bootmanageroption at installation time.
the virtual address of code segment CS+ EIP. For convenience, segments begin at virtual address 0 and end at a 4Gb boundary. Therefore, the instruction's linear virtual address for this example would just be the value of EIP. Segment registers such as CS, DS etc are the selectors, i.e. indexes, into GDT (to be more precise, an index is not a selector itself, but the INDEX field of a selector). FreeBSD's GDT holds descriptors for 15 selectors per CPU:
collectedinto that variable:
raw) devices should always be used. Because the implementation of the aliasing of each disk (partition) to two devices with different semantics significantly complicated the relevant kernel code &os; dropped support for cached disk devices as part of the modernization of the disk I/O infrastructure.
xxxthey would be:
xxx0,
xxx1and so on.
bounce pageis allocated and used as intermediate storage. When writing the data from the non-conformant original pages they will be copied to their bounce pages first and then transferred from the bounce pages to the device. When reading the data would go from the device to the bounce pages and then copied to their non-conformant original pages. The process of copying between the original and bounce pages is called synchronization. This is normally used on a per-transfer basis: buffer for each transfer would be loaded, transfer done and buffer unloaded.
no specific alignment. Applies only to the future
no boundary. Applies only to the future
use those we set by):bus_set_resource()
compiled. Depending on the state of the system at the time that the class is to be initialized a statically allocated cache,
ops tablehave to be used. This can be accomplished by declaring a
CBOSS), as part of the DARPA CHATS research program.
seeother subjects with the passed subject credential
match anything you findin the FreeBSD pccard bus code. Since these are C identifiers, their names must be unique. Otherwise the format is identical to the first section of the file.
use the default descriptionand
take the description from pccarddevsflavors.
recommended.
ncror
wds.
wds0this number will be 0
path. The target-specific events normally occur during a transaction with this device. So the path from that transaction may be re-used to report this event (this is safe because the event path is copied in the event reporting routine but not deallocated nor passed anywhere further). Also it is safe to allocate paths dynamically at any time including the interrupt routines, although that incurs certain overhead, and a possible problem with this approach is that there may be no free memory at that time. For a bus reset event we need to define a wildcard path including all devices on the bus. So we can create the path for the future bus reset events in advance and avoid problems with the future memory shortage:
all devices)
all LUNs)
CAM Control Block. It is a union of many specific instances, each describing arguments for some type of transactions. All of these instances share the CCB header where the common part of arguments is stored.
normal) mode and target (simulating a SCSI device) mode. Here we only consider the part relevant to the initiator mode.
bitwise orof an enumerated status value (the lower 6 bits) and possible additional flag-like bits (the upper bits). The enumerated values will be discussed later in more detail. The summary of them can be found in the Errors Summary section. The possible status flags are:
struct ccb_scsiio csioof the union ccb is used to transfer the arguments. They are:
BUS DEVICE RESETmessage to a device
struct ccb_abort cabof the union ccb. The only argument field in it is:
struct ccb_trans_setting ctsof the union ccb:
new current settingsare not supposed to be forced on the device, just they are used as the initial step of negotiations. Also they must be limited by actual capabilities of the SCSI controller: for example, if the SCSI controller has 8-bit bus and the request asks to set 16-bit wide transfers this parameter must be silently truncated to 8-bit transfers before sending it to the device.
currentparameters
struct ccb_trans_setting ctswith data as requested by the flags CCB_TRANS_CURRENT_SETTINGS or CCB_TRANS_USER_SETTINGS (if both are set then the existing drivers return the current settings). Set all the bits in the valid field.
struct ccb_calc_geometry ccgof the union ccb:
extended translationflag in EEPROM this flag should normally be assumed equal to 1. Other popular geometries are:
struct ccb_pathinq cpiof the union ccb:
typicalconditions.
impossibleSCSI phase occurred or something else as weird or just a generic error if further detail is not available
ECN allowed(sysctl value 1).
swap deviceis synonymous with a
swap partition.
because you said to!, and a rather long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a page fault trap though.
tpwas messed up, or the array access was out of bounds.
least privilegeso that no process is ever running with more than the bare minimum access that it needs to accomplish its function. Previously tested code should be reused whenever possible to avoid common mistakes that others may have already fixed.
"StackGuard detects and defeats stack smashing attacks by protecting the return address on the stack from being altered. StackGuard places a "canary" word next to the return address when a function is called. If the canary word has been altered when the function returns, then a stack smashing attack has been attempted, and the program responds by emitting an intruder alert into syslog, and then halts."
"StackGuard is implemented as a small patch to the gcc code generator, specifically the function_prolog() and function_epilog() routines. function_prolog() has been enhanced to lay down canaries on the stack when functions start, and function_epilog() checks canary integrity when the function exits. Any attempt at corrupting the return address is thus detected before the function returns."
universalbody language for
skinto get to the data. This is best illustrated with a picture:
No, it is not! It is a file format!
How am I supposed to handle it all?
openinga socket.
opena socket. And in some cases we only need two.
. The most common one isSOCK_
So, will sockets not handle it for me?
file. It then uses
conversationgoing on between the client and the server: As soon as the server detects a connection to the client, it sends out some data and closes the connection. The entire operation may take nanoseconds, and it is finished.
black box
plug it into the rest.
accepted handle,
commandsas they are usually called. One way uses an
scriptsto help with various
housekeepingtasks on their machine. Indeed, part of the original &unix; philosophy was to provide lots of small utility programs that could be linked together in shell scripts to perform useful tasks.
number-crunchinglanguages that were popular at the time. Instead of being based on numbers, Lisp is based on lists; in fact the name is short for
List Processing. Very popular in AI (Artificial Intelligence) circles.
release versionwithout when you are satisfied it works properly.
gotchawith the math library is that it has to be the last library on the command line.
run the file called, or change yourfoobar in the current directory
look in the current directory if it is not in any of the others.
ifThe makefile also has rules telling makefromboz.o is older thanfromboz.c , that means someone must have changedfromboz.c , so it needs to be re-compiled.
hello worldand a make file like the one above and experiment. Then progress to using more than one source file, or having the source file include a header file. The
infopages. If you have installed any of these ports,
the good old days, programmers had to print out hex listings of core files and sweat over machine code manuals, but now life is a bit easier. Incidentally, under FreeBSD and other 4.4BSD systems, a core file is called
That is all very well,you are probably thinking,
but by the time I have done that, the child process will be over the hill and far away. Fear not, gentle reader, here is how to do it (courtesy of the
so it is useful to know what they mean. And in any case, Emacs has far too many useful functions for them to all fit on the menu bars.M-x replace-s RET foo RET bar RET
whizbangcomes out, full of exciting features?
