diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml index 641b060563..639d826538 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml @@ -1,972 +1,988 @@ Localization - I18N/L10N Usage and Setup Contributed by &a.ache; Rewritten by &a.keichii;, 30 Nov 2000. Synopsis This section of the handbook discusses the internationalization and localization of FreeBSD to different countries and different settings. If the users wish to use languages other than the system default English, he/she will have to setup the system accordingly. Please note that language support for each language varies in level. Hence, the user should contact the respective FreeBSD local group that is responsible for each language. The author realizes that he may have been incomplete in the description of the I18N process in FreeBSD. Due to the various levels of I18N implementation in both the system and application levels, we advise you to refer to individual documentation, man pages, READMEs, and so forth. Should you have any questions or suggestions regarding this chapter, please email the author. The Basics What is I18N/L10N? internationalization localization Developers shortened internationalization into the term I18N, counting the number of letters between the first and the last letters of internationalization. L10N uses the same naming scheme, coming from "localization". Combined together, I18N/L10N methods, protocols, and applications allow users to use languages of their choice. I18N applications are programmed using I18N kits under libraries. It allows for developers to write a simple file and translate displayed menus and texts to each language. We strongly encourage programmers to follow this convention. Why should I use I18N/L10N? I18N/L10N is used whenever you wish to either view, input, or process data in non-English languages. What languages are supported in the I18N effort? I18N and L10N are not FreeBSD specific. Currently, one can choose from most of the major languages of the World, including but not limited to: Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, French, Russian, Vietnamese and others. Using Localization In all its splendor, I18N is not FreeBSD-specific and is a convention. We encourage you to help FreeBSD in following this convention. locale Localization settings are based on three main terms: Language Code, Country Code, and Encoding. Locale names are constructed from these parts as follows: LanguageCode_CountryCode.Encoding Language and Country Codes language codes country codes In order to localize a FreeBSD system to a specific language (or any other I18N-supporting Unixes), the user needs to find out the codes for the specify country and language (country codes tell applications what variation of given language to use). In addition, web browsers, SMTP/POP servers, web servers, etc. make decisions based on them. The following are examples of language/country codes: Language/Country Code Description en_US English - United States ru_RU Russian for Russia zh_TW Traditional Chinese for Taiwan Encodings encodings ASCII Some languages use non-ASCII encodings that are 8-bit, wide or multibyte characters, see &man.multibyte.3; for more details. Older applications do not recognize them and mistake them for control characters. Newer applications usually do recognize 8-bit characters. Depending on the implementation, users may be required to compile an application with wide or multibyte characters support, or configure it correctly. To be able to input and process wide or multibyte characters, the FreeBSD Ports collection has provided each language with different programs. Refer to the I18N documentation in the respective FreeBSD Port. Specifically, the user needs to look at the application documentation to decide on how to configure it correctly or to pass correct values into the configure/Makefile/compiler. Some things to keep in mind are: Language specific single C chars character sets (see &man.multibyte.3;), i.e., ISO-8859-1, ISO-8859-15, KOI8-R, CP437. Wide or multibyte encodings, f.e. EUC, Big5. You can check the active list of character sets at the IANA Registry. I18N applications In the FreeBSD Ports and Package system, I18N applications have been named with I18N in their names for easy identification. However, they do not always support the language needed. Setting Locale Theoretically, one only needs to export the value of his/her locale name as LANG in the login shell and is usually done through the user's ~/.login_conf or the user login shell configuration (~/.profile, ~/.bashrc, ~/.cshrc). This should set all of the locale subsets (such as LC_CTYPE, LC_CTIME, etc.). Please refer to language-specific FreeBSD documentation for more information. You should set the following two values in your configuration files: POSIX LANG for POSIX &man.setlocale.3; family functions MIME MM_CHARSET for applications' MIME character set This includes the user shell config, the specific application config, and the X11 config. Setting Locale Methods locale login class There are two methods for setting locale, and both are described below. The first (recommended one) is by assigning the environment variables in login class, and the second is by adding the environment variable assignments to the system's shell startup file. Login Classes Method This method allows environment variables needed for locale name and MIME character sets to be assigned once for every possible shell instead of adding specific shell assignments to each shell's startup file. User Level Setup can be done by an user himself and Administrator Level Setup require superuser privileges. User Level Setup Here is a minimal example of a .login_conf file in user's home directory which has both variables set for Latin-1 encoding: german:German User:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1: Traditional Chinese / BIG-5 encoding Here is an example of a .login_conf that sets the variables for Traditional Chinese in BIG-5 encoding. Notice the many more variables set because some software does not respect locale variables correctly for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. #Users who do not wish to use monetary units or time formats #of Taiwan can manually change each variable taiwan:Taiwanese User:\ lang=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_all=zh_TW.Big:\ lc_collate=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_ctype=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_messages=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_monetary=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_numeric=zh_TW.Big5:\ lc_time=zh_TW.Big5:\ charset=big5:\ xmodifiers="@im=xcin": #Setting the XIM Input Server See Administrator Level Setup and &man.login.conf.5; for more details. Administrator Level Setup Check that /etc/login.conf have the correct language user's class. Make sure these settings appear in /etc/login.conf: language_name:accounts_title:\ :charset=MIME_charset:\ :lang=locale_name:\ :tc=default: So sticking with our previous example using Latin-1, it would look like this: german:German Users Accounts:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1:\ :tc=default: Changing Login Classes with &man.vipw.8; - vipw + + vipw + Use vipw to add new users, and make the entry look like this: user:password:1111:11:language:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh Changing Login Classes with &man.adduser.8; - adduser + + adduser + login class Use adduser to add new users, and do the following: Set defaultclass = language in /etc/adduser.conf. Keep in mind you must enter a default class for all users of other languages in this case. An alternative variant is answering the specified language each time that Enter login class: default []: appears from &man.adduser.8; Another alternative is to use the following for each user of a different language that you wish to add: &prompt.root; adduser -class language Changing Login Classes with &man.pw.8; - pw + + pw + If you use &man.pw.8; for adding new users, call it in this form: &prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L language Shell Startup File Method This method is not recommended because it requires a different setup for each possible login program chosen. Use the Login Class Method instead. MIME locale To add the locale name and MIME character set, just set the two environment variables shown below in the /etc/profile and/or /etc/csh.login shell startup files. We will use the German language as an example below: In /etc/profile: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET Or in /etc/csh.login: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1 Alternatively, you can add the above instructions to /usr/share/skel/dot.profile (similar to what was used in /etc/profile above), or /usr/share/skel/dot.login (similar to what was used in /etc/csh.login above). For X11: In $HOME/.xinitrc: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG Or: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 Depending on your shell (see above). Console Setup For all single C chars character sets, set the correct console fonts in /etc/rc.conf for the language in question with: font8x16=font_name font8x14=font_name font8x8=font_name The font_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/fonts directory, without the .fnt suffix. - sysinstall + + sysinstall + keymap screenmap Also be sure to set the correct keymap and screenmap for your single C chars character set through /stand/sysinstall. Once inside sysinstall, choose Configure, then Console. Alternatively, you can add the following to /etc/rc.conf: scrnmap=screenmap_name keymap=keymap_name keychange="fkey_number sequence" The screenmap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps directory, without the .scm suffix. A screenmap with a corresponding mapped font is usually needed as a workaround for expanding bit 8 to bit 9 on a VGA adapter's font character matrix in pseudographics area, i.e., to move letters out of that area if screen font uses a bit 8 column. If you have the moused daemon enabled by setting the following in your /etc/rc.conf: moused_enable="YES" then examine the mouse cursor information in the next paragraph. - moused + + moused + By default the mouse cursor of the syscons driver occupies the 0xd0-0xd3 range in the character set. If your language uses this range, you need to move the cursor's range outside of it. To enable the workaround for FreeBSD versions before 5.0, insert the following line into your kernel config: options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 For the FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up insert the following line into /etc/rc.conf: mousechar_start=3 The keymap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/keymaps directory, without the .kbd suffix. The keychange is usually needed to program function keys to match the selected terminal type because function key sequences cannot be defined in the key map. Also be sure to set the correct console terminal type in /etc/ttys for all ttyv* entries. Current pre-defined correspondences are: Character Set Terminal Type ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15 cons25l1 ISO-8859-2 cons25l2 KOI8-R cons25r KOI8-U cons25u CP437 (hardware default) cons25 For wide or multibyte characters languages, use the correct FreeBSD port in your /usr/ports/language directory. Some ports appear as console while the system sees it as serial vtty's, hence you must reserve enough vtty's for both X11 and the pseudo-serial console. Here is a partial list of applications for using other languages in console: Language Location Traditional Chinese (BIG-5) /usr/ports/chinese/big5con Japanese /usr/ports/japanese/ja-kon2-* or /usr/ports/japanese/Mule_Wnn Korean /usr/ports/korean/ko-han X11 Setup Although X11 is not part of the FreeBSD Project, we have included some information here for FreeBSD users. For more details, refer to the XFree86 web site or whichever X11 Server you use. In ~/.Xresources, you can additionally tune application specific I18N settings (e.g., fonts, menus, etc.). Displaying Fonts X11 True Type font server Install the X11 True Type-Common server (XTT-common) and install the language truetype fonts. Setting the correct locale should allow you to view your selected language in menus and such. Inputting Non-English Characters X11 Input Method (XIM) The X11 Input Method (XIM) Protocol is a new standard for all X11 clients. All X11 applications should be written as XIM clients that take input from XIM Input servers. There are several XIM servers available for different languages. Printer Setup Some single C chars character sets are usually hardware coded into printers. Wide or multibyte character sets require special setup and we recommend using apsfilter. You may also convert the document to PostScript or PDF formats using language specific converters. Kernel and File Systems The FreeBSD FFS filesystem is 8-bit clean, so it can be used with any single C chars character set (see &man.multibyte.3;), but there is no character set name stored in the filesystem; i.e., it is raw 8-bit and does not know anything about encoding order. Officially, FFS does not support any form of wide or multibyte character sets yet. However, some wide or multibyte character sets have independent patches for FFS enabling such support. They are only temporary unportable solutions or hacks and we have decided to not include them in the source tree. Refer to respective languages' web sites for more informations and the patch files. DOS Unicode The FreeBSD MS-DOS filesystem has the configurable ability to convert between MS-DOS, Unicode character sets and chosen FreeBSD filesystem character sets. See &man.mount.msdos.8; for details. Advanced Topics If you wish to compile I18N applications or program I18N compliant applications, please read this section. Compiling I18N Programs Many FreeBSD Ports have been ported with I18N support. Some of them are marked with -I18N in the port name. These and many other programs have built in support for I18N and need no special consideration. - MySQL + + MySQL + However, some applications such as MySQL need to be have the Makefile configured with the specific charset. This is usually done in the Makefile or done by passing a value to configure in the source. Programming I18N Compliant Applications Qt GTK To make your application more useful for speakers of other languages, we hope that you will program I18N compliant. The GNU gcc compiler, GUI Libraries like QT and GTK support I18N through special handling of strings. Making a program I18N compliant is very easy. It allows contributors to port your application to other languages quickly. Refer to library specific I18N documentation for more details. To the contrary of common perception, I18N compliant code is easy to write. Usually, it only involves wrapping your strings with library specific functions. In addition, please be sure to allow for wide or multibyte characters support. A Call to Unify the I18N effort It has come to our attention that the individual I18N/L10N efforts for each country has been repeating each others' efforts. Many of us have been reinventing the wheel repeatedly and inefficiently. We hope that the various major groups in I18N could congregate into a group effort similar to the Core Team's responsibility. Currently, we hope that, when you write or port I18N programs, you would send it out to each country's related FreeBSD mailing lists for testing. In the future, we hope to create applications that work in all the languages out-of-the-box without dirty hacks. The mailing list FreeBSD-I18N@FreeBSD.org has been established. If you are an I18N/L10N developer, please send your comments, ideas, questions, and anything you deem related to it. Michael C. Wu will be maintaining an I18N works in progress homepage at http://www.FreeBSD.org/~keichii/i18n/index.html Please also read the BSDCon2000 I18N paper and presentations by Clive Lin, Chia-Liang Kao, and Michael C. Wu at http://www.FreeBSD.org/~keichii/papers/ Perl and Python - Perl - Python + + Perl + + + Python + Perl and Python have I18N and wide characters handling libraries. Please use them for I18N compliance. In older FreeBSD versions, Perl may gives warning about not having a wide characters locale that is already installed in your system. You can set the environmental variable LD_PRELOAD to /usr/lib/libxpg4.so in your shell. In sh-based shells: LD_PRELOAD=/usr/lib/libxpg4.so In C-based shells: setenv LD_PRELOAD /usr/lib/libxpg4.so Localizing FreeBSD to Specific Languages Russian Language (KOI8-R encoding) Russian localization Originally contributed by &a.ache;. For more information about KOI8-R encoding, see the KOI8-R References (Russian Net Character Set). Locale Setup Put the following lines into your ~/.login_conf file: me:My Account:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R: See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the locale. Console Setup For the FreeBSD versions before 5.0 add the following line to your kernel configuration file: options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 For the FreeBSD versions 5.0 and up insert the following line into /etc/rc.conf: mousechar_start=3 Use following settings in /etc/rc.conf: keymap="ru.koi8-r" scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866" font8x16="cp866b-8x16" font8x14="cp866-8x14" font8x8="cp866-8x8" For each ttyv* entry in /etc/ttys, use cons25r as the terminal type. See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the console. Printer Setup printers Since most printers with Russian characters come with hardware code page CP866, a special output filter is needed for KOI8-R -> CP866 conversion. Such a filter is installed by default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. A Russian printer /etc/printcap entry should look like: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: See &man.printcap.5; for a detailed description. MS-DOS FS and Russian Filenames The following example &man.fstab.5; entry enables support for Russian filenames in mounted MS-DOS filesystems: /dev/ad0s2 /dos/c msdos rw,-Wkoi2dos,-Lru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 See &man.mount.msdos.8; for a detailed description of the and options. X11 Setup Do non-X locale setup first as described. The Russian KOI8-R locale may not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3). The XFree86 port from /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 already is the most recent XFree86 version, so it will work if you install XFree86 from the port. This should not be an issue unless you are using an old version of FreeBSD. Go to the /usr/ports/russian/X.language directory and issue the following command: &prompt.root; make install The above port installs the latest version of the KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already has some KOI8-R fonts, but these are scaled better. Check the "Files" section in your /etc/XF86Config file. The following lines must be added before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi" If you use a high resolution video mode, swap the 75 dpi and 100 dpi lines. To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the "Keyboard" section of your XF86Config file. For XFree86 v3.*: XkbLayout "ru" XkbOptions "grp:caps_toggle" For XFree86 v4.*: Option "XkbLayout" "ru" Option "XkbOptions" "grp:caps_toggle" Also make sure that XkbDisable is turned off (commented out) there. The RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock. The old CapsLock function is still available via Shift+CapsLock (in LAT mode only). If you have Windows keys on your keyboard, and notice that some non-alphabetical keys are mapped incorrectly in RUS mode, add the following line in your XF86Config file. For XFree86 v3.*: XkbVariant "winkeys" For XFree86 v4.*: Option "XkbVariant" "winkeys" The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86 versions, see the above note for more information. The Russian XKB keyboard may also not work with non-localized applications as well. Minimally localized applications should call a XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program. See KOI8-R for X-Window for more instructions on localizing X11 applications. Traditional Chinese Localization for Taiwan Traditional Chinese localization The FreeBSD-Taiwan Project has an I18N/L10N tutorial for FreeBSD at http://freebsd.sinica.edu.tw/~ncvs/zh-l10n-tut/index.html using many /usr/ports/chinese/* applications. The editor for the zh-L10N-tut is Clive Lin Clive@CirX.org. You can also cvsup the following collections at freebsd.sinica.edu.tw: Collection Description outta-port tag=. Beta-quality Ports Collection for Chinese zh-L10N-tut tag=. Localizing FreeBSD Tutorial in BIG-5 Traditional Chinese zh-doc tag=. FreeBSD Documentation Translation to BIG-5 Traditional Chinese Chuan-Hsing Shen s874070@mail.yzu.edu.tw has created the Chinese FreeBSD Collection (CFC) using FreeBSD-Taiwan's zh-L10N-tut. The packages and the script files are available at ftp://ftp.csie.ncu.edu.tw/OS/FreeBSD/taiwan/CFC/. German Language Localization (For All ISO 8859-1 Languages) German localization Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/umlaute/. Japanese and Korean Language Localization Japanese localization Korean localization For Japanese, refer to http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/, and for Korean, refer to http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/. Non-English FreeBSD Documentation Some FreeBSD contributors have translated parts of FreeBSD to other languages. They are available through links on the main site or in /usr/share/doc. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml index 5b4f20335f..ca219ea68e 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml @@ -1,528 +1,528 @@ Electronic Mail Rewritten by &a.jim;, 02 December 1999. Original work done by &a.wlloyd;. Synopsis email electronic mail Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. Millions of people use email every day, and chances are if you are reading this online, you fall into that category and probably even have more than one email address. Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many System Administration books. If you plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your network, you need industrial strength help. DNS Some parts of email configuration are controlled in the Domain Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own DNS server, be sure to read through the files in /etc/namedb and man -k named. Using Electronic Mail POP IMAP There are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a pop or IMAP daemon, and of course, the mailhost itself. The User Program This includes command line programs such as mutt, pine, elm, and mail, and GUI programs such as balsa, xfmail to name a few, and something more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon mail server daemon - sendmail + sendmail mail server daemon - postfix + postfix mail server daemon - qmail + qmail mail server daemon - exim + exim This is usually sendmail (by default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such as qmail, postfix, or exim. There are others, but those are the most widely used. The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail. You need an additional daemon for that. Be aware that some older versions of sendmail have some serious security problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to stay up-to-date with any software you run. Email and DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the host that will receive mail for the destination. It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host. Receiving Mail email - receiving + receiving Receiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup. In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP server is not needed. POP IMAP If you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things you need to do: Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the Ports Collection and install it on your system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP or IMAP server. The Mail Host mail host The mail host is the name given to a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and possibly your network. Troubleshooting email troubleshooting Here are some frequently asked questions and answers. These have been migrated from the FAQ. Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. BIND Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. Sendmail says mail loops back to myself This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: * I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw (if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any tweaking of your mail setup. PPP How can I do email with a dial-up PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. There are at least two ways to do this. UUCP The other is to use UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX service for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient (add Cw bigco.com in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders' sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every (sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in /etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might want to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the &a.isp;. > we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary MX. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine customer.com as well as hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for customer.com. Advanced Topics The following section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain. Basic Configuration email configuration Out of the box, you should be able to send email to external hosts as long as you have set up /etc/resolv.conf or are running your own name server. If you would like to have mail for your host delivered to that specific host, there are two methods: Run your own name server and have your own domain. For example, FreeBSD.org Get mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org. SMTP Regardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent (static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two things: MX record Make sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your host's IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your host. Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at your host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX If that is what you see, mail directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems. If instead you see something like this: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org) will end up being collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com As you can see, freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other friendly site should have no problem providing this service for you. Mail for your Domain In order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on the server. DNS To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Use adduser to do this. The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in your DNS configuration like so: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you. If you're doing virtual email hosting, the following information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this case customer1.org and you want all the mail for customer1.org sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com You do not need an A record if you only want to handle email for the domain. Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. The last thing that you must do is tell sendmail on your mailhost what domains and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few different ways this can be done. Either of the following will work: Add the hosts to your /etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is /etc/mail/local-host-names. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your /etc/sendmail.cf or /etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml index 8cfc1df408..c6456fe25a 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml @@ -1,333 +1,336 @@ Sound Contributed by Moses Moore jm-moses@home.com, 20 November 2000. Synopsis This chapter of the handbook deals with setting up sound on a FreeBSD system. Locating the Correct Device PCI ISA sound cards Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. If you do not see your card in the following list, check the &man.pcm.4; manual page. This is not a complete list; however, it does list some of the most common cards. Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231 Yamaha OPL-SAx OPTi931 Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371 ESS Solo-1/1E NeoMagic 256AV/ZX Sound Blaster Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live Creative ViBRA16 Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120 ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888 Gravis UltraSound Aureal Vortex 1 or 2 - kernelconfiguration + + kernel + configuration + The driver you use in your kernel depends on the kind of card you have. The sections below provide more information and what you will need to add to your kernel configuration. Creative, Advance, and ESS Sound Cards If you have one of the above cards, you will need to add device pcm to your kernel. If you have a PnP ISA card, you will also need to add device sbc to your kernel. For a non-PnP ISA card, add device pcm and device sbc0 at isa? port0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15 to your kernel. Those are the default settings. You may need to change the IRQ, etc. See the &man.sbc.4; man page for more information. The Sound Blaster Live is not supported under FreeBSD 4.0 without a patch, which this document will not cover. It is recommended that you update to the latest -STABLE before trying to use this card. Gravis UltraSound Cards For a PnP ISA card, you will need to add device pcm and device gusc to your kernel. If you have a non-PnP ISA card, you will need to add device pcm and device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13 to your kernel. You may need to change the IRQ, etc. See the &man.gusc.4; man page for more information. Crystal Sound Cards For Crystal cards, you will need both device pcm and device csa in your kernel. Generic Support For PnP ISA or PCI cards, you will need to add device pcm to your kernel configuration. If you have a non-PnP ISA sound card that does not have a bridge driver, you will need to add device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0 to your kernel configuration. You may need to change the IRQ, etc., to match your hardware configuration. Recompiling the Kernel After adding the driver(s) you need to your kernel configuration, you will need to recompile your kernel. Please see of the handbook for more information. Creating and Testing the Device Nodes device nodes After you reboot, log in and run cat /dev/sndstat. You should see output similar to the following: FreeBSD Audio Driver (newpcm) Sep 21 2000 18:29:53 Installed devices: pcm0: <Aureal Vortex 8830> at memory 0xfeb40000 irq 5 (4p/1r +channels duplex) If you see an error message, something went wrong earlier. If that happens, go through your kernel configuration file again and make sure you chose the correct device. If it reported no errors and returned pcm0, su to root and do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 If it reported no errors and returned pcm1, su to root and do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd1 Please note that either of the above commands will not create a /dev/snd device! Instead it creates a group of device nodes including: Device Description /dev/audio SPARC-compatible audio device /dev/dsp Digitized voice device /dev/dspW Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits per sample /dev/midi Raw midi access device /dev/mixer Control port mixer device /dev/music Level 2 sequencer interface /dev/sequencer Sequencer device /dev/pss Programmable device interface If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound card. If you do not, see the next section. Common Problems device node I get an unsupported subdevice XX error! One or more of the device nodes wasn't created correctly. Repeat the steps above. I/O port I get a sb_dspwr(XX) timed out error! The I/O port is not set correctly. IRQ I get a bad irq XX error! The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. I get a xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory error. What causes that? If this happens, it is because there is not enough available memory to use the device. