; to log messages. By default, the system log daemon will write messages related to FTP in /var/log/xferlog. The location of the FTP log can be modified by changing the following line in /etc/syslog.conf: ftp.info /var/log/xferlog FTP anonymous Be aware of the potential problems involved with running an anonymous FTP server. In particular, think twice about allowing anonymous users to upload files. It may turn out that the FTP site becomes a forum for the trade of unlicensed commercial software or worse. If anonymous FTP uploads are required, then verify the permissions so that these files can not be read by other anonymous users until they have been reviewed by an administrator. File and Print Services for µsoft.windows; Clients (Samba) Samba server Microsoft Windows file server Windows clients print server Windows clients Samba is a popular open source software package that provides file and print services using the SMB/CIFS protocol. This protocol is built into µsoft.windows; systems. It can be added to non-µsoft.windows; systems by installing the Samba client libraries. The protocol allows clients to access shared data and printers. These shares can be mapped as a local disk drive and shared printers can be used as if they were local printers. On &os;, the Samba client libraries can be installed using the net/samba-smbclient port or package. The client provides the ability for a &os; system to access SMB/CIFS shares in a µsoft.windows; network. A &os; system can also be configured to act as a Samba server. This allows the administrator to create SMB/CIFS shares on the &os; system which can be accessed by clients running µsoft.windows; or the Samba client libraries. In order to configure a Samba server on &os;, the net/samba36 port or package must first be installed. The rest of this section provides an overview of how to configure a Samba server on &os;. Configuration A default Samba configuration file is installed as /usr/local/share/examples/samba36/smb.conf.default. This file must be copied to /usr/local/etc/smb.conf and customized before Samba can be used. Runtime configuration information for Samba is found in smb.conf, such as definitions of the printers and file system shares that will be shared with &windows; clients. The Samba package includes a web based tool called swat which provides a simple way for configuring smb.conf. Using the Samba Web Administration Tool (SWAT) The Samba Web Administration Tool (SWAT) runs as a daemon from inetd. Therefore, inetd must be enabled as shown in . To enable swat, uncomment the following line in /etc/inetd.conf: swat stream tcp nowait/400 root /usr/local/sbin/swat swat As explained in , the inetd configuration must be reloaded after this configuration file is changed. Once swat has been enabled, use a web browser to connect to http://localhost:901. At first login, enter the credentials for root. Once logged in, the main Samba configuration page and the system documentation will be available. Begin configuration by clicking on the Globals tab. The Globals section corresponds to the variables that are set in the [global] section of /usr/local/etc/smb.conf. Global Settings Whether swat is used or /usr/local/etc/smb.conf is edited directly, the first directives encountered when configuring Samba are: workgroup The domain name or workgroup name for the computers that will be accessing this server. netbios name The NetBIOS name by which a Samba server is known. By default it is the same as the first component of the host's DNS name. server string The string that will be displayed in the output of net view and some other networking tools that seek to display descriptive text about the server. Security Settings Two of the most important settings in /usr/local/etc/smb.conf are the security model and the backend password format for client users. The following directives control these options: security The two most common options are security = share and security = user. If the clients use usernames that are the same as their usernames on the &os; machine, user level security should be used. This is the default security policy and it requires clients to first log on before they can access shared resources. In share level security, clients do not need to log onto the server with a valid username and password before attempting to connect to a shared resource. This was the default security model for older versions of Samba. passdb backend NIS+ LDAP SQL database Samba has several different backend authentication models. Clients may be authenticated with LDAP, NIS+, an SQL database, or a modified password file. The default authentication method is smbpasswd, and that is all that will be covered here. Assuming that the default smbpasswd backend is used, /usr/local/etc/samba/smbpasswd must be created to allow Samba to authenticate clients. To provide &unix; user accounts access from &windows; clients, use the following command to add each required user to that file: &prompt.root; smbpasswd -a username The recommended backend is now tdbsam. If this backend is selected, use the following command to add user accounts: &prompt.root; pdbedit -a -u username This section has only mentioned the most commonly used settings. Refer to the Official Samba HOWTO for additional information about the available configuration options. Starting <application>Samba</application> To enable Samba at boot time, add the following line to /etc/rc.conf: samba_enable="YES" Alternately, its services can be started separately: nmbd_enable="YES" smbd_enable="YES" To start Samba now: &prompt.root; service samba start Starting SAMBA: removing stale tdbs : Starting nmbd. Starting smbd. Samba consists of three separate daemons. Both the nmbd and smbd daemons are started by samba_enable. If winbind name resolution services are enabled in smb.conf, the winbindd daemon is started as well. Samba may be stopped at any time by typing: &prompt.root; service samba stop Samba is a complex software suite with functionality that allows broad integration with µsoft.windows; networks. For more information about functionality beyond the basic configuration described here, refer to http://www.samba.org. Clock Synchronization with NTP NTP ntpd Over time, a computer's clock is prone to drift. This is problematic as many network services require the computers on a network to share the same accurate time. Accurate time is also needed to ensure that file timestamps stay consistent. The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is one way to provide clock accuracy in a network. &os; includes &man.ntpd.8; which can be configured to query other NTP servers in order to synchronize the clock on that machine or to provide time services to other computers in the network. The servers which are queried can be local to the network or provided by an ISP. In addition, an online list of publicly accessible NTP servers is available. When choosing a public NTP server, select one that is geographically close and review its usage policy. Choosing several NTP servers is recommended in case one of the servers becomes unreachable or its clock proves unreliable. As ntpd receives responses, it favors reliable servers over the less reliable ones. This section describes how to configure ntpd on &os;. Further documentation can be found in /usr/share/doc/ntp/ in HTML format. <acronym>NTP</acronym> Configuration NTP ntp.conf On &os;, the built-in ntpd can be used to synchronize a system's clock. To enable ntpd at boot time, add ntpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf. Additional variables can be specified in /etc/rc.conf. Refer to &man.rc.conf.5; and &man.ntpd.8; for details. This application reads /etc/ntp.conf to determine which NTP servers to query. Here is a simple example of an /etc/ntp.conf: Sample <filename>/etc/ntp.conf</filename> server ntplocal.example.com prefer server timeserver.example.org server ntp2a.example.net driftfile /var/db/ntp.drift The format of this file is described in &man.ntp.conf.5;. The server option specifies which servers to query, with one server listed on each line. If a server entry includes prefer, that server is preferred over other servers. A response from a preferred server will be discarded if it differs significantly from other servers' responses; otherwise it will be used. The prefer argument should only be used for NTP servers that are known to be highly accurate, such as those with special time monitoring hardware. The driftfile entry specifies which file is used to store the system clock's frequency offset. ntpd uses this to automatically compensate for the clock's natural drift, allowing it to maintain a reasonably correct setting even if it is cut off from all external time sources for a period of time. This file also stores information about previous responses from NTP servers. Since this file contains internal information for NTP, it should not be modified. By default, an NTP server is accessible to any network host. The restrict option in /etc/ntp.conf can be used to control which systems can access the server. For example, to deny all machines from accessing the NTP server, add the following line to /etc/ntp.conf: restrict default ignore This will also prevent access from other NTP servers. If there is a need to synchronize with an external NTP server, allow only that specific server. Refer to &man.ntp.conf.5; for more information. To allow machines within the network to synchronize their clocks with the server, but ensure they are not allowed to configure the server or be used as peers to synchronize against, instead use: restrict 192.168.1.0 mask 255.255.255.0 nomodify notrap where 192.168.1.0 is the local network address and 255.255.255.0 is the network's subnet mask. Multiple restrict entries are supported. For more details, refer to the Access Control Support subsection of &man.ntp.conf.5;. Once ntpd_enable="YES" has been added to /etc/rc.conf, ntpd can be started now without rebooting the system by typing: &prompt.root; service ntpd start Using <acronym>NTP</acronym> with a <acronym>PPP</acronym> Connection ntpd does not need a permanent connection to the Internet to function properly. However, if a PPP connection is configured to dial out on demand, NTP traffic should be prevented from triggering a dial out or keeping the connection alive. This can be configured with filter directives in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. For example: set filter dial 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent NTP traffic from initiating dial out set filter dial 1 permit 0 0 set filter alive 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent incoming NTP traffic from keeping the connection open set filter alive 1 deny udp dst eq 123 # Prevent outgoing NTP traffic from keeping the connection open set filter alive 2 permit 0/0 0/0 For more details, refer to the PACKET FILTERING section in &man.ppp.8; and the examples in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Some Internet access providers block low-numbered ports, preventing NTP from functioning since replies never reach the machine. <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> Initiator and Target Configuration iSCSI is a way to share storage over a network. Unlike NFS, which works at the file system level, iSCSI works at the block device level. In iSCSI terminology, the system that shares the storage is known as the target. The storage can be a physical disk, or an area representing multiple disks or a portion of a physical disk. For example, if the disk(s) are formatted with ZFS, a zvol can be created to use as the iSCSI storage. The clients which access the iSCSI storage are called initiators. To initiators, the storage available through iSCSI appears as a raw, unformatted disk known as a LUN. Device nodes for the disk appear in /dev/ and the device must be separately formatted and mounted. Beginning with 10.0-RELEASE, &os; provides a native, kernel-based iSCSI target and initiator. This section describes how to configure a &os; system as a target or an initiator. Configuring an <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> Target The native iSCSI target is supported starting with &os; 10.0-RELEASE. To use iSCSI in older versions of &os;, install a userspace target from the Ports Collection, such as net/istgt. This chapter only describes the native target. To configure an iSCSI target, create the /etc/ctl.conf configuration file, add a line to /etc/rc.conf to make sure the &man.ctld.8; daemon is automatically started at boot, and then start the daemon. The following is an example of a simple /etc/ctl.conf configuration file. Refer to &man.ctl.conf.5; for a more complete description of this file's available options. portal-group pg0 { discovery-auth-group no-authentication listen 0.0.0.0 listen [::] } target iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 { auth-group no-authentication portal-group pg0 lun 0 { path /data/target0-0 size 4G } } The first entry defines the pg0 portal group. Portal groups define which network addresses the &man.ctld.8; daemon will listen on. The discovery-auth-group no-authentication entry indicates that any initiator is allowed to perform iSCSI target discovery without authentication. Lines three and four configure &man.ctld.8; to listen on all IPv4 (listen 0.0.0.0) and IPv6 (listen [::]) addresses on the default port of 3260. It is not necessary to define a portal group as there is a built-in portal group called default. In this case, the difference between default and pg0 is that with default, target discovery is always denied, while with pg0, it is always allowed. The second entry defines a single target. Target has two possible meanings: a machine serving iSCSI or a named group of LUNs. This example uses the latter meaning, where iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 is the target name. This target name is suitable for testing purposes. For actual use, change com.example to the real domain name, reversed. The 2012-06 represents the year and month of acquiring control of that domain name, and target0 can be any value. Any number of targets can be defined in this configuration file. The auth-group no-authentication line allows all initiators to connect to the specified target and portal-group pg0 makes the target reachable through the pg0 portal group. The next section defines the LUN. To the initiator, each LUN will be visible as a separate disk device. Multiple LUNs can be defined for each target. Each LUN is identified by a number, where LUN 0 is mandatory. The path /data/target0-0 line defines the full path to a file or zvol backing the LUN. That path must exist before starting &man.ctld.8;. The second line is optional and specifies the size of the LUN. Next, to make sure the &man.ctld.8; daemon is started at boot, add this line to /etc/rc.conf: ctld_enable="YES" To start &man.ctld.8; now, run this command: &prompt.root; service ctld start As the &man.ctld.8; daemon is started, it reads /etc/ctl.conf. If this file is edited after the daemon starts, use this command so that the changes take effect immediately: &prompt.root; service ctld reload Authentication The previous example is inherently insecure as it uses no authentication, granting anyone full access to all targets. To require a username and password to access targets, modify the configuration as follows: auth-group ag0 { chap username1 secretsecret chap username2 anothersecret } portal-group pg0 { discovery-auth-group no-authentication listen 0.0.0.0 listen [::] } target iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 { auth-group ag0 portal-group pg0 lun 0 { path /data/target0-0 size 4G } } The auth-group section defines username and password pairs. An initiator trying to connect to iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 must first specify a defined username and secret. However, target discovery is still permitted without authentication. To require target discovery authentication, set discovery-auth-group to a defined auth-group name instead of no-authentication. It is common to define a single exported target for every initiator. As a shorthand for the syntax above, the username and password can be specified directly in the target entry: target iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 { portal-group pg0 chap username1 secretsecret lun 0 { path /data/target0-0 size 4G } } Configuring an <acronym>iSCSI</acronym> Initiator The iSCSI initiator described in this section is supported starting with &os; 10.0-RELEASE. To use the iSCSI initiator available