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JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and parts
rewritten by RandyPrattThe sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general
copy by Installing FreeBSDSynopsisinstallationFreeBSD is provided with a text-based, easy to use installation
program called Sysinstall. This is the
default installation program for FreeBSD, although vendors are free to
provide their own installation suite if they wish. This chapter
describes how to use Sysinstall to install
FreeBSD.After reading this chapter you will know:How to create the FreeBSD installation disks.How FreeBSD refers to, and subdivides, your hard disks.How to start Sysinstall.The questions Sysinstall will ask
you, what they mean, and how to answer them.Before reading this chapter you should:Read the supported hardware list that shipped with the version
of FreeBSD you are installing, and verify that your hardware is
supported.Pre-installation TasksInventory Your ComputerBefore installing FreeBSD you should attempt to inventory the
components in your computer. The FreeBSD installation routines will
show you the components (hard disks, network cards, CDROM drives, and
so forth) with their model number and manufacturer. FreeBSD will also
attempt to determine the correct configuration for these devices,
which includes information about IRQ and IO port usage. Due to the
vagaries of PC hardware this process is not always completely
successful, and you may need to correct FreeBSD's determination of
your configuration.If you already have another operating system installed, such as
Windows, or Linux, it is a good idea to use the facilities provided
by those operating systems to see how your hardware is already
configured. If you are really not sure what settings an expansion
card is using you may find it printed on the card itself. Popular IRQ
numbers are 3, 5, and 7, and IO port addresses are normally written as
hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x330.We recommend you print or write down this information before
installing FreeBSD. It may help to use a table, like this;
Sample Device InventoryDevice NameIRQIO port(s)NotesFirst hard diskN/AN/A4GB, made by Seagate, first IDE masterCDROMN/AN/AFirst IDE slaveSecond hard diskN/AN/A2GB, made by IBM, second IDE masterFirst IDE controller140x1f0Network cardN/AN/AIntel 10/100ModemN/AN/A3Com 56K faxmodem, on COM1:…
Backup Your DataIf the computer you will be installing FreeBSD on contains
valuable data then ensure you have it backed up, and that you have
tested the backups before installing FreeBSD. The FreeBSD
installation routine will prompt you several times before writing any
data to your disk, but once that process has started it can not be
undone.Decide Where to Install FreeBSDIf you want FreeBSD to use all your disk then there is nothing
more to concern yourself with at this point, and you can skip to the
next section..However, if you need FreeBSD to co-exist with other operating
systems then you need to have a rough understanding of how data is
laid out on the disk, and how this affects you.A PC disk can be divided in to discrete chunks. These chunks are
called partitions. By design, the PC only
supports four partitions per disk. These partitions are called
primary partitions. To work around this
limitation, and allow more than four partitions, a new partition type
was created, the extended partition. A disk
may contain only one extended partition. Special partitions, called
logical partitions, can be created inside this
extended partition.Each partition has a partition ID, which is
a number, used to identify the type of data on the partition. FreeBSD
partitions have the partition ID 165.In general, each operating system that you use will identify
partitions in a particular way. For example, DOS, and its
descendants, like Windows, assign each primary and logical partition a
drive letter, starting with
C:.FreeBSD must be installed in to a primary partition. FreeBSD can
keep all its data, including any files that you create, on this one
partition. However, if you have multiple disks then you can create a
FreeBSD partition on all, or some, of them. When you install FreeBSD
you must have one partition available. This might be a blank
partition that you have prepared, or it might be an existing partition
that contains data that you no longer care about.If you are already using all the partitions on all your disks then
you will have to free one of them for FreeBSD to use, using the tools
provided by the other operating systems you use (e.g.,
fdisk on DOS or Windows).If you have a spare partition then you can use that. However, you
may need to shrink one or more of your existing partitions
first.A minimal installation of FreeBSD takes as little as 100MB of disk
space. However, that is a very minimal install,
leaving almost no space for your own files. A more realistic minimum
is 250MB without a graphical environment, and 350MB or more if you
want a graphical user interface. If you intend to install a lot of
third party software as well then you will need more space.You can use a commercial tool such as Partition
Magic to resize your partitions to make space for
FreeBSD. The tools directory on the CDROM
contains two free software tools which can carry out this task,
FIPS and
PResizer. Documentation for both of these
is in the same directory.Incorrect use of these tools can delete the data on your disk.