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.sgml index 397f13c726..4c938b9e37 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/pgpkeys/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2415 +1,2416 @@ PGP Keys + pgp keys In case you need to verify a signature or send encrypted email to one of the officers or developers a number of keys are provided here for your convenience. &a.wollman; maintains a complete keyring of FreeBSD.org users for easy download. Officers FreeBSD Security Officer <email>security-officer@FreeBSD.org</email> FreeBSD Security Officer <security-officer@FreeBSD.org> Fingerprint = 41 08 4E BB DB 41 60 71 F9 E5 0E 98 73 AF 3F 11 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3i mQCNAzF7MY4AAAEEAK7qBgPuBejER5HQbQlsOldk3ZVWXlRj54raz3IbuAUrDrQL h3g57T9QY++f3Mot2LAf5lDJbsMfWrtwPrPwCCFRYQd6XH778a+l4ju5axyjrt/L Ciw9RrOC+WaPv3lIdLuqYge2QRC1LvKACIPNbIcgbnLeRGLovFUuHi5z0oilAAUR tDdGcmVlQlNEIFNlY3VyaXR5IE9mZmljZXIgPHNlY3VyaXR5LW9mZmljZXJAZnJl ZWJzZC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQMX6yrOJgpPLZnQjrAQHyowQA1Nv2AY8vJIrdp2ttV6RU tZBYnI7gTO3sFC2bhIHsCvfVU3JphfqWQ7AnTXcD2yPjGcchUfc/EcL1tSlqW4y7 PMP4GHZp9vHog1NAsgLC9Y1P/1cOeuhZ0pDpZZ5zxTo6TQcCBjQA6KhiBFP4TJql 3olFfPBh3B/Tu3dqmEbSWpuJAJUDBRAxez3C9RVb+45ULV0BAak8A/9JIG/jRJaz QbKom6wMw852C/Z0qBLJy7KdN30099zMjQYeC9PnlkZ0USjQ4TSpC8UerYv6IfhV nNY6gyF2Hx4CbEFlopnfA1c4yxtXKti1kSN6wBy/ki3SmqtfDhPQ4Q31p63cSe5A 3aoHcjvWuqPLpW4ba2uHVKGP3g7SSt6AOYkAlQMFEDF8mz0ff6kIA1j8vQEBmZcD /REaUPDRx6qr1XRQlMs6pfgNKEwnKmcUzQLCvKBnYYGmD5ydPLxCPSFnPcPthaUb 5zVgMTjfjS2fkEiRrua4duGRgqN4xY7VRAsIQeMSITBOZeBZZf2oa9Ntidr5PumS 9uQ9bvdfWMpsemk2MaRG9BSoy5Wvy8VxROYYUwpT8Cf2iQCVAwUQMXsyqWtaZ42B sqd5AQHKjAQAvolI30Nyu3IyTfNeCb/DvOe9tlOn/o+VUDNJiE/PuBe1s2Y94a/P BfcohpKC2kza3NiW6lLTp00OWQsuu0QAPc02vYOyseZWy4y3Phnw60pWzLcFdemT 0GiYS5Xm1o9nAhPFciybn9j1q8UadIlIq0wbqWgdInBT8YI/l4f5sf6JAJUDBRAx ezKXVS4eLnPSiKUBAc5OBACIXTlKqQC3B53qt7bNMV46m81fuw1PhKaJEI033mCD ovzyEFFQeOyRXeu25Jg9Bq0Sn37ynISucHSmt2tUD5W0+p1MUGyTqnfqejMUWBzO v4Xhp6a8RtDdUMBOTtro16iulGiRrCKxzVgEl4i+9Z0ZiE6BWlg5AetoF5n3mGk1 lw== =ipyA -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Core Team Members &a.asami; Satoshi Asami <asami@cs.berkeley.edu> aka <asami@FreeBSD.org> Fingerprint = EB 3C 68 9E FB 6C EB 3F DB 2E 0F 10 8F CE 79 CA -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzPVyoQAAAEEAL7W+kipxB171Z4SVyyL9skaA7hG3eRsSOWk7lfvfUBLtPog f3OKwrApoc/jwLf4+Qpdzv5DLEt/6Hd/clskhJ+q1gMNHyZ5ABmUxrTRRNvJMTrb 3fPU3oZj7sL/MyiFaT1zF8EaMP/iS2ZtcFsbYOqGeA8E/58uk4NA0SoeCNiJAAUR tCVTYXRvc2hpIEFzYW1pIDxhc2FtaUBjcy5iZXJrZWxleS5lZHU+iQCVAwUQM/AT +EqGN2HYnOMZAQF11QP/eSXb2FuTb1yX5yoo1Im8YnIk1SEgCGbyEbOMMBznVNDy 5g2TAD0ofLxPxy5Vodjg8rf+lfMVtO5amUH6aNcORXRncE83T10JmeM6JEp0T6jw zOHKz8jRzygYLBayGsNIJ4BGxa4LeaGxJpO1ZEvRlNkPH/YEXK5oQmq9/DlrtYOJ AEUDBRAz42JT8ng6GBbVvu0BAU8nAYCsJ8PiJpRUGlrz6rxjX8hqM1v3vqFHLcG+ G52nVMBSy+RZBgzsYIPwI5EZtWAKb22JAJUDBRAz4QBWdbtuOHaj97EBAaQPA/46 +NLUp+Wubl90JoonoXocwAg88tvAUVSzsxPXj0lvypAiSI2AJKsmn+5PuQ+/IoQy lywRsxiQ5GD7C72SZ1yw2WI9DWFeAi+qa4b8n9fcLYrnHpyCY+zxEpu4pam8FJ7H JocEUZz5HRoKKOLHErzXDiuTkkm72b1glmCqAQvnB4kAlQMFEDPZ3gyDQNEqHgjY iQEBFfUEALu2C0uo+1Z7C5+xshWRYY5xNCzK20O6bANVJ+CO2fih96KhwsMof3lw fDso5HJSwgFd8WT/sR+Wwzz6BAE5UtgsQq5GcsdYQuGI1yIlCYUpDp5sgswNm+OA bX5a+r4F/ZJqrqT1J56Mer0VVsNfe5nIRsjd/rnFAFVfjcQtaQmjiQCVAwUQM9uV mcdm8Q+/vPRJAQELHgP9GqNiMpLQlZig17fDnCJ73P0e5t/hRLFehZDlmEI2TK7j Yeqbw078nZgyyuljZ7YsbstRIsWVCxobX5eH1kX+hIxuUqCAkCsWUY4abG89kHJr XGQn6X1CX7xbZ+b6b9jLK+bJKFcLSfyqR3M2eCyscSiZYkWKQ5l3FYvbUzkeb6K0 IVNhdG9zaGkgQXNhbWkgPGFzYW1pQEZyZWVCU0QuT1JHPg== =39SC -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.jkh; Jordan K. Hubbard <jkh@FreeBSD.org> Fingerprint = 3C F2 27 7E 4A 6C 09 0A 4B C9 47 CD 4F 4D 0B 20 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAzFjX0IAAAEEAML+nm9/kDNPp43ZUZGjYkm2QLtoC1Wxr8JulZXqk7qmhYcQ jvX+fyoriJ6/7ZlnLe2oG5j9tZOnRLPvMaz0g9CpW6Dz3nkXrNPkmOFV9B8D94Mk tyFeRJFqnkCuqBj6D+H8FtBwEeeTecSh2tJ0bZZTXnAMhxeOdvUVW/uOVC1dAAUR tCNKb3JkYW4gSy4gSHViYmFyZCA8amtoQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokBFQMFEDXCTXQM j46yp4IfPQEBwO8IAIN0J09AXBf86dFUTFGcAMrEQqOF5IL+KGorAjzuYxERhKfD ZV7jA+sCQqxkWfcVcE20kVyVYqzZIkio9a5zXP6TwA247JkPt54S1PmMDYHNlRIY laXlNoji+4q3HP2DfHqXRT2859rYpm/fG/v6pWkos5voPKcZ2OFEp9W+Ap88oqw+ 5rx4VetZNJq1Epmis4INj6XqNqj85+MOOIYE+f445ohDM6B/Mxazd6cHFGGIR+az VjZ6lCDMLjzhB5+FqfrDLYuMjqkMTR5z9DL+psUvPlCkYbQ11NEWtEmiIWjUcNJN GCxGzv5bXk0XPu3ADwbPkFE2usW1cSM7AQFiwuyJAJUDBRAxe+Q9a1pnjYGyp3kB AV7XA/oCSL/Cc2USpQ2ckwkGpyvIkYBPszIcabSNJAzm2hsU9Qa6WOPxD8olDddB uJNiW/gznPC4NsQ0N8Zr4IqRX/TTDVf04WhLmd8AN9SOrVv2q0BKgU6fLuk979tJ utrewH6PR2qBOjAaR0FJNk4pcYAHeT+e7KaKy96YFvWKIyDvc4kAlQMFEDF8ldof 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Karthauser <joe@pavilion.net> uid Josef L. Karthauser <joe@tao.org.uk> uid Josef L. Karthauser <joe@uk.FreeBSD.org> uid Josef L. 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BLOCK----- &a.andreas; pub 1024D/6C6F6CBA 2001-01-06 Andreas Klemm <andreas@klemm.gtn.com> Key fingerprint = F028 D51A 0D42 DD67 4109 19A3 777A 3E94 6C6F 6CBA uid Andreas Klemm <andreas@FreeBSD.org> uid Andreas Klemm <andreas@apsfilter.org> uid Andreas Klemm <andreas.klemm@eu.didata.com> sub 2048g/FE23F866 2001-01-06 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: Weitere Infos: siehe http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDpXnNsRBACosqQnFwHgBcl+H2TXLWG/uAAdcZ3d4vlC9tKIPif/WovfOTuA CM5KMb1Of2uAQm5S6KpSCDSudZIZw2az3ka5ESQt82kgd/1Ue8FJDdPkGY1RZrEp Zq7VDPfENAM8NuYCXIdVYpd860tIfongUbpgHq9dA/bgoDDHXlaBQzUMNwCgurYO XH1FSx7vApyBFqaE9ZKglRED/jbd0UeQ8E2Y8jvoHgn9kDGjqgTxNerLK2g7gRgx o0U2do7kjKKWoUfij/x3RRpGUDzkB9xhibyoPQKuVim4NVNdoUoqjuSDnoDT+XtL B8bYGXAAROPXu1AT1r/P5k3kSHDExu1qfLEk9Sch7CKrVdNaZHsrknbmFPPmhdsf zz17A/oCfA5tXthQ4YOlmyjJXiMmiD/aX1fQovjayQDD/diNYQ/z3JUuaA01Nhw4 02LDFCk0xO2T8wWIC8Ox9J7twKKBT9Ep1MpZw/mY7XlpTFP82ls15pNIshogjlX8 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Mah <bmah@cisco.com> Bruce A. Mah <bmah@freebsd.org> Bruce A. Mah <bmah@employees.org> Bruce A. Mah <bmah@ca.sandia.gov> Bruce A. Mah <bmah@ieee.org> Bruce A. 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Mah <bmah@ca.sandia.gov> uid Bruce A. Mah <bmah@acm.org> uid Bruce A. Mah <bmah@ieee.org> uid Bruce A. Mah <bmah@cisco.com> uid Bruce A. Mah <bmah@employees.org> uid Bruce A. 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pub 1024D/419C776C 2000-11-28 Thomas Moestl <tmoestl@gmx.net> Key fingerprint = 1C97 A604 2BD0 E492 51D0 9C0F 1FE6 4F1D 419C 776C uid Thomas Moestl <t.moestl@tu-bs.de> uid Thomas Moestl <tmm@FreeBSD.org> sub 2048g/ECE63CE6 2000-11-28 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDoj/ekRBACnO84k2i5lLHZKscyV8tjQSkkr26hasdbc/uyV7HTiPhMUjEAz Pamk+bDmy/Ls8k0SJ1l0vILBBd31G5VYtKonIrgp4vZ9gV0fBdCyFDXb8bh11Pk3 pEZiG9vJevq40OPvsThLKHCLNhZ5zLPp6gd0IHwRJ0LU94pouFXd33MzrwCg4gTJ K00Dw0w1hFtUsq6WjNC+1B8D/2WiEuzBMnO6gz0p/eJ1eZ7mvrBXLQZ0u5vJ3eg2 CCPrtS1ZITq3ICPDN6biEiMgtRmlYn/VYvDQqxwNE0X2yMfB/9sdah45zma9EeVn Iy8meaCFDLhm4aIYc1foUuz3WbCNlJFY5xYPXCMXLkC65xdybHKng5TXh6NOOWf3 PfCWBACPMotTRKttAuw5YcZE5VDrSXPYHu/jm2CpIVmrac7+kDj9pGH9sB7BdUxw vczqtAT0jk7MrT+u3FH9wBtEFTXl7ksGTmDOFWJgYn3ZOEaVaX/OqD89UNhrOA2v ZOaaoKMYxK/pszPdr1Ghd6BQCmYKtLBlFYiTDRM5UMVHTqN7VrQfVGhvbWFzIE1v ZXN0bCA8dG1vZXN0bEBnbXgubmV0PohXBBMRAgAXBQI6I/3pBQsHCgMEAxUDAgMW AgECF4AACgkQH+ZPHUGcd2xMLwCfdEkPZVBgEmYnlyOKfyTSslMhud0AoKDKZNXA huNslb4KF8yKWBNRwfPStCFUaG9tYXMgTW9lc3RsIDx0Lm1vZXN0bEB0dS1icy5k ZT6IVwQTEQIAFwUCOo01FgULBwoDBAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJEB/mTx1BnHdsOfMA n1xd4f7iAe6id42DLg4W3fibsCwsAJ0cT2lf08RhHkT+zLVoubyIDoY6ILQfVGhv bWFzIE1vZXN0bCA8dG1tQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPohXBBMRAgAXBQI6pO9pBQsHCgME AxUDAgMWAgECF4AACgkQH+ZPHUGcd2z+7gCdF5fq/lebn3/gp40O8xP/J0XFbiIA oKJP186L04qpSNamc/qG3gs7h3DGuQINBDoj/wkQCACl8M8ObSTJaOY4SgoQkKgB CkJJP5ScUpfYV9w3dxKL/77cyfghfYsnAWuA9yXJcjA0F+u+jRf8gS7OaHD9H9Mm pMGq54Aa0KUQaDbL/Jzf5zrKS/RASHzl1vYXuZB1OIzPfeAIx9u3UaziVEGXJha3 1KgTur+TU+F94ZFTi8uApq2VoNT6sFi/V2x79bxlLFr9M9yD/0+kMZKovWRODy6T gWJzzcdd//dkvKp22tNf6C2wq8Bu60cWR81+awgG2otgZjCPUs2Bwhqa5opeUqGn J+f+PXo6+m2UF21m1vLARENuumu6SXf3XqGIUiQbT6jCdJORzwaxeCiMfu0qNnUX AAQLB/9u9gZN0N0r21ZjM6ZRmDC/REouCdYHEj49+f9g/xLXCfacpWVcrK9lIrcg hxRE2mQ/nlQLeHroC3Dp1AfThKSPFX3PRD/9CcRu480imT84ljf+6vonAZ20Edm5 vVO+UoJMZQ2G+rWRRf4bDfwFoyDw3DsNmUL4yH8m2RpTxXn0pQtD2riJD8CBCXEP K95TYT4MomJ7Szg7O5/QLngfw0q6QdKRm1vEIP7r6t+UbVNp9+5g9qvz4aqm3beY pw1QCDHcqpDITnlTxTdV2SgNpF8JPg7joaOa36AxWwRzfLFyzyw/JGQE8RwJa8BN iTu0IrKuiF1biRxqiYO887GBA/8QiEYEGBECAAYFAjoj/wkACgkQH+ZPHUGcd2xN TACgkS0AGqqd2nLtWhpbE72tD660tv8AoI24cRkUa2op32mti5zfLLMsM4AZ =76WN -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.rich; Rich Murphey <rich@FreeBSD.org> fingerprint = AF A0 60 C4 84 D6 0C 73 D1 EF C0 E9 9D 21 DB E4 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAy97V+MAAAEEALiNM3FCwm3qrCe81E20UOSlNclOWfZHNAyOyj1ahHeINvo1 FBF2Gd5Lbj0y8SLMno5yJ6P4F4r+x3jwHZrzAIwMs/lxDXRtB0VeVWnlj6a3Rezs wbfaTeSVyh5JohEcKdoYiMG5wjATOwK/NAwIPthB1RzRjnEeer3HI3ZYNEOpAAUR tCRSaWNoIE11cnBoZXkgPHJpY2hAbGFtcHJleS51dG1iLmVkdT6JAJUDBRAve15W vccjdlg0Q6kBAZTZBACcNd/LiVnMFURPrO4pVRn1sVQeokVX7izeWQ7siE31Iy7g Sb97WRLEYDi686osaGfsuKNA87Rm+q5F+jxeUV4w4szoqp60gGvCbD0KCB2hWraP /2s2qdVAxhfcoTin/Qp1ZWvXxFF7imGA/IjYIfB42VkaRYu6BwLEm3YAGfGcSw== =QoiM -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.obrien; Type Bits KeyID Created Expires Algorithm Use sec+ 1024 0x34F9F9D5 1995-04-23 ---------- RSA Sign & Encrypt f16 Fingerprint16 = B7 4D 3E E9 11 39 5F A3 90 76 5D 69 58 D9 98 7A David E. O'Brien <obrien@NUXI.com> David E. O'Brien <obrien@FreeBSD.org> David E. O'Brien <obrien@cs.ucdavis.edu> David E. O'Brien <dobrien@seas.gwu.edu> David E. O'Brien <obrien@elsewhere.roanoke.va.us> David E. O'Brien <whois Do38> sec+ 1024 0x7F9A9BA2 1998-06-10 ---------- DSS Sign & Encrypt f20 Fingerprint20 = 02FD 495F D03C 9AF2 5DB7 F496 6FC8 DABD 7F9A 9BA2 sub 3072 0xBA32C20D 1998-06-10 ---------- Diffie-Hellman f20 Fingerprint20 = 0700 6058 CE6C 1C51 D0A3 45E6 26E1 A405 BA32 C20D "David E. O'Brien" <obrien@NUXI.com> "David E. 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pub 1024D/4E23DACA 2001-03-02 Jim Pirzyk <Jim.Pirzyk@disney.com> Key fingerprint = 07EE A1BD 32E5 C402 59B6 22D5 D846 31D1 4E23 DACA uid Jim Pirzyk <pirzyk@freebsd.org> sub 1024g/F38895F7 2001-03-02 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDqfK40RBADDZo6Nm31TcstpbbDGjJXxTAace2fZhTtu98UaC3/78vD+YTqH Mp4sR6OSSWuf1vS9MSeaHJitLvuProQvOC+yEKzW31KuAPnldqrTerEdcy41GASb NbqNz0fTBOUyRebJQ52XZjFC3nagAf+btqIEd8rRegwK0JDWdkIhuNztBwCgzWyj Z3y2+rYSoTc0gK170uL/zAUD/jIOCSPtLFgZf8AgPaxx1fkWmDZdf4RKpckVMgnK vZrQkhXymksXoH7CeT2MpB5R05tpOQF4jV8OwCHSYqJ3P1XlEod7plw98BUiyS3y gu+ML1fiIERHnZumDFxRwKN2ybkzMbZzuHiZl3pAdWe+3lYa65aRIs3CrUoQSzN1 /JfJBACtOCm6Xq8kfk4fVvlN3lqDcpU7Gw3kJiudOg3gAv45egeG18HKJI3H6gvq N7rj0xl4m0vEL5AYBRJ/THVy/3574s0DwCCPI18VQPL8vmSXc8UgAkJlgkdtumH3 OHqPNi4NPEd82wECXmnflbCS5A5CXGtrzXsPMrhiXz3lpFFR+LQiSmltIFBpcnp5 ayA8SmltLlBpcnp5a0BkaXNuZXkuY29tPohXBBMRAgAXBQI6nyuNBQsHCgMEAxUD 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Polstra <jdp@polstra.com> Fingerprint = 54 3A 90 59 6B A4 9D 61 BF 1D 03 09 35 8D F6 0D -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzMElMEAAAEEALizp6ZW9QifQgWoFmG3cXhzQ1+Gt+a4S1adC/TdHdBvw1M/ I6Ok7TC0dKF8blW3VRgeHo4F3XhGn+n9MqIdboh4HJC5Iiy63m98sVLJSwyGO4oM dkEGyyCLxqP6h/DU/tzNBdqFzetGtYvU4ftt3RO0a506cr2CHcdm8Q+/vPRJAAUR tCFKb2huIEQuIFBvbHN0cmEgPGpkcEBwb2xzdHJhLmNvbT6JAJUDBRAzBNBE9RVb +45ULV0BAWgiA/0WWO3+c3qlptPCHJ3DFm6gG/qNKsY94agL/mHOr0fxMP5l2qKX O6a1bWkvGoYq0EwoKGFfn0QeHiCl6jVi3CdBX+W7bObMcoi+foqZ6zluOWBC1Jdk WQ5/DeqQGYXqbYjqO8voCScTAPge3XlMwVpMZTv24u+nYxtLkE0ZcwtY9IkAlQMF EDMEt/DHZvEPv7z0SQEBXh8D/2egM5ckIRpGz9kcFTDClgdWWtlgwC1iI2p9gEhq aufy+FUJlZS4GSQLWB0BlrTmDC9HuyQ+KZqKFRbVZLyzkH7WFs4zDmwQryLV5wkN C4BRRBXZfWy8s4+zT2WQD1aPO+ZsgRauYLkJgTvXTPU2JCN62Nsd8R7bJS5tuHEm 7HGmiQCVAwUQMwSvHB9/qQgDWPy9AQFAhAQAgJ1AlbKITrEoJ0+pLIsov3eQ348m SVHEBGIkU3Xznjr8NzT9aYtq4TIzt8jplqP3QoV1ka1yYpZf0NjvfZ+ffYp/sIaU wPbEpgtmHnVWJAebMbNs/Ad1w8GDvxEt9IaCbMJGZnHmfnEqOBIxF7VBDPHHoJxM V31K/PIoYsHAy5w= =cHFa -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.markp; Mark Pulford <markp@FreeBSD.org> Fingerprint = 58C9 C9BF C758 D8D4 7022 8EF5 559F 7F7B 182C 368F -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDkY4OYRBADvB+3Uh68SGrlbrq1MTAN/gnVaj4ztmA15X13bunGYdLKLEJdq rd9xFv5OgxGZXJ+sDhbKomJ7yrBGtUwC5kIrKXN+MPbO60yy30+kIVLKjXIv1d+c MlWhjFzHra7WGFmvhzYnbOI/zjlOR68iKHnwxhtKFOK9m2O3voURWLEuqwCgzK/S j4UGrPUmZf9XOZcKdnN07nMEAJrNh6aoVgK1xwpyO9uTURuCppqAUym/fr4xNQqh mngblwIACnV9FpBi1ogtX1iDo4YeQa7t7ALgdwTBbU8upVFYzoVByid9ibNu3OKv j9JvL55jUVg0wv6a8bEWjxnNK/zVa/HCzTbAzHob0CSgH9WmEJJEUIqI2/PG2dj+ ZX3QA/4y6Gon6iya2wk0Zs7mrTj80kxLRMnuPN6geTGVNTfrxat+sA1PVpT2WWSo qOrPoyxcpUBbJ3VlFmuYDDgld4lJiGD/2SG5BkD6OoGlRnD5AMgUxQtQFnkloao0 3md8UDucIJnJRF94pttQtv4lVKaocm4z0Fx6cWC4Ysupj1AG0rQfTWFyayBQdWxm b3JkIDxtYXJrQGt5bmUuY29tLmF1PohWBBMRAgAWBQI5GODmBAsKBAMDFQMCAxYC AQIXgAAKCRBVn397GCw2jxyVAKCbPwK2rDZx/oahfd4M7XJ4GoF0xQCcDExtL+DK wOugUQwfVIExB+HBM3y0IE1hcmsgUHVsZm9yZCA8bWFya3BARnJlZUJTRC5vcmc+ iFcEExECABcFAjse9k4FCwcKAwQDFQMCAxYCAQIXgAAKCRBVn397GCw2j/OXAJsF bdYQGgCs3sXMOdb7pNUi2DL2kgCdFOFSojmWV9mulpzH6ceb/fKgoJC5Ag0EORjh UxAIAMrmc2VXtnp/WWhGne6yTirnnWjR/c+rSK8ixbAqTkdYnocY6gtBJliR7LSh Cv2RD8TaUc0ZZseHC5vR7VZKXobXUF7QqB1Rgzz/CpsFeEmxxQxZrVKNjwcMloSt wmH17yW5tBDg8+6KhFwHj40oV88/49L8utVMEW80gh9O9TlYw5qCAp5QKqkFS52A hO54xjTNdEpv/9yXpwQfgUqkAHM8MQhsaxmKCIQXUGt6Lp13aHDAYtMizED0LBjV 3P3qCoc03P9k2nWwGGU7dukncYNNuLDW9xwkAfV9VQuPYCHEBiPTcRnn99imyvNz FNhOElHDttCyKtt1FdZZVAQzXusAAwYH/18mnEMMv4rMZglYb0PRCxaxwQYkxESt KyXEclTc0kgyaZnf4Vbdz1rroxxZLIf+16p/MVNFierz/7d5FbJYggCDSsBAaj4r Qe2/Os3oCnHyyQY+zF9Ac30CsxzgDxMYxYGJHr6x+s9cloZ3WwBFAO0bMoS/9T/9 /S7L0d0litecox5et2yEw4AqHdCslGx5mX0os66uh99eeEwW2EQHSLklwUPReb7U 6m+fNyWxq5w+qTPG+zcXdiW/117T1aONVmg29tSNW8S/syha2PCJ+IoordBus4mU kfa49yCuXyZAYDNLbkiqMVTDCqrH2+n1mbUuhRBaSZEvgqVfVLZzRziIRgQYEQIA BgUCORjhUwAKCRBVn397GCw2j7T3AJ0ZDGzVqNQBE07ntRKuzQQmou8YhwCgibYR ZJyP31xlO+Lt5FgzzeqcQwU= =DKp2 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.benno; pub 1024D/15BE120E 2001-01-15 Benno Rice <benno@FreeBSD.org> Key fingerprint = E786 5BF6 A296 5F77 E3DA 7493 6D0C 7BC6 15BE 120E sub 1024g/313F3AF2 2001-01-15 [expires: 2002-01-15] -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDpikIcRBADDVeCRQ1aPvgIjJy6CTmDXjzSS5J5cxWaGhbA/UGj5NPj48cqa FTR3A8/ez+Ui01RIRStEMaGrpkDNSGkllaZnyTAIW6ozIp1j1UD27mCEA/I2PB5I B81jrkUkQOa0SVyXfx5livFQ8qup7p/g2Onej99iQwaHYk4XMTDMhZvk7wCg5QuS rNR071oflpT+Ysxie3R8Kn0D/0o3d0TsACLEKDKHZcsKT4OhrbIPfQp1cWh7+XC4 wqItBjXHWIdXMCeS/N/DYzPWAFZha0e8NHxqCCQwbdpHdX+6Sn3YwVEPMlPA3i6r 5pYuDPj8m9QpLWYu/AXwEF/KMwKYPz460IT9YHukeiOzB1q2VX3glsEr1DnRzckD WAxyBAC28HVDH/7XS6L5bGeZouPhY7uX4XoHeZdpcWI3jS9dBwcKjmXieVQMIh13 ZdO5zXrxCXoX6sS80kpxa1WfTs+VMlMuEYUP2H0bp6XjDHHvhOKEj4CO2ysPTRzR TQKyso4TO3zxg/yjDT4QLCtbmHvTvVj9I/duP15FmRRUQMxnMLQeQmVubm8gUmlj ZSA8YmVubm9ARnJlZUJTRC5vcmc+iF0EExECAB0FAjpikIcFCQHhM4AFCwcKAwQD FQMCAxYCAQIXgAAKCRBtDHvGFb4SDo+TAKDgTB5nUSx/3me0QKSw6pinfvGGLgCd FoGtOhnXL25I0HgEGBDS+tqHkxq5AQ0EOmKQqRAEALWN6zMxyIlkNHiagyWfc/qg EgjfbD2yiXIvR/CRZqWPKE5LbtAeCNc6tnfYeQSIZz5cCZs5iImafHKf4r5CvzZd Rxrl/2FngjAAMCi99wCuOBZX2h1ruqrI3mDqaWBRiGWEeu58+CllZdH0fpfAnI3r cJowZeBj8Ss1QZsVzeyfAAQLA/0ZwjK242AXkXjibtzEfZqK7l22D9xIT+ajc6zP 34F//PlyRVijEbWII/wy6k5wNLXSVUoDhEMucdsc1AXJ2CQN0nJPyETlhvTpJidh /gwDrNVtvPCOt/VleX+C2lI4xGW8Dx5pJkoULhgmsdjxvo2blRpreLuGhsU7oU9Y 7d/fJohMBBgRAgAMBQI6YpCpBQkB4TOAAAoJEG0Me8YVvhIOT9EAoKloqPBTtp9p JAEew3wXXri0oNIvAKDP6fbrVo2vbD2iZXw2m3Y2E/z5qA== =rQiL -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.guido; Guido van Rooij <guido@gvr.win.tue.nl> Fingerprint = 16 79 09 F3 C0 E4 28 A7 32 62 FA F6 60 31 C0 ED -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.2 mQCNAzGeO84AAAEEAKKAY91Na//DXwlUusr9GVESSlVwVP6DyH1wcZXhfN1fyZHq SwhMCEdHYoojQds+VqD1iiZQvv1RLByBgj622PDAPN4+Z49HjGs7YbZsUNuQqPPU wRPpP6ty69x1hPKq1sQIB5MS4radpCM+4wbZbhxv7l4rP3RWUbNaYutZnzI9AAUR tCZHdWlkbyB2YW4gUm9vaWogPGd1aWRvQGd2ci53aW4udHVlLm5sPokAlQMFEDMG Hcgff6kIA1j8vQEBbYgD/jm9xHuUuY+iXDkOzpCXBYACYEZDV913MjtyBAmaVqYo Rh5HFimkGXe+rCo78Aau0hc57fFMTsJqnuWEqVt3GRq28hSK1FOZ7ni9/XibHcmN rt2yugl3hYpClijo4nrDL1NxibbamkGW/vFGcljS0jqXz6NDVbGx5Oo7HBByxByz iQCVAwUQMhmtVjt/x7zOdmsfAQFuVQQApsVUTigT5YWjQA9Nd5Z0+a/oVtZpyw5Z OljLJP3vqJdMa6TidhfcatjHbFTve5x1dmjFgMX/MQTd8zf/+Xccy/PX4+lnKNpP eSf1Y4aK+E8KHmBGd6GzX6CIboyGYLS9e3kGnN06F2AQtaLyJFgQ71wRaGuyKmQG FwTn7jiKb1aJAJUDBRAyEOLXPt3iN6QQUSEBATwQA/9jqu0Nbk154+Pn+9mJX/YT fYR2UqK/5FKCqgL5Nt/Deg2re0zMD1f8F9Dj6vuAAxq8hnOkIHKlWolMjkRKkzJi mSPEWl3AuHJ31k948J8it4f8kq/o44usIA2KKVMlI63Q/rmNdfWCyiYQEVGcRbTm GTdZIHYCOgV5dOo4ebFqgYkAlQMFEDIE1nMEJn15jgpJ0QEBW6kEAKqN8XSgzTqf CrxFXT07MlHhfdbKUTNUoboxCGCLNW05vf1A8F5fdE5i14LiwkldWIzPxWD+Sa3L fNPCfCZTaCiyGcLyTzVfBHA18MBAOOX6JiTpdcm22jLGUWBf/aJK3yz/nfbWntd/ LRHysIdVp29lP5BF+J9/Lzbb/9LxP1taiQCVAwUQMgRXZ44CzbsJWQz9AQFf7gP/ Qa2FS5S6RYKG3rYanWADVe/ikFV2lxuM1azlWbsmljXvKVWGe6cV693nS5lGGAjx lbd2ADwXjlkNhv45HLWFm9PEveO9Jjr6tMuXVt8N2pxiX+1PLUN9CtphTIU7Yfjn s6ryZZfwGHSfIxNGi5ua2SoXhg0svaYnxHxXmOtH24iJAJUDBRAyAkpV8qaAEa3W TBkBARfQBAC+S3kbulEAN3SI7/A+A/dtl9DfZezT9C4SRBGsl2clQFMGIXmMQ/7v 7lLXrKQ7U2zVbgNfU8smw5h2vBIL6f1PyexSmc3mz9JY4er8KeZpcf6H0rSkHl+i d7TF0GvuTdNPFO8hc9En+GG6QHOqbkB4NRZ6cwtfwUMhk2FHXBnjF4kAlQMFEDH5 FFukUJAsCdPmTQEBe74EAMBsxDnbD9cuI5MfF/QeTNEG4BIVUZtAkDme4Eg7zvsP d3DeJKCGeNjiCWYrRTCGwaCWzMQk+/+MOmdkI6Oml+AIurJLoHceHS9jP1izdP7f N2jkdeJSBsixunbQWtUElSgOQQ4iF5kqwBhxtOfEP/L9QsoydRMR1yB6WPD75H7V iQCVAwUQMZ9YNGtaZ42Bsqd5AQH0PAQAhpVlAc3ZM/KOTywBSh8zWKVlSk3q/zGn k7hJmFThnlhH1723+WmXE8aAPJi+VXOWJUFQgwELJ6R8jSU2qvk2m1VWyYSqRKvc VRQMqT2wjss0GE1Ngg7tMrkRHT0il7E2xxIb8vMrIwmdkbTfYqBUhhGnsWPHZHq7 MoA1/b+rK7CJAJUDBRAxnvXh3IDyptUyfLkBAYTDA/4mEKlIP/EUX2Zmxgrd/JQB hqcQlkTrBAaDOnOqe/4oewMKR7yaMpztYhJs97i03Vu3fgoLhDspE55ooEeHj0r4 cOdiWfYDsjSFUYSPNVhW4OSruMA3c29ynMqNHD7hpr3rcCPUi7J2RncocOcCjjK2 BQb/9IAUNeK4C9gPxMEZLokAlQMFEDGeO86zWmLrWZ8yPQEBEEID/2fPEUrSX3Yk j5TJPFZ9MNX0lEo7AHYjnJgEbNI4pYm6C3PnMlsYfCSQDHuXmRQHAOWSdwOLvCkN F8eDaF3M6u0urgeVJ+KVUnTz2+LZoZs12XSZKCte0HxjbvPpWMTTrYyimGezH79C mgDVjsHaYOx3EXF0nnDmtXurGioEmW1J =mSvM -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.wosch; Type Bits/KeyID Date User ID pub 1024/2B7181AD 1997/08/09 Wolfram Schneider <wosch@FreeBSD.org> Key fingerprint = CA 16 91 D9 75 33 F1 07 1B F0 B4 9F 3E 95 B6 09 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAzPs+aEAAAEEAJqqMm2I9CxWMuHDvuVO/uh0QT0az5ByOktwYLxGXQmqPG1G Q3hVuHWYs5Vfm/ARU9CRcVHFyqGQ3LepoRhDHk+JcASHan7ptdFsz7xk1iNNEoe0 vE2rns38HIbiyQ/2OZd4XsyhFOFtExNoBuyDyNoe3HbHVBQT7TmN/mkrcYGtAAUR tCVXb2xmcmFtIFNjaG5laWRlciA8d29zY2hARnJlZUJTRC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQNxnH AzmN/mkrcYGtAQF5vgP/SLOiI4AwuPHGwUFkwWPRtRzYSySXqwaPCop5mVak27wk pCxGdzoJO2UgcE812Jt92Qas91yTT0gsSvOVNATaf0TM3KnKg5ZXT1QIzYevWtuv 2ovAG4au3lwiFPDJstnNAPcgLF3OPni5RCUqBjpZFhb/8YDfWYsMcyn4IEaJKre0 JFdvbGZyYW0gU2NobmVpZGVyIDxzY2huZWlkZXJAemliLmRlPokAlQMFEDcZxu85 jf5pK3GBrQEBCRgD/jPj1Ogx4O769soiguL1XEHcxhqtrpKZkKwxmDLRa0kJFwLp bBJ3Qz3vwaB7n5gQU0JiL1B2M7IxVeHbiIV5pKp7FD248sm+HZvBg6aSnCg2JPUh sHd1tK5X4SB5cjFt3Cj0LIN9/c9EUxm3SoML9bovmze60DckErrRNOuTk1IntCJX b2xmcmFtIFNjaG5laWRlciA8d29zY2hAYXBmZWwuZGU+iQEVAwUQNmfWXAjJLLJO sC7dAQEASAgAnE4g2fwMmFkQy17ATivljEaDZN/m0GdXHctdZ8CaPrWk/9/PTNK+ U6xCewqIKVwtqxVBMU1VpXUhWXfANWCB7a07D+2GrlB9JwO5NMFJ6g0WI/GCUXjC xb3NTkNsvppL8Rdgc8wc4f23GG4CXVggdTD2oUjUH5Bl7afgOT4xLPAqePhS7hFB UnMsbA94OfxPtHe5oqyaXt6cXH/SgphRhzPPZq0yjg0Ef+zfHVamvZ6Xl2aLZmSv Cc/rb0ShYDYi39ly9OPPiBPGbSVw2Gg804qx3XAKiTFkLsbYQnRt7WuCPsOVjFkf CbQS31TaclOyzenZdCAezubGIcrJAKZjMIkAlQMFEDPs+aE5jf5pK3GBrQEBlIAD /3CRq6P0m1fi9fbPxnptuipnoFB/m3yF6IdhM8kSe4XlXcm7tS60gxQKZgBO3bDA 5QANcHdl41Vg95yBAZepPie6iQeAAoylRrONeIy6XShjx3S0WKmA4+C8kBTL+vwa UqF9YJ1qesZQtsXlkWp/Z7N12RkueVAVQ7wRPwfnz6E3tC5Xb2xmcmFtIFNjaG5l aWRlciA8d29zY2hAcGFua2UuZGUuZnJlZWJzZC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQNxnEqTmN/mkr cYGtAQFnpQP9EpRZdG6oYN7d5abvIMN82Z9x71a4QBER+R62mU47wqdRG2b6jMMh 3k07b2oiprVuPhRw/GEPPQevb6RRT6SD9CPYAGfK3MDE8ZkMj4d+7cZDRJQ35sxv gAzQwuA9l7kS0mt5jFRPcEg5/KpuyehRLckjx8jpEM7cEJDHXhBIuVg= =3V1R -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.gshapiro; Type Bits KeyID Created Expires Algorithm Use sec+ 1024 0x4FBE2ADD 2000-10-13 ---------- RSA Sign & Encrypt f16 Fingerprint16 = 56 D5 FF A7 A6 54 A6 B5 59 10 00 B9 5F 5F 20 09 uid Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@gshapiro.net> uid Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@FreeBSD.org> -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: PGPfreeware 5.0i for non-commercial use mQCNAznnjPsAAAEEAL5gfaY7RP5vm89lqmjGAJRBFLM/qzHJKrYkRVDASeLZ0/JI Bfypd8N1vQz80tnqzOh7aLgAskgluyx0O9EuZXTJUwm+ew6wA8vh8JA0kpI5g3N5 wjXQNWPxSCeNIz1hbgAPtRunVLXXoaxxCQziU38bd2RvzlvgQdbgof5PvirdAAUR tCxHcmVnb3J5IE5laWwgU2hhcGlybyA8Z3NoYXBpcm9AZ3NoYXBpcm8ubmV0PokA lQMFEDnnjRPW4KH+T74q3QEBKlED/1F8UjkufYD0G9eV7X5ujAVffIBl6nvHVw4+ /m+lXxnUmOInk8AUmHIxK62BJ9CPWHegf91BsGNMVA7cQiF+atdz8Yy4h1Snt7FB OsL2Ak0g2WUrIDfB+N5SB/EjdK0BdURsccYbORGVIveveUNmxuW4jUZWcInCkDx4 FTGRxzAFiQCVAwUQOeevO3xLZ22gDhVjAQHAVAP+NWdTbxipCQANnRf4BNl492mG VN51MBZnlsy/lyMu2yckR3eacaXmp3zKardwex7Ajle5XC6sJ1H3twYv8g63eqJ4 XuxC9Uxmer2mj7wibcO2srtwv2hgLMNVjJrClALolQ6WT7/6L1YENP0Ef26eJXnw pwXdfaXurbwnv4tyOOGJAJUDBRA556+fvdqP1j/qff0BAVUtA/94+oMC9pJgXi+0 tbwUsAu/pJqHByjCjO+LscH+gtqb4VhfxdEllHTVj5Cju7o+HcYZdtTRdggx2FqV zaCp2kq1kbEGuQCJzwNHkG10I8C5YlyXUaYGwX1gEPImzTpOI0C3Any0UvK4KQsl Crj0UmRARVwzulGYE7hxknivvkdbw7QrR3JlZ29yeSBOZWlsIFNoYXBpcm8gPGdz aGFwaXJvQEZyZWVCU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDnnjPvW4KH+T74q3QEBMeYD/03sPgJ0 QKQXzSRGyiVZBkZ4frsFj6nH2IP9+zCTRUlX0uyo6f1Z2RC3a++MbaKFR/LUmdZ8 DkOfOTcvsoIQJ6BOQO1/XpOkppvhrYRUU7a6C9wM7ptWEJvx5IcmWk5oWxmx373e cPb5MkhiXK85/NRxhlS5PG5kcz2ajJ7imYnuiQCVAwUQOeevZnxLZ22gDhVjAQGn 2AQAta7mxgLMyGKhq9msyQ2rITAhEvhoYM47OeOgyq5FKx0b0rEmIjC+sDx3YOsb auw/Z5bAYzZnUmhe65KKA76eITqlnMt1ykaDu0jQLGKczXjuLCMCDT/JCZStoyt6 XhG9R+R8PnXk80PtZlTJjHuJyghBq5fzrIKs0k2G7eVchnKJAJUDBRA556+nvdqP 1j/qff0BAWVdA/9m5bMpkhnxDcfApaDp6mF2hEdacuHXrMXOzsrTuFiFoJhByXfM bMDM1T8Hq3FU8TJ3BQ/ydgoeiuvWJ5j0clBegCbxS7tH/FvlnZBikNeARFTD0m5H hmG+vzIwhe2sjh7/0dqaj1RMwLPxrQVyukHGnzyFodjcDJy1jWEl1Onytw== =i+mc -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.gshapiro; Type Bits KeyID Created Expires Algorithm Use sec+ 1024 0xFCE56561 2000-10-14 2001-10-14 DSS Sign & Encrypt f20 Fingerprint20 = 42C4 A87A FD85 C34F E77F 5EA1 88E1 7B1D FCE5 6561 sub 1024 0x285DC8A0 2000-10-14 2001-10-14 Diffie-Hellman f20 Fingerprint20 = 69AB 26D1 A244 51E3 2B6C 7091 BD19 FA76 285D C8A0 uid Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@gshapiro.net> uid Gregory Neil Shapiro <gshapiro@FreeBSD.org> -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: PGPfreeware 5.0i for non-commercial use mQGiBDnnrJwRBACXxbriCa+0S4JY8rFJe9U160xXZ0hqJsvfIZtokLGDjC21G83K 4pTJRhdWlWa04HrehUtMIdT/EXKfUJCFl7vk/WGWT3/1H3xxEUQzxKu3xAJWQXJs 8t2r+Dkj0csrpLJvRyuZ5+mzzFbzFSIaWohlY8Q1Ou+39jORfyVPkGjizwCg5Czr VDcXH2oTF3vMHsw/Bhfz3bMD/AhY8q/jmUiV09hCKb7XG6f0C+qpmBeByk5G/JFm TRv5T34MkWQJodaUOhJtzoOsOjKQSect3c+XncIMADAGCnGPGP/6sxfuyLOgsuV6 TXSxUvxi+E99zKTmKPFRTBuJCVATrTmHHAiLEqTZzE8DeJ6wK9kT1fRVnCKs4ycz I7diA/44Ay2OW4PAuri2lJm7yXsiP54lNCP0eMXOQ8RSWBZhHKQl66o/pm+FsT9G K5XloJrFa7+2XuiVoyNiva18dZkCFJzychda9pwfkkHjtidMRI97ACdUCPPQFVMB 7Dqr4wXp+qQ+tXScnZT3LMeotFwuiSfDl4VeNOswEw+F9ObCUbQsR3JlZ29yeSBO ZWlsIFNoYXBpcm8gPGdzaGFwaXJvQGdzaGFwaXJvLm5ldD6JAFwEExECABwFAjnn rJwFCQHhM4AECwoDBAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJEIjhex385WVhDocAnjzccU2v9ekk oUZZHoV7Bugs1npLAKDAmgzpoU3sU6zXwEQVEVq+wPpZD4kARgQQEQIABgUCOeet DgAKCRAY9QOAJMJ4AkNKAJ93IfPLKQoBCm3TEkoQQeJWYNcRwwCdEzokbdvw/ZJw xivyMefPJ3br/2+0K0dyZWdvcnkgTmVpbCBTaGFwaXJvIDxnc2hhcGlyb0BGcmVl QlNELm9yZz6JAFwEExECABwFAjnnrPwFCQHhM4AECwoDBAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJ EIjhex385WVhktIAoMvD+IjOrWx+dJ3xmV+dVm+Bnu0aAJ0bSPAcx4cPpR/peHQF JNrZgswER4kARgQQEQIABgUCOeetEgAKCRAY9QOAJMJ4AoxaAJ9OZYEXRzSmnbDo Vukf+j5LB/fA2gCgpOQ8p/cw15Dmd27gDJ58DkTpyRi5AQ0EOeesnhAEAO9L5G1l A3oDYFq62bifXtKS/zM2aiKND8yONxRaEuhcSqroNY5FrRy1wd4t14SA4/LzZ34D siuNZ2+h2HD/3KTMDQ/qE/FBblNwE5ZH9cQ44a9WwGsWFDRgtuHV/7dHlZClPpwD +tFVI7UGufhv+PPKAG3tTfRvWY2lReqVwsc3AAMFBADlrsLDoQFnE2ieS5pn3pB/ aiMF2Z09U6fVTY+mdAdAU43xifQFGMi9vuzHNzwFGtJosK35BhfSshHTER3cT0yN 79HifRAAwKP+KIoxFhfgudZafG6BaaIOUlhPW8s9k+FtN04x6/jgRq9pz/E6MwVx W0Rf6V5XAIFWWN3xd2JH5okATAQYEQIADAUCOeesngUJAeEzgAAKCRCI4Xsd/OVl YeFIAKC//WKobq3b9vGn1zkBTuomGMPa3QCgm71DX+8oALnjNzj5f4+wH0CtV/iJ AEwEGBECAAwFAjnnrJ4FCQHhM4AACgkQiOF7HfzlZWHhSACg1QVuMlj4R1DH6avL pqMjQ7U7OMcAn2uyl3bEe476vV8RnKf83qQuw4uZ =PgGN -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.cshumway; pub 1024D/3219F982 2001-05-17 Christopher Shumway <cshumway@titan-project.org> Fingerprint: 45F5 931B 0646 BF84 E78E E274 6C29 340E 3219 F982 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDsDZMARBACAhNya3wnw46CweXc2PKvIQythRjNsyDl17SNCwfzXc7Pvazz/ MvM7W9YdrC/PbuALNkj6KZL65yZI+H/gVkQtR7GzeSmsz1sAWGQsXXgXsFQ4mSEQ U1+lVgLa4yn88kv9L1oIdrMZ+2ymUtnCqCd/7U7tPk13abQk7OmxRHppMwCg8119 tIQEJg5orrjOxGO2L2008CUD/1j7qKo+OFDQp3dIwJXwnxdA4Bal2ujh5mPkWZQU fpvxbWtyc8V56KqDWJgo/T6DuJt4B7aR/tCr8VtsvI0SZ2LmG3xzvLD3Hn2qQvdi U7qxgqKdrgfzCeh1DItNhcWSQCAVjYRbS/Tof/6Mr10Qn+HAwB+ng3tx0Fw1JnKA 69uNA/9PZm1H4crVrA1pWyTgujAcZpb25mnmZjTsRmc+wtVOho9RTTs2nu+2QyH4 IkVG5q1G+PqkUBqzQIB5r468Y1md92C8cBiC27cASy+HFbpR0iXvoTnQXMKqZpiS bZGG7ZJmAJBLus737FRc6ZvkdZR/Xax2Bk5r6sOqprkiY7oox7QwQ2hyaXN0b3Bo ZXIgU2h1bXdheSA8Y3NodW13YXlAdGl0YW4tcHJvamVjdC5vcmc+iFcEExECABcF AjsDZMAFCwcKAwQDFQMCAxYCAQIXgAAKCRBsKTQOMhn5gobeAKDFB1PyTljcrrnC QTqe8eTLSfIoJgCfX8Ih2TMDwBY1LMOoKF+VcnDLVbSIRgQQEQIABgUCO1OSHwAK CRC01xCiDkUffTt/AJ9gkbQd32jA0KSXV7mUMzytmVVASQCghBYQrLqv2CjK3BoX 7FEeucd96hW0KkNocmlzdG9waGVyIFNodW13YXkgPGNzaHVtd2F5QGZyZWVic2Qu b3JnPohXBBMRAgAXBQI7A2qWBQsHCgMEAxUDAgMWAgECF4AACgkQbCk0DjIZ+YKa DwCgyqmQO1WAUXw1+yN5JE9Z0uOwUdsAoNF2+3hc06GXxHPB/UVkgXM3DxafiEYE EBECAAYFAjtTkiMACgkQtNcQog5FH32XWgCgwYyh96GQDHGUjX3ltj4Vv9XsH6UA mwckH84kjvMV5rJBVSviYw+IxdPLuQENBDsDZMUQBAD3oXuy2E/13UM8R6MZC7a1 pm/k4/MRK+ulxQgVYObyN5ynERTHvkYvHf0hZ+bUyOmdjQPH+L9sNJVs6YNHJxhm pWXf4LYaJ0maJ2FSCcFJmxEG87dUFZQmWSFFJaZ4dd48TjABx/CuKsdJtWIcJVGm w5t/By/w1/jgp1rw7SBbvwADBQQAu29NDNNBBu0xpShynFwLChaTVCog3g85HqXm fPtGc/ZFhxaNKysv6iRzx0icyTuqurhJWMVSnmqM3jYsZFNcEsUgqPm7yndJRelJ F1m7a7imjUuU+xnzDFLYRYnNryx5qXAwBLyY+mmoB96acCOgxyjttH/NbQAsdwhs 4aXs3z2IRgQYEQIABgUCOwNkxQAKCRBsKTQOMhn5gqkVAJ94J1LKerb4+frNqdio mc5TkvVvcwCglu+HZ72NH+Lihc+Aay/RRC7+veE= =xZZp -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.jesper; pub 1024D/F9561C31 2001-03-09 Jesper Skriver <jesper@skriver.dk> Key fingerprint = 6B88 9CE8 66E9 E631 C9C5 5EB4 22AB F0EC F956 1C31 uid Jesper Skriver <jesper@wheel.dk> uid Jesper Skriver <jesper@FreeBSD.org> sub 1024g/777C378C 2001-03-09 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDqpHqIRBACDazER4MfiNd6QrTZ925IKM0HuYP1YN6uodGYhCuBGb1a4cFnt 0Xuw1fuaGqahBnNmBg7Rsetaf7b7/w90Of286mRBgIJIr33VxaKd+lW8l6ORQK9K bDR8/IpgHxjt8LXNdBr0/Eddj6mOPojooIDOmoGyj0XOlRb5bq+xWlDtAwCgnjQa KG01en2qMUwrvPPZzyWg/qkD/3q+NyOVyi0MAgXdYNxI0tMrDPsRzmbvG8wxZQ1S fGHGJEvlKhksePCteX3cLicrxRZazfIteiBXL+0iEvSauF7JZzhG5OfbLTQS2MKr d0rFCSmez4VAJfx8nqJoA4C+yTphxAlyP53JKF2BmRbfSuz4vIbi0e+zsc+kZehS 7Tw+A/9tanL63z5D8qmPZAE1JqRJfyDnTthzUPPY9h1CEZN4jtcdL/FLME2TmKva 5kcgp0WTAGK0tHsyHvij7KZDAp8Z2R8/456DpS0Rk5vTBy+WKMWV+j+RlRlSAr1U bkg6cEtMKCImXsprST8UImfJH0DFUXt15gQ4ogog2xPnuvk3/LQiSmVzcGVyIFNr cml2ZXIgPGplc3BlckBza3JpdmVyLmRrPohXBBMRAgAXBQI6qR6iBQsHCgMEAxUD AgMWAgECF4AACgkQIqvw7PlWHDE3ugCfa3zgBbxwCmIGGlSrwWPP0q+IGsAAnjuy GZPJgHaWjAn+SrRftnZu9M0biJwEEAEBAAYFAjqpRasACgkQH3+pCANY/L0+bwP/ YrW19JdTDG7fDCYbwgn1ngA1y+nRT25G+ozBUJt5q0H8VL6nrWwcbfk9Yg6jWkIx Qs2SF1A9yv0YXFqN1ihGYk0iTU/peZ17wP/TIvd+zkcrzXpdHrfrOy+xgalbi7+c v52W/49xYvqBsmk0CDRSkdkYt3VgvK4Bo7xoBF4IEl6IRgQQEQIABgUCOqoEkQAK CRBHg9f1XdH7jORAAKCxXIkp49PFrGbiM+JBIsMS+Ig2bwCfXeekX2maFMz4I8pf AorI1IepXYa0IEplc3BlciBTa3JpdmVyIDxqZXNwZXJAd2hlZWwuZGs+iFcEExEC ABcFAjqpKJgFCwcKAwQDFQMCAxYCAQIXgAAKCRAiq/Ds+VYcMazBAKCMqcWbk7gC hYm53EL6HVDoxaeDOQCfa6bEjXrcxW/EST0FlCMcs2LKoXSInAQQAQEABgUCOqlF vwAKCRAff6kIA1j8vQA+A/4+e1LpjSu8NFfeky2GG2Mjk1xqzb1nzVDQlKmaPXY3 dLtqw5tVHA1FLNaSFXDg05NowqQj6OIfavs26orerWyRrD3OJZQBBde5gf/IZBVO bk4WzE0hZmHQvchrWR/gDiHJRYnSw+4Sx5MnKBlgccZbIPxabHudUnx12iuNtTl6 O4hGBBARAgAGBQI6qgSmAAoJEEeD1/Vd0fuMdi0AoJdRZoDG9YwxVyp3wb+e/e0r UPwdAJ9fFipa2TGSkCjO61unpDtawmJCLbQjSmVzcGVyIFNrcml2ZXIgPGplc3Bl ckBGcmVlQlNELm9yZz6IVwQTEQIAFwUCOqkorQULBwoDBAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJ ECKr8Oz5VhwxEjUAn1QJFvqeDJ8gU8rtgz3CmnjlsAAmAJ9BqfYvV5zxGvgkOKRy Mu6i2Qa5m4icBBABAQAGBQI6qUWXAAoJEB9/qQgDWPy9FkYEAKwpmiuxudlg5EK/ ZJ4ClDDdL+Nr9TXY0sKLSwJdDWpgqBAjjovInON6rEeqa7CSvSlDozqzf97IdKRj BQFkogPbVSfvgamz0zJZtWkfE7Hvw52X8U7PyWthoTwECIvzYKH35+NiecJQqXf+ AfGRLF0pCSBLSXR2zi3Bqee3nZ3BiEYEEBECAAYFAjqqBKYACgkQR4PX9V3R+4wB dgCfdPlMBWMvvNAcseruEfvAoRpkVGwAoOGKx9zFdxeJMh1g+y7S5/9fRbf3uQEN BDqpHqoQBAD69+DjZ00uDr48npfWtrVxuDmZb2jzS3Tdt0p6V2gVuengjobHNb1T 6o4BIjPu/yQ8qDlDOb+OF63wfowMCIU+qNBBtmoSDKmQu0M9hREHA9PeHjIsN2dk wpIAnM7kXHAE0T00QlBCLzjvef/xooKGdcaA4Zse+wLMixgwJbto0wADBQP9Hlh+ SI7YcYZV+nOhNnPdBG98UHNhDiheklrZ5BQMLzPEn+qHkaZTeX0SrEbPmm4D7nRk UGTh1H2CIL/YaffqVYVKw/8HTIJeXZMgJwdq+j3S5P/Vnc/g83uZpuzdW8PNp6A2 u1JHPq9M1haoszxtTirQXxo4Ht4/DWaY1DtDkZWIRgQYEQIABgUCOqkeqgAKCRAi q/Ds+VYcMQbsAJ9J+QGEzdNcvYY0lAXZAnLBnW7lDwCeNJmcu4gVYPvBDLe2Xu7Q Crfzumk= =A3JF -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.ben; pub 1024D/2CEF442C 2001-07-11 Ben Smithurst <ben@LSRfm.com> Key fingerprint = 355D 0FFF B83A 90A9 D648 E409 6CFC C9FB 2CEF 442C uid Ben Smithurst <ben@vinosystems.com> uid Ben Smithurst <ben@smithurst.org> uid Ben Smithurst <ben@FreeBSD.org> uid Ben Smithurst <csxbcs@comp.leeds.ac.uk> uid Ben Smithurst <ben@scientia.demon.co.uk> sub 1024g/347071FF 2001-07-11 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.6 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDtMtwMRBADrWbrHZdss5Nlj/VpLW92lUpmYdmw5l2wYRtTTeHXrfvUk++pX dJ0l1bSC829hokrlQiJZJdiPqu0fGnhxXoeA5QMvrtjMAG8E+MRSLIUaay08SLeJ NhQR/ymiLFmh5ZyzXyG+qhZj7/xw3ynHLQ/KHPhRJpAs9ef0x0rgMZxJQwCg00Y2 8eIQKg3mikkLllnK7OHgMYED/jEhj6G2BLjKc/QliKn7KZZ2Ev4MMKUj36LPgzqH VTEhliqbRylW/nCFWhMyxbqzRjR0t6ng3PJYlSltcwwJheySHRogxV/gUvYMwQau WKkyFZfiO8/OBZkbuQotLI+4tU2cQFzBTuFIogh3Eg6PRDKUFx6g1AlbloFgmimX mdHABADTVFYFKHY9YuUTfpD0S0uLFQrtj3xyZGfA4tjXtc1xCgSmkxIVUoTzg09u EtcEvo8FzmmH5JQQV7cM8TTZutSFcHuCftwbhoMH562YkbuY160TCDHB9xc7hzk3 uzij7HKskm0b6QmMCI6LAYHhAuTk1IKY03DwLBIgEX8g68wyBbQjQmVuIFNtaXRo dXJzdCA8YmVuQHZpbm9zeXN0ZW1zLmNvbT6IVwQTEQIAFwUCO0y3AwULBwoDBAMV AwIDFgIBAheAAAoJEGz8yfss70Qsc6oAn2Kxzsk/d1GDM4VssT3U3jaHDX5FAJ9l jFv088oFIgnhUiBOmoPEcwnozrQhQmVuIFNtaXRodXJzdCA8YmVuQHNtaXRodXJz dC5vcmc+iFcEExECABcFAjtMvDsFCwcKAwQDFQMCAxYCAQIXgAAKCRBs/Mn7LO9E LEV6AKClm5AuE0PobuyUVri0ZPT4Qzn/SwCfUO4Q/dz2kXJfcoi+svIdboVWsz60 H0JlbiBTbWl0aHVyc3QgPGJlbkBGcmVlQlNELm9yZz6IVwQTEQIAFwUCO0y8XgUL BwoDBAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJEGz8yfss70QsqkIAn3CdGD3kdBP8cNCWB/mmdlJJ 2Ba5AJsGjmI0R+adewxQuNIGxPuwfuhqSrQnQmVuIFNtaXRodXJzdCA8Y3N4YmNz QGNvbXAubGVlZHMuYWMudWs+iFcEExECABcFAjtMv/4FCwcKAwQDFQMCAxYCAQIX gAAKCRBs/Mn7LO9ELCM3AJsF3zHJhMdP7zGhP1Sbwh0vOA8WYQCgxONfpOQhAWu/ WwnZZnwNjUcnbh+0KEJlbiBTbWl0aHVyc3QgPGJlbkBzY2llbnRpYS5kZW1vbi5j by51az6IVwQTEQIAFwUCO0zAYQULBwoDBAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJEGz8yfss70Qs txUAoKltbmA6D+5e4f43LWOOqfv6P/jOAJ0eUczvTczRuBzg+7fs0MsrtYtteLQd QmVuIFNtaXRodXJzdCA8YmVuQExTUmZtLmNvbT6IVwQTEQIAFwUCO0zAkgULBwoD BAMVAwIDFgIBAheAAAoJEGz8yfss70Qs57MAoK3vUyOUBVsEoHitX5eXJDos2JnX AKC4pG7X9x0EziSKSi/SFmRRNhx267kBDQQ7TLcHEAQAoByKPA5d5RrBOmmVb6cA 5T0sQvYBsgHpn5INcPr4/B3pAXROzu+SveIh1yg6f5poE4LhxQ0Yva0sCPVI3WPU YDpOSu4l0BikO26sQ1WdGYpRiTxuFaqzKLapIiDOz1lpY4o5yChEKtJw6t94Hckr Ss6dPH9uE4hoaWxdbvquTrMAAwUD/RrkuvBBqAjN7flRrnNuQA04j8Oc5/znRiHQ Ojq8i0w7t1qrT5zCNbd1S4Avo8hc5+G6ap9nv5KA3G9TKsgBQjcCB038k/k0pzRg JZhIOVBXpbPb8ZahMk7Tdm7nGgILJzfW0cg2AwToKpEcxEVrhdtTjc11/J4q+wBO 07lDXfYgiEYEGBECAAYFAjtMtwcACgkQbPzJ+yzvRCzdZwCZAXcRSox3VdhHpoJV FlnCmFbg4FAAmgPfaRZc9BE1SF825LsiKDAvUzs+ =D508 -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.dcs; Type Bits/KeyID Date User ID pub 1024/488A2DD5 2000/06/07 Daniel C. Sobral <dcs@freebsd.org> Key fingerprint = AF 90 A6 A2 B5 8D 6C 28 37 F3 F4 47 8B 31 47 DF Daniel C. Sobral <dcs@newsguy.com> -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: 2.6.3ia mQCNAzk+tBAAAAEEAK5EJZPGnimL5cl9lFRpl3mYboOuN6K/ne/2oHt5CNlhBTuU 64VDPcBsM6ha+KJwSCdiO191AHnbpJSmIzNmL1VLHZunbZhJms2rf388pXO6nyu3 GW7x2nmqg5qTTkVZAILcuqb8DF4ODF8FEwwCzDJ4ikhSxgXbsTN8YkBIii3VAAUR