in older versions, refer to &man.iscontrol.8;. The iSCSI initiator requires that the &man.iscsid.8; daemon is running. This daemon does not use a configuration file. To start it automatically at boot, add this line to /etc/rc.conf: iscsid_enable="YES" To start &man.iscsid.8; now, run this command: &prompt.root; service iscsid start Connecting to a target can be done with or without an /etc/iscsi.conf configuration file. This section demonstrates both types of connections. Connecting to a Target Without a Configuration File To connect an initiator to a single target, specify the IP address of the portal and the name of the target: &prompt.root; iscsictl -A -p 10.10.10.10 -t iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 To verify if the connection succeeded, run iscsictl without any arguments. The output should look similar to this: Target name Target portal State iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 10.10.10.10 Connected: da0 In this example, the iSCSI session was successfully established, with /dev/da0 representing the attached LUN. If the iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 target exports more than one LUN, multiple device nodes will be shown in that section of the output: Connected: da0 da1 da2. Any errors will be reported in the output, as well as the system logs. For example, this message usually means that the &man.iscsid.8; daemon is not running: Target name Target portal State iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 10.10.10.10 Waiting for iscsid(8) The following message suggests a networking problem, such as a wrong IP address or port: Target name Target portal State iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 10.10.10.11 Connection refused This message means that the specified target name is wrong: Target name Target portal State iqn.2012-06.com.example:atrget0 10.10.10.10 Not found This message means that the target requires authentication: Target name Target portal State iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 10.10.10.10 Authentication failed To specify a CHAP username and secret, use this syntax: &prompt.root; iscsictl -A -p 10.10.10.10 -t iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 -u user -s secretsecret Connecting to a Target with a Configuration File To connect using a configuration file, create /etc/iscsi.conf with contents like this: t0 { TargetAddress = 10.10.10.10 TargetName = iqn.2012-06.com.example:target0 AuthMethod = CHAP chapIName = user chapSecret = secretsecret } The t0 specifies a nickname for the configuration file section. It will be used by the initiator to specify which configuration to use. The other lines specify the parameters to use during connection. The TargetAddress and TargetName are mandatory, whereas the other options are optional. In this example, the CHAP username and secret are shown. To connect to the defined target, specify the nickname: &prompt.root; iscsictl -An t0 Alternately, to connect to all targets defined in the configuration file, use: &prompt.root; iscsictl -Aa To make the initiator automatically connect to all targets in /etc/iscsi.conf, add the following to /etc/rc.conf: iscsictl_enable="YES" iscsictl_flags="-Aa" Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,37 +1,38 @@ - - Open<acronym>PGP</acronym> Keys + Open<acronym>PGP</acronym> Keys pgp keys The OpenPGP keys of the FreeBSD.org officers are shown here. These keys can be used to verify a signature or send encrypted email to one of the officers. A full list of &os; OpenPGP keys is available in the PGP Keys article. The complete keyring can be downloaded at https://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/pgpkeyring.txt. Officers §ion.pgpkeys-officers; Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1665 +1,1667 @@ - + <acronym>PPP</acronym> Synopsis PPP &os; supports the Point-to-Point (PPP) protocol which can be used to establish a network or Internet connection using a dial-up modem. This chapter describes how to configure modem-based communication services in &os;. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to configure, use, and troubleshoot a PPP connection. How to set up PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE). How to set up PPP over ATM (PPPoA). PPP PPP over Ethernet Before reading this chapter, you should: Be familiar with basic network terminology. Understand the basics and purpose of a dial-up connection and PPP. Configuring <acronym>PPP</acronym> &os; provides built-in support for managing dial-up PPP connections using &man.ppp.8;. The default &os; kernel provides support for tun which is used to interact with a modem hardware. Configuration is performed by editing at least one configuration file, and configuration files containing examples are provided. Finally, ppp is used to start and manage connections. In order to use a PPP connection, the following items are needed: A dial-up account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP). A dial-up modem. The dial-up number for the ISP. The login name and password assigned by the ISP. The IP address of one or more DNS servers. Normally, the ISP provides these addresses. If it did not, &os; can be configured to use DNS negotiation. If any of the required information is missing, contact the ISP. The following information may be supplied by the ISP, but is not necessary: The IP address of the default gateway. If this information is unknown, the ISP will automatically provide the correct value during connection setup. When configuring PPP on &os;, this address is referred to as HISADDR. The subnet mask. If the ISP has not provided one, 255.255.255.255 will be used in the &man.ppp.8; configuration file. static IP address If the ISP has assigned a static IP address and hostname, it should be input into the configuration file. Otherwise, this information will be automatically provided during connection setup. The rest of this section demonstrates how to configure &os; for common PPP connection scenarios. The required configuration file is /etc/ppp/ppp.conf and additional files and examples are available in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. Throughout this section, many of the file examples display line numbers. These line numbers have been added to make it easier to follow the discussion and are not meant to be placed in the actual file. When editing a configuration file, proper indentation is important. Lines that end in a : start in the first column (beginning of the line) while all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. Basic Configuration PPP with static IP addresses In order to configure a PPP connection, first edit /etc/ppp/ppp.conf with the dial-in information for the ISP. This file is described as follows: 1 default: 2 set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command 3 ident user-ppp VERSION 4 set device /dev/cuau0 5 set speed 115200 6 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \ 7 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\T TIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 8 set timeout 180 9 enable dns 10 11 provider: 12 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 13 set authname foo 14 set authkey bar 15 set timeout 300 16 set ifaddr x.x.x.x/0 y.y.y.y/0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 17 add default HISADDR Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry (lines 2 through 9) are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Enables verbose logging parameters for testing the connection. Once the configuration is working satisfactorily, this line should be reduced to: set log phase tun Line 3: Displays the version of &man.ppp.8; to the PPP software running on the other side of the connection. Line 4: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected, where COM1 is /dev/cuau0 and COM2 is /dev/cuau1. Line 5: Sets the connection speed. If 115200 does not work on an older modem, try 38400 instead. Lines 6 & 7: The dial string written as an expect-send syntax. Refer to &man.chat.8; for more information. Note that this command continues onto the next line for readability. Any command in ppp.conf may do this if the last character on the line is \. Line 8: Sets the idle timeout for the link in seconds. Line 9: Instructs the peer to confirm the DNS settings. If the local network is running its own DNS server, this line should be commented out, by adding a # at the beginning of the line, or removed. Line 10: A blank line for readability. Blank lines are ignored by &man.ppp.8;. Line 11: Identifies an entry called provider. This could be changed to the name of the ISP so that can be used to start the connection. Line 12: Use the phone number for the ISP. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|) as a separator. To rotate through the numbers, use a colon. To always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always enclose the entire set of phone numbers between quotation marks (") to prevent dialing failures. Lines 13 & 14: Use the user name and password for the ISP. Line 15: Sets the default idle timeout in seconds for the connection. In this example, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. To prevent a timeout, set this value to zero. Line 16: Sets the interface addresses. The values used depend upon whether a static IP address has been obtained from the ISP or if it instead negotiates a dynamic IP address during connection. If the ISP has allocated a static IP address and default gateway, replace x.x.x.x with the static IP address and replace y.y.y.y with the IP address of the default gateway. If the ISP has only provided a static IP address without a gateway address, replace y.y.y.y with 10.0.0.2/0. If the IP address changes whenever a connection is made, change this line to the following value. This tells &man.ppp.8; to use the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) to negotiate a dynamic IP address: set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0 Line 17: Keep this line as-is as it adds a default route to the gateway. The HISADDR will automatically be replaced with the gateway address specified on line 16. It is important that this line appears after line 16. Depending upon whether &man.ppp.8; is started manually or automatically, a /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup may also need to be created which contains the following lines. This file is required when running ppp in mode. This file is used after the connection has been established. At this point, the IP address will have been assigned and it is now be possible to add the routing table entries. When creating this file, make sure that provider matches the value demonstrated in line 11 of ppp.conf. provider: add default HISADDR This file is also needed when the default gateway address is guessed in a static IP address configuration. In this case, remove line 17 from ppp.conf and create /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup with the above two lines. More examples for this file can be found in /usr/share/examples/ppp/. By default, the ppp command must be run as the root user. To change this default, add the account of the user who should run ppp to the network group in /etc/group. Then, give the user access to one or more entries in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf using the allow command. For example, to give fred and mary permission to only the provider: entry, add this line to the provider: section: allow users fred mary To give the specified users access to all entries, put that line in the default section instead. Receiving Incoming Calls PPP receiving incoming calls When configuring &man.ppp.8; to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a Local Area Network (LAN), decide if packets should be forwarded to the LAN. If so, allocate the connecting system an IP address from the LAN's subnet, and add the enable proxy line to /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. Also, confirm that /etc/rc.conf contains the following line: gateway_enable="YES" Refer to &man.ppp.8; and /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample for more details. The following steps will also be required: Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. <acronym>PPP</acronym> Shells for Dynamic <acronym>IP</acronym> Users PPP shells Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Use this script as the shell for all of dial-up users. This is an example from /etc/passwd for a dial-up PPP: pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. <acronym>PPP</acronym> Shells for Static <acronym>IP</acronym> Users PPP shells Create the ppp-shell file as above, and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, to route /24 CIDR networks for the dial-up customers fred, sam, and mary, type: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dial-up accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (for example, mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Dynamic <acronym>IP</acronym> Users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyu0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyu1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dial-up line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyu0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from the pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting Up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for Static <acronym>IP</acronym> Users Along with the contents of the sample /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above, add a section for each of the statically assigned dial-up users:. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0/24 network via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR ?> Advanced Configuration DNS NetBIOS PPP Microsoft extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a NetBIOS nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP Authentication PAP CHAP Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of the connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, the ISP will not give a login: prompt at connection, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There is not much room for crackers to eavesdrop. The following alterations must be made: 13 set authname MyUserName 14 set authkey MyPassword 15 set login Line 13: This line specifies the PAP/CHAP user name. Insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 14: This line specifies the PAP/CHAP passwordpassword. Insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 16 accept PAP or 16 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Line 15: The ISP will not normally require a login to the server when using PAP or CHAP. Therefore, disable the set login string. Using <acronym>PPP</acronym> Network Address Translation Capability PPPNAT PPP has ability to use internal NAT without kernel diverting capabilities. This functionality may be enabled by the following line in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf: nat enable yes Alternatively, NAT may be enabled by command-line option -nat. There is also /etc/rc.conf knob named ppp_nat, which is enabled by default. When using this feature, it may be useful to include the following /etc/ppp/ppp.conf options to enable incoming connections forwarding: nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:ftp ftp nat port tcp 10.0.0.2:http http or do not trust the outside at all nat deny_incoming yes Final System Configuration PPPconfiguration While ppp is now configured, some edits still need to be made to /etc/rc.conf. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set: hostname="foo.example.com" If the ISP has supplied a static IP address and name, use this name as the host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. To configure the system to dial the ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting the ppp daemon in automatic mode. If this machine acts as a gateway, consider including . Refer to the manual page for further details. Make sure that the router program is set to NO with the following line in /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" routed It is important that the routed daemon is not started, as routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably a good idea to ensure that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" sendmail The downside is that sendmail is forced to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link. To automate this, include !bg in ppp.linkup: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m SMTP An alternative is to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Using <command>ppp</command> All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, to configure ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic and start_if.tun0 does not exist, type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to the configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified &unix; domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Configuring Dial-in Services mgetty AutoPPP LCP provides a good description on enabling dial-up services using &man.getty.8;. An alternative to getty is comms/mgetty+sendfax port), a smarter version of getty designed with dial-up lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then the modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing clients scriptless access to the server. Refer to http://mgetty.greenie.net/doc/mgetty_toc.html for more information on mgetty. By default the comms/mgetty+sendfax port comes with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allowing mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully compiled, and installed the comms/mgetty+sendfax port on his system. Ensure that /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config has the following: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This tells mgetty to run ppp-pap-dialup for detected PPP connections. Create an executable file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following: #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dial-up line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from the /etc/passwd file. enable passwdauth To assign some users a static IP number, specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. Troubleshooting <acronym>PPP</acronym> Connections PPP troubleshooting This section covers a few issues which may arise when using PPP over a modem connection. Some ISPs present the ssword prompt while others present password. If the ppp script is not written accordingly, the login attempt will fail. The most common way to debug ppp connections is by connecting manually as described in this section. Check the Device Nodes When using a custom kernel, make sure to include the following line in the kernel configuration file: device uart The uart device is already included in the GENERIC kernel, so no additional steps are necessary in this case. Just check the dmesg output for the modem device with: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep uart This should display some pertinent output about the uart devices. These are the COM ports we need. If the modem acts like a standard serial port, it should be listed on uart1, or COM2. If so, a kernel rebuild is not required. When matching up, if the modem is on uart1, the modem device would be /dev/cuau1. Connecting Manually Connecting to the Internet by manually controlling ppp is quick, easy, and a great way to debug a connection or just get information on how the ISP treats ppp client connections. Lets start PPP from the command line. Note that in all of our examples we will use example as the hostname of the machine running PPP. To start ppp: &prompt.root; ppp ppp ON example> set device /dev/cuau1 This second command sets the modem device to cuau1. ppp ON example> set speed 115200 This sets the connection speed to 115,200 kbps. ppp ON example> enable dns This tells ppp to configure the resolver and add the nameserver lines to /etc/resolv.conf. If ppp cannot determine the hostname, it can manually be set later. ppp ON example> term This switches to terminal mode in order to manually control the modem. deflink: Entering terminal mode on /dev/cuau1 type '~h' for help at OK atdt123456789 Use at to initialize the modem, then use atdt and the number for the ISP to begin the dial in process. CONNECT Confirmation of the connection, if we are going to have any connection problems, unrelated to hardware, here is where we will attempt to resolve them. ISP Login:myusername At this prompt, return the prompt with the username that was provided by the ISP. ISP Pass:mypassword At this prompt, reply with the password that was provided by the ISP. Just like logging into &os;, the password will not echo. Shell or PPP:ppp Depending on the ISP, this prompt might not appear. If it does, it is asking whether to use a shell on the provider or to start ppp. In this example, ppp was selected in order to establish an Internet connection. Ppp ON example> Notice that in this example the first has been capitalized. This shows that we have successfully connected to the ISP. PPp ON example> We have successfully authenticated with our ISP and are waiting for the assigned IP address. PPP ON example> We have made an agreement on an IP address and successfully completed our connection. PPP ON example>add default HISADDR Here we add our default route, we need to do this before we can talk to the outside world as currently the only established connection is with the peer. If this fails due to existing routes, put a bang character ! in front of the . Alternatively, set this before making the actual connection and it will negotiate a new route accordingly. If everything went good we should now have an active connection to the Internet, which could be thrown into the background using CTRL z If PPP returns to ppp then the connection has bee lost. This is good to know because it shows the connection status. Capital P's represent a connection to the ISP and lowercase p's show that the connection has been lost. Debugging If a connection cannot be established, turn hardware flow CTS/RTS to off using . This is mainly the case when connected to some PPP-capable terminal servers, where PPP hangs when it tries to write data to the communication link, and waits for a Clear To Send (CTS) signal which may never come. When using this option, include as it may be required to defeat hardware dependent on passing certain characters from end to end, most of the time XON/XOFF. Refer to &man.ppp.8; for more information on this option and how it is used. An older modem may need . Parity is set at none be default, but is used for error checkingm with a large increase in traffic, on older modems. PPP may not return to the command mode, which is usually a negotiation error where the ISP is waiting for negotiating to begin. At this point, using ~p will force ppp to start sending the configuration information. If a login prompt never appears, PAP or CHAP authentication is most likely required. To use PAP or CHAP, add the following options to PPP before going into terminal mode: ppp ON example> set authname myusername Where myusername should be replaced with the username that was assigned by the ISP. ppp ON example> set authkey mypassword Where mypassword should be replaced with the password that was assigned by the ISP. If a connection is established, but cannot seem to find any domain name, try to &man.ping.8; an IP address. If there is 100 percent (100%) packet loss, it is likely that a default route was not assigned. Double check that was set during the connection. If a connection can be made to a remote IP address, it is possible that a resolver address has not been added to /etc/resolv.conf. This file should look like: domain example.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y Where x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y should be replaced with the IP address of the ISP's DNS servers. To configure &man.syslog.3; to provide logging for the PPP connection, make sure this line exists in /etc/syslog.conf: !ppp *.* /var/log/ppp.log Using <acronym>PPP</acronym> over Ethernet (PPPoE) PPP over Ethernet This section describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE). Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 name_of_service_provider: set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your Ethernet device set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set dial set login add default HISADDR As root, run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Add the following to /etc/rc.conf: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider" Using a PPPoE Service Tag Sometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to establish the connection. Service tags are used to distinguish between different PPPoE servers attached to a given network. Any required service tag information should be in the documentation provided by the ISP. As a last resort, one could try installing the net/rr-pppoe package or port. Bear in mind however, this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so think twice before doing it. Simply install the program shipped with the modem. Then, access the System menu from the program. The name of the profile should be listed there. It is usually ISP. The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE configuration entry in ppp.conf as the provider part of the set device command (see the &man.ppp.8; manual page for full details). It should look like this: set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP Do not forget to change xl1 to the proper device for the Ethernet card. Do not forget to change ISP to the profile. For additional information, refer to Cheaper Broadband with &os; on DSL by Renaud Waldura. PPPoE with a &tm.3com; <trademark class="registered">HomeConnect</trademark> ADSL Modem Dual Link This modem does not follow the PPPoE specification defined in RFC 2516. In order to make &os; capable of communicating with this device, a sysctl must be set. This can be done automatically at boot time by updating /etc/sysctl.conf: net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1 or can be done immediately with the command: &prompt.root; sysctl net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1 Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it is not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and a &tm.3com; HomeConnect ADSL Modem at the same time. Using <application>PPP</application> over <acronym>ATM</acronym> (PPPoA) PPP over ATM PPPoA The following describes how to set up PPP over ATM (PPPoA). PPPoA is a popular choice among European DSL providers. Using mpd The mpd application can be used to connect to a variety of services, in particular PPTP services. It can be installed using the net/mpd5 package or port. Many ADSL modems require that a PPTP tunnel is created between the modem and computer. Once installed, configure mpd to suit the provider's settings. The port places a set of sample configuration files which are well documented in /usr/local/etc/mpd/. A complete guide to configure mpd is available in HTML format in /usr/ports/share/doc/mpd/. Here is a sample configuration for connecting to an ADSL service with mpd. The configuration is spread over two files, first the mpd.conf: This example of the mpd.conf file only works with mpd 4.x. default: load adsl adsl: new -i ng0 adsl adsl set bundle authname username set bundle password password set bundle disable multilink set link no pap acfcomp protocomp set link disable chap set link accept chap set link keep-alive 30 10 set ipcp no vjcomp set ipcp ranges 0.0.0.0/0 0.0.0.0/0 set iface route default set iface disable on-demand set iface enable proxy-arp set iface idle 0 open The username used to authenticate with your ISP. The password used to authenticate with your ISP. The mpd.links file contains information about the link, or links, to establish. An example mpd.links to accompany the above example is given beneath: adsl: set link type pptp set pptp mode active set pptp enable originate outcall set pptp self 10.0.0.1 set pptp peer 10.0.0.138 The IP address of &os; computer running mpd. The IP address of the ADSL modem. The Alcatel &speedtouch; Home defaults to 10.0.0.138. It is possible to initialize the connection easily by issuing the following command as root: &prompt.root; mpd -b adsl To view the status of the connection: &prompt.user; ifconfig ng0 ng0: flags=88d1<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,NOARP,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 216.136.204.117 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffffff Using mpd is the recommended way to connect to an ADSL service with &os;. Using pptpclient It is also possible to use &os; to connect to other PPPoA services using net/pptpclient. To use net/pptpclient to connect to a DSL service, install the port or package, then edit /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. An example section of ppp.conf is given below. For further information on ppp.conf options consult &man.ppp.8;. adsl: set log phase chat lcp ipcp ccp tun command set timeout 0 enable dns set authname username set authkey password set ifaddr 0 0 add default HISADDR The username for the DSL provider. The password for your account. Since the account's password is added to ppp.confin plain text form, make sure nobody can read the contents of this file: &prompt.root; chown root:wheel /etc/ppp/ppp.conf &prompt.root; chmod 600 /etc/ppp/ppp.conf This will open a tunnel for a PPP session to the DSL router. Ethernet DSL modems have a preconfigured LAN IP address to connect to. In the case of the Alcatel &speedtouch; Home, this address is 10.0.0.138. The router's documentation should list the address the device uses. To open the tunnel and start a PPP session: &prompt.root; pptp address adsl If an ampersand (&) is added to the end of this command, pptp will return the prompt. A tun virtual tunnel device will be created for interaction between the pptp and ppp processes. Once the prompt is returned, or the pptp process has confirmed a connection, examine the tunnel: &prompt.user; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 216.136.204.21 --> 204.152.186.171 netmask 0xffffff00 Opened by PID 918 If the connection fails, check the configuration of the router, which is usually accessible using a web browser. Also, examine the output of pptp and the contents of the log file, /var/log/ppp.log for clues. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/preface/preface.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,678 +1,679 @@ - - Preface + Preface Intended Audience The &os; newcomer will find that the first section of this book guides the user through the &os; installation process and gently introduces the concepts and conventions that underpin &unix;. Working through this section requires little more than the desire to explore, and the ability to take on board new concepts as they are introduced. Once you have traveled this far, the second, far larger, section of the Handbook is a comprehensive reference to all manner of topics of interest to &os; system administrators. Some of these chapters may recommend that you do some prior reading, and this is noted in the synopsis at the beginning of each chapter. For a list of additional sources of information, please see . Changes from the Third Edition The current online version of the Handbook represents the cumulative effort of many hundreds of contributors over the past 10 years. The following are some of the significant changes since the two volume third edition was published in 2004: has been added with information about the powerful &dtrace; performance analysis tool. has been added with information about non-native file systems in &os;, such as ZFS from &sun;. has been added to cover the new auditing capabilities in &os; and explain its use. has been added with information about installing &os; on virtualization software. has been added to cover installation of &os; using the new installation utility, bsdinstall. Changes from the Second Edition (2004) The third edition was the culmination of over two years of work by the dedicated members of the &os; Documentation Project. The printed edition grew to such a size that it was necessary to publish as two separate volumes. The following are the major changes in this new edition: has been expanded with new information about the ACPI power and resource management, the cron system utility, and more kernel tuning options. has been expanded with new information about virtual private networks (VPNs), file system access control lists (ACLs), and security advisories. is a new chapter with this edition. It explains what MAC is and how this mechanism can be used to secure a &os; system. has been expanded with new information about USB storage devices, file system snapshots, file system quotas, file and network backed filesystems, and encrypted disk partitions. A troubleshooting section has been added to . has been expanded with new information about using alternative transport agents, SMTP