Emacs Lisp. For example, if whizbang is a FreeBSD port, we can locate these files by doing
If successful, open() returns a non-negative integer, termed a file descriptor. It returns-1 on failure, and setserrno to indicate the error.
We are no longer assuming that the end of input implies the end of things to do, something we took for granted in the character–oriented filters.This filter does not process characters. It processes a language (albeit a very simple one, consisting only of numbers).When we have no more input, it can mean one of two things: We are done and can quit. This is the same as before. The last character we have read was a digit. We have stored it at the end of our ASCII–to–float conversion buffer. We now need to convert the contents of that buffer into a number and write the last line of our output. For that reason, we have modified our getchar and ourread routines to return with thecarry flag clear whenever we are fetching another character from the input, or thecarry flag set whenever there is no more input.Of course, we are still using assembly language magic to do that! Take a good look at getchar . Italways returns with thecarry flag clear .Yet, our main code relies on the carry flag to tell it when to quit—and it works.The magic is in read . Whenever it receives more input from the system, it just returns togetchar , which fetches a character from the input buffer,clears thecarry flag and returns.But when read receives no more input from the system, it doesnot return togetchar at all. Instead, theadd esp, byte 4 op code adds4 toESP ,sets thecarry flag , and returns.So, where does it return to? Whenever a program uses the call op code, the microprocessorpush es the return address, i.e., it stores it on the top of the stack (not the FPU stack, the system stack, which is in the memory). When a program uses theret op code, the microprocessorpop s the return value from the stack, and jumps to the address that was stored there.But since we added 4 toESP (which is the stack pointer register), we have effectively given the microprocessor a minor case ofamnesia : It no longer remembers it wasgetchar thatcall edread .And since getchar neverpush ed anything beforecall ingread , the top of the stack now contains the return address to whatever or whoevercall edgetchar . As far as that caller is concerned, hecall edgetchar , whichret urned with thecarry flag set!
rootfile (i.e., the one that contains the start of the document.
typewriterstyle font for viewing on screen, but as
italicswhen printed, or any of a myriad of other options for presentation.
and easily see which parts are filenames, which are commands to be typed in, which parts are references to manual pages, and so on. But the computer processing the document cannot. For this we need markup.To remove /tmp/foo use &man.rm.1;.&prompt.user; rm /tmp/foo
Markupis commonly used to describe
adding valueor
increasing cost. The term takes on both these meanings when applied to text. Markup is additional text included in the document, distinguished from the document's content in some way, so that programs that process the document can read the markup and use it when making decisions about the document. Editors can hide the markup from the user, so the user is not distracted by it.
validating the document.
bookelement obviously contains chapters, which can be considered to be elements in their own right. Each chapter will contain more elements, such as paragraphs, quotations, and footnotes. Each paragraph might contain further elements, identifying content that was direct speech, or the name of a character in the story.
chunkingcontent. At the very top level you have one chunk, the book. Look a little deeper, and you have more chunks, the individual chapters. These are chunked further into paragraphs, footnotes, character names, and so on.
This is another paragraph. But this one is much shorter.
]]>This is another paragraph. A horizontal rule separates this from the previous paragraph.
]]>the <p> tagthey mean the literal text consisting of the three characters
the <p> elementrefers to the whole element.
This may appear in the center.
]]>This is a paragraph containing some text.
This paragraph contains some more text.
This paragraph might be right-justified.
]]>ISOthen this is an ISO owned FPI. For example, the FPI
. The first occurrence of this string opens a comment, and the second closes it.--
This is a paragraph containing some text.
This paragraph contains some more text.
This paragraph might be right-justified.
The current version of this document is: &version;
]]>The current version of this document is: &version;
¶1; ¶2; ¶3; ]]>The current version of this document is: &version;
¶1; ¶2; ¶3; ]]>marked sections.
content model.
Character Data. If the parser is in this content model then it is expecting to see characters, and characters only. In this model the
Entity references and character dataIf the parser is in this content model then it is expecting to see characters
This is the end of the example.
]]> ]]> </programlisting>routeis a defined pair of addresses: a
destinationand a
gateway. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this
default. The
default routeis used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called
links), and Ethernet hardware addresses (MAC addresses).
defaultroute. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a
Why (or how) would we set the.T1-GW to be the default gateway forLocal1 , rather than the ISP server it is connected to?
Backboneare the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network.
access point.
dweputils(
nativesupport for the Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS). The FreeBSD NDISulator (otherwise known as Project Evil) takes a &windows; driver binary and basically tricks it into thinking it is running on &windows;. This feature is still relatively new, but most test cases seem to work adequately.
devicehci. For more details refer to the &man.ng.hci.4; manual page.
your.host.name (ubt0). The name assigned to the local device can be changed at any time.
devicel2cap. For more details refer to the &man.ng.l2cap.4; manual page.
1234is shown below:
bridge. A FreeBSD system with two network interface cards can act as a bridge.
otherside of the bridge would be sent to the other network, reducing congestion on each network segment.
thinnet). Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary.
Twisted Pair).
gatewaymachine.