tCJEYW5pZWwgQy4gU29icmFsIDxkY3NAZnJlZWJzZC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQOUVdXVUu Hi5z0oilAQGl2gQAgWztCfCITJ7AF2e32Cq0FQkBSuh0jEIyEpZuGPJA9WbShDFL gZW2xxLezaCHLx+tIwyT5I0oMDEY1GG5bk0Hv3X7YUZBWvdlmHMtBgW4BM/iIm9b NHXhRecC9MEiwvUSCEXjpP6RDoP3GO3n3rraBDl/C1X89fDJMYB9gNwr+oCJAJUD BRA5PrQQM3xiQEiKLdUBAfUBA/4vbs1IsfssAbgzoYxoxVojgaQuuipZW6bCCBgj RSysFrNJiEi3Z9QsNKduFcZhSeYxhzwZxLb6bsoinqB60FJdZc9ivjho7ALaveYH haZSniBayp3zQLllzfmbrbGmSD/Jvn1Qwj85ZMZ1T21VVLVhN1pqssaX7InoRYzu oQKJVLQiRGFuaWVsIEMuIFNvYnJhbCA8ZGNzQG5ld3NndXkuY29tPokAlQMFEDk+ vYUzfGJASIot1QEBPjAEAJMooQYQUef1jKBsYC9xh9WcvtQ45Hku+BKwU6tBlhLT JMIn9n0guzXey4gsVcpgJcjmZEXAq+dbgL/ps63CXQAahomlszpdea9aumbak1aU 51eIEftheyZaqmM4stDvoC+pdQxWP5K3n2d/7itwFde19xQNuK9UD9iPjJnz2L47 =oxOV -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.brian; pub 1024R/666A7421 1997-04-30 Brian Somers <brian@awfulhak.org> Key fingerprint = 2D 91 BD C2 94 2C 46 8F 8F 09 C4 FC AD 12 3B 21 uid Brian Somers <brian@uk.OpenBSD.org> uid Brian Somers <brian@uk.FreeBSD.org> uid Brian Somers <brian@OpenBSD.org> uid Brian Somers <brian@FreeBSD.org> -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQCNAzNmogUAAAEEALdsjVsV2dzO8UU4EEo7z3nYuvB2Q6YJ8sBUYjB8/vfR5oZ9 7aEQjgY5//pXvS30rHUB9ghk4kIFSljzeMudE0K2zH5n2sxpLbBKWZRDLS7xnrDC I3j9CNKwQBzMPs0fUT46gp96nf1X8wPiJXkDUEia/c0bRbXlLw7tvOdmanQhAAUR tCFCcmlhbiBTb21lcnMgPGJyaWFuQGF3ZnVsaGFrLm9yZz6JAJUDBRA4qXaPfU3G z8mTvFkBASJ1A/4gAN3XvKJchXeH+mt/acNiA7+jxtAjmMfSjJiaIldYdaA9ESYi XDamPbwQzuaMOslA3uhH+W0tNN8AbcaQ7wqWeKN1WZ7HFPzLUuaQTJhoiNTdWmaK ZkhxiDNGA5ycJBXI5FwUb22QaB8Sj7u7vEXBpMo++zEcN+s6haSbAB8w6IkAlQMF EDgdNQU/ZTB66ZtiFQEBBL0D/3PZ1au27HPVMN/69P3mstJLzO/a95w6koavXQph 3aRbtR7G/Gw5qRQMjwGrQ4derIcWPuONoOPXWFu2Hy7/7fYgEAsQ004MskEUImJ7 gjCZbmASV/8CoJHtBtNTHC+63MRfD++YU0XXsN832u5+90pq1n/5c7d7jdKn/zRK niQQiQCVAwUQNxY7OB9/qQgDWPy9AQGTsQQAk2dcz3WicxHU+AH63m0G2lOMrRHq HZ1V2SJHPCJfiw5QzlACHpOT4Jx00TOMosHGbmEKwg0RYHTqH3BX0aNDw+5hhc3d tqjxpm7x4gwQmAsoZZD11iA3qANXF++yZVNTRXctHWcLl+3LGjJaYwpDj3O/vOep q+qUIuPM4+8mba2JAJUDBRA3FKmdnWdBAAxuEhUBARJtBAC9mwTXOL6cT64NwE3W fz3pKS+pWI97PaQX/H+3mC16uN/AP8sIlpKy++IF8XGdhMvQB2Vvq2yT81G63zAI D97lqG3krw8ikaNcLSp02B8vjhCGwSBw5iFLity+yrqQX+1gCOOkO358s9Lcb7Ua 7g4736Mpff00kXyCnGsNmiDYe4kAlQMFEDcMlqZnSj3xVLFxuQEBCKwEAJrpL9rv YoXJztmWmpNuuSPoGKM7vm4gJ4HVzX4UxjHhMRc3c0PEHuxCboDKSAxJCatoKGN+ bBorQ/qIElVhAo3FWxyADzNrvWsRRpSu3wzpppB9mVgzLcMdiOXWabN6toPZmNjv QM+WKJKexlu74kqVlx00R8TrLmOms3u9VO0ViQB1AwUQNwwBLw7sAx9+veyxAQFk RwL/V15Lm+poq/wwscyiNgBN7XpONJUX1OiLpI5f7s0/Rl3C97hIyHsIj08DfpOC C/qnAhHb/FmYL/7TuOa+fSGULInDWkgLCl/+gsYWuh6LINY8OK43cs9d64GEYv56 3quZiQCVAwUQNq9AjPafnz58Zbu1AQGDmwP+NLOUsBKV063jzu/AKFBRGuWeG4Ms ZKU+wVW6upv6ELSudPV3tjNstF0y5HfOqF6Y8isxs1qvE+mUyjXRffuS4UtspScr XT6tQIw5NgaHH31l+PqV50T4gul3DXWBokC/Dkx72REmEA4h3jH8APFnTMxStUfN JyTMADWF4ySay82JAJUDBRAzbedc77OxBWZTbW0BAVtFA/42QelA3RBXYUtIcYGo b+QsWkA1kGyBKQGPSS9coHdUVjClBRl3UZFmZhxAODb7cBRXmpvx2ZuMrhn/MpXT MqPOJaE3FYm+5SoeArphsRU+T8XofxfLvRHkM3JURUjIVZdAQNvxxBso8NJG5Kay P0Q96Vw+3sEwFK49jt14RCJy4IkAlQMFEDNzvb1sq+iWcxFJBQEBfZwD/R3KNFf9 ype9Dea8j1YIeNZ1E3e03en1I8fMj6EmS1/L1WfFzMnfFCxZs7JgPtkBuB3CqP8f +LOdDt6PHPqNakmI9E6fiuGfJZ3jFZYATXa0XKuIoxIJNKhqkpbF8ixJZFTxFwAA wVYM3+sqr4qQ8FzVc5entxjyxPFNkwJwRWV+iQCVAwUQM2aiBQ7tvOdmanQhAQE7 LgQAiN6Hz+zd8bh0nO6VizbJxWFRHPbrQWnJXGoMYyy88DyszAXC4zRshlyGUDQd HeP/1DFCXDEu78GfDCLaJ1bm25yVR7kLxDZaEUQEbWqxfiwuzizAjkaxrW7dBbWI LwWqrYF5TXClw+oUU/oIUW4t6t+GpAO18PLYhSMXVYErrACIRgQQEQIABgUCNWos 4QAKCRD1ePRkNTwCBjXyAJ9kGY+v3SwYhfPcdmgcx/JjdB8tJQCfZpymmdb82Mhk GcJgKzsQj+XV22CIPwMFEDU6fsFITYPUB5ReLhECRvsAnjZKzoJNqeHiEbIJThvv /X8Ldg3iAJ4yv+V5R2RZQ4y19nDj+g9fDfACELQjQnJpYW4gU29tZXJzIDxicmlh bkB1ay5PcGVuQlNELm9yZz6JAJUDBRA4t89HDu2852ZqdCEBAXM7A/9YBm+45S+G xfCMjVkYxWBAlNIGS6n6TBlRTNQ0B+f3RhUvCAksSRZnGnTm6PcUP8Lc1bzvrDj9 s8auGjT1OvQ6ypC1jR7D71nsjRIaKvgLAbsPGjFSMKTwZFx+LbHCzBEvRcSb7tYn Jg+gtjXbVcztlSzCbWtv4qRnVhrotirh9IhGBBARAgAGBQI5/Mj1AAoJEFq8tAVo 6EClHQYAn0WVMv1mf/ybg8Q570StT1Bveu6BAKDWIeCnyERzTB2sAToRo4F4EXkx p7QjQnJpYW4gU29tZXJzIDxicmlhbkB1ay5GcmVlQlNELm9yZz6JAJUDBRA3FLWc nWdBAAxuEhUBAcYYBACos9nKETuaH+z2h0Ws+IIYmN9FEm8wpPUcQmX5GFhfBUQ+ rJbflzv0jJ/f2ac9qJHgIIAlJ3pMkfMpU8UYHEuoVCe4ZTU5sr4ZdBaF9kpm2Ori FgZwIv4QAi7dCMu9ZwGRtZ3+z3DQsVSagucjZTIeyTUR6K+7E3YXANQjOdqFZYkA lQMFEDcUpeQO7bznZmp0IQEB4HED/Ru3NjwWO1glxEiLTzRpU31Rh1Izw1lhVMVJ kLAGBw9ieSkjvdIkuhqV1i+W4wKBClT0UOE28KjpWbBKPFIASRYzN4ySwpprsG5H 45EFQosovYG/HPcMzXU2GMj0iwVTxnMq7I8oH588ExHqfEN2ARD3ngmB2499ruyG l26pW/BfiEYEEBECAAYFAjn8yPMACgkQWry0BWjoQKUuQQCfVQcZ7EMyP+5n2gej K7gYlbQ+QqsAn1hEsflg+7Hu3E7KaS28hhZ0AKDttCBCcmlhbiBTb21lcnMgPGJy aWFuQE9wZW5CU0Qub3JnPokAlQMFEDcUtW6dZ0EADG4SFQEBQwsD/j9B/lkltIdn QdjOqR/bdOBgJCtUf905y6kD+k4kbxeT1YAaA65KJ2o/Zj+i+69F2+BUJ/3kYB7p rKwut2h0ek1ZtncGxoAsQdFJ5JSeMkwUZ5qtGeCmVPb59+KPq3nU6p3RI8Bn77Fz K//Qy+IW/WFVJbf/6NCNCbyRiRjPbGl/iQCVAwUQNxSlyA7tvOdmanQhAQFzMAP/ dvtsj3yBC+seiy6fB/nS+NnKBoff3Ekv57FsZraGt4z9n4sW61eywaiRzuKlhHqr DE17STKafBOaV1Ntl7js7og5IFPWNlVh1cK+spDmd655D8pyshziDF6fSAsqGfTn 35xl23XjO20MMK44j4I5V6rEyUDBDrmX49J56OFkfwa0IEJyaWFuIFNvbWVycyA8 YnJpYW5ARnJlZUJTRC5vcmc+iQCVAwUQNxS1Y51nQQAMbhIVAQHPBQP+IMUlE4Dt EvSZFtG4YK9usfHSkStIafh/F/JzSsqdceLZgwcuifbemw79Rhvqhp0Cyp7kuI2k HO3a19kZ3ZXlDl3VDg41SV/Z5LzNw9vaZKuF/vtGaktOjac5E5aznWGIA5czwsRg ydEOcd8OVPMUMrdNWRI6XROtnbZaRSwmD8aJAJUDBRA3FKWuDu2852ZqdCEBAWVJ A/4x3MjeQKV+KQoO6mOyoIcD4GK1DjWDvNHGujJbFGBmARjr/PCm2cq42cPzBxnf RhCfyEvNaesNB0NjLjRU/m7ziyVn92flAzHqqmU36aEdqooXUY2T3vOYzo+bM7Vt InarG1iUqw1G19GgXUwUkPvy9+dNIM/aYoI/e0Iv3P9uuohGBBARAgAGBQI587ih AAoJECPnhum+7ZRu38oAn1qfuHdFzBdoeWd3RdjR0UGeXCreAJ9i4oZdvVV7KNjm Pm1ebPSUYkznkw== =WHRH -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.murray; pub 1024/0E451F7D 2001/02/12 Murray Stokely <murray@freebsd.org> Key fingerprint = E2CA 411D DD44 53FD BB4B 3CB5 B4D7 10A2 0E45 1F7D -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v1.0.4 (FreeBSD) Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org mQGiBDqHuqsRBACMfFOo/NFWEADUNcCq/6yvGLAZL1V4okeB+zTlIf/NJCiA/AT2 AKiFNd4T3lYLlUjm44/OcPhelAqFSrtgmBLovWJibt7nva0dlOIXStQQSikzMOzV 4tgtiQF2ONXIqFlGcEfKo5/fcxrsJ2EpQqNX7ujGtsKHpsZpkqrcL74GowCgzuwK PxnD+AHoa6YiX6LIhZA3ciMEAIS1vMlXFQJD1m7831ej8gBtdRVqYVHS3RohJmyY 91eGsVdDnDtywmWUA3sg/LTRRU77zx36MbAp40XZJJeSfLUp3UeKrcxSoxpI3L/V C/V6BBnOLDQ5GcUiRwQTSClh8Ck2Hyi1msA00FZJxTdgPpa+CJANwAM5M+y3DJ6+ uZSpA/9/CNa8aRcI/OPfs5SeTA/m9SSV+ITSAIfcaVYflquqQwnNh+c7SJ+3Poys BUahaTVcFHRrRmrVGUytek18i77cNe4ZItlUn1qu/yZwbVyTdGek8Zbv3pGIzP8r 8r57HwL8Gi252Yv5ovCRThzsshEfN5yQizbKgHiWWmr/1FEyUbQjTXVycmF5IFN0 b2tlbHkgPG11cnJheUBmcmVlYnNkLm9yZz6IVwQTEQIAFwUCOoe6qwULBwoDBAMV AwIDFgIBAheAAAoJELTXEKIORR995IcAniQ+bgl1JAocyhGbknOzz55c9i+XAJ0Q 4/tU3vPZ3TkrU8xK8Zct2qvkNIkAlQMFEDqdf131FVv7jlQtXQEBYWQD/jEXwixB kuVVuLboFETpUCdMeVc6BpPzrHdfa52aPFKHqt416fAeeeXRly6lAxMDdJPxU2ZG 3abR4iiaqDKWwiluFkEwLBL0AE2Qx2R/nNZqEYNB0BSUQNPH/Q//kG6mLOAVVvRL AL5R3MEeK/Y0ErH/7JXn8JPrl/rKqwCbIsL1iQCVAwUQOp4Lm2Vgqaw0+fnVAQH5 wwQApzQwxOj8k7tBFASoFOJVZEtd8KM9oDRcJe3Dz+hzU5jbCkQJGDxtp6Y1kqel fLXLqJB1R8kZdTxR+IrRO+B7XRGvu/sB0u6CuKCBwSWSwstiGB8AvLwLp2vnIJxP +BxA3qoInj/Xjh4EivLwRpkxh3Gogzv/kTFvwTvAraBjbC+IRgQQEQIABgUCOq/2 ZwAKCRAgFTHVhF3+3bZ6AJ49+954CXOAFFifgekFxoS5gSffPACePqswwNhSUKg1 K/rvoludMtEAGACJAJUDBRA7PNuWDu2852ZqdCEBAbUvA/9SDqoqWGmNNtNG9prU Mqe+Rx3HqkukymKicFzvEkCjULQa1sH2TeM7ZxfqDh86hbtJEzF2/AsbYIhk6fg7 adEV4+8WfZs3TRCHxBlWY2BXEW/9zWmSL/4YNox+BQSQyo7ue4S2K2wfk2JgJeh1 e/rEuBk1oR+G9NxfT7eKNT8W4Ig/AwUQOzzAuHfOKcWPoS4gEQJ3AwCgvzrXuZpT TMLfzeriQCRJ1S5OnzIAn118IxEUOLjX027bAaN6Efd4EriziEYEEBECAAYFAjs7 m9EACgkQk6gHZCw343VSNgCdEB0pmVe7/lX+WS/4sncrAk2m3aYAnj9/+ggIsOyo 5QGITGrWEcCFEqRQiEYEEBECAAYFAjtNN/gACgkQbCk0DjIZ+YLIQACdFk/ofe08 SuTTYiTGHY0lCeSfIicAn2WzGB3b8n2lcA2q6xZhFVGCjXbUuQENBDqHuq0QBADx deTM+SoNuQM94Puzgd+0H2bpApZvIHY0fc4k0vq5I2MXj/o/gZq0DcqncjPnTRoh JPk4CYgcuqLYxN0UkB7lcMYp/cjCLk8WusYdD1/rFeWltN2FFYoJVpHr3TAy0wGh FMHNMtn2b9WrOh7pOJOSyjWpzTEZ1NoIsrRrgk8quwADBQP8DDCPT8eUNP6d4jQ1 2eWEOs2w0f2gv6tpcTd/BVCThJzGkqWbw/xBP4KZiNp2h0LhkuQt0awq19/+yBhh FRPVNHZfpK63lQw8c/8l2IV9g/uWb64npCWRz5npNtIE/YvYJt8S5dntM0tc0OgX GArV+ZFcCFuT07NPfzFb8LHEoTaIRgQYEQIABgUCOoe6rQAKCRC01xCiDkUffay7 AJ9vjsasTySvGZmDyl9SSqjfiHbyrgCguqfXN5SQW2BxZYcTw4Qb4AWkjis= =3nAk -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- &a.gsutter; pub 1024D/845DFEDD 2000-10-10 Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@zer0.org> Key fingerprint = D161 E4EA 4BFA 2427 F3F9 5B1F 2015 31D5 845D FEDD uid Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@freebsd.org> uid Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@daemonnews.org> uid Gregory S. Sutter <gsutter@pobox.com> sub 2048g/0A37BBCE 2000-10-10 -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Comment: '' mQGiBDnjW8sRBACtLAIsIja7+4PNGeKl3CWK1BDt8mJrNTU7yIpIFyU7kbGFzNDc nKuTGXwFlI/1N964p17uvwVBq49dFTGFOzw2AEvgwl5Mb75Wsf5ztYVSir8ng0b7 123nb09ZExWCQTMMbD6RXEVfTrIUEHazYMDIhuIU+/WkYVhNWuiaACvpJwCgjuEx /8BANLXa9UkQt5ztgWwUUdkD/RvGakaQr4gAhVcm2mfDYjxLtm1+BxbzsDV9U2Nv 2nlXSfCyxvbTjwX+Bq4/bwR1a0KDIPvjqYAm2tQY+bsPGkjwBL0DUrHVTRK2PpPc K/9avIFk+PYkpakPQx3saE9b67UbGk5rUCnbHU99mvqET3MtU5yRn9B8hu7owROi EXFPA/92vhsPhcPsvTq9Wi4FlWF8MeDyZsEKA/lLUTl1A4QnbiRtC3bBvxOeoPPu jQP25DskCdtWWcOuvHRZ6kE/WncID38oc00dqaB9xR+pi/ltnXZpOCjvU1Q0yMd5 QcoD9Im6fLN8zo4gr2f2cwWC7TQ6TLxTYpifGK6sbC0ATdnFkbQkR3JlZ29yeSBT LiBTdXR0ZXIgPGdzdXR0ZXJAemVyMC5vcmc+iFYEExECABYFAjnjW8sECwoDBAMV AwIDFgIBAheAAAoJECAVMdWEXf7djlEAn2xtSRV2lRFi0H7zG9gL55Ud+NSKAJ4q 48/IHLPlbE2hXoesDXTvwBvYwIhGBBARAgAGBQI57nu4AAoJEF1SHIzmsVAWxCYA ni+wfeykRrWXDjx6LEbwY3/tJ+vFAKDkDFVK859XVpmHin5cwYESpiWEuIhGBBAR 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Packages and Ports Synopsis + ports + packages There is only so much you can do with FreeBSD. If you are an operating systems developer then the base system likely contains everything you need. If that is not what you are planning to do with FreeBSD then you will probably want to install additional software—perhaps a web server, or a mail reader, or a graphical environment such as KDE or GNOME. If you have used a Unix system before you will know that the typical procedure for installing third party software goes something like this: Download the software, which might be distributed in source code format, or as a binary. Unpack the software from its distribution format (typically a tarball compressed with either &man.compress.1; or &man.gzip.1;). Locate the documentation (perhaps a README file, or some files in a doc/ subdirectory) and read up on how to install the software. If the software was distributed in source format, compile it. This may involve editing a Makefile, or running a configure script, and other work. Test and install the software. And that is only if everything goes well. If you are installing a software package that was not deliberately ported to FreeBSD you may even have to go in and edit the code to make it work properly. Should you want to, you can continue to install software the traditional way with FreeBSD. However, FreeBSD provides two technologies which can save you a lot of effort; packages and ports. At the time of writing, over &os.numports; third party applications have been made available in this way. For any given application, the FreeBSD package for that application is a single file which you must download. The package contains pre-compiled copies of all the commands for the application, as well as any configuration files or documentation. A downloaded package file can be manipulated with FreeBSD pkg_* commands, such as &man.pkg.add.1; &man.pkg.delete.1;, &man.pkg.info.1;, and so on. Installing a new application can be carried out with a single command. A FreeBSD port for an application is a collection of files designed to automate the process of compiling an application from source code. Remember that there are a number of steps you would normally carry out if you compiled a program yourself (unpacking, patching, compiling, installing). The files that make up a port contain all the necessary information to allow the system to do this for you. You run a handful of simple commands and the source code for the application is automatically downloaded, extracted, patched, compiled, and installed for you. In fact, the ports system can also be used to generate packages which can later be manipulated with the pkg_* commands. Both packages and ports understand dependencies. Suppose you want to install an application that depends on a specific library being installed. Both the application and the library have been made available as FreeBSD ports and packages. If you use the pkg_add command or the ports system to add the application, both will notice that the library has not been installed, and the commands will install the library first. Given that the two technologies are quite similar, you might be wondering why FreeBSD bothers with both. Packages and ports both have their own strengths, and which one you use will depend on your own preference. Package benefits A compressed package tarball is typically smaller than the compressed tarball containing the source code for the application. Packages do not require any additional compilation. For large applications, such as Mozilla, KDE, or GNOME this can be important, particularly if you are on a slow system. Packages do not require you to understand any of the process involved in compiling software on FreeBSD. Ports benefits Packages are normally compiled with conservative options, because they have to run on the maximum number of systems. By installing from the port, you can tweak the compilation options to (for example) generate code that is specific to a 686 processor. Some packages have compile time options relating to what they can and can't do. For example, Apache can be configured with a wide variety of different builtin options. By building from the port you do not have to accept the default options, and can set them yourself. In some cases, multiple packages will exist for the same application to specify certain settings. For example, Ghostscript is available as a ghostscript package and a ghostscript-nox11 package, depending on whether or not you have installed an X11 server. This sort of rough tweaking is possible with packages, but rapidly becomes impossible if an application has more than one or two different compile time options. The licensing conditions of some software distributions forbid binary distribution. They must be distributed as source code. Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with source code, you can (in theory) read through it and look for potential problems yourself. If you have local patches, you will need the source in order to apply them. Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they get bored, hack it, borrow from it (license permitting, of course), and so on. To keep track of updated ports, subscribe to freebsd-ports. The remainder of this chapter will explain how to use packages and ports to install and manage third party software on FreeBSD. Finding your application Before you can install any applications you need to know what you want, and what the application is called. FreeBSD's list of available applications is growing all the time. Currently there are over &os.numports; applications available as packages or ports. There are a number of ways to find what you want. The FreeBSD web site maintains an up-to-date searchable list of all the available applications, at http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/. The name space is divided in to categories, and you may either search for an application by name (if you know it), or you can list all the applications available in a category. Dan Langille maintains FreshPorts, at http://www.freshports.org/. FreshPorts tracks changes to the applications in the ports tree as they happen, and allows you to watch one or more ports, and will send you an e-mail when they are updated. If you do not know the name of the application you want, try using a site like FreshMeat (http://www.freshmeat.net/) or AppWatch (http://www.appwatch.com/) to find an application, then check back at the FreeBSD site to see if the application has been ported yet. Chern Lee Contributed Using the Packages System Installing a Package + + packages + installing + + + pkg_add + You can use the &man.pkg.add.1; utility to install a FreeBSD software package from a local file or from a server on the network. Downloading a package and then installing it locally &prompt.root; ftp ftp2.freebsd.org Connected to ftp2.freebsd.org. 220 ftp2.freebsd.org FTP server (Version 6.00LS) ready. 331 Guest login ok, send your email address as password. 230- 230- This machine is in Vienna, VA, USA, hosted by Verio. 230- Questions? E-mail freebsd@vienna.verio.net. 230- 230- 230 Guest login ok, access restrictions apply. Remote system type is UNIX. Using binary mode to transfer files. ftp> cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/irc 250 CWD command successful. ftp> get xchat-1.7.1.tgz local: xchat-1.7.1.tgz remote: xchat-1.7.1.tgz 150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for 'xchat-1.7.1.tgz' (471488 bytes). 100% |**************************************************| 460 KB 00:00 ETA 226 Transfer complete. 471488 bytes received in 5.37 seconds (85.70 KB/s) ftp> exit &prompt.root; pkg_add xchat-1.7.1.tgz &prompt.root; If you don't have a source of local packages (such as a FreeBSD CDROM set) then it will probably be easier to use the -r option to &man.pkg.add.1;. This will cause the utility to automatically determine the correct object format and release and then to fetch and install the package from an FTP site. + + pkg_add &prompt.root; pkg_add -r xchat-1.7.1 This would download the correct package and add it without any further user intervention. Package files are distributed in .tgz format. You can find them at ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/, or on the FreeBSD CDROM distribution. Every CD on the FreeBSD 4-CD set (and PowerPak, etc) contains packages in the /packages directory. The layout of the packages is similar to that of the /usr/ports tree. Each category has its own directory, and every package can be found within the All directory. The directory structure of the package system is homologous to that of the ports; they work with each other to form the entire package/port system. Deleting a Package &prompt.root pkg_delete xchat-1.7.1 + + pkg_delete + + + packages + deleting + &man.pkg.delete.1; is the utility for removing previously installed software package distributions. Managing packages + + packages + managing + &man.pkg.info.1; a utility that lists and describes the various packages installed. + + pkg_info + &prompt.root pkg_info cvsup-bin-16.1 A general network file distribution system optimized for CV docbook-1.2 Meta-port for the different versions of the DocBook DTD ... &man.pkg.version.1; a utility that summarizes the versions of all installed packages. It compares the package version to the current version found in the ports tree. &prompt.root pkg_version cvsup-bin = docbook = ... The symbols in the second column indicate the relative age of the installed version and the version available in the local ports tree. Symbol Meaning = The version of the installed package matches that of the one found in the local ports tree. < The installed version is older then the one available in the ports tree. >The installed version is newer than the one found in the local ports tree. (local ports tree is probably out of date) ?The installed package cannot be found in the ports index. *There are multiple versions of the package. Miscellaneous &man.pkg.add.1; &man.pkg.delete.1; &man.pkg.info.1; &man.pkg.version.1; &man.pkg.create.1; All package information is stored within the /var/db/pkg directory. The listing of contents and descriptions of each package can be found within files in this directory. Using the Ports Collection The following sections provide basic instructions on using the ports collection to install or remove programs from your system. Installing Ports + + ports + installing + The first thing that should be explained when it comes to the Ports collection is what is actually meant by a skeleton. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a minimal set of files that are needed for a program to compile and install cleanly on FreeBSD. Each port skeleton includes: A Makefile. The Makefile contains various statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where it should be installed on your system A distinfo file. This file contains information about the files that must be downloaded to build the port, and checksums, to ensure that those files have not been corrupted during the download. A files directory. This directory contains patches to make the program compile and install on your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically small files that specify changes to particular files. They are in plain text format, and basically say Remove line 10 or Change line 26 to this .... Patches are also known as diffs because they are generated by the diff program. This directory may also contain other files used in building the port. A pkg-comment file. This is a one-line description of the program. A pkg-descr file. This is a more detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program. A pkg-plist file. This is a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system what files to remove upon deinstallation. Now that you have enough background information to know what the Ports collection is used for, you are ready to install your first port. There are two ways this can be done, and each is explained below. Before we get into that however, you will need to choose a port to install. There are a few ways to do this, with the easiest method being the ports listing on the FreeBSD web site. You can browse through the ports listed there or use the search function on the site. Each port also includes a description so you can read a bit about each port before deciding to install it. Another method is to use the whereis command. To use whereis, simply type whereis <program you want to install> at the prompt, and if it is found on your system, you will be told where it is, like so: &prompt.root; whereis xchat xchat: /usr/ports/irc/xchat This tells us that xchat (an irc client) can be found in the /usr/ports/irc/xchat directory. Yet another way of finding a particular port is by using the Ports collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search feature, you will need to be in the /usr/ports directory. Once in that directory, run make search key=program-name where program-name is the name of the program you want to find. For example, if you were looking for xchat: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make search key=xchat Port: xchat-1.3.8 Path: /usr/ports/irc/xchat Info: An X11 IRC client using the GTK+ toolkit, and optionally, GNOME Maint: jim@FreeBSD.org Index: irc B-deps: XFree86-3.3.5 bzip2-0.9.5d gettext-0.10.35 giflib-4.1.0 glib-1.2.6 gmake-3.77 gtk-1.2.6 imlib-1.9.8 jpeg-6b png-1.0.3 tiff-3.5.1 R-deps: XFree86-3.3.5 gettext-0.10.35 giflib-4.1.0 glib-1.2.6 gtk-1.2.6 imlib-1.9.8 jpeg-6b png-1.0.3 tiff-3.5.1 The part of the output you want to pay particular attention to is the Path: line, since that tells you where to find it. The other information provided is not needed in order to install the port directly, so it will not be covered here. You must be the root user to install ports. Now that you have found a port you would like to install, you are ready to do the actual installation. Installing ports from a CDROM + + ports + installing from CDROM + As you may have guessed from the title, everything described in this section assumes you have a FreeBSD CDROM set. If you do not, you can order one from the FreeBSD Mall. Assuming that your FreeBSD CDROM is in the drive and is mounted on /cdrom (and the mount point must be /cdrom), you are ready to install the port. To begin, change directories to the directory where the port you want to install lives: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/irc/xchat Once inside the xchat directory, you will see the port skeleton. The next step is to compile (also called build) the port. This is done by simply typing make at the prompt. Once you have done so, you should see something like this: &prompt.root; make >> xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/. ===> Extracting for xchat-1.3.8 >> Checksum OK for xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2. ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: bzip2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: gmake - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ===> Patching for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Configuring for xchat-1.3.8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for xchat-1.3.8 ... [compilation snipped] ... &prompt.root; Take notice that once the compile is complete you are returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word onto the make command, and that word is install: &prompt.root; make install ===> Installing for xchat-1.3.8 ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ... [install routines snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Installing xchat docs in /usr/X11R6/share/doc/xchat ===> Registering installation for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to run the application you just installed. You can save an extra step by just running make install instead of make and make install as two separate steps. Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do not allow for inclusion on the CDROM. This could be for various reasons, including things such as registration form needs to be filled out before downloading, if redistribution is not allowed, and so on. If you wish to install a port not included on the CDROM, you will need to be online in order to do so (see the next section). Installing ports from the Internet As with the last section, this section makes an assumption that you have a working Internet connection. If you do not, you will need to do the CDROM installation. Installing a port from the Internet is done exactly the same way as it would be if you were installing from a CDROM. The only difference between the two is that the program's source code is downloaded from the Internet instead of pulled from the CDROM. The steps involved are identical: &prompt.root; make install >> xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from http://xchat.org/files/v1.3/. Receiving xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 (305543 bytes): 100% 305543 bytes transferred in 2.9 seconds (102.81 Kbytes/s) ===> Extracting for xchat-1.3.8 >> Checksum OK for xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2. ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: bzip2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: gmake - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ===> Patching for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Configuring for xchat-1.3.8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for xchat-1.3.8 ... [compilation snipped] ... ===> Installing for xchat-1.3.8 ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ... [install routines snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Installing xchat docs in /usr/X11R6/share/doc/xchat ===> Registering installation for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; As you can see, the only difference is the line that tells you where the system is fetching the port from. That about does it for installing ports onto your system. In the next section you will learn how to remove a port from your system. Removing Installed Ports + + ports + removing + Now that you know how to install ports, you are probably wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and later on you decide that you installed the wrong port. The next few paragraphs will cover just that. Now we will remove our previous example (which was xchat for those of you not paying attention). As with installing ports, the first thing you must do is change to the port directory, which if you remember was /usr/ports/irc/xchat. After you change directories, you are ready to uninstall xchat. This is done with the make deinstall command (makes sense right?): &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/irc/xchat &prompt.root; make deinstall ===> Deinstalling for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; That was easy enough. You have now managed to remove xchat from your system. If you would like to reinstall it, you can do so by running make reinstall from the /usr/ports/irc/xchat directory. Troubleshooting The following sections cover some of the more frequently asked questions about the Ports collection and some basic troubleshooting techniques, and what do to if a port is broken. Some Questions and Answers I thought this was going to be a discussion about modems??! Ah, you must be thinking of the serial ports on the back of your computer. We are using port here to mean the result of porting a program from one version of Unix to another. What is a patch? A patch is a small file that specifies how to go from one version of a file to another. It contains plain text, and basically says things like delete line 23, add these two lines after line 468, or change line 197 to this. They are also known as diffs because they are generated by the diff program. + tarball What is all this about tarballs? It is a file ending in .tar, or with variations such as .tar.gz, .tar.Z, .tar.bz2, and even .tgz. Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived into a single file (.tar) and optionally compressed (.gz). This technique was originally used for Tape ARchives (hence the name tar), but it is a widely used way of distributing program source code around the Internet. You can see what files are in them, or even extract them yourself by using the standard Unix tar program, which comes with the base FreeBSD system, like this: &prompt.user; tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar tvf foobar.tar &prompt.user; tar xvf foobar.tar + checksum And a checksum? It is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any of the characters change, the checksum will no longer be equal to the total, so a simple comparison will allow you to spot the difference. I did what you said for compiling ports from a CDROM and it worked great until I tried to install the kermit port. &prompt.root; make install >> cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/. Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM? As was explained in the compiling ports from CDROM section, some ports cannot be put on the CDROM set due to licensing restrictions. Kermit is an example of that. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch it by hand—sorry! The reason why you got all those error messages was because you were not connected to the Internet at the time. Once you have downloaded it from any of the MASTER_SITES (listed in the Makefile), you can restart the install process. I did that, but when I tried to put it into /usr/ports/distfiles I got some error about not having permission. The ports mechanism looks for the tarball in /usr/ports/distfiles, but you will not be able to copy anything there because it is symlinked to the CDROM, which is read-only. You can tell it to look somewhere else by doing: &prompt.root; make DISTDIR=/where/you/put/it install Does the ports scheme only work if you have everything in /usr/ports? My system administrator says I must put everything under /u/people/guests/wurzburger, but it does not seem to work. You can use the PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables to tell the ports mechanism to use different directories. For instance, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports install will compile the port in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports and install everything under /usr/local. &prompt.root; make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local install will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/local. And of course, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local install will combine the two (it is too long to write fully on the page, but it should give you the general idea). Some ports that use &man.imake.1; (a part of the X Windows System) don't work well with PREFIX, and will insist on installing under /usr/X11R6. Similarly, some Perl ports ignore PREFIX and install in the Perl tree. Making these ports respect PREFIX is a difficult or impossible job. If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you install a port, it is a good idea to put these variables into your environment. Read the man page for your shell for instructions on doing so. I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have all the tarballs handy on my system so I do not have to wait for a download every time I install a port. Is there any way to get them all at once? To get every single tarball for the Ports collection, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make fetch For all the tarballs for a single ports directory, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make fetch and for just one port—well, you have probably guessed already. I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way to tell the port to fetch them from servers other than the ones listed in the MASTER_SITES? Yes. If you know, for example, that ftp.FreeBSD.org is much closer to you than the sites listed in MASTER_SITES, do as follows: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch I want to know what files make is going to need before it tries to pull them down. make fetch-list will display a list of the files needed for a port. Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I want to do some hacking on the source before I install it, but it is a bit tiresome to watch it and hit control-C every time. Doing make extract will stop it after it has fetched and extracted the source code. I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able to stop it compiling until I have had a chance to see if my patches worked properly. Is there something like make extract, but for patches? Yep, make patch is what you want. You will probably find the PATCH_DEBUG option useful as well. And by the way, thank you for your efforts! I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs. Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports with the right settings? Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the version shipped with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the option could result in buggy code unless you used the option as well. (Most of the ports do not use ). You should be able to specify the compiler options used by something like: &prompt.root; make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce' install or by editing /etc/make.conf, but unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way is to do make configure, then go into the source directory and inspect the Makefiles by hand, but this can get tedious if the source has lots of sub-directories, each with their own Makefiles. The default FreeBSD compiler options are quite conservative, so if you have not changed them you should not have any problems. There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are available? Look in the INDEX file in /usr/ports. If you would like to search the ports collection for a keyword, you can do that too. For example, you can find ports relevant to the LISP programming language using: &prompt.user; cd /usr/ports &prompt.user; make search key=lisp I went to install the foo port but the system suddenly stopped compiling it and starting compiling the bar port. What is going on? The foo port needs something that is supplied with bar — for instance, if foo uses graphics, bar might have a library with useful graphics processing routines. Or bar might be a tool that is needed to compile the foo port. I installed the grizzle program from the ports and frankly it is a complete waste of disk space. I want to delete it but I do not know where it put all the files. Any clues? No problem, just do: &prompt.root; pkg_delete grizzle-6.5 Alternatively, you can do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/grizzle &prompt.root; make deinstall Hang on a minute, you have to know the version number to use that command. You do not seriously expect me to remember that, do you?? Not at all, you can find it out by doing: &prompt.root; pkg_info -I 'grizzle*' Information for grizzle-6.5: grizzle-6.5 - the combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up arcade game. Talking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there and delete things? Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly certain you will not need the source again, there is no point in keeping it hanging around. The best way to do this is: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make clean which will go through all the ports subdirectories and delete everything except the skeletons for each port. I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or whatever you called them in the distfiles directory. Can I delete those as well? Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them, those can go as well. They can be removed manually, or by using make distclean. I like having lots and lots of programs to play with. Is there any way of installing all the ports in one go? Just do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make install Be careful, as some ports may install files with the same name. If you install two graphics ports and they both install /usr/local/bin/plot then you will obviously have problems. OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it. When I looked at the computer this morning, it had only done three and a half ports. Did something go wrong? No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask you questions that we cannot answer for you (e.g., Do you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?) and they need to have someone on hand to answer them. I really do not want to spend all day staring at the monitor. Any better ideas? OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local park: &prompt.root cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DBATCH install This will install every port that does not require user input. Then, when you come back, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DINTERACTIVE install to finish the job. At work, we are using frobble, which is in your Ports collection, but we have altered it quite a bit to get it to do what we need. Is there any way of making our own packages, so we can distribute it more easily around our sites? No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for your changes: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble &prompt.root; make extract &prompt.root; cd work/frobble-2.8 [Apply your patches] &prompt.root; cd ../.. &prompt.root; make package This ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to find out how you did it. What is the secret? Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the bsd.port.mk and bsd.port.subdir.mk files in your makefiles directory. (Readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are advised not to follow this link...) Help! This port is broken! If you come across a port that doesn't work for you, there are a few things you can do, including: Fix it! The Porter's Handbook should help you do this. Gripe—by email only! Send email to the maintainer of the port first. Type make maintainer or read the Makefile to find the maintainer's email address. Remember to include the name and version of the port (send the $FreeBSD: line from the Makefile) and the output leading up to the error when you email the maintainer. If you do not get a response from the maintainer, you can use send-pr to submit a bug report. Grab the package from an ftp site near you. The master package collection is on ftp.FreeBSD.org in the packages directory, but be sure to check your local mirror first! These are more likely to work than trying to compile from source and are a lot faster as well. Use the &man.pkg.add.1; program to install the package on your system. Advanced Topics The documentation that was here has been moved to its own Porter's Handbook for ease of reference. Please go there if you wish to create and submit your own ports. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index ff601288fb..97212a3f5e 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2845 +1,2862 @@ PPP and SLIP Restructured, reorganized, and updated by &a.jim;, 1 March 2000. Synopsis PPP SLIP If you are connecting to the Internet via modem, or wish to provide dial-up connections to the Internet for others using FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. PPPuser PPP PPPkernel PPP PPPover Ethernet This chapter covers three varieties of PPP; user, kernel, and PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). It also covers setting up a SLIP client and server. The first variety of PPP that will be covered is User PPP. User PPP was introduced into FreeBSD in 2.0.5-RELEASE as an addition to the already existing kernel implementation of PPP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between User PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP does not run as a daemon, and can run as and when desired. No PPP interface needs to be compiled into their kernel; it runs as a user process, and uses the tunnel device driver (tun) to get data into and out of the kernel. From here on out in this chapter, user ppp will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this section should be executed as root. Using User PPP Originally contributed by &a.brian;, with input from &a.nik;, &a.dirkvangulik;, and &a.pjc;. User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: ISP PPP An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. Further, you have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dial-up number(s) of your ISP. PAP CHAP Unix login name password Your login name and password. This can be either a regular Unix-style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair. name server The IP address(es) of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in your ppp.conf file to tell ppp to set the name servers for you. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.0. static IP address If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP and make sure they provide it to you. Preparing the Kernel As previously mentioned, ppp uses the tun device, and whichever kernel you are using must have tun configured. The tun device is preconfigured for the default GENERIC kernel that ships with FreeBSD. However, if you have installed a custom kernel, you must make sure your kernel is configured for ppp. kernelcompilation To check, go to your kernel compile directory (/sys/i386/conf or /sys/pc98/conf) and examine your configuration file. It should have the following line somewhere in it: pseudo-device tun 1 If this line is not present, you will need to add it to the configuration file and recompile your kernel. The stock GENERIC kernel has this included, so if you have not installed a custom kernel or do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change anything. If you do need to recompile your kernel, please refer to the kernel configuration section for more information. You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has by typing the following: &prompt.root; ifconfig -a tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 200.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff tun1: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 576 tun2: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff tun3: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 In FreeBSD 4.0 and later releases, you will only see any tun devices which have already been used. This means you might not see any tun devices. If this is the case, do not worry; the device should be created dynamically when ppp attempts to use it. This case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are currently configured and being used. It should be noted that the RUNNING flag above indicates that the interface has been used at some point—it is not an error if your interface does not show up as RUNNING. If for some reason you have a kernel that does not have the tun device in it and cannot recompile the kernel, all is not lost. You should be able to dynamically load the code. Please refer to the appropriate &man.modload.8; and &man.lkm.4; man pages for further details. Check the <devicename>tun</devicename> device Under normal circumstances, most users will only require one tun device (/dev/tun0). If you have specified more than one on the pseudo-device line for tun in your kernel configuration file, then alter all references to tun0 below to reflect whichever device number you are using (e.g., tun2). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly, is to remake the device. This process is quite easy. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15 To confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, issue the follow command and compare the results: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mut 1500 The RUNNING flag may not yet be set, in which case you will see: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 Remember from earlier that you might not see the device if it has not been used yet, as tun devices are created on demand in FreeBSD 4.0 and later releases. Name Resolution Configuration resolver - hostname - hosts + + hostname + + + hosts + The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this document. The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their information. You do this by first editing the file /etc/host.conf. Do not call this file /etc/hosts.conf (note the extra s) as the results can be confusing. Edit <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> This file should contain the following two lines (in this order): hosts bind These instruct the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS if the name was not found. Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> This file should contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com. 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com. The first two lines define the alias localhost as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP address for this line should always be 127.0.0.1. The second two lines map the name foo.bar.com (and the shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1. If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, use them in place of the 10.0.0.1 entry. Edit <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> The /etc/resolv.conf file tells the resolver how to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the following line(s): domain bar.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The domain line defaults to your hostname's domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. PPP ISP If you are running PPP version 2 or greater, the enable dns command will tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values. If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values. <application>PPP</application> Configuration PPPconfiguration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /usr/share/examples/ppp directory. The sample configuration files provided are a good reference, so do not delete them. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses PPPwith static IP addresses You will need to create a configuration file called /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column, all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3 set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout 300 9 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 10 add default HISADDR 11 enable dns Do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is /dev/cuaa1. Line 3: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 4: PPPuser PPP The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Line 5: Identifies an entry for a provider called provider. Line 6: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 7: The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, you should enable chat logging to ensure that the conversation is going as expected. PAP CHAP If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, so your login string can be left blank. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. Line 8: timeout Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero. Line 9: ISP Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in or mode. Line 10: Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. Line 11: nameserver This line tells PPP to ask your ISP to confirm that your nameserver addresses are correct. If your ISP supports this facility, PPP can then update /etc/resolv.conf with the correct nameserver entries. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /usr/share/examples/ppp directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses PPPwith dynamic IP addresses IPCP If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 9 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 9: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to negotiate using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are running version 1.x of PPP, you will also need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will know what IP addresses should really be used. The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and create correct ones: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to delete all of the existing routes for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route entry). Line 3: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated in the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. Version 2 of PPP introduces sticky routes. Any add or delete lines that contain MYADDR or HISADDR will be remembered, and any time the actual values of MYADDR or HISADDR change, the routes will be reapplied. This removes the necessity of repeating these lines in ppp.linkup. Receiving Incoming Calls PPPreceiving incoming calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up Services provides a good description on enabling dial-up services using &man.getty.8;. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dial-up lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as user id 0. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users PPP shells Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember don't directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP shells for Static-IP Users PPP shells Create the ppp-shell file as above and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (i.e., mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting up ppp.conf for dynamic-IP users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for static-IP users Along with the contents of the sample /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR More on <command>mgetty</command>, AutoPPP, and MS extensions <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP - mgetty + + mgetty + AutoPPP LCP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS extensions DNS NetBIOS PPPMicrosoft extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP authentication PAP CHAP Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for crackers to eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must therefore disable your set login string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 13: password This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Changing your <command>ppp</command> configuration on the fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Final system configuration PPPconfiguration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.bar.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" - routed + + routed + It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is started by default), as it routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" - sendmail + + sendmail + The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m SMTP If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Using Kernel PPP Parts originally contributed by &a.gena; and &a.rhuff;. Setting up Kernel PPP PPPkernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: As a client, i.e., you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. PPPserver as a server, i.e. your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Using <command>pppd</command> as a client PPPclient Cisco The following /etc/ppp/options might be used to connect to a CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: kermit modem Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 kermit /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if PPP is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd This sample is based primarily on information provided by: Trev Roydhouse <Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org> and used with permission. Using <command>pppd</command> as a server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Using <application>PPP</application> over Ethernet (PPPoE) PPPover Ethernet PPPoE (see PPP, over Ethernet) Contributed by &a.jim; (from node.to) 10 Jan 2000. The following describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet, a.k.a, PPPoE. Prerequisites There are a few requirements that your system will need to meet in order for PPPoE to function properly. They are: Kernel source for FreeBSD 3.4 or later ppp from FreeBSD 3.4 or later Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration You will need to set the following options in your kernel configuration file and then compile a new kernel. Optionally, you can add although if this functionality is not available at runtime, ppp will load the relevant modules on demand Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: # or name_of_service_provider set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device set mru 1492 set mtu 1492 set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set dial set login set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 add default HISADDR nat enable yes # if you want to enable nat for your local net papchap: set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD Care should be taken when running PPPoE with the option. Running <application>PPP</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>PPP</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" ppp_profile="default" # or your provider PPPoE with a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem Dual Link Contributed by &a.lioux;, 07 Apr 2001. In short, it does not work. It should, but unfortunately, that is not the case. For whatever reason, this modem does not follow RFC 2516 (A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts, D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Since it does not follow the specification, FreeBSD's PPPoE implementation will not talk to it. It is very likely that it will not work under other Unix systems for that same reason. Complain to 3Com if you think it should comply with the PPPoE specification. ADSL If you absolutely want to use your ADSL connection with FreeBSD and are stuck with this modem, you can either: DSL Try replacing the modem with a different brand or model if your DSL provider permits you to do so. If you are not sure which brand(s) will work, the &a.questions; is a good place to ask. Try to get it working. Keep in mind that there is no guarantee it will work, your mileage may vary. If you want to try to make it work, you can do the following, but please keep in mind that you do this at your own risk! Just because it worked for me does not mean it will work for you. There are three steps to the process. They are: Make sure you already have ppp.conf set up. See the beginning of this chapter for more details on doing so. Since the modem does not speak the correct protocol, we need to learn how to speak its variant of the protocol. This information was obtained from a DSLreports forum message. The modem speaks 0x3c12 for DISCOVERY, and 0x3c13 for PAYLOAD identifiers instead of 0x8863 and 0x8864 respectively, as mandated by the PPPoE specification. Code RFC's Code Dual Link Modem's Code PAYLOAD 0x8863 0x3c12 PAYLOAD 0x8864 0x3c13 So, now what? You need to recompile the NETGRAPH_PPPOE code with the modem's codes. For this, you should have installed the full kernel sources. Find the /usr/src/sys/netgraph/ng_pppoe.h file. Be careful while editing this file. You have to modify both the little and the big endian entries. For big endian, find the line with 0x8863 in it, and replace the number with 0x3c12. Do the same with 0x8864, replacing it with 0x3c13. For little endian, find the line with 0x6388in it, and replace the number with 0x123c. Do the same with 0x6488, replacing it with 0x133c. Here is a diff of how the new file should look: &prompt.user; diff -u ng_pppoe.h.orig ng_pppoe.h --- ng_pppoe.h.orig Thu Apr 12 13:42:46 2001 +++ ng_pppoe.h Thu Apr 12 13:44:47 2001 @@ -148,8 +148,8 @@ #define PTT_SYS_ERR (0x0202) #define PTT_GEN_ERR (0x0203) -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x8863 /* pppoe discovery packets */ -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x8864 /* pppoe session packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x3c12 /* pppoe discovery packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x3c13 /* pppoe session packets */ #else #define PTT_EOL (0x0000) #define PTT_SRV_NAME (0x0101) @@ -162,8 +162,8 @@ #define PTT_SYS_ERR (0x0202) #define PTT_GEN_ERR (0x0302) -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x6388 /* pppoe discovery packets */ -#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x6488 /* pppoe session packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_DISC 0x123c /* pppoe discovery packets */ +#define ETHERTYPE_PPPOE_SESS 0x133c /* pppoe session packets */ #endif struct pppoe_tag { Then do the following as root: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/modules/netgraph/pppoe &prompt.root; make clean depend all install &prompt.root; make clean Now you can speak the modem's variant of the PPPoE specification. The third step is to figure out the name of the profile your ISP assigned to the modem. The information for this step was obtained from the Roaring Penguin PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. If you still are not able to find it, ask your ISP's tech support. If they do not know it either, and you are feeling bold (this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so think twice about doing it). Install the program shipped with the modem by your provider. Then, access the System menu from the program. The name of your profile should be listed there. It is usually ISP. The profile name will be used in the PPPoE configuration inside ppp.conf as the provider parameter. See the &man.ppp.8; manual page for more information. The PPPoE line in your ppp.conf should look like this: set device PPPoE:xl1:ISP Do not forget to change xl1 to the proper device for your Ethernet card. Do not forget to change ISP to the profile you have just found above. For additional information, you can try: Cheaper Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL by Renaud Waldura in Daemon News. Another PPPoE tutorial by Sympatico Users Group. Using SLIP SLIP Originally contributed by &a.asami; and &a.ghelmer;, with input from &a.wilko; and &a.piero;. Setting up a SLIP Client SLIPclient The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do something much fancier. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I have a symbolic link to /dev/modem from /dev/cuaa1, and only use the modem name in my configuration files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc's all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things you have to do only once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: hostname=myname.my.domain You should give it your full Internet hostname. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: network_interfaces=lo0 sl0 Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" default router Designate the default router by changing the line: defaultrouter=NO to: defaultrouter=slip-gateway Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 name server domain name As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Use passwd or &man.vipw.8;, do not edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/master.passwd files! Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP connection SLIPconnecting with Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. The things you need to enter depends on your environment. If you use kermit, you can try a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to get connected. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by z) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to shutdown the connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach man page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (I have no idea why this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem for at least one person). Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. For example, you might get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the routing table, in case you get the no route to host messages from ping. Mine looks like: &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) This is after transferring a bunch of files, your numbers should be smaller). Setting up a SLIP Server SLIPserver This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites TCP/IP This document is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. modem It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this (except it would be all on one line): Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0,in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually goes into /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which files syslogd is logging). OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration kernelconfiguration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown in netstat -i's output indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 SLIP This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items, separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) Note that sliplogin under early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized, so the options , , , and had no effect until support was added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login script included code to make use of the flags). SLIP TCP/IP Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the slips-prereqs section and/or consult your IP network manager. - gated + + gated + If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. Ethernet Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. EthernetMAC address When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the execute bit (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations - SLIProuting + + SLIP + routing + If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. Static Routes static routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> - gated + + gated + An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous FTP site; the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete information and documentation on gated is available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; RIP The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). When you get gated built and installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need to run gated in place of routed on your FreeBSD system; change the routed/gated startup parameters in /etc/netstart as appropriate for your system. Please see the manual page for gated for information on gated's command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml index 55288668b2..84cb0f31e6 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4681 +1,4683 @@ Printing Contributed by &a.kelly;, 30 September 1995. Restructured and updated by &a.jim;, March 2000. Synopsis LPD spooling system printing In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through its configuration. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system. Introduction LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. print jobs It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to a LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since: LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. TeX LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Basic Setup To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap). If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interfaces. Although this section is called Simple Printer Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup. Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: printer serial Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. printer parallel Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. centronics (see parallel printers) Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports and printers can communicate in both directions under FreeBSD when a IEEE1284 compliant cable is used. PostScript Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/lpt1, and so on. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. If you are unsure what the proper serial cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE cable. null-modem cable A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null-modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. baud rate parity flow control protocol You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep sioN Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the &man.su.1; command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type: &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the first parallel port, lpt1 for the second, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type: &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one works. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the &man.lptcontrol.8; program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or add an lpt0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use lpt1 instead. Use lpt2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq N vector lptintr Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty vector lptintr Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details. To set the communications mode with &man.lptcontrol.8;: Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -u N to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -u N to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See &man.lptcontrol.8; for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program &man.lptest.1; is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. PostScript For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage The above PostScript code can be placed into a file and used as shown in the examples appearing in the following sections. PCL When this document refers to a printer language, it is assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer printer parallel This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type: &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer printer serial This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity bits-per-second serial port parity Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with &man.tip.1;. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: ~$lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: ~>file Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After &man.tip.1; sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. Enabling the Spooler: The <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. printer capabilities The format of the &man.printcap.5; file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the &man.cgetent.3;. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming. header pages Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the fs, fc, xs, and xc capabilities; which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details. Test the setup by printing something with the &man.lpr.1; command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections. Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number of aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages printing header pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory printer spool print jobs The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running &man.mkdir.1;. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters printer serial For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since: It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second. fc#clear-bits Clears the flag bits clear-bits in the sgttyb structure after opening the device. fs#set-bits Sets the flag bits set-bits in the sgttyb structure. xc#clear-bits Clears local mode bits clear-bits after opening the device. xs#set-bits Sets local mode bits set-bits. For more information on the bits for the fc, fs, xc, and xs capabilities, see the file /usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it reads the flag bits in the sgttyb structure; it clears any bits in the fc capability, then sets bits in the fs capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the same for the local mode bits as well. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits, we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags. For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8 flags: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820: Installing the Text Filter print filters We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section. For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter. First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Turn on LPD &man.lpd.8; is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line: lpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run &man.lpd.8;. &prompt.root; lpd Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command &man.lpr.1;, which submits a job for printing. You can combine &man.lpr.1; with the &man.lptest.1; program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type &man.lpr.1; without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using &man.lptest.1;. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using &man.lptest.1;, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running &man.lptest.1; with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters print filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD ports collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. You should read this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non-PostScript printer. You should read this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). - troff + + troff + Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the &man.lpr.1; command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job's submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. printer filters A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers print jobs If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? printer serial If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers PostScript emulating Ghostscript PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript is in the FreeBSD ports collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it. # # Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs, # and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will # mess up the printed output. So, we redirect stdout to stderr # and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript # write its output there. Exercise for the clever reader: # capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to # the user originating the print job. # exec 3>&1 1>&2 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \ -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0 # /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \ && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form # at the end to eject the last page. # echo $first_line && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? TeX printing dvi files Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff rf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. fortran Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean print Printerleaf files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the &man.lpr.1; command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. apsfilter printer filters apsfilter The FreeBSD ports collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then: LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. page accounting accounting printer In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage. Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. banner pages (see header pages) header pages Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on PostScript Printers. Enabling Header Pages In the Simple Printer Setup, we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See Output Filters for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see Header Page Options for more &man.lpr.1; options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can: Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. Header Pages on PostScript Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing printer network network printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in Simple Printer Setup. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers). printer network network printing If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts. The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage printer restricting access to This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to &man.lpr.1; by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo's a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running &man.lpr.1; multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. Restricting Access To Printers You can control who can print to what printers by using the Unix group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted print jobs If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. print jobs controlling LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the &man.ruserok.3; protocol, and affects programs like &man.rsh.1; and &man.rcp.1;, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, the job will be refused. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is the given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bam boo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your compute resources, you can give them token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage accounting printer So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters. Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and &man.pac.8;, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. A easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the &man.pac.8; program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments &man.pac.8; expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that &man.pac.8; produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, &man.pac.8; uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run &man.pac.8; with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run &man.pac.8; again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem is not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Using Printers printer usage This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: &man.lpr.1; Print jobs &man.lpq.1; Check printer queues &man.lprm.1; Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, &man.lpc.8;, described in the section Administrating the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands &man.lpr.1;, &man.lprm.1;, and &man.lpq.1; accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type: &prompt.user; lpr filename ... printing This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, &man.lpr.1; reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type: &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the &man.lpr.1; command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The &man.lpr.1; command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options. Checking Jobs print jobs When you print with &man.lpr.1;, the data you wish to print is put together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type &man.lpq.1;. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the &man.lpr.1; command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the &man.lpr.1; command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the files she's trying to print is too long to fit, so the &man.lpq.1; command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from &man.lpq.1; is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The &man.lpq.1; command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the &man.lprm.1; command. Often, you can even use &man.lprm.1; to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use &man.lpq.1; to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The &man.lprm.1; command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, &man.lprm.1; removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, &man.lprm.1; will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The &man.lpr.1; command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following &man.lpr.1; options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the &man.pr.1; utility. TeX For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with &man.pr.1; before printing. See &man.pr.1; for more information. Use title on the &man.pr.1; header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the &man.ls.1; manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The &man.zcat.1; command uncompresses the source of the &man.ls.1; manual page and passes it to the &man.troff.1; command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to &man.lpr.1;, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to &man.lpr.1;, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to &man.lpr.1; tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies. This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to &man.lpr.1; adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details. Administrating Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the &man.lpc.8; command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With &man.lpc.8;, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the &man.lpc.8; command. Ordinary users can use the &man.lpc.8; command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the &man.lpc.8; commands. Most of the commands takes a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue's enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer's started, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with &man.lpq.1; or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. &man.lpc.8; accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, &man.lpc.8; enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)? LPRng LPRng LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is http://www.astart.com/lprng/LPRng.html. Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with &man.lptest.1;, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 MS-DOS OS/2 ASCII You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new line. Unix-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, set the CRMOD bit in fs capability in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. PCL Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Ejects the page when done. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the TANDEM bit in the fs capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the MDMBUF bit in the fs capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. If the printer does not support any flow control, use some combination of the NLDELAY, TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in the fs capability to add appropriate delays to the stream of data sent to the printer. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity bits in the fs and fc capabilities; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index 47243a85c5..e5fba74e14 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3037 +1,3039 @@ Security security Much of this chapter has been taken from the &man.security.7; man page, originally written by &a.dillon;. Synopsis The following chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics such as S/Key, OpenSSL, Kerberos, and others. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an ever bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash or otherwise make a system unusable but do not attempt to break root. Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. DOS attacks security DOS attacks Denial of Service A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, D.O.S. attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some D.O.S. attacks try to take advantages of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your Internet connection. security account compromises A user account compromise is even more common than a D.O.S. attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more than mess with the user's files or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. security backdoors System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in an suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install backdoors. Backdoors provide the attacker with a way to easily regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion. Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security because it will not close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. security securing Securing FreeBSD The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the root account and staff accounts - su + + su + First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. Consider every access method – services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. wheel Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as kerberos, to use kerberos' .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better than having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately root access is to use an alternative login access method and do what is known as *'ing out the crypted password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8; command, one can replace each instance of a crypted password with a single * character. This command will update the /etc/master.passwd file and user/password database to disable password-authenticated logins. A staff account entry such as: foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Should be changed to this : foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh This change will prevent normal logins from occurring, since the encrypted password will never match *. With this done, staff members must use another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key pair. When using something like kerberos, one generally must secure the machines which run the kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair with ssh, one must generally secure the machine used to login from (typically one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to * out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have setup. This forces all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions which closes an important hole used by many intruders: That of sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. Kerberos Using something like kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place and have it immediately effect all the machine the staff member may have an account on. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with kerberos: not only can a kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries ntalk comsat finger sandboxes sshd telnetd rshd rlogind The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox isn't perfect unless you go to a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. /etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run named in a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. sendmail There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work than you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root hole in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries that only staff should run to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and * out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and kerberos for user accounts is more problematic due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see Checking file integrity below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems should not have the bpf device compiled in. sysctl But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have /dev/mem and /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device or other sniffing device on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files – everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker rather than stop him in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to allow the limit-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method – allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limit-access box at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files boxes at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather than NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh daemon on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over unsecure links, but it's also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective attacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks DOS attacks This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DOS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DOS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory until the machine dies. Inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter when you start sendmail high enough to handle your expected load but no so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., firewall everything except ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other Internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way – as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good chance that you will forget to close a couple of services or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall to allow permissive-like operation without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block everything under 4000 off in your firewall (except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of course). ICMP_BANDLIM Another common DOS attack is called a springboard attack – to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which then overload the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called ICMP_BANDLIM which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less than rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or better it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine :-). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH ssh Kerberos There are a few issues with both kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol but there are bugs in the kerberized telnet and rlogin applications that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login and if a attacker has broken root on the unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that kerberos is unsuited to). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only usable to entities logging in from specific machines. DES, MD5, and Crypt security crypt crypt DES MD5 Parts rewritten and updated by &a.unfurl;, 21 March 2000. Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This is not such a problem for users that live in the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix variants that still use DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing your crypt mechanism It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those with encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The libraries can identify the passwords this way as well. As a result, the DES libraries are able to identify MD5 passwords, and use MD5 to check passwords that were encrypted that way, and DES for the rest. They are able to do this because the DES libraries also contain MD5. Unfortunately, the reverse is not true, so the MD5 libraries cannot authenticate passwords that were encrypted with DES. Identifying which library is being used by the programs on your system is easy as well. Any program that uses crypt is linked against libcrypt which for each type of library is a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using the DES versions: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 13 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 18 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 15 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.a On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will be present, but the target will be libscrypt rather than libdescrypt. If you have installed the DES-capable crypt library libdescrypt (e.g. by installing the "crypto" distribution), then which password format will be used for new passwords is controlled by the passwd_format login capability in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of either des or md5. See the &man.login.conf.5; manpage for more information about login capabilities. S/Key S/Key security S/Key S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk about in the discussion below. The first is your usual Unix-style or Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program and accepted by the keyinit program and the login prompt; we will call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key program (and sometimes the keyinit program) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password or just unqualified password. The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like Unix passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key system operates completely independently of the Unix password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key. One is what is known as the seed or key and consists of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration count and is a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The login and su programs keep track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1 S/Key must be reinitialized. There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we will discuss below. The key program accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a one-time password. The keyinit program is used to initialized S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo program examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the login and su programs contain the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The login program is also capable of disallowing the use of Unix passwords on connections coming from specified addresses. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using the keyinit program over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using the keyinit program over an insecure connection, in conjunction with the key program over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using the key program to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using the key program to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure connection initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT At the Enter secret password: prompt you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular S/Key instance; your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure connection initialization To initialize S/Key or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run the key program; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated by key over to the keyinit program: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE ID unfurl s/key is 100 to17759 CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE The rest of the description from the previous section applies here as well. Generating a single one-time password Once you've initialized S/Key, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: As a side note, the S/Key prompt has a useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. Also, if this machine were configured to disallow Unix passwords over a connection from the source machine, the prompt would have also included the annotation (s/key required), indicating that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted. MS-DOS Windows MacOS At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run the key command on. (There are versions of the key program for MS-DOS, Windows and MacOS as well.) The key program needs both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... This is the easiest mechanism if you have a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key applet, The Java OTP Calculator, that you can download and run locally on any Java supporting browser. Generating multiple one-time passwords Sometimes you have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key command to generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting use of Unix passwords Restrictions can be placed on the use of Unix passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more info on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, Unix passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. Kerberos Kerberos Contributed by &a.markm; (based on contribution by &a.md;). Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. 4.4BSD-Lite In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite, distribution, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and was thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA. Creating the initial database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be GRONDAR.ZA and the server is grunt.grondar.za. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a key distribution center. The words admin server following a hosts name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos man pages. Now we have to add grunt.grondar.za to the GRONDAR.ZA realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .grondar.za domain in the GRONDAR.ZA realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making it all run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let's add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the server file We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the server can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let's create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing it all out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate supassword. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Now try doing the su: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Using other commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA jack@GRONDAR.ZA This allows anyone in the GRONDAR.ZA realm who has authenticated themselves to jane or jack (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, Jane now logs into another system, using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: &prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance: &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Firewalls firewalls security firewalls Contributed by &a.gpalmer; and Alex Nash. Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What is a firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router, where the kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this document. Packet filtering routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or not. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule chain. The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What does IPFW allow me to do? ipfw IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is forwarding. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD ipfw enabling As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See reconfiguring the kernel for more details on how to recompile your kernel. There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW ipfw configuring The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify any IP address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported list of IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (time stamp). The absence of a particular option may be denoted with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -t -N l There are three valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. Flushing the IPFW rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW packet counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example commands for ipfw This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org: &prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a packet filtering firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, it can generate large amounts of log data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated man page explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at http://www.cert.org/tech_tips/packet_filtering.html As stated above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. OpenSSL security OpenSSL OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA) included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use. IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and rebuild your sources using 'make world'. Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other countries. In the past it was protected by a patent. OpenSSL install Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-secure cvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. IPsec IPsec security IPsec Contributed by &a.shin;, 5 March 2000. The IPsec mechanism provides secure communication either for IP layer and socket layer communication. This section should explain how to use them. For implementation details, please refer to The Developers' Handbook. The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions. http://www.kame.net/newsletter/ has more comprehensive examples. Please be aware that in order to use this functionality, you must have the following options compiled into your kernel: options IPSEC #IP security options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/IPSEC) Transport mode example with IPv4 Let's setup security association to deploy a secure channel between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used. From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined. Now we should choose algorithm to be used corresponding to "AH"/"new AH"/"ESP"/"new ESP". Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1 for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP. Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1, and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose "MYSECRETMYSECRET", "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME", "PASSWORD", respectively. OK, let's assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol. Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively. (1) HOST A ------> HOST B (1)PROTO=AH ALG=MD5(RFC1826) KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET SPI=1000 (2.1) HOST A <------ HOST B <------ (2.2) (2.1) PROTO=AH ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH) KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME SPI=2000 (2.2) PROTO=ESP ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP) IV length = 8 KEY=PASSWORD SPI=3000 Now, let's setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8; on both HOST A and B: &prompt.root; setkey -c add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ; ^D Actually, IPsec communication doesn't process until security policy entries will be defined. In this case, you must setup each host. At A: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ; ^D At B: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; ^D HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 | | ========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========> <========= new AH hmac-sha1 =========== <========= new ESP des-cbc ============ Transport mode example with IPv6 Another example using IPv6. ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between Host-A and Host-B. ============ ESP ============ | | Host-A Host-B fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11 Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is "kamekame", and authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is "this is the test key". Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF and at Host-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF Note the direction of SP. Tunnel mode example with IPv4 Tunnel mode between two security gateways Security protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is "this is the test" as authentication algorithm. ======= AH ======= | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B 10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24 Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF If port number field is omitted such above then "[any]" is employed. `-m' specifies the mode of SA to be used. "-m any" means wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both tunnel and transport mode. and at Gateway-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SA bundle between two security gateways AH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first, and AH transport mode is next. ========== AH ========= | ======= ESP ===== | | | | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64 Tunnel mode example with IPv6 Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5. Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SAs with the different end ESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B. Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-md5. ================== ESP ================= | ======= ESP ======= | | | | | Host-A Gateway-A Host-B fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2 Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF OpenSSH OpenSSH security OpenSSH Contributed by &a.chern;, April 21, 2001. Secure shell is a set of network connectivity tools used to access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct replacement for rlogin, rsh, rcp, and telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through ssh. ssh encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks. OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0. Advantages of using OpenSSH Normally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;, data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form. Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can steal your user/password information or data transferred in your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from happening. Enabling sshd OpenSSH enabling Be sure to make the following additions to your rc.conf file: sshd_enable="YES" This will load the ssh daemon the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run the sshd daemon. SSH client OpenSSH client The &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to &man.rlogin.1;. &prompt.root ssh user@foobardomain.com Host key not found from the list of known hosts. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes Host 'foobardomain.com' added to the list of known hosts. user@foobardomain.com's password: ******* The login will continue just as it would have if a session was created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the client connects. The user is prompted to enter 'yes' only during the first time connecting. Future attempts to login are all verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts Secure copy OpenSSH secure copy scp The scp command works similarly to rcp; it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a secure fashion. &prompt.root scp user@foobardomain.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT user@foobardomain.com's password: COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735 00:00 &prompt.root Since the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the previous example, it is verified when using scp here. Configuration OpenSSH configuration The system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh directory. ssh_config configures the client settings, while sshd_config configures the daemon. ssh-keygen Instead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user. &prompt.user ssh-keygen Initializing random number generator... Generating p: .++ (distance 66) Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498) Computing the keys... Key generation complete. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity): Enter passphrase: Enter the same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity. ... &man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys of the remote machine in order for the setup to work. This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon RSA authentication instead of passwords. If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private key. &man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys. SSH Tunneling OpenSSH tunneling OpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an encrypted session. The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel for telnet. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.bar.com &prompt.user; -2 this forces &man.ssh.1 to use version 2 of the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older ssh servers) -N indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted, &man.ssh.1; would initiate a normal session. -f forces &man.ssh.1; to run in the background. -L indicates a local tunnel in localport:localhost:remoteport fashion. foo.bar.com is the remote/target SSH server. An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on the specified local host and port. It then forwards any connection to the local host/port via the SSH connection to the remote machine on the specified remote port. In the example, port 5023 on localhost is being forwarded to port 23 on the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet, this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel. This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols such as smtp, pop3, ftp, etc. A typical SSH Tunnel &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.foobar.com user@mailserver.foobar.com's password: ***** &prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025 Trying 127.0.0.1... Connected to localhost. Escape character is '^]'. 220 mailserver.foobar.com ESMTP This can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1; and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user. Further Reading OpenSSH &man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1; &man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1; &man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8; diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml index 8cfc1df408..c6456fe25a 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/sound/chapter.sgml @@ -1,333 +1,336 @@ Sound Contributed by Moses Moore jm-moses@home.com, 20 November 2000. Synopsis This chapter of the handbook deals with setting up sound on a FreeBSD system. Locating the Correct Device PCI ISA sound cards Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. If you do not see your card in the following list, check the &man.pcm.4; manual page. This is not a complete list; however, it does list some of the most common cards. Crystal 4237, 4236, 4232, 4231 Yamaha OPL-SAx OPTi931 Ensoniq AudioPCI 1370/1371 ESS Solo-1/1E NeoMagic 256AV/ZX Sound Blaster Pro, 16, 32, AWE64, AWE128, Live Creative ViBRA16 Advanced Asound 100, 110, and Logic ALS120 ES 1868, 1869, 1879, 1888 Gravis UltraSound Aureal Vortex 1 or 2 - kernelconfiguration + + kernel + configuration + The driver you use in your kernel depends on the kind of card you have. The sections below provide more information and what you will need to add to your kernel configuration. Creative, Advance, and ESS Sound Cards If you have one of the above cards, you will need to add device pcm to your kernel. If you have a PnP ISA card, you will also need to add device sbc to your kernel. For a non-PnP ISA card, add device pcm and device sbc0 at isa? port0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15 to your kernel. Those are the default settings. You may need to change the IRQ, etc. See the &man.sbc.4; man page for more information. The Sound Blaster Live is not supported under FreeBSD 4.0 without a patch, which this document will not cover. It is recommended that you update to the latest -STABLE before trying to use this card. Gravis UltraSound Cards For a PnP ISA card, you will need to add device pcm and device gusc to your kernel. If you have a non-PnP ISA card, you will need to add device pcm and device gus0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x13 to your kernel. You may need to change the IRQ, etc. See the &man.gusc.4; man page for more information. Crystal Sound Cards For Crystal cards, you will need both device pcm and device csa in your kernel. Generic Support For PnP ISA or PCI cards, you will need to add device pcm to your kernel configuration. If you have a non-PnP ISA sound card that does not have a bridge driver, you will need to add device pcm0 at isa? irq 10 drq 1 flags 0x0 to your kernel configuration. You may need to change the IRQ, etc., to match your hardware configuration. Recompiling the Kernel After adding the driver(s) you need to your kernel configuration, you will need to recompile your kernel. Please see of the handbook for more information. Creating and Testing the Device Nodes device nodes After you reboot, log in and run cat /dev/sndstat. You should see output similar to the following: FreeBSD Audio Driver (newpcm) Sep 21 2000 18:29:53 Installed devices: pcm0: <Aureal Vortex 8830> at memory 0xfeb40000 irq 5 (4p/1r +channels duplex) If you see an error message, something went wrong earlier. If that happens, go through your kernel configuration file again and make sure you chose the correct device. If it reported no errors and returned pcm0, su to root and do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 If it reported no errors and returned pcm1, su to root and do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd1 Please note that either of the above commands will not create a /dev/snd device! Instead it creates a group of device nodes including: Device Description /dev/audio SPARC-compatible audio device /dev/dsp Digitized voice device /dev/dspW Like /dev/dsp, but 16 bits per sample /dev/midi Raw midi access device /dev/mixer Control port mixer device /dev/music Level 2 sequencer interface /dev/sequencer Sequencer device /dev/pss Programmable device interface If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound card. If you do not, see the next section. Common Problems device node I get an unsupported subdevice XX error! One or more of the device nodes wasn't created correctly. Repeat the steps above. I/O port I get a sb_dspwr(XX) timed out error! The I/O port is not set correctly. IRQ I get a bad irq XX error! The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same. I get a xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory error. What causes that? If this happens, it is because there is not enough available memory to use the device. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml index 5d6814100c..ba5e97f082 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml @@ -1,850 +1,850 @@ Neils Blakey-Milner Contributed Users and Basic Account Management Synopsis All access to the system is achieved via accounts, and all processes are run by users, so user and account management are of integral importance on FreeBSD systems. There are three main types of accounts; the Superuser, system users, and user accounts. The Superuser account, usually called root, is used to manage the system with no limitations on privileges. System users run services. Finally, user accounts are used by real people, who log on, read mail, and so forth. The Superuser Account accounts superuser (root) The superuser account, usually called root, comes preconfigured to facilitate system administration, and should not be used for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the system, or programming. This is because the superuser, unlike normal user accounts, can operate without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User accounts are unable to destroy the system by mistake, so it is generally best to use normal user accounts whenever possible, unless you especially need the extra privilege. You should always double and triple-check commands you issue as the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss. So, the first thing you should do after reading this chapter, is to create an unprivileged user account for yourself for general usage, if you haven't already. This applies equally whether you're running a multi-user or single-user machine. Later in this chapter, we discuss how to create additional accounts, and how to change between the normal user and superuser. System Accounts accounts system System users are those used to run services such as DNS, mail, web servers, and so forth. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they could act without restriction. accounts daemon accounts - operator + operator Examples of system users are daemon, operator, bind (for the Domain Name Service), and news. Often sysadmins create httpd to run web servers they install. accounts - nobody + nobody nobody is the generic unprivileged system user. However, it's important to keep in mind that the more services that use nobody, the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes. User Accounts accounts user User accounts are the primary means of access for real people to the system, and these accounts insulate the user and the environment, preventing the users from damaging the system or other users, and allowing users to customize their environment without affecting others. Every person accessing your system should have a unique user account. This allows you to find out who is doing what, prevent people from clobbering each others' settings or reading each others' mail, and so forth. Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the system, by using alternate shells, editors, key bindings, and language. Modifying Accounts accounts modifying pw is a powerful and flexible tool to modify all aspects of user accounts. For most tasks however, adduser and rmuser are recommended to add and remove accounts respectively. chpass allows both the system administrator and normal users to adjust passwords, shells, and personal information. If you are only interested in changing a password then the passwd command is usually quicker. adduser accounts adding adduser /usr/share/skel skeleton directory adduser is a simple program for adding new users. It creates entries in the system passwd and group files. It will also create a home directory for the new user, copy in the default configuration files ("dotfiles") from /usr/share/skel, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. To create the initial configuration file, use adduser -s -config_create. The makes adduser default to quiet. We use later when we want to change defaults. Next, we configure adduser defaults, and create our first user account, since using root for normal usage is evil and nasty. Configuring adduser &prompt.root; adduser -v Use option ``-silent'' if you don't want to see all warnings and questions. Check /etc/shells Check /etc/master.passwd Check /etc/group Enter your default shell: csh date no sh tcsh [sh]: zsh Your default shell is: tcsh -> /usr/local/bin/zsh Enter your default HOME partition: [/home]: Copy dotfiles from: /usr/share/skel no [/usr/share/skel]: Send message from file: /etc/adduser.message no [/etc/adduser.message]: no Do not send message Use passwords (y/n) [y]: y Write your changes to /etc/adduser.conf? (y/n) [n]: y Ok, let's go. Don't worry about mistakes. I will give you the chance later to correct any input. Enter username [a-z0-9_-]: jru Enter full name []: J. Random User Enter shell csh date no sh tcsh zsh [zsh]: Enter home directory (full path) [/home/jru]: Uid [1001]: Enter login class: default []: Login group jru [jru]: Login group is ``jru''. Invite jru into other groups: guest no [no]: wheel Enter password []: Enter password again []: Name: jru Password: **** Fullname: J. Random User Uid: 1007 Gid: 1007 (jru) Class: Groups: jru wheel HOME: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh OK? (y/n) [y]: y Added user ``jru'' Copy files from /usr/share/skel to /home/jru Add another user? (y/n) [y]: n Goodbye! &prompt.root; In summary, we changed the default shell to zsh (an additional shell found in packages), and turned off the sending of a welcome mail to added users. We then saved the configuration, and then created an account for jru, and we made sure jru is in wheel group (which we'll see is important later). The password you type in isn't echoed, nor are asterisks displayed. Make sure you don't mistype the password twice :-) Just use adduser without arguments from now on, and you won't have to go through changing the defaults. If the program asks you to change the defaults, exit the program, and try the option. <application>rmuser</application> rmuser accounts removing You can use rmuser to completely remove a user from the system. rmuser performs the following steps: Removes the user's &man.crontab.1; entry (if any). Removes any &man.at.1; jobs belonging to the user. Kills all processes owned by the user. Removes the user from the system's local password file. Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user). Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from /var/mail. Removes all files owned by the user from temporary file storage areas such as /tmp. Finally, removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in /etc/group. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed; this complements the per-user unique groups created by &man.adduser.8;. rmuser can't be used to remove superuser accounts, since that is almost always an indication of massive destruction. By default, an interactive mode is used, which attempts to make sure you know what you're doing. rmuser interactive account removal &prompt.root; rmuser jru Matching password entry: jru:*:1000:1000::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Updating password file, updating databases, done. Updating group file: trusted (removing group jru -- personal group is empty) done. Removing user's incoming mail file /var/mail/jru: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp/vi.recover: done. &prompt.root; <application>pw</application> pw pw is a command line utility to create, remove, modify, and display users and groups, and functions as an editor of the system user and group files. This section describes its use for users; the Groups section below describes its use for groups. It is designed to be useful both as a directly executed command and for use from shell scripts. For detailed information, please see &man.pw.8;. <application>chpass</application> chpass chpass changes user database information such as passwords, shells, and personal information. Only system administrators, as the superuser, may change other users' information and passwords with chpass. When passed no options, aside from an optional username, chpass displays an editor containing user information. When the user exists from the editor, the user database is updated with the new information. Interactive chpass by Superuser #Changing user database information for jru. Login: jru Password: * Uid [#]: 1000 Gid [# or name]: 1000 Change [month day year]: Expire [month day year]: Class: Home directory: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/tcsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: The normal user can change only a small subsection of this information, and only for themselves. Interactive chpass by Normal User #Changing user database information for jru. Shell: /usr/local/bin/tcsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: chfn and chsh are just links to chpass, as are ypchpass, ypchfn, and ypchsh. NIS support is automatic, so specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. passwd passwd accounts changing password passwd is the usual way to change your own password as a user, or another user's password as the superuser. Users must type in their original password before changing their password, to prevent an unauthorized person from changing their password when the user is away from their console. Changing your password &prompt.user; passwd Changing local password for jru. Old password: New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done Changing another user's password as the superuser &prompt.root; passwd jru Changing local password for jru. New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done yppasswd is just a link to passwd. NIS support is automatic, so specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. Limiting Users limiting users users limiting (see limiting users) If you run a multi-user system, chances are that you do not trust all of your users not to damage your system. FreeBSD provides a number of ways a system administrator can limit the amount of system resources an individual user can use. These limits are generally divided into two sections: disk quotas, and other resources limits. quotas limiting users quotas disk quotas Disk quotas are a way for the system administrator to tell the filesystem the amount of disk space a user may use; moreover, they provide a way to quickly check on the disk usage of a user without having to calculate it every time. Quotas are discussed in . The other resource limits include ways to limit the amount of CPU, memory, and other resources a user may consume. These are defined using login classes and are discussed here. /etc/login.conf Login classes are defined in /etc/login.conf. The precise semantics are beyond the scope of this section, but are described in detail in the &man.login.conf.5; manual page. It is sufficient to say that each user is assigned to a login class (default by default), and that each login class has a set of login capabilities associated with it. A login capability is a name=value pair, where name is a well-known identifier and value is an arbitrary string processed accordingly depending on the name. Setting up login classes and capabilities is rather straight-forward, and is also described in &man.login.conf.5;. Resource limits are different from plain vanilla login capabilities in two ways. First, for every limit, there is a soft (current) and hard limit. A soft limit may be adjusted by the user or application, but may be no higher than the hard limit. The latter may be lowered by the user, but never raised. Second, most resource limits apply per process to a specific user, not the user as a whole. Note, however, that these differences are mandated by the specific handling of the limits, not by the implementation of the login capability framework (i.e., they are not really a special case of login capabilities). And so, without further ado, below are the most commonly used resource limits (the rest, along with all the other login capabilities, may be found in &man.login.conf.5;). coredumpsize coredumpsize limiting users coredumpsize The limit on the size of a core file generated by a program is, for obvious reasons, subordinate to other limits on disk usage (e.g., filesize, or disk quotas). Nevertheless, it is often used as a less-severe method of controlling disk space consumption: since users do not generate core files themselves, and often do not delete them, setting this may save them from running out of disk space should a large program (e.g., emacs) crash. cputime cputime limiting users cputime This is the maximum amount of CPU time a user's process may consume. Offending processes will be killed by the kernel. This is a limit on CPU time consumed, not percentage of the CPU as displayed in some fields by &man.top.1; and &man.ps.1;. A limit on the latter is, at the time of this writing, not possible, and would be rather useless: a compiler—probably a legitimate task—can easily use almost 100% of a CPU for some time. filesize filesize limiting users filesize This is the maximum size of a file the user may possess. Unlike disk quotas, this limit is enforced on individual files, not the set of all files a user owns. maxproc maxproc limiting users maxproc This is the maximum number of processes a user may be running. This includes foreground and background processes alike. For obvious reasons, this may not be larger than the system limit specified by the kern.maxproc sysctl. Also note that setting this too small may hinder a user's productivity: it is often useful to be logged in multiple times or execute pipelines. Some tasks, such as compiling a large program, also spawn multiple processes (e.g., &man.make.1;, &man.cc.1;, and other intermediate preprocessors). memorylocked memorylocked limiting users memorylocked This is the maximum amount a memory a process may have requested to be locked into main memory (e.g., see &man.mlock.2;). Some system-critical programs, such as &man.amd.8;, do this so that their getting swapped out does not contribute to a system's thrashing in time of trouble. memoryuse memoryuse limiting users memoryuse This is the maximum amount of memory a process may consume at any given time. It includes both core memory and swap usage. This is not a catch-all limit for restricting memory consumption, but it is a good start. openfiles openfiles limiting users openfiles This is the maximum amount of files a process may have open. In FreeBSD, files are also used to represent sockets and IPC channels; thus, be careful not to set this too low. The system-wide limit for this is defined by the kern.maxfiles sysctl. sbsize sbsize limiting users sbsize This is the limit on the amount of network memory, and thus mbufs, a user may consume. This originated as a response to an old DoS attack by creating a lot of sockets, but can be generally used to limit network communications. stacksize stacksize limiting users stacksize This is the maximum size a process' stack may grow to. This alone is not sufficient to limit the amount of memory a program may use; consequently, it should be used in conjunction with other limits. There are a few other things to remember when setting resource limits. Following are some general tips, suggestions, and miscellaneous comments. Processes started at system startup by /etc/rc are assigned to the daemon login class. Although the /etc/login.conf that comes with the system is a good source of reasonable values for most limits, only you, the administrator, can know what is appropriate for your system. Setting a limit too high may open your system up to abuse, while setting it too low may put a strain on productivity. Users of the X Window System (X11) should probably be granted more resources than other users. X11 by itself takes a lot of resources, but it also encourages users to run more programs simultaneously. Remember that many limits apply to individual processes, not the user as a whole. For example, setting openfiles to 50 means that each process the user runs may open up to 50 files. Thus, the gross amount of files a user may open is the value of openfiles multiplied by the value of maxproc. This also applies to memory consumption. For further information on resource limits and login classes and capabilities in general, please consult the relevant manual pages: &man.cap.mkdb.1;, &man.getrlimit.2;, &man.login.conf.5;. Personalizing Users Localization is an environment set up by the system administrator or user to accommodate different languages, character sets, date and time standards, and so on. This is discussed in the localization chapter. Groups groups /etc/groups accounts groups A group is simply a list of users. Groups are identified by their group name and gid (group ID). In FreeBSD (and most other Unix systems), the two factors the kernel uses to decide whether a process is allowed to do something is its user ID and list of groups it belongs to. Unlike a user ID, a process has a list of groups associated with it. You may hear some things refer to the "group ID" of a user or process; most of the time, this just means the first group in the list. The group name to group ID map is in /etc/group. This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first fields is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the group ID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. It can safely be edited by hand (assuming, of course, that you don't make any syntax errors!). For a more complete description of the syntax, see the &man.group.5; manual page. If you don't want to edit /etc/group manually, you can use the &man.pw.8; command to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called teamtwo and then confirm that it exists you can use: Adding a group using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupadd teamtwo &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100: The number 1100 above is the group ID of the group teamtwo. Right now, teamtwo has no members, and is thus rather useless. Let's change that by inviting jru to the teamtwo group. Adding somebody to a group using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupmod teamtwo jru &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru The argument to the option is a comma-delimited list of users who are members of the group. From the preceding sections, we know that the password file also contains a group for each user. The latter (the user) is automatically added to the group list by the system; the user will not show up as a member when using the groupshow command to &man.pw.8;, but will show up when the information is queried via &man.id.1; or similar tool. In other words, &man.pw.8; only manipulates the /etc/group file; it will never attempt to read additionally data from /etc/passwd. Using &man.id.1; to determine group membership &prompt.user; id jru uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo) As you can see, jru is a member of the groups jru and teamtwo. For more information about &man.pw.8;, see its manual page, and for more information on the format of /etc/group, consult the &man.group.5; manual page. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml index b27000549f..a58e7c77cd 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2378 +1,2380 @@ The X Window System This chapter has been graciously donated by &a.grog; from his book, The Complete FreeBSD, and remains copyright of him. Modifications for the handbook made by &a.jim;. The section on fonts in XFree86 was contributed by &a.murray; and the section on XDM was contributed by &a.sethk;. Synopsis The following chapter will cover installing and configuring X11 on your system. For more information on X11 and to see whether your video card is supported, check the XFree86 web site. Overview FreeBSD comes with XFree86, a port of X11R6 that supports several versions of Intel-based Unix. This chapter describes how to set up your XFree86 server. It is based on material supplied with the FreeBSD release, specifically the files README.FreeBSD and README.Config in the directory /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc. If you find any discrepancy, the material in those files will be more up-to-date than this description. In addition, the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/RELNOTES contains OS-independent information about the current release. X uses a lot of memory. In order to run X, your system should have an absolute minimum of 8 MB of memory, but performance will be painful with so little memory. A more practical minimum is 16 MB, and you can improve performance by adding more memory. If you use X intensively, you will continue seeing performance improvement by increasing to as much as 128 MB of RAM. There is lots of useful information in the rest of this chapter, but maybe you are not interested in information right now. You just want to get your X server up and running. However, be warned: An incorrect installation can burn out your monitor or your video board. However, if you know you are in spec, and you have a standard Super VGA board and a good multi-frequency monitor, then you can probably get things up and running without reading this chapter. Installing XFree86 The easiest way to install XFree86 is with the &man.sysinstall.8; program, either when you are installing the system, or later by starting the program /stand/sysinstall. In the rest of this chapter, we will look at what makes up the distribution, and we will also take a look at manually installing X11. The XFree86 Distribution XFree86 is distributed as a bewildering number of archives. In the following section, we will take a look at what you should install. Do not worry too much, though; if you cannot decide what to pick and you have 200MB of disk space free, it's safe to unpack everything. At a minimum you need to unpack the archives in the following table and at least one server that matches your VGA board. You will need 10Mb for the minimum required run-time binaries only, and between 1.7 and 3 MB for the server. Below is a table of the required components. Archive Description Xbin.tgz All the executable X client applications and shared libraries. Xfnts.tgz The misc and 75 dpi fonts. Xlib.tgz Data files and libraries needed at runtime. The X Server In addition to the archives above, you need at least one server, which will take up about 3 MB of disk. The choice depends primarily on what kind of display board you have. The default server name is /usr/X11R6/bin/X, and it is a link to a specific server binary /usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_xxxx. You will find the server archives for the standard PC architecture in /cdrom/XF86336/Servers, and the servers for the Japanese PC98 architecture in /cdrom/XF86336/PC98-Servers if you have the CD set. Alternatively, they are available on our FTP site at ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/XF86336/Servers/ or ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/XF86336/PC98-Servers/ Available X servers for the standard PC architecture: Archive Description X8514.tgz 8-bit color for IBM 8514 and true compatibles. XAGX.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for AGX and XGA boards. XI128.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for I128 boards. XMa32.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for ATI Mach32 boards. XMa64.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color fot ATI Mach64 boards. XMa8.tgz 8-bit color for ATI Mach8 boards. XMono.tgz 1-bit monochrome for VGA, Super-VGA, Hercules, and others. XP9K.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for Weitek P9000 boards (Diamond Viper). XS3.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for S3 boards. XS3V.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for S3 ViRGE boards. XSVGA.tgz >=8-bit color for Super-VGA cards. XVG16.tgz 4-bit color for VGA and Super-VGA cards. XW32.tgz 8-bit color for ET4000/W32, /W32i, /W32p, and ET6000 cards. Available X servers for the Japanese PC98 architecture: Archive Description X9GAN.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 GA-98NB/WAP boards. X9GA9.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for PC98 S3 GA-968 boards. X9480.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 PEGC X9NKV.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 NEC-CIRRUS/EPSON NKV/NKV2 boards. X9WBS.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WAB-S boards. X9WEP.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WAB-EP boards. X9WSN.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WSN-A2F boards. X9EGC.tgz 4-bit color for PC98 EGC. X9TGU.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 Trident Cyber9320/9680 boards. X9NS3.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 NEC S3 boards. X9SPW.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 S3 PW/PCSKB boards. X9LPW.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 S3 PW/LB boards. Each of these servers includes a manual page which contains details of supported chipsets and server-specific configuration options. There are also a number of archives are provided for X programmers: Archive Description Xprog.tgz Config, lib*.a, and *.h files needed for compiling clients. Xctrb.tgz Contributed sources. Xlk98.tgz The link kit for building servers, Japanese PC98 version. Xlkit.tgz The link kit for building servers, normal PC architecture. Xsrc-1.tgz Part 1 of the complete sources. Xsrc-2.tgz Part 2 of the complete sources. Xsrc-3.tgz Part 3 of the complete sources. You will need Xprog.tgz if you intend to install ports of X software. XFree86 also includes a number of optional parts, such as documentation, and setup programs. Archive Description Xdoc.tgz READMEs Xjdoc.tgz READMEs in Japanese. Xps.tgz READMEs in PostScript. Xhtml.tgz READMEs in HTML. Xman.tgz Manual pages. Xcfg.tgz Customizable xinit and xdm runtime configuration files. Xset.tgz The X86Setup utility; a graphical version of the xf86config utility. Xjset.tgz The XF86Setup utility, Japanese version, for the normal PC architecture. XF86Setup is a graphical mode setup program for XFree86, and you may prefer it to the standard setup program xf86config. You do not need any special archives for xf86config; it is included in Xbin.tgz. The first time you install, you will need Xcfg.tgz to create your initial configuration files. Do not use it when upgrading; it overwrites your configuration files. There are also additional fonts that are available with XFree86: Archive Description Xf100.tgz 100 dpi fonts. Xfscl.tgz Speedo and Type1 fonts. Xfnon.tgz Japanese, Chinese, and other non-english fonts. Xfcyr.tgz Cyrillic fonts. Unlike the X servers described above, the archives for the following servers are all in the main directory. Archive Description Xfsrv.tgz The font server. Xnest.tgz A nested server running as a client window on another display. Xprt.tgz The print server. Xvfb.tgz The Virtual Framebuffer X server, which renders into memory or an mmapped file. Installing XFree86 Manually If you do not use sysinstall to install X, you need to perform a number of steps: Create the directories and unpack the required archives. Choose and install an X server. Set up the environment to be able to access X. Find a virtual terminal in which to run X. Configure X for your hardware. This sounds like a lot of work, but if you approach it methodically, it is not too bad. In the rest of this section, we will look at each step in turn. Unpacking the Archives You must unpack the archives as root, since a number of the executables are set-user-id (they run as root even when started by other users). If you unpack the server as an ordinary user, it may abort when you try to run it. You must also use a umask value of 022 (permissions rwxr-xr-x), because the X server requires special permissions. &prompt.user; su Password: &prompt.root; umask 022 If you do not have enough space in the /usr file system, create a directory on another partition and symlink it to /usr. For example, if you have a file system /home with adequate space, you could do: &prompt.root; cd /home &prompt.root; mkdir X11R6 &prompt.root; ln -s /home/X11R6 /usr/X11R6 Next, decide which archives you want to install. For a minimal installation, choose Xbin.tgz, Xfnts.tgz, Xlib.tgz, and Xcfg.tgz. If you have already configured X for your hardware, you can omit Xcfg.tgz. If you are using sh, unpack like this: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; for i in bin fnts lib cfg; do &prompt.root; tar xzf X$i.tgz &prompt.root; done If you are using csh, enter: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; foreach i (bin fnts lib cfg) ? tar xzf X$i.tgz ? end Installing the Server Choose a server archive corresponding to your VGA board. If the table in the section above does not give you enough information, check the server man pages, /usr/X11R6/man/man1/XF86_*, which list the VGA chipsets supported by each server. For example, if you have an ET4000 based board you will use the XF86_SVGA server. In this case you would enter: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; tar xzf XSVGA.tgz [substitute your server name here] Setting up the environment Next, you may wish to create a symbolic link /usr/X11/bin/X that points to the server that matches your video board. In this example, it is the XF86_SVGA server: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/bin &prompt.root; rm X &prompt.root; ln -s XF86_SVGA X X needs this symbolic link in order to be able to work correctly, but you have the option of setting it when you run xf86config – see below. Next, check that the directory /usr/X11R6/bin is in the default path for sh in /etc/profile and for csh in /etc/csh.login, and add it if it is not. It is best to do this with an editor, but if you want to take a shortcut, you can enter: &prompt.root; echo 'PATH=$PATH:/usr/X11R6/bin' >>/etc/profile or: &prompt.root; echo 'set path = ($path /usr/X11R6/bin)' >>/etc/csh.login Alternatively, make sure everybody who uses X puts /usr/X11R6/bin in their shell's PATH variable. Next, invoke ldconfig to put the shared libraries in ld.so's cache: &prompt.root; ldconfig -m /usr/X11R6/lib You can omit invoking ldconfig if you plan to reboot before using X. You do not need to uncompress the font files, but if you do, you must run mkfontdir in the corresponding font directory, otherwise your server will abort with the message could not open default font `fixed'. Assigning a virtual terminal to X Next, make sure you have a spare virtual console which is running a &man.getty.8;. First check how many virtual consoles you have: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep virtual sc0: VGA color <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x0> Then check /etc/ttys to make sure there is at least one virtual terminal (ttyvxx device) which does not have a &man.getty.8; enabled. Look for the keyword off: &prompt.root; grep ttyv /etc/ttys ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv1 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv2 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure In this case, /dev/ttyv3 is available, if your kernel has least 4 vts. If not, either disable a &man.getty.8; in /etc/ttys by changing on to off, or build another kernel with more virtual terminals. Configuring X for Your Hardware After installing the X software, you will need to customize the file XF86Config, which tells the X server about your hardware and how you want to run it. In order to set up XF86Config, you will need the following hardware information: Your mouse type, the bit rate if it is a serial mouse, and the name of the device to which it is connected. This will typically be /dev/ttyd0 or /dev/ttyd1 for a serial mouse, /dev/psm0 for a PS/2 mouse, or /dev/mse0 for a bus mouse. The type of the video board and the amount of display memory. If it is a no-name board, establish what VGA chip set it uses. The parameters of your monitor; vertical and horizontal frequency. Identifying the hardware How do you decide what your hardware is? The manufacturer should tell you, but very often the information you get about your display board and monitor is pitiful; Super VGA board with 76 Hz refresh rate and 16,777,216 colors. This tells you the maximum pixel depth (24 bits – - the number of colors is 2(pixel depth)), but it doesn't tell you anything else about the display board. As we will see later, the real parameters you need to know are the maximum horizontal frequency, the dot clock range, the chipset and the amount of display memory. You could be unlucky trying to get some of this information, but you can get some with the SuperProbe program. It should always be able to tell you the chipset and the amount of memory on board. Occasionally SuperProbe can crash your system. Make sure you are not doing anything important when you run it. Running SuperProbe looks like this: &prompt.root; SuperProbe (warnings and acknowledgments omitted) First video: Super-VGA Chipset: Tseng ET4000 (Port Probed) Memory: 1024 Kbytes RAMDAC: Generic 8-bit pseudo-color DAC (with 6-bit wide lookup tables (or in 6-bit mode)) SuperProbe is very finicky about running at all, and you will often get messages like: SuperProbe: Cannot be run while an X server is running SuperProbe: If an X server is not running, unset $DISPLAY and try again SuperProbe: Cannot open video In other words, even if no X server is running, SuperProbe will not work if you have the environment variable DISPLAY set. How do you unset it? With Bourne-style shells, you enter: &prompt.root; unset DISPLAY In the C shell, you enter: &prompt.root; unsetenv DISPLAY Running <command>xf86config</command> The easy way to create your configuration file is with one of the utilities xf86config (note the lower case name) or XF86Setup. Both lead you through the configuration step by step. xf86config runs in character mode, while XF86Setup runs in a graphical mode. XF86Setup can have problems with unusual hardware, so I personally prefer xf86config. You can also use sysinstall, but this does not change much; sysinstall just starts xf86config for you, and it is easier to start it directly. In this section, we will use an example to illustrate configuration via xf86config. We are installing X for an ancient Diamond SpeedStar with 1 MB of display memory, a Logitech MouseMan mouse, and an ADI MicroScan 5AP monitor. The mouse is connected to the system via the first serial port, /dev/ttyd0. To run xf86config, type in the name. If /usr/X11R6/bin is included in your PATH environment variable, you just need to type xf86config. If it is not, you need to type out the full path to xf86config, like so: &prompt.root; /usr/X11R6/bin/xf86config This program will create a basic XF86Configfile, based on menu selections you make. The XF86Config file usually resides in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11 or /etc. A sample XF86Config file is supplied with XFree86; it is configured for a standard VGA card and monitor with 640x480 resolution. This program will ask for a pathname when it is ready to write the file. You can either take the sample XF86Config as a base and edit it for your configuration, or let this program produce a base XF86Config file for your configuration and fine-tune it. Refer to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/README.Config for a detailed overview of the configuration process. For accelerated servers (including accelerated drivers in the SVGA server), there are many chipset and card-specific options and settings. This program does not know about these. On some configurations some of these settings must be specified. Refer to the server man pages and chipset-specific READMEs. Before continuing with this program, make sure you know the chipset and amount of video memory on your video card. SuperProbe can help with this. It is also helpful if you know what server you want to run. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. ENTER First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list: 1. Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol) 2. Mouse Systems (3-button protocol) 3. Bus Mouse 4. PS/2 Mouse 5. Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol) 6. Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible) 7. MM Series 8. MM HitTablet 9. Microsoft IntelliMouse If you have a two-button mouse, it is most likely of type 1, and if you have a three-button mouse, it can probably support both protocol 1 and 2. There are two main varieties of the latter type; mice with a switch to select the protocol, and mice that default to 1 and require a button to be held at boot-time to select protocol 2. Some mice can be convinced to do 2 by sending a special sequence to the serial port (see the ClearDTR/ClearRTS options). Enter a protocol number: 6 Logitech MouseMan You have selected a Logitech MouseMan type mouse. You might want to enable ChordMiddle which could cause the third button to work. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable ChordMiddle? n You definitely want to enable the third button on your mouse, since many X clients use it. With a genuine Logitech mouse, however, you don't need to enable ChordMiddle in order to use the button. If you find that the third button does not work when you start X, you can enable ChordMiddle by editing the configuration file – it is much easier and less error-prone than re-running XF86Setup. Continuing through the setup: If your mouse has only two buttons, it is recommended that you enable Emulate3Buttons. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons? n Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example /dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse. Mouse device: /dev/ttyd1 Be very careful about this entry. You must specify the correct name for the device to which the mouse is connected. xf86config is not specific to FreeBSD, and the suggested example is just plain wrong for FreeBSD. Use the names /dev/ttyd0 through /dev/ttyd3 for serial mice, /dev/psm0 for PS/2 mice or /dev/mse0 for a bus mouse. Continuing, we see: Beginning with XFree86 3.1.2D, you can use the new X11R6.1 XKEYBOARD extension to manage the keyboard layout. If you answer 'n' to the following question, the server will use the old method, and you have to adjust your keyboard layout with xmodmap. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to use XKB? y The following dialogue will allow you to select from a list of already preconfigured keymaps. If you don't find a suitable keymap in the list, the program will try to combine a keymap from additional information you are asked then. Such a keymap is by default untested and may require manual tuning. Please report success or required changes for such a keymap to XFREE86@XFREE86.ORG for addition to the list of preconfigured keymaps in the future. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. List of preconfigured keymaps: 1 Standard 101-key, US encoding 2 Microsoft Natural, US encoding 3 KeyTronic FlexPro, US encoding 4 Standard 101-key, US encoding with ISO9995-3 extensions 5 Standard 101-key, German encoding 6 Standard 101-key, French encoding 7 Standard 101-key, Thai encoding 8 Standard 101-key, Swiss/German encoding 9 Standard 101-key, Swiss/French encoding 10 None of the above Enter a number to choose the keymap. 1 Choose the standard US keyboard Now we want to set the specifications of the monitor. The two critical parameters are the vertical refresh rate, which is the rate at which the whole screen is refreshed, and most importantly the horizontal sync rate, which is the rate at which scan-lines are displayed. The valid range for horizontal sync and vertical sync should be documented in the manual of your monitor. If in doubt, check the monitor database /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors to see if your monitor is there. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. ENTER You must indicate the horizontal sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry- standard monitor types, or give a specific range. It is VERY IMPORTANT that you do not specify a monitor type with a horizontal sync range that is beyond the capabilities of your monitor. If in doubt, choose a conservative setting. hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes 1 31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @@ 60 Hz 2 31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @@ 56 Hz 3 31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @@ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600) 4 31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @@ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @@ 56 Hz 5 31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @@ 60 Hz, 640x480 @@ 72 Hz 6 31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @@ 60 Hz, 800x600 @@ 72 Hz 7 31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @@ 70 Hz 8 31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 60 Hz 9 31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 74 Hz 10 31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 76 Hz 11 Enter your own horizontal sync range Enter your choice (1-11): Unfortunately, our monitor is not mentioned in the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors, but by chance the manual does specify the frequency range in the Technical Data section. The horizontal frequency range is from 30 to 64 kHz, and the vertical frequency range is from 50 to 100 Hz. The horizontal frequency range is almost exactly covered by choice 8, but that setting threatens to go 0.3 kHz higher in frequency than the technical data state. Do you want to risk it? Doing so will most likely not be a problem, since it is unlikely that the monitor will die at such a small deviation from the specs, and it is also unlikely that your XF86Config will actually generate a horizontal frequency between 64.0 and 64.3 kHz. However, there is no need to take even this slight risk. Just specify the real values: Enter your choice (1-11): 11 Please enter the horizontal sync range of your monitor, in the format used in the table of monitor types above. You can either specify one or more continuous ranges (e.g. 15-25, 30-50), or one or more fixed sync frequencies. Horizontal sync range: 30-64 Next, we select the vertical frequency range: You must indicate the vertical sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-standard monitor types, or give a specific range. For interlaced modes, the number that counts is the high one (e.g., 87 Hz rather than 43 Hz). 1 50-70 2 50-90 3 50-100 4 40-150 5 Enter your own vertical sync range Enter your choice: 3 exactly the range of the monitor The next step is to specify identification strings. You can think out names if you want, but unless you are juggling a lot of different hardware, you can let xf86config do it for you: You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names. The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your monitor definition: ENTER Enter the vendor name of your monitor: ENTER Enter the model name of your monitor: ENTER Next comes the choice of the video board. We have an elderly Diamond SpeedStar Plus with an ET4000 chip, and unknown Ramdac and Clock Chip. Let's see how we fare: Now we must configure video card specific settings. At this point you can choose to make a selection out of a database of video card definitions. Because there can be variation in Ramdacs and clock generators even between cards of the same model, it is not sensible to blindly copy the settings (e.g., a Device section). For this reason, after you make a selection, you will still be asked about the components of the card, with the settings from the chosen database entry presented as a strong hint. The database entries include information about the chipset, what server to run, the Ramdac and ClockChip, and comments that will be included in the Device section. However, a lot of definitions only hint about what server to run (based on the chipset the card uses) and are untested. If you can't find your card in the database, there's nothing to worry about. You should only choose a database entry that is exactly the same model as your card; choosing one that looks similar is just a bad idea (e.g. a GemStone Snail 64 may be as different from a GemStone Snail 64+ in terms of hardware as can be). Do you want to look at the card database? y 0 2 the Max MAXColor S3 Trio64V+ S3 Trio64V+ 1 928Movie S3 928 2 AGX (generic) AGX-014/15/16 3 ALG-5434(E) CL-GD5434 4 ASUS 3Dexplorer RIVA128 5 ASUS PCI-AV264CT ATI-Mach64 6 ASUS PCI-V264CT ATI-Mach64 7 ASUS Video Magic PCI V864 S3 864 8 ASUS Video Magic PCI VT64 S3 Trio64 9 AT25 Alliance AT3D 10 AT3D Alliance AT3D 11 ATI 3D Pro Turbo ATI-Mach64 12 ATI 3D Xpression ATI-Mach64 13 ATI 3D Xpression+ PC2TV ATI-Mach64 14 ATI 8514 Ultra (no VGA) ATI-Mach8 15 ATI All-in-Wonder ATI-Mach64 16 ATI Graphics Pro Turbo ATI-Mach64 17 ATI Graphics Pro Turbo 1600 ATI-Mach64 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. ENTER Dozens of board definitions come in alphabetic order. Finally we see: 108 DSV3325 S3 ViRGE 109 DSV3326 S3 Trio64V+ 110 DataExpert DSV3325 S3 ViRGE 111 DataExpert DSV3365 S3 Trio64V+ 112 Dell S3 805 S3 801/805 113 Dell onboard ET4000 ET4000 114 Diamond Edge 3D nv1 115 Diamond Multimedia Stealth 3D 2000 S3 ViRGE 116 Diamond Multimedia Stealth 3D 2000 PRO S3 ViRGE/DX 117 Diamond SpeedStar (Plus) ET4000 118 Diamond SpeedStar 24 ET4000 119 Diamond SpeedStar 24X (not fully supported) WD90C31 120 Diamond SpeedStar 64 CL-GD5434 121 Diamond SpeedStar HiColor ET4000 122 Diamond SpeedStar Pro (not SE) CL-GD5426/28 123 Diamond SpeedStar Pro 1100 CL-GD5420/2/4/6/8/9 124 Diamond SpeedStar Pro SE (CL-GD5430/5434) CL-GD5430/5434 125 Diamond SpeedStar64 Graphics 2000/2200 CL-GD5434 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. 117 Your selected card definition: Identifier: Diamond SpeedStar (Plus) Chipset: ET4000 Server: XF86_SVGA Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.ENTER Now you must determine which server to run. Refer to the man pages and other documentation. The following servers are available (they may not all be installed on your system): 1 The XF86_Mono server. This a monochrome server that should work on any VGA-compatible card, in 640x480 (more on some SVGA chipsets). 2 The XF86_VGA16 server. This is a 16-color VGA server that should work on any VGA-compatible card. 3 The XF86_SVGA server. This is a 256 color SVGA server that supports a number of SVGA chipsets. On some chipsets it is accelerated or supports higher color depths. 4 The accelerated servers. These include XF86_S3, XF86_Mach32, XF86_Mach8, XF86_8514, XF86_P9000, XF86_AGX, XF86_W32, XF86_Mach64, XF86_I128 and XF86_S3V. These four server types correspond to the four different "Screen" sections in XF86Config (vga2, vga16, svga, accel). 5 Choose the server from the card definition, XF86_SVGA. Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)? The system already chose XF86_SVGA for us. Do we want to change? We would need a good reason. In this case, we do not have a reason, so we will keep the server from the card definition: Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)? 5 The server to run is selected by changing the symbolic link 'X'. For example, the SVGA server. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want me to set the symbolic link? y All the programs that start X (xinit, startx, and xdm) start a program /usr/X11R6/bin/X. This symbolic link makes /usr/X11R6/bin/X point to your X server. If you don't have a link, you will not be able to start X. Now you must give information about your video card. This will be used for the "Device" section of your video card in XF86Config. You must indicate how much video memory you have. It is probably a good idea to use the same approximate amount as that detected by the server you intend to use. If you encounter problems that are due to the used server not supporting the amount memory you have (e.g. ATI Mach64 is limited to 1024K with the SVGA server), specify the maximum amount supported by the server. How much video memory do you have on your video card: 1 256K 2 512K 3 1024K 4 2048K 5 4096K 6 Other Enter your choice: 3 You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names (possibly from a card definition). Your card definition is Diamond SpeedStar (Plus). The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your video card definition: ENTER You can simply press enter here if you have a generic card, or want to describe your card with one string. Enter the vendor name of your video card: ENTER Enter the model (board) name of your video card: ENTER Especially for accelerated servers, Ramdac, Dacspeed and ClockChip settings or special options may be required in the Device section. The RAMDAC setting only applies to the S3, AGX, W32 servers, and some drivers in the SVGA servers. Some RAMDAC's are auto-detected by the server. The detection of a RAMDAC is forced by using a Ramdac "identifier" line in the Device section. The identifiers are shown at the right of the following table of RAMDAC types: 1 AT&T 20C490 (S3 and AGX servers, ARK driver) att20c490 2 AT&T 20C498/21C498/22C498 (S3, autodetected) att20c498 3 AT&T 20C409/20C499 (S3, autodetected) att20c409 4 AT&T 20C505 (S3) att20c505 5 BrookTree BT481 (AGX) bt481 6 BrookTree BT482 (AGX) bt482 7 BrookTree BT485/9485 (S3) bt485 8 Sierra SC15025 (S3, AGX) sc15025 9 S3 GenDAC (86C708) (autodetected) s3gendac 10 S3 SDAC (86C716) (autodetected) s3_sdac 11 STG-1700 (S3, autodetected) stg1700 12 STG-1703 (S3, autodetected) stg1703 Enter a number to choose the corresponding RAMDAC. Press enter for the next page, q to quit without selection of a RAMDAC. q We don't need this A Clockchip line in the Device section forces the detection of a programmable clock device. With a clockchip enabled, any required clock can be programmed without requiring probing of clocks or a Clocks line. Most cards don't have a programmable clock chip. Choose from the following list: 1 Chrontel 8391 ch8391 2 ICD2061A and compatibles (ICS9161A, DCS2824) icd2061a 3 ICS2595 ics2595 4 ICS5342 (similar to SDAC, but not completely compatible) ics5342 5 ICS5341 ics5341 6 S3 GenDAC (86C708) and ICS5300 (autodetected) s3gendac 7 S3 SDAC (86C716) s3_sdac 8 STG 1703 (autodetected) stg1703 9 Sierra SC11412 sc11412 10 TI 3025 (autodetected) ti3025 11 TI 3026 (autodetected) ti3026 12 IBM RGB 51x/52x (autodetected) ibm_rgb5xx Just press enter if you don't want a Clockchip setting. What Clockchip setting do you want (1-12)? ENTER For most configurations, a Clocks line is useful since it prevents the slow and nasty sounding clock probing at server start-up. Probed clocks are displayed at server startup, along with other server and hardware configuration info. You can save this information in a file by running imprecise; some clocks may be slightly too high (varies per run). At this point I can run X -probeonly, and try to extract the clock information from the output. It is recommended that you do this yourself and add a clocks line (note that the list of clocks may be split over multiple Clocks lines) to your Device section afterwards. Be aware that a clocks line is not appropriate for drivers that have a fixed set of clocks and don't probe by default (e.g. Cirrus). Also, for the P9000 server you must simply specify clocks line that matches the modes you want to use. For the S3 server with a programmable clock chip you need a 'ClockChip' line and no Clocks line. You must be root to be able to run X -probeonly now. Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now? This last question is worth thinking about. You should run X -probeonly at some point, but it requires some extra work. We'll take the recommendation and try it later. Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now? n For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed mode that can be supported by the monitor and card. Currently it is set to: "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" for 8bpp "640x480" "800x600" for 16bpp "640x480" for 24bpp "640x400" for 32bpp Note that 16, 24 and 32bpp are only supported on a few configurations. Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will be automatically skipped by the server. 1 Change the modes for 8pp (256 colors) 2 Change the modes for 16bpp (32K/64K colors) 3 Change the modes for 24bpp (24-bit color, packed pixel) 4 Change the modes for 32bpp (24-bit color) 5 The modes are OK, continue. Enter your choice: 5 accept the defaults You can have a virtual screen (desktop), which is screen area that is larger than the physical screen and which is panned by moving the mouse to the edge of the screen. If you don't want virtual desktop at a certain resolution, you cannot have modes listed that are larger. Each color depth can have a differently-sized virtual screen Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want a virtual screen that is larger than the physical screen? n It is difficult to decide whether you want a virtual screen larger than the physical screen. I find it extremely disturbing, so I suggest you answer n. You might find it useful, especially if your highest resolution is small. Now the configuration is complete, and sysinstall just need to write the configuration file: I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently overwrite a previously configured one. Shall I write it to /etc/XF86Config? y File has been written. Take a look at it before running 'startx'. Note that the XF86Config file must be in one of the directories searched by the server (e.g. /usr/X11R6/lib/X11) in order to be used. Within the server press ctrl, alt and '+' simultaneously to cycle video resolutions. Pressing ctrl, alt and backspace simultaneously immediately exits the server (use if the monitor doesn't sync for a particular mode). For further configuration, refer to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/README.Config. Once you have completed this configuration, you are ready to start X. XFree86 4.X Configuration Contributed by &a.cshumway;, July 2001. Introduction This chapter will introduce the steps necessary to install and configure the XFree86 X Windows System under FreeBSD. Once the server is installed and configured properly. The user can read to setup their desktop environment. XFree86 4.X XFree86 Before You Start Before the user is to start configuration of XFree86-4, the the following information will need to be known about the target system: Monitor specifications Video Adapter chipset Video Adapter memory horizontal scan rate vertical scan rate The specifications for the target system's monitor are used by XFree86 to determine the resolution and refresh rate to run at. These specifications can usually be obtained from the documentation that came with the target system's monitor or from the manufacturer's website. There are two ranges of numbers that are needed, the horizontal scan rate and the vertical synchronization rate. The video adapter's chipset defines what driver module XFree86 uses to talk to the graphics hardware. With most chipsets, this can be automatically determined, but it is still useful to know in case the automatic detection doesn't work correctly. Video memory on the graphic adapter determines the resolution and color depth the target system can run at. This is important to know so the user knows the limitations of the target system. Installing XFree86 4.X software XFree86 4 can be installed using the FreeBSD ports system or using &man.pkg.add.1;. If the user is building XFree86-4 from source and has USA_RESIDENT set in /etc/make.conf, the user may first have to fetch Wraphelp.c if XDM-AUTHORIZATION-1 support is desired. This file is to be placed in the port's files/ sub-directory before the port is built. Configuring XFree86 4.X Configuration of XFree86 4.X is a several step process. The first step is to build an initial configuration file with the configure option to XFree86. As the super user, simply run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -configure This will generate a skeleton XFree86 configuration file in the current working directory called XF86Config.new. The XFree86 program will attempt to probe the graphics hardware on the system and will write a configuration file to load the proper drivers for the detected hardware on the target system. The next step is to test the currently existing configuration to verify that XFree86 can work with the graphics hardware on the target system. To preform this task, the user needs to run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -xf86config XF86Config.new If the user is presented with a black and grey grid and an X mouse cursor, then the configuration was successful. To exit the test, just press ctrl, alt and backspace simultaneously. XFree86 4 Tuning Next, the user needs to tune the XF86Config.new configuration file to their personal taste. Open up the file in a text editor such as &man.emacs.1; or &man.ee.1;. The first thing the user will want to do is add the frequencies for the target system's monitor. These are usually expressed as a horizontal and vertical synchronization rate. These values are added to the XF86Config.new file under the "Monitor" section as such: Section "Monitor" Identifier "Monitor0" VendorName "Monitor Vendor" ModelName "Monitor Model" Horizsync 30-107 VertRefresh 48-120 EndSection The Horizsync and VertRefresh keywords may not exist in the user's configuration file. If they do not, they need to be added, with the correct horizontal synchronization rate placed after the Horizsync keyword and the vertical synchronization rate after the VertRefresh keyword. In the example above the target monitor's rates where entered. - XF86Config + + XF86Config + While the XF86Config.new configuration file is still open in an editor, next the user needs to select what the default resolution and color depth is desired. This is defined in the Screen section. Section "Screen" Identifier "Screen0" Device "Card0" Monitor "Monitor0" DefaultColorDepth 24 SubSection "Display" Depth 24 Modes "1024x768" EndSubSection EndSection The DefaultColorDepth keyword describes the color depth the user wishes to run at by default. This can be overridden with the -bpp command line switch to XFree86 1. The Modes keyword describes the resolution the user wishes to run at for the given color depth. In the example above, the default color depth is twenty four bits per pixel. At this color depth, the accepted resolution is one thousand twenty four pixels by seven hundred and sixty eight pixels. If a user wants to run at a resolution of one thousand twenty four pixels by seven hundred sixty eight pixels at twenty four bits per pixel, then the user needs to add the DefaultColorDepth keyword with the value of twenty four, and add to the "Display" subsection with the desired Depth the Modes keyword with the resolution the user wishes to run at. Note that only VESA standard modes are supported as defined by the target system's graphics hardware. Finally, the user can write out the configuration file and test it using the test mode given above. If all is well, then the configuration file needs to be installed in a common location where XFree86 1 can source it in the future. This is typically /etc/X11/XF86Config or /usr/X11R6/etc/X11/XF86Config. &prompt.root; cp XF86Config.new /etc/X11/XF86Config Once the configuration file has been placed in a common location, XFree86 can then be used through &man.xdm.1;. In order to use startx 1 the user will have to install the X11/wrapper port. Advanced Configuration Topics Configuration with Intel i810 graphics chipsets Intel i810 graphic chipset Configuration with Intel i810 integrated chipsets requires the agpgart AGP programming interface for XFree86 to be able to drive the card. To enable the agpgart programming interface, the agp.ko kernel loadable module needs to be loaded into the kernel with &man.kldload.8;. This can be done automatically with the &man.loader.8;. Simply add this line to /boot/loader.conf to have the loader load agp.ko at boot time: agp_load="YES" Next, a device node needs to be created for the programming interface. To create the AGP device node, run &man.MAKEDEV.8; in the /dev directory as such: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV agpgart This will allow the user to configure the graphics hardware as any other graphics board. Using Fonts in XFree86 Type1 Fonts The default fonts that ship with XFree86 are less than ideal for typical desktop publishing applications. Large presentation fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking and small fonts in Netscape are almost completely unintelligible. However, there are several free, high quality Type1 (PostScript) fonts available which can be readily used with XFree86, either version 3.X or version 4.X. For instance, the URW font collection (/usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts) includes high quality versions of standard type1 fonts (Times Roman, Helvetica, Palatino and others). The Freefont collection (/usr/ports/x11-fonts/freefont) includes many more fonts, but most of them are intended for use in graphics software such as the Gimp, and are not complete enough to serve as screen fonts. In addition, XFree86 can be configured to use TrueType fonts with a minimum of effort: see the section on TrueType fonts later. To install the above Type1 font collections from the ports collection you can run the following commands. &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts &prompt.root; make install clean And likewise with the freefont or other collections. To tell the X server that these fonts exist, you can add an appropriate line to your XF86Config file (in /etc/ for XFree86 version 3, or in /etc/X11/ for version 4), which reads: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW/" Alternatively, at the command line in your X session you can write: &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW &prompt.user; xset fp rehash This will work but will be lost when you log out from this session, unless you add it to your startup file (~/.xinitrc for a normal startx session, or ~/.xsession when logging in through a graphical login manager like XDM). A third way is to use the new XftConfig file: see the section on anti-aliasing, later. TrueType Fonts XFree86 4.0 has built in support for rendering TrueType fonts. There are two different modules that can enable this functionality. The "freetype" module is used in this example because it is more consistent with the other font rendering back-ends. To enable the freetype module just add the following line to the module section of your /etc/X11/XF86Config file. Load "freetype" For XFree86 3.3.X you will need to run a separate TrueType font server. Xfstt is commonly used for this purpose. To install Xfstt on your FreeBSD system simply install the port from /usr/ports/x11-servers/Xfstt You should now make a directory for your TrueType fonts (e.g. /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType) and copy all of your TrueType fonts into this directory. Keep in mind that you cannot take TrueType fonts directly from a Macintosh; they must be in Unix/DOS/Windows format for use by XFree86. Once you have copied the files into this directory you need to use ttmkfdir to create a fonts.dir file so that the X font renderer knows that you've installed these new files. There is a FreeBSD port for ttmkfdir in /usr/ports/x11-fonts/ttmkfdir. &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.root; ttmkfdir > fonts.dir Now you need to add your TrueType directory to your fonts path. This is just the same as described above for Type1 fonts, that is, use &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.user; xset fp rehash or add a line to the XF86Config file. That's it. Now Netscape, Gimp, StarOffice, and all of your other X applications should now recognize your installed TrueType fonts. Extremely small fonts (as with text in a high resolution display on a web page) and extremely large fonts (within StarOffice) will look much better now. Anti-Aliasing your fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliased fonts. Currently, most software has not been updated to take advantage of this new functionality. However, Qt (the toolkit for the KDE desktop) does; so if you are running XFree86 4.0.2 (or higher), Qt 2.3 (or higher) and KDE, all your KDE/Qt applications can be made to use anti-aliased fonts. To configure anti-aliasing, you need to create (or edit, if it already exists) the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/XftConfig. Several advanced things can be done with this file; this section describes only the simplest possibilities. First, you need to tell the X server about the fonts which you want anti-aliased. To do that, for each font directory you have a line, which looks like this: dir "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/Type1" And likewise for the other font directories (URW, truetype, etc) containing fonts you'd like anti-aliased. Anti-aliasing makes sense only for scalable fonts (basically, Type1 and TrueType) so don't include bitmap font directories here. The directories which you included here can now be commented out of your XF86Config file. Next, you may not want to anti-alias normal-sized text. (Antialiasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes very small text more readable and removes "staircases" from large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text.) To exclude point sizes between 9 and 13 from anti-aliasing, include these lines: match any size > 8 any size < 14 edit antialias = false; You may also find that the spacing for some monospaced fonts gets messed up when you turn on anti-aliasing. This seems to be an issue with KDE, in particular. One possible fix for this is to force the spacing for such fonts to be 100: add the following lines: match any family == "fixed" edit family =+ "mono"; match any family == "console" edit family =+ "mono"; (this aliases the other common names for fixed fonts as "mono"), and then add: match any family == "mono" edit spacing = 100; Supposing you want to use the Lucidux fonts whenever monospaced fonts are required (these look nice, and don't seem to suffer from the spacing problem), you could replace that last line with these: match any family == "mono" edit family += "LuciduxMono"; match any family == "Lucidux Mono" edit family += "LuciduxMono"; match any family == "LuciduxMono" edit family =+ "Lucidux Mono"; (the last lines alias different equivalent family names). Finally, you want to allow users to add commands to this file, via their personal .xftconfig files. To do this, add a last line: includeif "~/.xftconfig" That's all; anti-aliasing should be enabled the next time you start the X server. However, note that your programs must know how to take advantage of it. At the present time, the toolkit Qt does, so the entire KDE environment can use anti-aliased fonts (see on KDE for details); there are patches for gtk+ to do the same, so if compiled against such a patched gtk+, the GNOME environment and Mozilla can also use anti-aliased fonts. Anti-aliasing is still new to FreeBSD and XFree86; configuring it should get easier with time, and it will soon be supported by many more applications. The X Display Manager Overview The X Display Manager (XDM) is an optional part of the X Window System that is used for login session management. This is useful for several types of situations, including minimal X Terminals (see ), desktops, and large network display servers. Since the X Window System is network and protocol independent, there are a wide variety of possible configurations for running X clients and servers on different machines connected by a network. XDM provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server to connect to, and entering authorization information such as a login and password combination. You may think of XDM as providing the same functionality to the user as the &man.getty.8; utility (see for details). That is, it performs system logins to the display being connected to and then runs a session manager on behalf of the user (usually an X window manager). XDM then waits for this program to exit, signaling that the user is done and should be logged out of the display. At this point, XDM can display the login and display chooser screens for the next user to login. Using XDM The XDM daemon program is located in /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm. You can run this program at any time as root and it will start managing the X display on the local machine. If you want XDM to run in the background every time the machine boots up, a convenient way to do this is by adding an entry to /etc/ttys. For more information about the format and usage of this file, see . There is a line in the default /etc/ttys file for running the XDM daemon on a virtual terminal: ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure By default this entry is disabled, and in order to enable it you will need to change field 5 from off to on and then restart &man.init.8; using the directions in . The first field, the name of the terminal this program will manage, is ttyv8. This means that XDM will start running on the 9th virtual terminal. Configuring XDM The XDM configuration directory is located in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm. In this directory you will see several files used to change the behavior and appearance of XDM. Typically you will find these files: File Description Xaccess Client authorization ruleset. Xresources Default X resource values. Xservers List of remote and local displays to manage. Xsession Default session script for logins. Xsetup_* xdm-config Global configuration for all displays running on this machine. xdm-errors Errors generated by the server program. xdm-pid The process ID of the currently running XDM. Also in this directory are a few scripts and programs used to setup the desktop when XDM is running. In the next few sections I will briefly describe the purpose of each of these files. The exact syntax and usage of all of these files is described in &man.xdm.1; The default configuration is a simple rectangular login window with the hostname of the machine displayed at the top in a large font and Login: and Password: prompts below. This is a good starting point if you are planning to design your own look and feel for the XDM screens. Xaccess The protocol for connecting to XDM controlled displays is called the X Display Manager Connection Protocol (XDMCP). This file is basically just a ruleset for controlling XDMCP connections from remote machines. By default, it allows any client to connect, but you will see this will not matter because the default xdm-config file does not listen for remote connections. Xresources This is an application-defaults file for the display chooser and the login screens. This is where you can customize the appearance of the login program. The format is identical to the app-defaults file described in the XFree86 documentation. Xservers This is a list of the remote displays the chooser should provide as choices. Xsession This is the default session script for XDM to run after a user has logged in. Normally each user will have a customized session script in ~/.xsessionrc that overrides this script. Xsetup_* These files contain scripts that will be run automatically before displaying the chooser or login interfaces. There is a script for each display being used, named Xsetup_followed by the local display number (for instance Xsetup_0). Typically these scripts will run one or two programs in the background such as xconsole. xdm-config This file contains settings in the form of app-defaults that are applicable to every display that this installation manages. xdm-errors This file contains the output of the X servers that XDM is trying to run. If a display that XDM is trying to start hangs for some reason, this is a good place to look for error messages. These messages are also written to the user's ~/.xsession-errors file on a per-session basis Running A Network Display Server In order for other clients to connect to your display server, you will need to edit the access control rules, and enable the connection listener. By default these are set to conservative values, which is a good decision security-wise. To get XDM to listen for connections first comment out a line in the xdm-config file: ! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm DisplayManager.requestPort: 0 and then restart XDM. Remember that comments in app-defaults files begin with a ! character, not a #. After this, you may need to put more strict access controls in place. Look at the example entries in Xaccess file, and refer to the &man.xdm.1; manual page. Replacements for XDM Several replacements for the default XDM program exist. One of them, KDM (bundled with KDE) is described in a later section. Apart from various visual improvements and cosmetic frills, it can be easily configured to let users choose their window manager of choice at the time they log in. Desktop Environments Written by &a.logo;, June 2001 This section describes the different desktop environments available for X-Windows on FreeBSD. For our purposes a "desktop environment" will mean anything ranging from a simple window manager, to a complete suite of desktop applications such as KDE or GNOME. GNOME About GNOME GNOME is a user-friendly desktop environment that enables users to easily use and configure their computers. GNOME includes a panel (for starting applications and displaying status), a desktop (where data and applications can be placed), a set of standard desktop tools and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each other. Users of other operating systems or environments should feel right at home using the powerful graphics-driven environment that GNOME provides. Installing GNOME To install GNOME from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnome If you would rather build GNOME from source, then use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome &prompt.root; make install clean Once GNOME is installed, we must have the X server start GNOME instead of a default window manager. If you have already customized your .xinitrc file then you should simply replace the line that starts your current window manager with one that starts /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-wm instead. If you haven't added anything special to your configuration file, then it is enough to simply type: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-wm" > ~/.xinitrc That's it. Type startx and you will be in the GNOME desktop environment. If you're running a display manager like XDM, this will not work. Instead, you should create an executable .xsession file with the same command in it. To do this, edit your file (if you already have one) and replace the existing window manager command with /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-wm; or else, &prompt.root; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-wm" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.root; chmod +x ~/.xsession Another option is to configure your display manager to allow choosing the window manager at login time; the section on KDE2 details explains how to do this for kdm, the display manager of KDE. KDE2 About KDE2 KDE is an easy to use contemporary desktop environment. Some of the things that KDE brings to the user are: A beautiful contemporary desktop A desktop exhibiting complete network transparency An integrated help system allowing for convenient, consistent access to help on the use of the KDE desktop and its applications Consistent look and feel of all KDE applications Standardized menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes, etc. Internationalization: KDE is available in more than 40 languages Centralized consisted dialog driven desktop configuration A great number of useful KDE applications KDE has an office application suite based on KDE's KParts technology consisting of a spread-sheet, a presentation application, an organizer, a news client and more. KDE is also comes with a web browser called Konqeuror, which represents already a solid competitor to other existing web browsers on Unix systems. More information on KDE can be found on the KDE website Installing KDE2 At the time of writing, a package for kde2 doesn't exist yet. No problem! The ports tree hides all the complexity of building a package from source. To install KDE2, do this : &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/kde2 &prompt.root; make install clean This command will fetch all the necessary files from the Internet, configure and compile KDE2, install the applications, and then clean up after itself. Now you're going to have to tell the X server to launch KDE2 instead of a default window manager. Do this by typing this: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startkde" > ~/.xinitrc Now, whenever you go into X-Windows, KDE2 will be your desktop. (Note: this will not work if you're logging in via a display manager like xdm. In that case you have two options: create an .xsession file as described in the section on GNOME, but with the /usr/X11R6/bin/startkde command instead of the gnome-wm command; or, configure your display manager to allow choosing a desktop at login time. Below it is explained how to do this for kdm, KDE's display manager.) More details on KDE2 Now that KDE2 is installed on your system, you'll find that you can learn a lot from its help pages, or just by pointing and clicking at various menus. Windows or Mac users will feel quite at home. The best reference for KDE is the on-line documentation. KDE comes with its own web browser, Konqueror, dozens of useful applications, and extensive documentation. This section only discusses somewhat technical things which are difficult to learn just by random exploration. The KDE display manager If you're an administrator on a multi-user system, you may like to have a graphical login screen to welcome users. You can use xdm, as described earlier. However, KDE includes an alternative, KDM, which is designed to look more attractive and include more login-time options. In particular, users can easily choose (via a menu) which desktop environment (KDE2, GNOME, or something else) to run after logging on. If you're slightly adventurous and you want this added flexibility and visual appeal, read on. To begin with, run the KDE2 control panel, kcontrol, as root. Note: it is generally considered unsafe to run your entire X environment as root. Instead, run your window manager as a normal user, open a terminal window (such as xterm or KDE's konsole, become root with su (you need to be in the wheel group in /etc/group for this), and then type kcontrol. Click on the icon on the left marked "System", then on "Login manager". On the right you'll see various configurable options, which the KDE manual will explain in greater detail. Click on "sessions" on the right. Depending on what window managers or desktop environments you have currently installed, you can type their names in "New type" and add them. (These are just labels so far, not commands, so you can write KDE and GNOME rather than startkde or gnome-wm.) Include a label failsafe. Play with the other menus as you like (those are mainly cosmetic and self-explanatory). When you're done, click on "Apply" at the bottom, and quit the control center. To make sure kdm understands what your above labels (KDE, GNOME etc) mean, you need to edit some more files: the same ones used by xdm. In your terminal window, as root, edit the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsession. You will come across a section in the middle looking like this (by default): case $# in 1) case $1 in failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac You will need to add a few lines to this section. Assuming the labels you gave earlier were KDE2 and GNOME, the following will do: case $# in 1) case $1 in KDE2) exec /usr/X11R6/bin/startkde ;; GNOME) exec /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-wm ;; failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac To make sure your KDE choice of a login-time desktop background is also honored, you will need to add the following line to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsetup_0: /usr/X11R6/bin/kdmdesktop Now, you need only to make sure kdm is started at the next bootup. To learn how to do this, read the section on xdm, and do the same thing replacing references to the xdm program by kdm. That's it. Your next login screen should have a pretty face and lots of menus. Anti-aliased fonts Tired of blocky staircase edges to your fonts under X11? Tired of unreadable text in web browsers? Well, no more. Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliasing via its "RENDER" extension, and starting with version 2.3, Qt (the toolkit used by KDE) supports this extension. Configuring this is described in on antialiasing X11 fonts. So if you're running up-to-date software, anti-aliasing is possible on your KDE2 desktop. Just go to your KDE2 menu, go to Preferences -> Look and Feel -> Style, and click on the checkbox "Use Anti-Aliasing for Fonts and Icons". That's all. If you're running a Qt application which is not part of KDE, you may need to set the environment variable QT_XFT to true before starting your program. XFCE About XFCE XFCE is based on the gtk+ toolkit used by GNOME, but is much more lightweight and meant for those who want a simple, efficient desktop which is nevertheless easy to use and configure. Visually, it looks very much like CDE, found on commercial Unix systems. Some of XFCE's features are: A simple, easy-to-handle desktop Fully configurable via mouse, with drag and drop, etc Main panel similar to CDE, with menus, applets and app launchers Integrated window manager, file manager, sound manager, GNOME compliance module, and other things Themeable (since it uses gtk+) Fast, light and efficient: ideal for older/slower machines or machines with memory limitations More information on XFCE can be found on the XFCE website. Installing XFCE A binary package for xfce exists (at the time of writing). To install, simply do this: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r xfce Alternatively, you may prefer to build from source. The ports tree comes to the rescue again: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce &prompt.root; make install clean All necessary source packages (including dependencies) will be automagically fetched, built and installed, and the build areas cleaned up afterwards. Now you want to tell the X server to launch XFCE the next time you start X. Simply type this: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce" > ~/.xinitrc The next time you start X, XFCE will be your desktop. (Note, as before: if you're logging in via a display manager like xdm, you should either create an .xsession, as described in the section on GNOME, but with the /usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce command; or, configure your display manager to allow choosing a desktop at login time, as explained in the section on kdm.)