authentication, UUCP, fetchmail, procmail, and other advanced topics. is all new with this edition. This chapter includes information about setting up the Apache HTTP Server, ftpd, and setting up a server for µsoft; &windows; clients with Samba. Some sections from were moved here to improve the presentation. has been expanded with new information about using &bluetooth; devices with &os;, setting up wireless networks, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networking. A glossary has been added to provide a central location for the definitions of technical terms used throughout the book. A number of aesthetic improvements have been made to the tables and figures throughout the book. Changes from the First Edition (2001) The second edition was the culmination of over two years of work by the dedicated members of the &os; Documentation Project. The following were the major changes in this edition: A complete Index has been added. All ASCII figures have been replaced by graphical diagrams. A standard synopsis has been added to each chapter to give a quick summary of what information the chapter contains, and what the reader is expected to know. The content has been logically reorganized into three parts: Getting Started, System Administration, and Appendices. was completely rewritten with many screenshots to make it much easier for new users to grasp the text. has been expanded to contain additional information about processes, daemons, and signals. has been expanded to contain additional information about binary package management. has been completely rewritten with an emphasis on using modern desktop technologies such as KDE and GNOME on &xfree86; 4.X. has been expanded. has been written from what used to be two separate chapters on Disks and Backups. We feel that the topics are easier to comprehend when presented as a single chapter. A section on RAID (both hardware and software) has also been added. has been completely reorganized and updated for &os; 4.X/5.X. has been substantially updated. Many new sections have been added to . has been expanded to include more information about configuring sendmail. has been expanded to include information about installing &oracle; and &sap.r3;. The following new topics are covered in this second edition: . . Organization of This Book This book is split into five logically distinct sections. The first section, Getting Started, covers the installation and basic usage of &os;. It is expected that the reader will follow these chapters in sequence, possibly skipping chapters covering familiar topics. The second section, Common Tasks, covers some frequently used features of &os;. This section, and all subsequent sections, can be read out of order. Each chapter begins with a succinct synopsis that describes what the chapter covers and what the reader is expected to already know. This is meant to allow the casual reader to skip around to find chapters of interest. The third section, System Administration, covers administration topics. The fourth section, Network Communication, covers networking and server topics. The fifth section contains appendices of reference information. Introduces &os; to a new user. It describes the history of the &os; Project, its goals and development model. Walks a user through the entire installation process of &os; 9.x and later using bsdinstall. Walks a user through the entire installation process of &os; 8.x and earlier using sysinstall. Some advanced installation topics, such as installing through a serial console, are also covered. Covers the basic commands and functionality of the &os; operating system. If you are familiar with &linux; or another flavor of &unix; then you can probably skip this chapter. Covers the installation of third-party software with both &os;'s innovative Ports Collection and standard binary packages. Describes the X Window System in general and using X11 on &os; in particular. Also describes common desktop environments such as KDE and GNOME. Lists some common desktop applications, such as web browsers and productivity suites, and describes how to install them on &os;. Shows how to set up sound and video playback support for your system. Also describes some sample audio and video applications. Explains why you might need to configure a new kernel and provides detailed instructions for configuring, building, and installing a custom kernel. Describes managing printers on &os;, including information about banner pages, printer accounting, and initial setup. Describes the &linux; compatibility features of &os;. Also provides detailed installation instructions for many popular &linux; applications such as &oracle; and &mathematica;. Describes the parameters available for system administrators to tune a &os; system for optimum performance. Also describes the various configuration files used in &os; and where to find them. Describes the &os; boot process and explains how to control this process with configuration options. Describes many different tools available to help keep your &os; system secure, including Kerberos, IPsec and OpenSSH. Describes the jails framework, and the improvements of jails over the traditional chroot support of &os;. Explains what Mandatory Access Control (MAC) is and how this mechanism can be used to secure a &os; system. Describes what &os; Event Auditing is, how it can be installed, configured, and how audit trails can be inspected or monitored. Describes how to manage storage media and filesystems with &os;. This includes physical disks, RAID arrays, optical and tape media, memory-backed disks, and network filesystems. Describes what the GEOM framework in &os; is and how to configure various supported RAID levels. Examines support of non-native file systems in &os;, like the Z File System from &sun;. Describes what virtualization systems offer, and how they can be used with &os;. Describes how to use &os; in languages other than English. Covers both system and application level localization. Explains the differences between &os;-STABLE, &os;-CURRENT, and &os; releases. Describes which users would benefit from tracking a development system and outlines that process. Covers the methods users may take to update their system to the latest security release. Describes how to configure and use the &dtrace; tool from &sun; in &os;. Dynamic tracing can help locate performance issues, by performing real time system analysis. Explains how to connect terminals and modems to your &os; system for both dial in and dial out connections. Describes how to use PPP to connect to remote systems with &os;. Explains the different components of an email server and dives into simple configuration topics for the most popular mail server software: sendmail. Provides detailed instructions and example configuration files to set up your &os; machine as a network filesystem server, domain name server, network information system server, or time synchronization server. Explains the philosophy behind software-based firewalls and provides detailed information about the configuration of the different firewalls available for &os;. Describes many networking topics, including sharing an Internet connection with other computers on your LAN, advanced routing topics, wireless networking, &bluetooth;, ATM, IPv6, and much more. Lists different sources for obtaining &os; media on CDROM or DVD as well as different sites on the Internet that allow you to download and install &os;. This book touches on many different subjects that may leave you hungry for a more detailed explanation. The bibliography lists many excellent books that are referenced in the text. Describes the many forums available for &os; users to post questions and engage in technical conversations about &os;. Lists the PGP fingerprints of several &os; Developers. Conventions used in this book To provide a consistent and easy to read text, several conventions are followed throughout the book. Typographic Conventions Italic An italic font is used for filenames, URLs, emphasized text, and the first usage of technical terms. Monospace A monospaced font is used for error messages, commands, environment variables, names of ports, hostnames, user names, group names, device names, variables, and code fragments. Bold A bold font is used for applications, commands, and keys. User Input Keys are shown in bold to stand out from other text. Key combinations that are meant to be typed simultaneously are shown with `+' between the keys, such as: Ctrl Alt Del Meaning the user should type the Ctrl, Alt, and Del keys at the same time. Keys that are meant to be typed in sequence will be separated with commas, for example: Ctrl X , Ctrl S Would mean that the user is expected to type the Ctrl and X keys simultaneously and then to type the Ctrl and S keys simultaneously. Examples Examples starting with C:\> indicate a &ms-dos; command. Unless otherwise noted, these commands may be executed from a Command Prompt window in a modern µsoft.windows; environment. E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A: Examples starting with &prompt.root; indicate a command that must be invoked as the superuser in &os;. You can login as root to type the command, or login as your normal account and use &man.su.1; to gain superuser privileges. &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0 Examples starting with &prompt.user; indicate a command that should be invoked from a normal user account. Unless otherwise noted, C-shell syntax is used for setting environment variables and other shell commands. &prompt.user; top Acknowledgments The book you are holding represents the efforts of many hundreds of people around the world. Whether they sent in fixes for typos, or submitted complete chapters, all the contributions have been useful. Several companies have supported the development of this document by paying authors to work on it full-time, paying for publication, etc. In particular, BSDi (subsequently acquired by Wind River Systems) paid members of the &os; Documentation Project to work on improving this book full time leading up to the publication of the first printed edition in March 2000 (ISBN 1-57176-241-8). Wind River Systems then paid several additional authors to make a number of improvements to the print-output infrastructure and to add additional chapters to the text. This work culminated in the publication of the second printed edition in November 2001 (ISBN 1-57176-303-1). In 2003-2004, &os; Mall, Inc, paid several contributors to improve the Handbook in preparation for the third printed edition. Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,2198 +1,2199 @@ - - Serial Communications + Serial Communications Synopsis serial communications &unix; has always had support for serial communications as the very first &unix; machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter covers some of the ways serial communications can be used on &os;. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to connect terminals to a &os; system. How to use a modem to dial out to remote hosts. How to allow remote users to login to a &os; system with a modem. How to boot a &os; system from a serial console. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a custom kernel. Understand &os; permissions and processes. Have access to the technical manual for the serial hardware to be used with &os;. Serial Terminology and Hardware The following terms are often used in serial communications: bps Bits per Secondbits-per-second (bps) is the rate at which data is transmitted. DTE Data Terminal EquipmentDTE (DTE) is one of two endpoints in a serial communication. An example would be a computer. DCE Data Communications EquipmentDCE (DTE) is the other endpoint in a serial communication. Typically, it is a modem or serial terminal. RS-232 The original standard which defined hardware serial communications. It has since been renamed to TIA-232. When referring to communication data rates, this section does not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions made in a period of time, while bps is the correct term to use. To connect a serial terminal to a &os; system, a serial port on the computer and the proper cable to connect to the serial device are needed. Users who are already familiar with serial hardware and cabling can safely skip this section. Serial Cables and Ports There are several different kinds of serial cables. The two most common types are null-modem cables and standard RS-232 cables. The documentation for the hardware should describe the type of cable required. These two types of cables differ in how the wires are connected to the connector. Each wire represents a signal, with the defined signals summarized in . A standard serial cable passes all of the RS-232C signals straight through. For example, the Transmitted Data pin on one end of the cable goes to the Transmitted Data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable used to connect a modem to the &os; system, and is also appropriate for some terminals. A null-modem cable switches the Transmitted Data pin of the connector on one end with the Received Data pin on the other end. The connector can be either a DB-25 or a DB-9. A null-modem cable can be constructed using the pin connections summarized in , , and . While the standard calls for a straight-through pin 1 to pin 1 Protective Ground line, it is often omitted. Some terminals work using only pins 2, 3, and 7, while others require different configurations. When in doubt, refer to the documentation for the hardware. null-modem cable <acronym>RS-232C</acronym> Signal Names Acronyms Names RD Received Data TD Transmitted Data DTR Data Terminal Ready DSR Data Set Ready DCD Data Carrier Detect SG Signal Ground RTS Request to Send CTS Clear to Send
DB-25 to DB-25 Null-Modem Cable Signal Pin # Pin # Signal SG 7 connects to 7 SG TD 2 connects to 3 RD RD 3 connects to 2 TD RTS 4 connects to 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 4 RTS DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DTR 20 connects to 8 DCD DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR DCD 8 connects to 20 DTR
DB-9 to DB-9 Null-Modem Cable Signal Pin # Pin # Signal RD 2 connects to 3 TD TD 3 connects to 2 RD DTR 4 connects to 6 DSR DTR 4 connects to 1 DCD SG 5 connects to 5 SG DSR 6 connects to 4 DTR DCD 1 connects to 4 DTR RTS 7 connects to 8 CTS CTS 8 connects to 7 RTS
DB-9 to DB-25 Null-Modem Cable Signal Pin # Pin # Signal RD 2 connects to 2 TD TD 3 connects to 3 RD DTR 4 connects to 6 DSR DTR 4 connects to 8 DCD SG 5 connects to 7 SG DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR DCD 1 connects to 20 DTR RTS 7 connects to 5 CTS CTS 8 connects to 4 RTS