IP next generation) is the new version of the well known IP protocol (also know as IPv4). Like the other current *BSD systems, FreeBSD includes the KAME IPv6 reference implementation. So your FreeBSD system comes with all you will need to experiment with IPv6. This section focuses on getting IPv6 configured and running.
one-out-of many)
xbeing a 16 Bit hex value. For example
::. Also up to three leading
0s per hexquad can be omitted. For example
.as separators. For example
virtual consolesof FreeBSD.
terminalsand
consolesare, and how you can use them in FreeBSD.
FreeBSDconsole, running on an Intel or compatible processor of the x86 architecture
architecturethat is shown here.
usernameto log into FreeBSD. The next section describes how you can do this.
userfrom the rest. In FreeBSD (and all the &unix;-like operating systems), this is accomplished by requiring that every user must
log intothe system before being able to run programs. Every user has a unique name (the
username) and a personal, secret key (the
password). FreeBSD will ask for these two before allowing a user to run any programs.
password:
virtual consolescan be very helpful.
illusionof having multiple
virtualscreens and keyboards that you can use to type commands for FreeBSD to run. The programs that you launch on one virtual console do not stop running when that console is not visible. They continue running when you have switched to a different virtual console.
single user modeis can be found in
cd(change directory) into it. This also means that within the directory it is possible to access files whose names are known (subject, of course, to the permissions on the files themselves).
world)
worldwrite permission on
file flags.These flags add an additional level of security and control over files, but not directories.
noin front of the . Observe:
/. This directory is the first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user operation. The root directory also contains mount points for every other file system that you may want to mount.
da0is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be four physical slices on a disk, but you can have logical slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These extended slices are numbered starting at 5, sos1
ad0is the first extended slice on the first IDE disk. These devices are used by file systems that expect to occupy a slice.s5
dangerously dedicatedphysical drives, and other drives contain
da0is the a partition on the first da drive, which isa
dangerously dedicated.
ad1s3is the fifth partition in the third slice of the second IDE disk drive.e
noauto, excluded by the flag, or those that are already mounted.
ufsis the default file system type.
d.
I do not care what you are doing, stop right nowsignal. If you send
uninterruptible. Eventually the process will time out, typically after two minutes. As soon as this time out occurs the process will be killed.
Shell:line accordingly.
dominantexecutable formats for &unix;:
classic&unix; object format. It uses a short and compact header with a magic number at the beginning that is often used to characterize the format (see &man.a.out.5; for more details). It contains three loaded segments: .text, .data, and .bss plus a symbol table and a string table.
classiccamp and used the &man.a.out.5; format, a technology tried and proven through many generations of BSD releases, until the beginning of the 3.X branch. Though it was possible to build and run native ELF binaries (and kernels) on a FreeBSD system for some time before that, FreeBSD initially resisted the
pushto switch to ELF as the default format. Why? Well, when the Linux camp made their painful transition to ELF, it was not so much to flee the
the way forwardanyway, the migration cost was accepted as necessary and the transition made. FreeBSD's shared library mechanism is based more closely on Sun's &sunos; style shared library mechanism and, as such, is very easy to use.
first-last, and can be interpreted as
\continuation character.
force. For instance to restart
runlevelslike some other &unix; operating systems.
realaddress, and may have any number of
aliasaddresses. These aliases are normally added by placing alias entries in
OIDsin their local
pessimizationmight result. On the other hand, in case of a crash, all pending meta-data operations can be quickly either rolled-back or completed from the logging area after the system comes up again, resulting in a fast filesystem startup.
ordered meta-data updates). This has the effect that, in case of heavy meta-data operations, later updates to an item
catchthe earlier ones if the earlier ones are still in memory and have not already been written to disk. So all operations on, say, a directory are generally performed in memory before the update is written to disk (the data blocks are sorted according to their position so that they will not be on the disk ahead of their meta-data). If the system crashes, this causes an implicit
log rewind: all operations which did not find their way to the disk appear as if they had never happened. A consistent filesystem state is maintained that appears to be the one of 30 to 60 seconds earlier. The algorithm used guarantees that all resources in use are marked as such in their appropriate bitmaps: blocks and inodes. After a crash, the only resource allocation error that occurs is that resources are marked as
usedwhich are actually
free. &man.fsck.8; recognizes this situation, and frees the resources that are no longer used. It is safe to ignore the dirty state of the filesystem after a crash by forcibly mounting it with
dirty, so the system startup proceeds in multiuser mode. Then, background
older. In situations where the standard synchronous approach would have caused some zero-length files to remain after the
auto-cloning; you simply use the line
stretchedthe limits of the current Plug and Play interfaces (such as APM, which is used in &os; 4.X), prior to the introduction of ACPI. ACPI is the direct successor to APM (Advanced Power Management).
interfacewith PNPBIOS methods.
soft offand is the normal state your system is in when plugged in but not powered up.
layersand are broken down into ACPI-CA components (ACPI_ALL_COMPONENTS) and ACPI hardware support (ACPI_ALL_DRIVERS). The verbosity of debugging output is specified as the
leveland ranges from ACPI_LV_ERROR (just report errors) to ACPI_LV_VERBOSE (everything). The
levelis a bitmask so multiple options can be set at once, separated by spaces. In practice, you will want to use a serial console to log the output if it is so long it flushes the console message buffer. A full list of the individual layers and levels is found in the &man.acpi.4; manual page.
bleeding edgeof &os; development. &os.current; users are expected to have a high degree of technical skill, and should be capable of solving difficult system problems on their own. If you are new to &os;, think twice before installing it.
currentis an absolute requirement.
officially supported. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3
legitimate&os.current; groups, but we simply
pointrelease of FreeBSD, then you should consider following &os.stable;.
CTM deltascan then be handed to the &man.ctm.rmail.1; utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than
base delta) and rebuild it all with
world
heads upis posted to the appropriate mailing list, explaining the nature of the problem and which systems it affects. And an
all clearannouncement is posted when the problem has been solved.
targets, and your choice of target determines what happens.
self hosted. Because of this, you can safely run
world
installedfirst. This is because the
.. At the time of writing the only files like this are shell startup files in
NO_PROFILE=truein
remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer
Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose
appropriateany partition it finds which it does not understand.
Cable Selectjumper. This is
El Toritobootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. By default, &man.mkisofs.8; creates an ISO image in the so-called
floppy disk emulationmode, and thus expects the boot image to be exactly 1200, 1440 or 2880 KB in size. Some boot loaders, like the one used by the FreeBSD distribution disks, do not use emulation mode; in this case, the option should be used. So, if
coaster. You should therefore either upgrade the port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a new version becomes available.
Mammothmodel supports 12 GB on one tape (24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives.
seriousbackup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the
hookthe tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself.
holding diskto backup several file systems at the same time.
archive sets: a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the file systems listed in
archive setalso contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the file systems. Restoring a damaged file system requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups.
Do nothingis not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it!
Do nothingis the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, &unix; is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you.
Do nothingis the correct backup method for
keyand a
company key).
-, standard input will be used. This example shows how more than one key file can be used.
rulesto inspect the network packets as they come in or go out of your network connections and either allows the traffic through or blocks it. The rules of a firewall can inspect one or more characteristics of the packets, including but not limited to the protocol type, the source or destination host address, and the source or destination port.
inclusiveor
exclusive. An exclusive firewall allows all traffic through except for the traffic matching the ruleset. An inclusive firewall does the reverse. It only allows traffic matching the rules through and blocks everything else.
stateful firewall. With a stateful firewall the firewall keeps track of which connections are opened through the firewall and will only allow traffic through which either matches an existing connection or opens a new one. The disadvantage of a stateful firewall is that it can be vulnerable to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks if a lot of new connections are opened very fast. With most firewalls it is possible to use a combination of stateful and non-stateful behavior to make an optimal firewall for the site.
Packet Filterfirewall.
state changes. As this is not part of the loadable module one has to build a custom kernel to use it.
the last matching rule winsand used only stateless type of rules. Over time IPF has been enhanced to include a
quickoption and a stateful
keep stateoption which drastically modernized the rules processing logic. IPF's official documentation covers the legacy rule coding parameters and the legacy rule file processing logic. The modernized functions are only included as additional options, completely understating their benefits in producing a far superior secure firewall.
quickoption and the stateful
keep stateoption. This is the basic framework for coding an inclusive firewall rule set.
IPFILTERfirewall.
facilityand
level. IPMON in mode uses
facilityname. All IPMON logged data goes to
ICMP, and the next being the ICMP message and sub-message type, separated by a slash, e.g. ICMP 3/3 for a port unreachable message.
the last matching rule winsand used only stateless rules. Over time IPF has been enhanced to include a
quickoption and a stateful
keep stateoption which drastically modernized the rule processing logic.
quickoption and the stateful
keep stateoption. This is the basic framework for coding an inclusive firewall rule set.
first matching rule winslogic. For the complete legacy rule syntax description see the &man.ipf.8; manual page.
short-circuitpath to avoid processing any following rules for this packet. This option is a mandatory requirement for the modernized rules processing logic.
keep stateoption, it is recommended that this option is also applied so that only the triggering packet is logged and not every packet which thereafter matches the
keep stateinformation.
from any to anywith no other match parameters.
from any to anyor
from 0.0.0.0/0 to anyor
from any to 0.0.0.0/0or
from 0.0.0.0 to anyor
from any to 0.0.0.0.
from any to any port = 80
the first match winssearch method. If the packet does not match any of the rules, it gets caught by the mandatory ipfw default rule, number 65535 which denies all packets and discards them without any reply back to the originating destination.
helpthe system BIOS boot the correct drive:
PC compatible) architecture computers. Where applicable, instructions specific to other platforms (for example, Alpha) will be listed. Although this guide is kept as up to date as possible, you may find minor differences between the installer and what is shown here. It is suggested that you use this chapter as a general guide rather than a literal installation manual.
bootablefloppy disk. Most modern computers can also boot from a CDROM in the CDROM drive.
Boot Orderor similar), then you can skip this section. The FreeBSD CDROM and DVD images are bootable and can be used to install FreeBSD without any other special preparation.
badand ignores them. It is advised that you use brand new floppies if choosing this installation route.
Boot Orderand commonly shown as a list of devices, such as
active, subdivided into groups such as
allowed conflictin the message area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe will need to be changed,
primary master. This is especially convenient for some users who have found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive using
logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have also been made as data clones of one another.
archivein the back room. An initial surface scan indicates that this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides that it is a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine.
archive. Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP floppies. The installation goes well.
new clone. When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering. In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations.
Activemode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active!
Passivemode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random TCP ports.
@sign. The proxy server then
fakesthe real server. For example, assuming you want to install from
security profileis a set of configuration options that attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security to convenience by enabling and disabling certain programs and other settings. The more severe the security profile, the fewer programs will be enabled by default. This is one of the basic principles of security: do not run anything except what you must.
harmful. Unfortunately, programmers are not perfect and through time there have been cases where bugs in network services have been exploited by attackers to do bad things. It is important that you only enable the network services you know that you need. If in doubt it is best if you do not enable a network service until you find out that you do need it. You can always enable it later by re-running
consumermode. More information can be found in the &man.ruptime.1; and &man.rwho.1; manual pages.
Mouse Systemsas the mouse protocol and
Please press any key to rebootappears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power switch, the system will reboot.
x86processors, as well as a number of machines based on the Compaq Alpha processor. Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA cards, USB devices, and network and serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus.
headless install, because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on either does not have a monitor attached to it, or does not even have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a serial console. A serial console is basically using another machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a system. To do this, just follow the steps to create installation floppies, explained in
FreeBSD discin this context means a FreeBSD CDROM or DVD that you have purchased or produced yourself.
Laplink-styleserial or parallel cable to a computer that does.
ISO images). These images can be written (
burned) to CDs if you have a CD writer, and then used to install FreeBSD. If you have a CD writer, and bandwidth is cheap, then this is the easiest way to install FreeBSD.
Otherin the FTP sites menu during the install.