When one pin at one end connects to a pair of pins at the other end, it is usually implemented with one short wire between the pair of pins in their connector and a long wire to the other single pin. Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the &os; host computer and the terminal. Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before purchasing or constructing a cable, make sure it will fit the ports on the terminal and on the &os; system. Most terminals have DB-25 ports. Personal computers may have DB-25 or DB-9 ports. A multiport serial card may have RJ-12 or RJ-45/ ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port or visually verify the type of port. In &os;, each serial port is accessed through an entry in /dev. There are two different kinds of entries: Call-in ports are named /dev/ttyuN where N is the port number, starting from zero. If a terminal is connected to the first serial port (COM1), use /dev/ttyu0 to refer to the terminal. If the terminal is on the second serial port (COM2), use /dev/ttyu1, and so forth. Generally, the call-in port is used for terminals. Call-in ports require that the serial line assert the Data Carrier Detect signal to work correctly. Call-out ports are named /dev/cuauN on &os; versions 10.x and higher and /dev/cuadN on &os; versions 9.x and lower. Call-out ports are usually not used for terminals, but are used for modems. The call-out port can be used if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the Data Carrier Detect signal. &os; also provides initialization devices (/dev/ttyuN.init and /dev/cuauN.init or /dev/cuadN.init) and locking devices (/dev/ttyuN.lock and /dev/cuauN.lock or /dev/cuadN.lock). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use RTS/CTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters. Refer to &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on terminal settings, locking and initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Serial Port Configuration By default, &os; supports four serial ports which are commonly known as COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4. &os; also supports dumb multi-port serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard. However, the default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports. To see if the system recognizes the serial ports, look for system boot messages that start with uart: &prompt.root; grep uart /var/run/dmesg.boot If the system does not recognize all of the needed serial ports, additional entries can be added to /boot/device.hints. This file already contains hint.uart.0.* entries for COM1 and hint.uart.1.* entries for COM2. When adding a port entry for COM3 use 0x3E8, and for COM4 use 0x2E8. Common IRQ addresses are 5 for COM3 and 9 for COM4. ttyu cuau To determine the default set of terminal I/O settings used by the port, specify its device name. This example determines the settings for the call-in port on COM2: &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyu1 System-wide initialization of serial devices is controlled by /etc/rc.d/serial. This file affects the default settings of serial devices. To change the settings for a device, use stty. By default, the changed settings are in effect until the device is closed and when the device is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To permanently change the default set, open and adjust the settings of the initialization device. For example, to turn on mode, 8 bit communication, and flow control for ttyu5, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyu5.init clocal cs8 ixon ixoff rc files rc.serial To prevent certain settings from being changed by an application, make adjustments to the locking device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyu5 to 57600 bps, type: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyu5.lock 57600 Now, any application that opens ttyu5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. Terminals Sean Kelly Contributed by terminals Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access a &os; system when not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with &os;. The original &unix; systems did not have consoles. Instead, users logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. The ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every &unix;-like operating system today, including &os;. By using a terminal attached to an unused serial port, a user can log in and run any text program that can normally be run on the console or in an xterm window. Many terminals can be attached to a &os; system. An older spare computer can be used as a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running &os;. This can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple-user system. &os; supports three types of terminals: Dumb terminals Dumb terminals are specialized hardware that connect to computers over serial lines. They are called dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. No programs can be run on these devices. Instead, dumb terminals connect to a computer that runs the needed programs. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, and just about any kind will work with &os;. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphical applications. Computers Acting as Terminals Since a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, any spare computer can be a dumb terminal. All that is needed is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. This configuration can be useful. For example, if one user is busy working at the &os; system's console, another user can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the &os; system. There are at least two utilities in the base-system of &os; that can be used to work through a serial connection: &man.cu.1; and &man.tip.1;. For example, to connect from a client system that runs &os; to the serial connection of another system: &prompt.root; cu -l serial-port-device Replace serial-port-device with the device name of the connected serial port. These device files are called /dev/cuauN on &os; versions 10.x and higher and /dev/cuadN on &os; versions 9.x and lower. In either case, N is the serial port number, starting from zero. This means that COM1 is /dev/cuau0 or /dev/cuad0 in &os;. Additional programs are available through the Ports Collection, such as comms/minicom. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any &xorg; application. This chapter does not cover the setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Terminal Configuration This section describes how to configure a &os; system to enable a login session on a serial terminal. It assumes that the system recognizes the serial port to which the terminal is connected and that the terminal is connected with the correct cable. In &os;, init reads /etc/ttys and starts a getty process on the available terminals. The getty process is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. The ports on the &os; system which allow logins are listed in /etc/ttys. For example, the first virtual console, ttyv0, has an entry in this file, allowing logins on the console. This file also contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, the serial port's /dev entry is listed without the /dev part. For example, /dev/ttyv0 is listed as ttyv0. The default /etc/ttys configures support for the first four serial ports, ttyu0 through ttyu3: ttyu0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" dialup off secure ttyu1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" dialup off secure ttyu2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" dialup off secure ttyu3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" dialup off secure When attaching a terminal to one of those ports, modify the default entry to set the required speed and terminal type, to turn the device on and, if needed, to change the port's secure setting. If the terminal is connected to another port, add an entry for the port. configures two terminals in /etc/ttys. The first entry configures a Wyse-50 connected to COM2. The second entry configures an old computer running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. The computer is connected to the sixth serial port on a multi-port serial card. Configuring Terminal Entries ttyu1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure ttyu5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure The first field specifies the device name of the serial terminal. The second field tells getty to initialize and open the line, set the line speed, prompt for a user name, and then execute the login program. The optional getty type configures characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The available getty types are listed in /etc/gettytab. In almost all cases, the getty types that start with std will work for hardwired terminals as these entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Refer to &man.gettytab.5; for more information. When setting the getty type, make sure to match the communications settings used by the terminal. For this example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The computer uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. The third field is the type of terminal. For dial-up ports, unknown or dialup is typically used since users may dial up with practically any type of terminal or software. Since the terminal type does not change for hardwired terminals, a real terminal type from /etc/termcap can be specified. For this example, the Wyse-50 uses the real terminal type while the computer running Procomm is set to emulate a VT-100. The fourth field specifies if the port should be enabled. To enable logins on this port, this field must be set to on. The final field is used to specify whether the port is secure. Marking a port as secure means that it is trusted enough to allow root to login from that port. Insecure ports do not allow root logins. On an insecure port, users must login from unprivileged accounts and then use su or a similar mechanism to gain superuser privileges, as described in . For security reasons, it is recommended to change this setting to insecure. After making any changes to /etc/ttys, send a SIGHUP (hangup) signal to the init process to force it to re-read its configuration file: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 Since init is always the first process run on a system, it always has a process ID of 1. If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, a getty process should now be running on each terminal and login prompts should be available on each terminal. Troubleshooting the Connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of common symptoms and some suggested fixes. If no login prompt appears, make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the &os; computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and &os; agree on the bps rate and parity settings. For a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Use ps to make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. For example, the following listing shows that a getty is running on the second serial port, ttyu1, and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab: &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep ttyu 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyu1 If no getty process is running, make sure the port is enabled in /etc/ttys. Remember to run kill -HUP 1 after modifying /etc/ttys. If the getty process is running but the terminal still does not display a login prompt, or if it displays a prompt but will not accept typed input, the terminal or cable may not support hardware handshaking. Try changing the entry in /etc/ttys from std.38400 to 3wire.38400, then run kill -HUP 1 after modifying /etc/ttys. The 3wire entry is similar to std, but ignores hardware handshaking. The baud rate may need to be reduced or software flow control enabled when using 3wire to prevent buffer overflows. If garbage appears instead of a login prompt, make sure the terminal and &os; agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. If characters appear doubled and the password appears when typed, switch the terminal, or the terminal emulation software, from half duplex or local echo to full duplex. Dial-in Service Guy Helmer Contributed by Sean Kelly Additions by dial-in service Configuring a &os; system for dial-in service is similar to configuring terminals, except that modems are used instead of terminal devices. &os; supports both external and internal modems. External modems are more convenient because they often can be configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals, indicating whether the modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited to setting DIP switches. If the internal modem has any signal indicator lights, they are difficult to view when the system's cover is in place. modem When using an external modem, a proper cable is needed. A standard RS-232C serial cable should suffice. &os; needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow control at speeds above 2400 bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if a login session does not go away when the line hangs up, there may be a problem with the cable. Refer to for more information about these signals. Like other &unix;-like operating systems, &os; uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. &os; avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. &os; supports the NS8250, NS16450, NS16550, and NS16550A-based RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. Bugs in plain 16550 devices prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A devices if possible. Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. The rest of this section demonstrates how to configure a modem to receive incoming connections, how to communicate with the modem, and offers some troubleshooting tips. Modem Configuration getty As with terminals, init spawns a getty process for each configured serial port used for dial-in connections. When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the Carrier Detect signal is reported by the modem. The kernel notices that the carrier has been detected and instructs getty to open the port and display a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. In a typical configuration, if garbage characters are received, usually due to the modem's connection speed being different than the configured speed, getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. After the user enters their login name, getty executes login, which completes the login process by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. /usr/bin/login There are two schools of thought regarding dial-up modems. One confiuration method is to set the modems and systems so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the dial-in RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The second method is to configure the RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, it gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, they should press Enter until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees anything the user types as junk, tries the next speed, and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. This login sequence does not look as clean as the locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. When locking a modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, no changes to /etc/gettytab should be needed. However, for a matching-speed configuration, additional entries may be required in order to define the speeds to use for the modem. This example configures a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps using 8-bit, no parity connections. It configures getty to start the communications rate for a V.32bis connection at 19.2 Kbps, then cycles through 9600 bps, 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the nx= (next table) capability. Each line uses a tc= (table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the settings for a particular data rate. # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: For a 28.8 Kbps modem, or to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, use a higher communications rate, as seen in this example: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: For a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system without 16550A-based serial ports, this configuration may produce sio silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. /etc/ttys The configuration of /etc/ttys is similar to , but a different argument is passed to getty and dialup is used for the terminal type. Replace xxx with the process init will run on the device: ttyu0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The dialup terminal type can be changed. For example, setting vt102 as the default terminal type allows users to use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. For a locked-speed configuration, specify the speed with a valid type listed in /etc/gettytab. This example is for a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps: ttyu0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on In a matching-speed configuration, the entry needs to reference the appropriate beginning auto-baud entry in /etc/gettytab. To continue the example for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps, use this entry: ttyu0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on After editing /etc/ttys, wait until the modem is properly configured and connected before signaling init: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 rc files rc.serial High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. Use stty to set the hardware flow control flag for the modem port. This example sets the crtscts flag on COM2's dial-in and dial-out initialization devices: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyu1.init crtscts &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/cuau1.init crtscts Troubleshooting This section provides a few tips for troubleshooting a dial-up modem that will not connect to a &os; system. Hook up the modem to the &os; system and boot the system. If the modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console. If it lights up, that should mean that &os; has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator does not light, login to the &os; system through the console and type ps ax to see if &os; is running a getty process on the correct port: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyu0 If the second column contains a d0 instead of a ?? and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a misconfigured modem because getty should not be able to open the communications port until the carrier detect signal has been asserted by the modem. If no getty processes are waiting to open the port, double-check that the entry for the port is correct in /etc/ttys. Also, check /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty. Next, try dialing into the system. Be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit on the remote system. If a prompt does not appear right away, or the prompt shows garbage, try pressing Enter about once per second. If there is still no login: prompt, try sending a BREAK. When using a high-speed modem, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed. If there is still no login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that: The initial capability name specified in the entry in /etc/ttys matches the name of a capability in /etc/gettytab. Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name. Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name. If the modem on the &os; system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights. If it still does not work, try sending an email to the &a.questions; describing the modem and the problem. Dial-out Service dial-out service The following are tips for getting the host to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This kind of connection can be helpful to get a file on the Internet if there are problems using PPP. If PPP is not working, use the terminal session to FTP the needed file. Then use zmodem to transfer it to the machine. Using a Stock Hayes Modem A generic Hayes dialer is built into tip. Use at=hayes in /etc/remote. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200. Turn those messages off when using tip with ATX0&W. The dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. The modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. Using <literal>AT</literal> Commands /etc/remote Create a direct entry in /etc/remote. For example, if the modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuau0, use the following line: cuau0:dv=/dev/cuau0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate the modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuau0 to connect to the modem. Or, use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port, such as /dev/cuau0, and speed is the speed, such as 57600. When finished entering the AT commands, type ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> Sign Does Not Work The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But, the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote, so it needs to be escaped with a backslash: pn=\@ Dialing from the Command Line Put a generic entry in /etc/remote. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuau0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuau0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: This should now work: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 Users who prefer cu over tip, can use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuau1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Setting the <acronym>bps</acronym> Rate Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. 1200 bps does not have to be used, though. Accessing a Number of Hosts Through a Terminal Server Rather than waiting until connected and typing CONNECT host each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin, and tip deep13 to connect to the terminal server. pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cuau2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: Using More Than One Line with <command>tip</command> This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them. Make an entry in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuau3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each number in the listed order, then give up. To keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Using the Force Character Ctrl P is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. The force character can be set to any other character with the ~s escape, which means set a variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If single-char is left out, then the force character is the null character, which is accessed by typing Ctrl2 or CtrlSpace . A pretty good value for single-char is Shift Ctrl 6 , which is only used on some terminal servers. To change the force character, specify the following in ~/.tiprc: force=single-char Upper Case Characters This happens when Ctrl A is pressed, which is tip's raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s to set raisechar to something reasonable. It can be set to be the same as the force character, if neither feature is used. Here is a sample ~/.tiprc for Emacs users who need to type Ctrl 2 and Ctrl A : force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is ShiftCtrl6 . File Transfers with <command>tip</command> When talking to another &unix;-like operating system, files can be sent and received using ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so another protocol, like zmodem, should probably be used. Using <application>zmodem</application> with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Setting Up the Serial Console Kazutaka YOKOTA Contributed by Bill Paul Based on a document by serial console &os; has the ability to boot a system with a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. This configuration is useful for system administrators who wish to install &os; on machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. As described in , &os; employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the &os; slice on the boot disk. The boot block then loads and runs the boot loader as the third stage code. In order to set up booting from a serial console, the boot block code, the boot loader code, and the kernel need to be configured. Quick Serial Console Configuration This section provides a fast overview of setting up the serial console. This procedure can be used when the dumb terminal is connected to COM1. Configuring a Serial Console on <filename>COM1</filename> Connect the serial cable to COM1 and the controlling terminal. To configure boot messages to display on the serial console, issue the following command as the superuser: &prompt.root; echo 'console="comconsole"' >> /boot/loader.conf Edit /etc/ttys and change off to on and dialup to vt100 for the ttyu0 entry. Otherwise, a password will not be required to connect via the serial console, resulting in a potential security hole. Reboot the system to see if the changes took effect. If a different configuration is required, see the next section for a more in-depth configuration explanation. In-Depth Serial Console Configuration This section provides a more detailed explanation of the steps needed to setup a serial console in &os;. Configuring a Serial Console Prepare a serial cable. null-modem cable Use either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug the keyboard. Many systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines will refuse to boot until the keyboard is plugged in. If the computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, no further configuration is needed. If the computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached, configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error. Consult the motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. Try setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS. This setting tells the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on so it should not complain if the keyboard is absent. If that option is not present in the BIOS, look for an Halt on Error option instead. Setting this to All but Keyboard or to No Errors will have the same effect. If the system has a &ps2; mouse, unplug it as well. &ps2; mice share some hardware with the keyboard and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. While most systems will boot without a keyboard, quite a few will not boot without a graphics adapter. Some systems can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter by changing the graphics adapter setting in the BIOS configuration to Not installed. Other systems do not support this option and will refuse to boot if there is no display hardware in the system. With these machines, leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, even if it is just a junky mono board. A monitor does not need to be attached. Plug a dumb terminal, an old computer with a modem program, or the serial port on another &unix; box into the serial port. Add the appropriate hint.sio.* entries to /boot/device.hints for the serial port. Some multi-port cards also require kernel configuration options. Refer to &man.sio.4; for the required options and device hints for each supported serial port. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file instructs the boot block code how to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, one or more of the following options are needed. When using multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles between the internal and serial consoles. Use this to switch console devices. For instance, to boot from the internal (video) console, use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, to boot from the serial port, use to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles between the single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration, the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of . In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of . However, the dual console configuration takes effect only while the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys and without F11 and F12 keys may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptops may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is the case, do not use . Use either to select the console automatically or to activate the serial console. Refer to &man.boot.8; and &man.boot.config.5; for more details. The options, except for , are passed to the boot loader. The boot loader will determine whether the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of . This means that if is specified but is not specified in /boot.config, the serial port can be used as the console only during the boot block as the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When &os; starts, the boot blocks echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example: /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if is in /boot.config and indicates the presence or absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either the serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config: Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the message, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages are printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, there is no need to interrupt the boot blocks, but one can do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Press any key, other than Enter, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt for further action: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:ad(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify that the above message appears on either the serial or internal console, or both, according to the options in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, press Enter to continue the boot process. If there is no prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with the settings. Enter then Enter or Return to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. During the third stage of the boot process, one can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See &man.loader.8; for more information. This line in /boot/loader.conf or /boot/loader.conf.local configures the boot loader and the kernel to send their boot messages to the serial console, regardless of the options in /boot.config: console="comconsole" That line should be the first line of /boot/loader.conf so that boot messages are displayed on the serial console as early as possible. If that line does not exist, or if it is set to console="vidconsole", the boot loader and the kernel will use whichever console is indicated by in the boot block. See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. While it is not required, it is possible to provide a login prompt over the serial line. To configure this, edit the entry for the serial port in /etc/ttys using the instructions in . If the speed of the serial port has been changed, change std.9600 to match the new setting. Setting a Faster Serial Port Speed By default, the serial port settings are 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, and 1 stop bit. To change the default console speed, use one of the following options: Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED to the new console speed. Then, recompile and install the boot blocks and the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot &prompt.root; make clean &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, add the following option, with the desired speed, to a custom kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Add the boot option to /boot.config, replacing 19200 with the speed to use. Add the following options to /boot/loader.conf. Replace 115200 with the speed to use. boot_multicons="YES" boot_serial="YES" comconsole_speed="115200" console="comconsole,vidconsole" Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line To configure the ability to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console, add the following options to a custom kernel configuration file and compile the kernel using the instructions in . Note that while this is useful for remote diagnostics, it is also dangerous if a spurious BREAK is generated on the serial port. Refer to &man.ddb.4; and &man.ddb.8; for more information about the kernel debugger. options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Index: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.xml =================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.xml (revision 46042) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.xml (revision 46043) @@ -1,1522 +1,1524 @@ - + The X Window System Synopsis An installation of &os; using bsdinstall does not automatically install a graphical user interface. This chapter describes how to install and configure &xorg;, which provides the open source X Window System used to provide a graphical environment. It then describes how to find and install a desktop environment or window manager. Users who prefer an installation method that automatically configures the &xorg; and offers a choice of window managers during installation should refer to the pcbsd.org website. For more information on the video hardware that &xorg; supports, refer to the x.org website. After reading this chapter, you will know: The various components of the X Window System, and how they interoperate. How to install and configure &xorg;. How to install and configure several window managers and desktop environments. How to use &truetype; fonts in &xorg;. How to set up your system for graphical logins (XDM). Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party software as described in . Terminology While it is not necessary to understand all of the details of the various components in the X Window System and how they interact, some basic knowledge of these components can be useful: X server X was designed from the beginning to be network-centric, and adopts a client-server model. In this model, the X server runs on the computer that has the keyboard, monitor, and mouse attached. The server's responsibility includes tasks such as managing the display, handling input from the keyboard and mouse, and handling input or output from other devices such as a tablet or a video projector. This confuses some people, because the X terminology is exactly backward to what they expect. They expect the X server to be the big powerful machine down the hall, and the X client to be the machine on their desk. X client Each X application, such as XTerm or Firefox, is a client. A client sends messages to the server such as Please draw a window at these coordinates, and the server sends back messages such as The user just clicked on the OK button. In a home or small office environment, the X server and the X clients commonly run on the same computer. It is also possible to run the X server on a less powerful computer and to run the X applications on a more powerful system. In this scenario, the communication between the X client and server takes place over the network. window manager X does not dictate what windows should look like on screen, how to move them around with the mouse, which keystrokes should be used to move between windows, what the title bars on each window should look like, whether or not they have close buttons on them, and so on. Instead, X delegates this responsibility to a separate window manager application. There are dozens of window managers available. Each window manager provides a different look and feel: some support virtual desktops, some allow customized keystrokes to manage the desktop, some have a Start button, and some are themeable, allowing a complete change of the desktop's look-and-feel. Window managers are available in the x11-wm category of the Ports Collection. Each window manager uses a different configuration mechanism. Some expect configuration file written by hand while others provide graphical tools for most configuration tasks. desktop environment KDE and GNOME are considered to be desktop environments as they include an entire suite of applications for performing common desktop tasks. These may include office suites, web browsers, and games. focus policy The window manager is responsible for the mouse focus policy. This policy provides some means for choosing which window is actively receiving keystrokes and it should also visibly indicate which window is currently active. One focus policy is called click-to-focus. In this model, a window becomes active upon receiving a mouse click. In the focus-follows-mouse policy, the window that is under the mouse pointer has focus and the focus is changed by pointing at another window. If the mouse is over the root window, then this window is focused. In the sloppy-focus model, if the mouse is moved over the root window, the most recently used window still has the focus. With sloppy-focus, focus is only changed when the cursor enters a new window, and not when exiting the current window. In the click-to-focus policy, the active window is selected by mouse click. The window may then be raised and appear in front of all other windows. All keystrokes will now be directed to this window, even if the cursor is moved to another window. Different window managers support different focus models. All of them support click-to-focus, and the majority of them also support other policies. Consult the documentation for the window manager to determine which focus models are available. widgets Widget is a term for all of the items in the user interface that can be clicked or manipulated in some way. This includes buttons, check boxes, radio buttons, icons, and lists. A widget toolkit is a set of widgets used to create graphical applications. There are several popular widget toolkits, including Qt, used by KDE, and GTK+, used by GNOME. As a result, applications will have a different look and feel, depending upon which widget toolkit was used to create the application. Installing <application>&xorg;</application> &xorg; is the implementation of the open source X Window System released by the X.Org Foundation. In &os;, it can be installed as a package or port. The meta-port for the complete distribution which includes X servers, clients, libraries, and fonts is located in x11/xorg. A minimal distribution is located in x11/xorg-minimal, with separate ports available for docs, libraries, and apps. The examples in this section install the complete &xorg; distribution. To build and install &xorg; from the Ports Collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/xorg &prompt.root; make install clean To build &xorg; in its entirety, be sure to have at least 4 GB of free disk space available. Alternatively, &xorg; can be installed directly from packages with this command: &prompt.root; pkg install xorg Quick Start In most cases, &xorg; is self-configuring. When started without any configuration file, the video card and input devices are automatically detected and used. Autoconfiguration is the preferred method, and should be tried first. Check if HAL is used by the X server: &prompt.user; pkg info xorg-server | grep HAL If the output shows HAL is off, skip to the next step. If HAL is on, enable needed services by adding two entries to /etc/rc.conf. Then start the services: hald_enable="YES" dbus_enable="YES" &prompt.root; service hald start ; service dbus start Rename or delete old versions of xorg.conf: &prompt.root; mv /etc/X11/xorg.conf ~/xorg.conf.etc &prompt.root; mv /usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf ~/xorg.conf.localetc Start the X system: &prompt.user; startx Test the system by moving the mouse and typing text into the windows. If both mouse and keyboard work as expected, see and . If the mouse or keyboard do not work, continue with . <application>&xorg;</application> Configuration &xorg; &xorg; Those with older or unusual equipment may find it helpful to gather some hardware information before beginning configuration. Monitor sync frequencies Video card chipset Video card memory horizontal sync frequency horizontal scan rate horizontal sync frequency refresh rate vertical sync frequency refresh rate vertical scan rate refresh rate Screen resolution and refresh rate are determined by the monitor's horizontal and vertical sync frequencies. Almost all monitors support electronic autodetection of these values. A few monitors do not provide these values, and the specifications must be determined from the printed manual or manufacturer web site. The video card chipset is also autodetected, and used to select the proper video driver. It is beneficial for the user to be aware of which chipset is installed for when autodetection does not provide the desired result. Video card memory determines the maximum resolution and color depth which can be displayed. Caveats The ability to configure optimal resolution is dependent upon the video hardware and the support provided by its driver. At this time, driver support includes: Intel: as of &os; 9.3 and &os; 10.1, 3D acceleration on most Intel graphics, including IronLake, SandyBridge, and IvyBridge, is supported. Support for switching between X and virtual consoles is provided by &man.vt.4;. ATI/Radeon: 2D and 3D acceleration is supported on most Radeon cards up to the HD6000 series. NVIDIA: several NVIDIA drivers are available in the x11 category of the Ports Collection. Install the driver that matches the video card. Optimus: currently there is no switching support between the two graphics adapters provided by Optimus. Optimus implementations vary, and &os; will not be able to drive all versions of the hardware. Some computers provide a BIOS option to disable one of the graphics adapters or select a discrete mode. Configuring <application>&xorg;</application> By default, &xorg; uses HAL to autodetect keyboards and mice. The sysutils/hal and devel/dbus ports are automatically installed as dependencies of x11/xorg, but must be enabled by adding these entries to /etc/rc.conf: hald_enable="YES" dbus_enable="YES" Start these services before configuring &xorg;: &prompt.root; service hald start &prompt.root; service dbus start Once the services have been started, check whether &xorg; auto-configures itself by typing: &prompt.root; Xorg -configure This will generate a file named /root/xorg.conf.new which attempts to load the proper drivers for the detected hardware. Next, test that the automatically generated configuration file works with the graphics hardware by typing: &prompt.root; Xorg -config xorg.conf.new -retro If a black and grey grid and an X mouse cursor appear, the configuration was successful. To exit the test, switch to the virtual console used to start it by pressing Ctrl Alt Fn (F1 for the first virtual console) and press Ctrl C . The Ctrl Alt Backspace key combination may also be used to break out of &xorg;. To enable it, you can either type the following command from any X terminal emulator: &prompt.user; setxkbmap -option terminate:ctrl_alt_bksp or create a keyboard configuration file for hald called x11-input.fdi and saved in the /usr/local/etc/hal/fdi/policy directory. This file should contain the following lines: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> <deviceinfo version="0.2"> <device> <match key="info.capabilities" contains="input.keyboard"> <merge key="input.x11_options.XkbOptions" type="string">terminate:ctrl_alt_bksp</merge> </match> </device> </deviceinfo> You will have to reboot your machine to force hald to read this file. The following line will also have to be added to xorg.conf.new, in the ServerLayout or ServerFlags section: Option "DontZap" "off" If the test is unsuccessful, skip ahead to . Once the test is successful, copy the configuration file to /etc/X11/xorg.conf: &prompt.root; cp xorg.conf.new /etc/X11/xorg.conf Desktop environments like GNOME, KDE or Xfce provide graphical tools to set parameters such as video resolution. If the default configuration works, skip to for examples on how to install a desktop environment. Using Fonts in <application>&xorg;</application> Type1 Fonts The default fonts that ship with &xorg; are less than ideal for typical desktop publishing applications. Large presentation fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking, and small fonts are almost completely unintelligible. However, there are several free, high quality Type1 (&postscript;) fonts available which can be readily used with &xorg;. For instance, the URW font collection (x11-fonts/urwfonts) includes high quality versions of standard type1 fonts (Times Roman, Helvetica, Palatino and others). The Freefonts collection (x11-fonts/freefonts) includes many more fonts, but most of them are intended for use in graphics software such as the Gimp, and are not complete enough to serve as screen fonts. In addition, &xorg; can be configured to use &truetype; fonts with a minimum of effort. For more details on this, see the &man.X.7; manual page or . To install the above Type1 font collections from the Ports Collection, run the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts &prompt.root; make install clean And likewise with the freefont or other collections. To have the X server detect these fonts, add an appropriate line to the X server configuration file (/etc/X11/xorg.conf), which reads: FontPath "/usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/URW/" Alternatively, at the command line in the X session run: &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/URW &prompt.user; xset fp rehash This will work but will be lost when the X session is closed, unless it is added to the startup file (~/.xinitrc for a normal startx session, or ~/.xsession when logging in through a graphical login manager like XDM). A third way is to use the new /usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf file as demonstrated in . &truetype; Fonts TrueType Fonts fonts TrueType &xorg; has built in support for rendering &truetype; fonts. There are two different modules that can enable this functionality. The freetype module is used in this example because it is more consistent with the other font rendering back-ends. To enable the freetype module just add the following line to the "Module" section of the /etc/X11/xorg.conf file. Load "freetype" Now make a directory for the &truetype; fonts (for example, /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType) and copy all of the &truetype; fonts into this directory. Keep in mind that &truetype; fonts cannot be directly taken from an &apple; &mac;; they must be in &unix;/&ms-dos;/&windows; format for use by &xorg;. Once the files have been copied into this directory, use ttmkfdir to create a fonts.dir file, so that the X font renderer knows that these new files have been installed. ttmkfdir is available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as x11-fonts/ttmkfdir. &prompt.root; cd /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.root; ttmkfdir -o fonts.dir Now add the &truetype; directory to the font path. This is just the same as described in : &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.user; xset fp rehash or add a FontPath line to the xorg.conf file. That's it. Now Gimp, Apache OpenOffice, and all of the other X applications should now recognize the installed &truetype; fonts. Extremely small fonts (as with text in a high resolution display on a web page) and extremely large fonts (within &staroffice;) will look much better now. Anti-Aliased Fonts anti-aliased fonts fonts anti-aliased All fonts in &xorg; that are found in /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/ and ~/.fonts/ are automatically made available for anti-aliasing to Xft-aware applications. Most recent applications are Xft-aware, including KDE, GNOME, and Firefox. In order to control which fonts are anti-aliased, or to configure anti-aliasing properties, create (or edit, if it already exists) the file /usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf. Several advanced features of the Xft font system can be tuned using this file; this section describes only some simple possibilities. For more details, please see &man.fonts-conf.5;. XML This file must be in XML format. Pay careful attention to case, and make sure all tags are properly closed. The file begins with the usual XML header followed by a DOCTYPE definition, and then the <fontconfig> tag: <?xml version="1.0"?> <!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd"> <fontconfig> As previously stated, all fonts in /usr/local/lib/X11/fonts/ as well as ~/.fonts/ are already made available to Xft-aware applications. If you wish to add another directory outside of these two directory trees, add a line similar to the following to /usr/local/etc/fonts/local.conf: <dir>/path/to/my/fonts</dir> After adding new fonts, and especially new font directories, you should run the following command to rebuild the font caches: &prompt.root; fc-cache -f Anti-aliasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes very small text more readable and removes staircases from large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text. To exclude font sizes smaller than 14 point from anti-aliasing, include these lines: <match target="font"> <test name="size" compare="less"> <double>14</double> </test> <edit name="antialias" mode="assign"> <bool>false</bool> </edit> </match> <match target="font"> <test name="pixelsize" compare="less" qual="any"> <double>14</double> </test> <edit mode="assign" name="antialias"> <bool>false</bool> </edit> </match> fonts spacing Spacing for some monospaced fonts may also be inappropriate with anti-aliasing. This seems to be an issue with KDE, in particular. One possible fix for this is to force the spacing for such fonts to be 100. Add the following lines: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>fixed</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>mono</string> </edit> </match> <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>console</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>mono</string> </edit> </match> (this aliases the other common names for fixed fonts as "mono"), and then add: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>mono</string> </test> <edit name="spacing" mode="assign"> <int>100</int> </edit> </match> Certain fonts, such as Helvetica, may have a problem when anti-aliased. Usually this manifests itself as a font that seems cut in half vertically. At worst, it may cause applications to crash. To avoid this, consider adding the following to local.conf: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>Helvetica</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>sans-serif</string> </edit> </match> Once you have finished editing local.conf make sure you end the file with the </fontconfig> tag. Not doing this will cause your changes to be ignored. Finally, users can add their own settings via their personal .fonts.conf files. To do this, each user should simply create a ~/.fonts.conf. This file must also be in XML format. LCD screen Fonts LCD screen One last point: with an LCD screen, sub-pixel sampling may be desired. This basically treats the (horizontally separated) red, green and blue components separately to improve the horizontal resolution; the results can be dramatic. To enable this, add the line somewhere in the local.conf file: <match target="font"> <test