Format).
basedistribution is called
bin. Adjust the sample commands and URLs above accordingly, if you are using one of these versions.
AT commandsspecific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. Please refer to the user-ppp handbook and
laplinkparallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50 kbytes/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation.
privileged port(as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set the option
monolithickernel. This means that the kernel was one large program, supported a fixed list of devices, and if you wanted to change the kernel's behavior then you had to compile a new kernel, and then reboot your computer with the new kernel.
official&os; CDROM, then you can also install the source from the command line:
traditionalway for building your kernels (see
pretendfile system mounted on
geek port) + IEEE1284 I/O.
dumbserial or parallel PCI card that is supported by the &man.puc.4; glue driver.
Tulip) device em # Intel PRO/1000 adapter Gigabit Ethernet Card device ixgb # Intel PRO/10GbE Ethernet Card device txp # 3Com 3cR990 (
Typhoon) device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (
Vortex)
Starfire) device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016 -device sk # SysKonnect SK-984x & SK-982x gigabit Ethernet +device sk # SysKonnect SK-984x & SK-982x gigabit Ethernet device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX) device ti # Alteon Networks Tigon I/II gigabit Ethernet device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN device tx # SMC EtherPower II (83c170
EPIC) device vge # VIA VT612x gigabit ethernet device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II device wb # Winbond W89C840F device xl # 3Com 3c90x (
Boomerang,
Cyclone)
pseudo-terminalor simulated login port. It is used by incoming
disks
auto-cloning, and you should use the line
Human Interface Devicesdevice ukbd # Keyboard device ulpt # Printer device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da device ums # Mouse device urio # Diamond Rio 500 MP3 player device uscanner # Scanners # USB Ethernet, requires mii device aue # ADMtek USB Ethernet device axe # ASIX Electronics USB Ethernet device cdce # Generic USB over Ethernet device cue # CATC USB Ethernet device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB Ethernet device rue # RealTek RTL8150 USB Ethernet
nodeentry in the
rawdevice. It turns out that those files are not there, so you must change to the
unlockthe kernel file that
lockyour new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with:
hot thingin the computing world. That leaves the rest of us FreeBSD users bugging these same companies and developers to put out native FreeBSD versions of their applications. The problem is, that most of these companies do not really realize how many people would use their product if there were FreeBSD versions too, and most continue to only develop for Linux. So what is a FreeBSD user to do? This is where the Linux binary compatibility of FreeBSD comes into play.
Kernel LoaDable object). You can load this module by typing the following as
portscollection installed, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a
shadow rootdirectory,
Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the ldd output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system:/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd :libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like, you can decide to replace thelibc.so anyway, and that should leave you with:/compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
The symbolic link mechanism is only needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it.
branding. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF binary, you will get an error message like the following:
machine ID.
machine IDby running the program
machine IDand they will respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You can then enter this information when you attempt to run
RedHatoption when prompted by the installation program. A typical installation directory might be
FreeBSDas a type of Linux system. The
FEATUREline (which is protected by the license key).
glueto connect it to your &os; system.
&sap; Administrator:
&oracle; Administrator:
IDS, but the empty string
execution class loader. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system call.
whatever the current shell is.
Linux emulation? To make it hard to sell FreeBSD! Really, it is because the historical implementation was done at a time when there was really no word other than that to describe what was going on; saying that FreeBSD ran Linux binaries was not true, if you did not compile the code in or load a module, and there needed to be a word to describe what was being loaded—hence
the Linux emulator.
low.
Biba Policy Label/
Grade 10:
Compartments 2, 3 and 6: (
grade 5 ...)
effective gradewith
effective compartments, the second grade is the low grade and the last one is the high grade. In most configurations these settings will not be used; indeed, they offered for more advanced configurations.
dominance, in which a subject dominates an object, the object dominates the subject, neither dominates the other, or both dominate each other. The
both dominatecase occurs when the two labels are equal. Due to the information flow nature of Biba, you have rights to a set of compartments,
need to know, that might correspond to projects, but objects also have a set of compartments. Users may have to subset their rights using
this is allowed and this is not. A label configuration file may control how files may be accessed, network communication can be exchanged, and more. The previous section showed how the flag could be set on file systems to enable per-file or per-partition access control.
pop3) and 995 (
pop3s). This will permit this user to start a server that accepts connections on ports 110 and 995.
partitionsbased on their MAC label. Think of it as a special type of &man.jail.8;, though that is hardly a worthy comparison.
clearancelevel is set in each subject or objects label, along with compartments. Since these clearance or sensibility levels can reach numbers greater than six thousand; it would be a daunting task for any system administrator to thoroughly configure each subject or object. Thankfully, three
instantlabels are already included in this policy.
integritylabel is set on each subject or object. These labels are made up of hierarchal grades, and non-hierarchal components. As an object's or subject's grade ascends, so does its integrity.
bughas lead me to believe that it is a result of either incorrect documentation or misinterpretation of the documentation. Regardless of why it happened, the following steps may be taken to resolve it:
Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. This chapter provides a basic introduction to running a mail server on &os;, as well as an introduction to sending and receiving email using &os;; however, it is not a complete reference and in fact many important considerations are omitted. For more complete coverage of the subject, the reader is referred to the many excellent books listed in
sophisticatedlike a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local
mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available, or delivering it over TCP.
drop-inreplacements for
boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it.
Cw domain.netto /etc/mail/sendmail.cf.
tweakingof your mail setup.
privacy flagssection of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for
hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail machine
customer.comas well as
hostname.customer.comin the DNS. Just put an A record in the DNS for
customer.com.
backup MXes) accept messages temporarily, and pass it along when a lower-numbered host becomes available, eventually to the lowest-numbered host.
mailhost(a.k.a. mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations directed to it. Basically, you want to
claimany mail for any hostname in your domain (in this case
shortcutthe delivery path. The next line handles mail to the local Ethernet domain that can be delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP neighbors are mentioned in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to allow for a
mail server.
outgoing mail serveror
SMTP server).
evolvesand becomes more complex, MUA's are becoming increasingly powerful in the way they interact with email; this gives users increased functionality and flexibility. &os; contains support for numerous mail user agents, all of which can be easily installed using the FreeBSD Ports Collection. Users may choose between graphical email clients such as
ruleswhich can be matched to incoming mails to perform specific functions or to reroute mail to alternative mailboxes and/or email addresses.