qual="all" name="rgba"> <const>unknown</const> </test> <edit name="rgba" mode="assign"> <const>rgb</const> </edit> </match> Depending on the sort of display, rgb may need to be changed to bgr, vrgb or vbgr: experiment and see which works best. The X Display Manager Seth Kingsley Contributed by X Display Manager &xorg; provides an X Display Manager, XDM, which can be used for login session management. XDM provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server to connect to and for entering authorization information such as a login and password combination. This section demonstrates how to configure the X Display Manager on &os;. Some desktop environments provide their own graphical login manager. Refer to for instructions on how to configure the GNOME Display Manager and for instructions on how to configure the KDE Display Manager. Configuring <application>XDM</application> To install XDM, use the x11/xdm package or port. Once installed, XDM can be configured to run when the machine boots up by editing this entry in /etc/ttys: ttyv8 "/usr/local/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure Change the off to on and save the edit. The ttyv8 in this entry indicates that XDM will run on the ninth virtual terminal. The XDM configuration directory is located in /usr/local/lib/X11/xdm. This directory contains several files used to change the behavior and appearance of XDM, as well as a few scripts and programs used to set up the desktop when XDM is running. summarizes the function of each of these files. The exact syntax and usage of these files is described in &man.xdm.1;. XDM Configuration Files File Description Xaccess The protocol for connecting to XDM is called the X Display Manager Connection Protocol (XDMCP) This file is a client authorization ruleset for controlling XDMCP connections from remote machines. By default, this file does not allow any remote clients to connect. Xresources This file controls the look and feel of the XDM display chooser and login screens. The default configuration is a simple rectangular login window with the hostname of the machine displayed at the top in a large font and Login: and Password: prompts below. The format of this file is identical to the app-defaults file described in the &xorg; documentation. Xservers The list of local and remote displays the chooser should provide as login choices. Xsession Default session script for logins which is run by XDM after a user has logged in. Normally each user will have a customized session script in ~/.xsession that overrides this script Xsetup_* Script to automatically launch applications before displaying the chooser or login interfaces. There is a script for each display being used, named Xsetup_*, where * is the local display number. Typically these scripts run one or two programs in the background such as xconsole. xdm-config Global configuration for all displays running on this machine. xdm-errors Contains errors generated by the server program. If a display that XDM is trying to start hangs, look at this file for error messages. These messages are also written to the user's ~/.xsession-errors file on a per-session basis. xdm-pid The running process ID of XDM.
Configuring Remote Access By default, only users on the same system can login using XDM. To enable users on other systems to connect to the display server, edit the access control rules and enable the connection listener. To configure XDM to listen for any remote connection, comment out the DisplayManager.requestPort line in /usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/xdm-config by putting a ! in front of it: ! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm DisplayManager.requestPort: 0 Save the edits and restart XDM. To restrict remote access, look at the example entries in /usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/Xaccess and refer to &man.xdm.1; for further information. Desktop Environments Valentino Vaschetto Contributed by This section describes how to install three popular desktop environments on a &os; system. A desktop environment can range from a simple window manager to a complete suite of desktop applications. Over a hundred desktop environments are available in the x11-wm category of the Ports Collection. GNOME GNOME GNOME is a user-friendly desktop environment. It includes a panel for starting applications and displaying status, a desktop, a set of tools and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each other. More information regarding GNOME on &os; can be found at http://www.FreeBSD.org/gnome. That web site contains additional documentation about installing, configuring, and managing GNOME on &os;. This desktop environment can be installed from a package: &prompt.root; pkg install gnome2 To instead build GNOME from ports, use the following command. GNOME is a large application and will take some time to compile, even on a fast computer. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome2 &prompt.root; make install clean For proper operation, GNOME requires the /proc file system to be mounted. Add this line to /etc/fstab to mount this file system automatically during system startup: proc /proc procfs rw 0 0 Once GNOME is installed, configure &xorg; to start GNOME. The easiest way to do this is to enable the GNOME Display Manager, GDM, which is installed as part of the GNOME package or port. It can be enabled by adding this line to /etc/rc.conf: gdm_enable="YES" It is often desirable to also start all GNOME services. To achieve this, add a second line to /etc/rc.conf: gnome_enable="YES" GDM will now start automatically when the system boots. A second method for starting GNOME is to type startx from the command-line after configuring ~/.xinitrc. If this file already exists, replace the line that starts the current window manager with one that starts /usr/local/bin/gnome-session. If this file does not exist, create it with this command: &prompt.user; echo "exec /usr/local/bin/gnome-session" > ~/.xinitrc A third method is to use XDM as the display manager. In this case, create an executable ~/.xsession: &prompt.user; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.user; echo "exec /usr/local/bin/gnome-session" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.user; chmod +x ~/.xsession KDE KDE KDE is another easy-to-use desktop environment. This desktop provides a suite of applications with a consistent look and feel, a standardized menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes, internationalization, and a centralized, dialog-driven desktop configuration. More information on KDE can be found at http://www.kde.org/. For &os;-specific information, consult http://freebsd.kde.org. To install the KDE package, type: &prompt.root; pkg install x11/kde4 To instead build the KDE port, use the following command. Installing the port will provide a menu for selecting which components to install. KDE is a large application and will take some time to compile, even on a fast computer. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/kde4 &prompt.root; make install clean KDE display manager KDE requires the /proc file system to be mounted. Add this line to /etc/fstab to mount this file system automatically during system startup: proc /proc procfs rw 0 0 The installation of KDE includes the KDE Display Manager, KDM. To enable this display manager, add this line to /etc/rc.conf: kdm4_enable="YES" A second method for launching KDE is to type startx from the command line. For this to work, the following line is needed in ~/.xinitrc: exec /usr/local/kde4/bin/startkde A third method for starting KDE is through XDM. To do so, create an executable ~/.xsession as follows: &prompt.user; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.user; echo "exec /usr/local/kde4/bin/startkde" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.user; chmod +x ~/.xsession Once KDE is started, refer to its built-in help system for more information on how to use its various menus and applications. Xfce Xfce is a desktop environment based on the GTK+ toolkit used by GNOME. However, it is more lightweight and provides a simple, efficient, easy-to-use desktop. It is fully configurable, has a main panel with menus, applets, and application launchers, provides a file manager and sound manager, and is themeable. Since it is fast, light, and efficient, it is ideal for older or slower machines with memory limitations. More information on Xfce can be found at http://www.xfce.org. To install the Xfce package: &prompt.root; pkg install xfce Alternatively, to build the port: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce4 &prompt.root; make install clean Unlike GNOME or KDE, Xfce does not provide its own login manager. In order to start Xfce from the command line by typing startx, first add its entry to ~/.xinitrc: &prompt.user; echo "exec /usr/local/bin/startxfce4" > ~/.xinitrc An alternate method is to use XDM. To configure this method, create an executable ~/.xsession: &prompt.user; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.user; echo "exec /usr/local/bin/startxfce4" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.user; chmod +x ~/.xsession Troubleshooting If the mouse does not work, you will need to first configure it before proceeding. See in the &os; install chapter. In recent Xorg versions, the InputDevice sections in xorg.conf are ignored in favor of the autodetected devices. To restore the old behavior, add the following line to the ServerLayout or ServerFlags section of this file: Option "AutoAddDevices" "false" Input devices may then be configured as in previous versions, along with any other options needed (e.g., keyboard layout switching). As previously explained the hald daemon will, by default, automatically detect your keyboard. There are chances that your keyboard layout or model will not be correct, desktop environments like GNOME, KDE or Xfce provide tools to configure the keyboard. However, it is possible to set the keyboard properties directly either with the help of the &man.setxkbmap.1; utility or with a hald's configuration rule. For example if, one wants to use a PC 102 keys keyboard coming with a french layout, we have to create a keyboard configuration file for hald called x11-input.fdi and saved in the /usr/local/etc/hal/fdi/policy directory. This file should contain the following lines: <?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> <deviceinfo version="0.2"> <device> <match key="info.capabilities" contains="input.keyboard"> <merge key="input.x11_options.XkbModel" type="string">pc102</merge> <merge key="input.x11_options.XkbLayout" type="string">fr</merge> </match> </device> </deviceinfo> If this file already exists, just copy and add to your file the lines regarding the keyboard configuration. You will have to reboot your machine to force hald to read this file. It is possible to do the same configuration from an X terminal or a script with this command line: &prompt.user; setxkbmap -model pc102 -layout fr The /usr/local/share/X11/xkb/rules/base.lst file lists the various keyboard, layouts and options available. &xorg; tuning The xorg.conf.new configuration file may now be tuned to taste. Open the file in a text editor such as &man.emacs.1; or &man.ee.1;. If the monitor is an older or unusual model that does not support autodetection of sync frequencies, those settings can be added to xorg.conf.new under the "Monitor" section: Section "Monitor" Identifier "Monitor0" VendorName "Monitor Vendor" ModelName "Monitor Model" HorizSync 30-107 VertRefresh 48-120 EndSection Most monitors support sync frequency autodetection, making manual entry of these values unnecessary. For the few monitors that do not support autodetection, avoid potential damage by only entering values provided by the manufacturer. X allows DPMS (Energy Star) features to be used with capable monitors. The &man.xset.1; program controls the time-outs and can force standby, suspend, or off modes. If you wish to enable DPMS features for your monitor, you must add the following line to the monitor section: Option "DPMS" xorg.conf While the xorg.conf.new configuration file is still open in an editor, select the default resolution and color depth desired. This is defined in the "Screen" section: Section "Screen" Identifier "Screen0" Device "Card0" Monitor "Monitor0" DefaultDepth 24 SubSection "Display" Viewport 0 0 Depth 24 Modes "1024x768" EndSubSection EndSection The DefaultDepth keyword describes the color depth to run at by default. This can be overridden with the command line switch to &man.Xorg.1;. The Modes keyword describes the resolution to run at for the given color depth. Note that only VESA standard modes are supported as defined by the target system's graphics hardware. In the example above, the default color depth is twenty-four bits per pixel. At this color depth, the accepted resolution is 1024 by 768 pixels. Finally, write the configuration file and test it using the test mode given above. One of the tools available to assist you during troubleshooting process are the &xorg; log files, which contain information on each device that the &xorg; server attaches to. &xorg; log file names are in the format of /var/log/Xorg.0.log. The exact name of the log can vary from Xorg.0.log to Xorg.8.log and so forth. If all is well, the configuration file needs to be installed in a common location where &man.Xorg.1; can find it. This is typically /etc/X11/xorg.conf or /usr/local/etc/X11/xorg.conf. &prompt.root; cp xorg.conf.new /etc/X11/xorg.conf The &xorg; configuration process is now complete. &xorg; may be now started with the &man.startx.1; utility. The &xorg; server may also be started with the use of &man.xdm.1;. Configuration with &intel; <literal>i810</literal> Graphics Chipsets Intel i810 graphic chipset Configuration with &intel; i810 integrated chipsets requires the agpgart AGP programming interface for &xorg; to drive the card. See the &man.agp.4; driver manual page for more information. This will allow configuration of the hardware as any other graphics board. Note on systems without the &man.agp.4; driver compiled in the kernel, trying to load the module with &man.kldload.8; will not work. This driver has to be in the kernel at boot time through being compiled in or using /boot/loader.conf. Adding a Widescreen Flatpanel to the Mix widescreen flatpanel configuration This section assumes a bit of advanced configuration knowledge. If attempts to use the standard configuration tools above have not resulted in a working configuration, there is information enough in the log files to be of use in getting the setup working. Use of a text editor will be necessary. Current widescreen (WSXGA, WSXGA+, WUXGA, WXGA, WXGA+, et.al.) formats support 16:10 and 10:9 formats or aspect ratios that can be problematic. Examples of some common screen resolutions for 16:10 aspect ratios are: 2560x1600 1920x1200 1680x1050 1440x900 1280x800 At some point, it will be as easy as adding one of these resolutions as a possible Mode in the Section "Screen" as such: Section "Screen" Identifier "Screen0" Device "Card0" Monitor "Monitor0" DefaultDepth 24 SubSection "Display" Viewport 0 0 Depth 24 Modes "1680x1050" EndSubSection EndSection &xorg; is smart enough to pull the resolution information from the widescreen via I2C/DDC information so it knows what the monitor can handle as far as frequencies and resolutions. If those ModeLines do not exist in the drivers, one might need to give &xorg; a little hint. Using /var/log/Xorg.0.log one can extract enough information to manually create a ModeLine that will work. Simply look for information resembling this: (II) MGA(0): Supported additional Video Mode: (II) MGA(0): clock: 146.2 MHz Image Size: 433 x 271 mm (II) MGA(0): h_active: 1680 h_sync: 1784 h_sync_end 1960 h_blank_end 2240 h_border: 0 (II) MGA(0): v_active: 1050 v_sync: 1053 v_sync_end 1059 v_blanking: 1089 v_border: 0 (II) MGA(0): Ranges: V min: 48 V max: 85 Hz, H min: 30 H max: 94 kHz, PixClock max 170 MHz This information is called EDID information. Creating a ModeLine from this is just a matter of putting the numbers in the correct order: ModeLine <name> <clock> <4 horiz. timings> <4 vert. timings> So that the ModeLine in Section "Monitor" for this example would look like this: Section "Monitor" Identifier "Monitor1" VendorName "Bigname" ModelName "BestModel" ModeLine "1680x1050" 146.2 1680 1784 1960 2240 1050 1053 1059 1089 Option "DPMS" EndSection Now having completed these simple editing steps, X should start on your new widescreen monitor.