Spamto
closermirror site (especially if you decide to set up some sort of mirror site).
Primary Mirror Sitestypically have the entire FreeBSD archive (all the currently available versions for each of the architectures) but you will probably have faster download times from a site that is in your country or region. The regional sites carry the most recent versions for the most popular architecture(s) but might not carry the entire FreeBSD archive. All sites provide access via anonymous FTP but some sites also provide access via other methods. The access methods available for each site are provided in parentheses after the hostname.
anoncvswith the
anoncvs), ssh (no password))
anoncvswhen prompted.)
anoncvswhen prompted.)
check outvirtually any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in some cases, will exist), you need to be familiar with the revision () flag to &man.cvs.1; and what some of the permissible values for it in the FreeBSD Project repository are.
anoncvs. &prompt.user;
anoncvs. &prompt.user;
anoncvs. &prompt.user;
anoncvs. &prompt.user;
flavorsof the tree available. Whether you wish to track the entire CVS tree or just one of the branches,
currentsources. It is recommended that you read Staying current with FreeBSD.
currentlevels).
deltasyou feed
emptydirectory. You must use an initial
Emptydelta to start off your
starteddeltas be distributed on the CD for your convenience, however, this does not currently happen.
starterdeltas by the
seed.
collection, a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing alone, e.g.,
collections. The collections that are available are described in the following section. In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection
basedirectory. These files help
Here is what you can download from me..., and your client responds
OK, I will take this, this, this, and this.In the default configuration, the
realports real soon. Thus, if you only update the
realports and they use some of the new features, there is a very high chance that their build will fail with some mysterious error message. The
snapshotof the ports tree is generated, repackaged, and cryptographically signed. The resulting files are then distributed via HTTP.
liveports tree in
livecopy of the ports tree can be extracted into
flash crowdsaccessing the
branch tags, and the second type are called
release tags.
Internet Super-Serverbecause it manages connections for several services. When a connection is received by
#. The format of
#in front of the daemon in question in
share). Each line in
correctsolution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the
blocksize of 8 K (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS
blockgets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and
units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged.
Bindsan NIS client to its NIS server. It will take the NIS domainname from the system, and using RPC, connect to the server.
domainnamethat you are used to. It is more accurately called the
NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in some way.
acme-artNIS domain. For this example, assume you have chosen the name
pingthe server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time,
securenetswhich can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, &man.ypserv.8; will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called
#are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this:
IP spoofingattacks. All NIS-related traffic should be blocked at your firewall.
for each combination of user and machine do...If your NIS setup is planned carefully, you will only have to modify exactly one central configuration file to grant or deny access to machines.
Import all entries but replace the shell with. You can replace any field in the/sbin/nologin in the imported entries
Errors in centralized planning lead to global mess.
+. The first of them adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto this machine, the second one adds all other accounts with
ALL-CAPSversion of the machine name as the name of the netgroup. In other words, the lines should look like this:
leaseand is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed.
Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface?. Answering affirmatively will execute
.is an exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing
.is referenced to the origin. For example,
@replaced. (
cruftfrom your source tree, and retrying the steps above should then work.
normaluser's
Hypertext Preprocessoris a general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for Web development. Capable of being embedded into HTML its syntax draws upon C, &java;, and Perl with the intention of allowing web developers write dynamically generated webpages quickly.
#from in front of the existing
file system sharesthat you would like to share with &windows; clients. The
provider. This could be changed to the name of your ISP so that later you can use the to start the connection.
chatlogging so you can determine if the conversation is going as expected.
guessedaddress, make sure that you create an entry in
guessingan IP address and allowing
eavesdrop.
set loginstring.
dfilterto block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details.
client— you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line.
server— your machine is located on the network, and is used to connect other computers using PPP.
terminalmode so that we can manually control the modem.
&) to the end of the previous command because
auto-cloning.
pingpackets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth)
proxy ARPon your SLIP server (it is not
trueproxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this section to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the SLIP Prerequisites (
proxy ARPmethod, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your
proxy ARPmethod (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your
proxy ARPwill definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running
executebit (i.e.,
proxy ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic
proxy ARP, you will want to have
proxy ARP
proxy ARPmethod for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP clients subnet via your SLIP server.
friendlyplace in which everyone wants to be your kind neighbor. Securing your system is imperative to protect your data, intellectual property, time, and much more from the hands of hackers and the like.
honestis probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. &unix; systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers — meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetwork, security becomes an even bigger issue.
onionapproach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the
break root). Security concerns can be split up into several categories:
onion peelapproach and can be categorized as follows:
starringout the encrypted password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8; command, one can replace each instance of an encrypted password with a single
character. This command will update the*
. With this done, staff members must use another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key pair. When using something like Kerberos, one generally must secure the machines which run the Kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair with ssh, one must generally secure the machine used to login*
starout the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have set up. This forces all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions, which closes an important hole used by many intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine.
starout their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and Kerberos for user accounts is more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file.
firewall everything. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such asexcept ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z
closea couple of services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation, without compromising your low ports. Also take note that &os; allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding, via the various
one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not
plain-textpassword is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords.
&unix; password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key
one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the
secret passwordor just unqualified
password.
seedor
key, consisting of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the
iteration count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be reinitialized.
IDline gives the parameters of your particular instance: your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use.
daemons, they have traditionally been called daemons. This is the term we will use in this section too.
You are not allowed to usewill be returned for any daemon not previously configured in the access file. This is extremely useful for sending a reply back to the connection initiator right after the established connection is dropped. Note that any message returneddaemon fromhostname .
eBones(KerberosIV) or
Heimdal(Kerberos5) implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and were thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA.
key distribution center. The words
zone) will be example.org.
trustedby all other computers in the
local). This option instructs
Remote administrationin the Heimdal info pages (
extract) stores the extracted key in
minimalnature of the base Heimdal installation is felt:
normalsystem applications may be run instead of MIT if your
incorrect permissions on cache filebehavior requires that the
masterkey), which in turn is stored as a file on the KDC.
yes.
Certificate Authorities, or CAs, a warning is usually produced. A Certificate Authority is a company, such as
Common Nameprompt shows a domain name. This prompt requires a server name to be entered for verification purposes; placing anything but a domain name would yield a useless certificate. Other options, for instance expire time, alternate encryption algorithms, etc. are available. A complete list may be obtained by viewing the &man.openssl.1; manual page.
STARTTLSline appears in the output then everything is working correctly.
network stackis based on the
hardware acceleratedIPsec stack, known as
Fast IPsec, that was obtained from OpenBSD. It employs cryptographic hardware (whenever possible) via the &man.crypto.4; subsystem to optimize the performance of IPsec. This subsystem is new, and does not support all the features that are available in the KAME version of IPsec. However, in order to enable hardware-accelerated IPsec, the following kernel option has to be added to your kernel configuration file:
Fast IPsecsubsystem in lue with the KAME implementation of IPsec. Consult the &man.fast.ipsec.4; manual page for more information.
virtual tunnelsbetween two subnets, which could be used for secure communication between two corporate networks (known as
virtualnetwork link between the two networks, across the Internet. Test it, using tools like &man.ping.8;, to make sure it works.
unencapsulated, and delivered to
tunnelbetween the two networks. The two
tunnel mouthsare the IP addresses
Flagsvalue indicates, this is a host route, which means that each gateway knows how to reach the other gateway, but they do not know how to reach the rest of their respective networks. That problem will be fixed shortly.
In order to reach the hosts on the network. You will need to run a similar command on the other gateway, but with the192.168.2.0 , send the packets to the host192.168.2.1
virtualand it is a
network. It is not private yet. You can test this using &man.ping.8; and &man.tcpdump.1;. Log in to the gateway host and run
pseudo-device gif.
security associationbetween them.
security policies.
pre-shared key.
secretas your key -- the normal rules for choosing a password apply.
If a packet leaves fromA.B.C.D , and it is destined forW.X.Y.Z , then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations.
If a packet arrives fromW.X.Y.Z , and it is destined forA.B.C.D , then decrypt it, using the necessary security associations.
If a packet leaves fromA.B.C.D , and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined forW.X.Y.Z , then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations.
If a packet arrives fromW.X.Y.Z , and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined forA.B.C.D , then decrypt it, using the necessary security associations.
Security Advisories. These advisories are usually mailed to the security lists and noted in the Errata only after the appropriate releases have been patched. This section will work to explain what an advisory is, how to understand it, and what measures to take in order to patch a system.
terminalconsisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications.
baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, while
bps(bits per second) is the
straight) RS-232 cables. The documentation for your hardware should describe the type of cable required.
Signal Ground, straight through, but switches other signals. For example, the
Transmitted Datapin on one end goes to the
Received Datapin on the other end.
Transmitted Datapin on one end of the cable goes to the
Transmitted Datapin on the other end. This is the type of cable to use to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and is also appropriate for some terminals.
dumbmultiport serial interface cards, such as the BocaBoard 1008 and 2016, as well as more intelligent multi-port cards such as those made by Digiboard and Stallion Technologies. However, the default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports.
device special files, which are located in the
initial statedevice. For example, to turn on mode, 8 bit communication, and flow control by default for
lock statedevice. For example, to lock the speed of
dumbbecause they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth.
on.
secure.
insecureeven for terminals that are behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use
half duplexor
local echoto
full duplex.
junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the
locked-speedmethod, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs.
next table) capability. Each of the lines uses a
table continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the
standardsettings for a particular data rate.
siloerrors at 57.6 Kbps.
auto-baud(sic) entry in
directentry in your
genericentry in your
forcecharacter, used to tell
set a variable.
raise character,specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use
Not installedin the BIOS setup. You will still be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on. Your BIOS should not complain if the keyboard is absent. You can leave the keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to
Not installedand the keyboard will still work.
graphics adaptersetting in the CMOS configuration to
Not installed.
W(for
Window). X was just the next letter in the Roman alphabet.
X,
X Window System,
X11, and a number of other terms. You may find that using the term
X Windowsto describe X11 can be offensive to some people; for a bit more insight on this, see &man.X.7;.
client-servermodel.
X serverruns on the computer that has the keyboard, monitor, and mouse attached. The server's responsibility includes tasks such as managing the display, handling input from the keyboard and mouse, and so on. Each X application (such as
client. A client sends messages to the server such as
Please draw a window at these coordinates, and the server sends back messages such as
The user just clicked on the OK button.
X serverto be the big powerful machine down the hall, and the
X clientto be the machine on their desk.
tools, not policy. This means that X does not try to dictate how a task is to be accomplished. Instead, tools are provided to the user, and it is the user's responsibility to decide how to use those tools.
Window Manager. There are dozens of window managers available for X:
virtual desktops; some of them allow customized keystrokes to manage the desktop; some have a
Startbutton or similar device; some are
themeable, allowing a complete change of look-and-feel by applying a new theme. These window managers, and many more, are available in the
focus policy. Every windowing system needs some means of choosing a window to be actively receiving keystrokes, and should visibly indicate which window is active as well.
click-to-focus. This is the model utilized by µsoft.windows;, in which a window becomes active upon receiving a mouse click.
raised, and appear in front of all other windows. All keystrokes will now be directed to this window, even if the cursor is moved to another window.
Widgetis a term for all the items in the user interface that can be clicked or manipulated in some way; buttons, check boxes, radio buttons, icons, lists, and so on. µsoft.windows; calls these
controls.
staircasesfrom large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text. To exclude font sizes smaller than 14 point from anti-aliasing, include these lines:
Fontcapplet (see
X Terminals, desktops, and large network display servers. Since the X Window System is network and protocol independent, there are a wide variety of possible configurations for running X clients and servers on different machines connected by a network.
Login:and
Password:prompts below. This is a good starting point for changing the look and feel of
!character, not the usual
#. More strict access controls may be desired. Look at the example entries in
desktop environmentcan mean anything ranging from a simple window manager to a complete suite of desktop applications, such as
Desktop Configurationmenu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in
RENDERextension. GTK+ 2.0 and greater (the toolkit used by
KPartstechnology consisting of a spread-sheet, a presentation application, an organizer, a news client and more.
Desktop Configurationmenu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in
KDEand
GNOME, use the following:
RENDERextension, and starting with version 2.3, Qt (the toolkit used by
out-of-date. This file is known as a
makefileand is usually kept in the top-most directory of the system to be built. While you can call the makefile anything you want,
dependon the sources and are usually created from them. Any number of targets and sources may be specified on a dependency line. All the targets in the line are made to depend on all the sources. Targets and sources need not be actual files, but every source must be either an actual file or another target in the makefile. If you run out of room, use a backslash at the end of the line to continue onto the next one.
operatorthat separates them. Three types of operators exist: one specifies that the datedness of a target is determined by the state of its sources, while another specifies other files (the sources) that need to be dealt with before the target can be re-created. The third operator is very similar to the first, with the additional condition that the target is out-of-date if it has no sources. These operations are represented by the colon, the exclamation point and the double-colon, respectively, and are mutually exclusive. Their exact semantics are as follows:
out-of-date(and in need of creation) if any of the sources has been modified more recently than the target, or the target doesn't exist. Under this operation, steps will be taken to re-create the target only if it is found to be out-of-date by using these two rules.
out-of-dateif any of the sources has been modified more recently than the target, or the target doesn't exist, or the target has no sources. If the target is out-of-date according to these rules, it will be re-created. This operator also does something else to the targets, but I will go into that in the next section (see
Is not that nice,you say to yourself,
but how are files actually ``re-created'', as he likes to spell it?The re-creation is accomplished by commands you place in the makefile. These commands are passed to the Bourne shell (better known as
exit status. This status is made available by the operating system to whatever program invoked the command. Normally this status will be
Compatibilityin
visiblewithin that target's shell script and contain such things as the target's name, all of its sources (from all its dependency lines), those sources that were out-of-date, etc. Four local variables are defined for all targets. They are:
dynamic source,allowing you to specify several dependency lines at once. For example:
What time is it, anyway?) is
Why not?In answering this, two flags will serve you well:
-p 2. The first causes
-p 2flag makes
-p 2is intended to resemble closely a real makefile, but with additional information provided and with variables expanded in those commands
keep going.
@before every command in the makefile.
touchit so as to make it appear up-to-date. If the target did not exist before, it will when
1as its value. The variable is a global variable, not a command-line variable. This is useful mostly for people who are used to the C compiler arguments and those using conditionals, which I will get into in
dynamic sources. Variables are good. Know them. Love them. Live them.
search path. Only those files used exclusively as sources are actually sought on a search path, the assumption being that anything listed as a target in the makefile can be created by the makefile and thus should be in the current directory.
forms:else if
conflictbecause of some conditionals in the makefile. For instance:
implied source(the file from which the target is being created; the one with the first suffix), which, in this case, is the
null suffixbecause most people use
...) as a command between commands to be run at once and those to be run later.
an exercise for the reader. By placing one (or more) of these as a source on a dependency line, you are
marking the target(s) with that attribute. That is just the way I phrase it, so you know.
In case you are wondering, it is calledlib1.a lib2.a lib3.a lib4.a .
input graphat the target marked with the attribute. Another aspect of the
Main Targetand is labeled as such if you print the dependencies out using the flag. Giving a target this attribute tells
arguments,if you will. For example, you probably noticed that the commands for creating
sort ofa
....
(
tail). For example, given:
head). Using the same definition of
extension). So
rootof the word).
indirectionby placing the name of a variable into another one, then you want to get the value of the first by expanding the second somehow. Unfortunately,
packing listbecause the package is generated by packing the files listed here. The pathnames are relative to the installation prefix (usually
Descriptionfield of the PR and the shar to the
Fixfield.
New port: <category>/<portname> <short description of the port>for new ports and
Update port: <category>/<portname> <short description of the update>for port updates. If you stick to this scheme, the chance that someone will take a look at your PR soon is much better.
maintargets (e.g.,
houseit ourselves on
plug-and-playas possible for the end-user while using a minimum of disk space.
overnight buildsto skip your port if the user sets the variable
snapshotrelease. The temptation is to label the release with the release date, which will cause problems as in the example above when a new
officialrelease is made.
what comes after 0.9- oops, too late now). Since the new minor version
newer. Since it is a new vendor release of the code,
patchlevel), which can be used
alpha,
beta,
rc, or
pre, take the first letter and put it immediately after a period. If the version string continues after those names, the numbers should follow the single alphabet without an extra period between them.
too big, nor whether categories should lend themselves to browsing (and thus what number of categories would be an ideal number), and so forth.)
advanced topic; those new to this document may wish to skip this section at first).
distfiles survey meisterwould appreciate the relief to network strain that this would bring.
tag name. Each site listed in
buildhere means everything from extraction to compilation. The dependency is checked from within the
non-commercialuse only.
strangename like
requirementsscript. It will be invoked automatically at installation/de-installation time to determine whether or not installation/de-installation should proceed.
Classof your PR to
Classof your PR should be
2.2.5-STABLEafter the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern used to be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from 2.2. This is because the parallel development on several branches made it infeasible to classify the releases simply by their real release dates. If you are making a port now, you do not have to worry about old -CURRENTs; they are listed here just for your reference.
modernversions of FreeBSD,
localtree (e.g.,
X11tree (e.g.,
news. They may use