Be sure that you have recent, working backups before using
them.Using an existing partition unchangedSuppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk, that
already has a version of Windows installed, and you have split the
disk in to two drive letters, C: and
D:, each of which is 2GB in size. You have
1GB of data on C:, and 0.5GB of data on
D:.This means that your disk has two partitions on it, one per
drive letter. You can copy all your existing data from
D: to C:, which
will free up the second partition, ready for FreeBSD.Shrinking an existing partitionSuppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk, that
already has a version of Windows installed. When you installed
Windows you created one large partition, giving you a
C: drive that is 4GB in size. You are
currently using 1.5GB of space, and want FreeBSD to have 2GB of
space.In order to install FreeBSD you will need to either:Back up your Windows data, and then reinstall Windows,
asking for a 2GB partition at install time.Use one of the tools such as Partition
Magic, described above, to shrink your Windows
partition.Collect Your Network Configuration DetailsIf you intend to connect to a network as part of your FreeBSD
installation (e.g., if you will be installing from an FTP site, or an
NFS server) then you need to know your network configuration. You
will be prompted for this information during the installation so that
FreeBSD can connect to the network to complete the install.Connecting to an Ethernet Network, or Cable/DSL ModemIf you connect to an Ethernet network, or you have an Internet
connection via cable or DSL then you will need the following
information:IP address.IP address of the default gateway.Hostname.DNS server IP addresses.If you do not know this information then ask your system
administrator or service provider. They may say that this
information is assigned automatically, using
DHCP. If so, make a note of this.Connecting Using a ModemIf you dial up to an ISP using a regular modem then you can
still install FreeBSD over the Internet, it will just take a very
long time.You will need to know:The phone number to dial for your ISP.The COM: port your modem is connected to.The username and password for your ISP account.Check for FreeBSD ErrataAlthough the FreeBSD project strives to ensure that each release
of FreeBSD is as stable as possible, bugs do occasionally creep in to
the process. On very rare occasions those bugs affect the
installation process. As these problems are discovered and fixed they
are noted in the FreeBSD Errata, posted on the FreeBSD web site. You
should check the errata before installing to make sure that there are
no late-breaking problems which you should be aware of.Information about all the releases, including the errata for each
release, can be found at
http://www.FreeBSD.org/releases/index.html.Prepare the Boot DiscsFreeBSD can be installed from a number of different media; CDROM,
DVD, FTP (both anonymous and non-anonymous), NFS, tape, or an existing
MS-DOS partition.If you have FreeBSD on CDROM or DVD, and your computer allows
you to boot from the CDROM or DVD (typically a BIOS option called
Boot Order or similar) then you can skip this
section. The FreeBSD CDROM and DVD images are bootable, and can be
used to install FreeBSD without any other special
preparation.The FreeBSD installation process is started by booting your
computer in to the FreeBSD installer—it is not a program you run
from within another operating system. To do this you must create some
floppy disks that can be booted from, and then boot from them.If you are not installing directly from
CDROM, DVD, or FTP then you are probably preparing your own
installation media (e.g., an MS-DOS partition), which must be prepared
before you install FreeBSD. This is a slightly more advanced, and
infrequent activity, and is documented in . This includes the scenario where you
want to create your own FTP site on your own network so that other
computers can use your site as a FreeBSD FTP installation site.Acquire the Boot Floppy ImagesThe boot discs are available on your installation media, and
can also be downloaded from the ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/floppies/ directory.The floppy images have a .flp extension.
The floppies/ directory contains a number of
different images, and the ones you will need to use depends on the
version of FreeBSD you are installing, and in some cases, the
hardware you are installing to. In most cases you will need two
files, kern.flp and
mfsroot.flp, but check
README.TXT in the same directory to be
sure.Your FTP program must use binary mode
to download these disk images. Some web browsers have been
known to use text (or
ASCII) mode, which will be apparent if you
can not boot from the disks.Prepare the Floppy DisksYou must prepare one floppy disk per image file you had to
download. It is imperative that these disks are free from
defects. The easiest way to test this is to format the disks
for yourself. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies.If you try to install FreeBSD and the installation
program crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves one of
the first things to suspect is the floppies. Try writing
the floppy image files to some other disks, and try
again.Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks.The .flp files are
not regular files you copy to the disk.
Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the
disk. This means that you can not use
commands like DOS' copy to write the
files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the
images directly to the disk.DOSIf you are creating the floppies on a computer running
DOS/Windows then we provide a tool to do
this called fdimage.If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your
CDROM is the E: drive then you would
run this:E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Repeat this command for each .flp
file, replacing the floppy disk each time, and being sure to label
the disks with the name of the file that you copied to them.
Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have
placed the .flp files. If you do not have
the CDROM then fdimage can be downloaded from
the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site.If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as
another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to
write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD you would
run:&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to the
first floppy disk (the A: drive).
/dev/fd1 would be the
B: drive, and so on. Other Unix
variants might have different names for the floppy disk
devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the
system as necessary.You are now ready to start installing FreeBSD.Starting the InstallationBy default, the installation will not make any changes to your
disk(s) until you see the following message.Last Chance: Are you SURE your want continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!The install can be exited at any time prior to the final
warning without changing the contents of the hard drive. If you are
concerned that you have configured something incorrectly you can just
turn the computer off before this point, and no damage will be
done.BootingStart with your computer turned off.Turn on the computer. As it starts it should display an
option to enter the system set up menu, or BIOS, commonly reached
by keys like F2, F10,
Del, or
AltS. Use whichever keystroke is indicated on screen. In
some cases your computer may display a graphic while it starts.
Typically, pressing Esc will dismiss the graphic
and allow you to see the necessary messages.Find the setting that controls which devices the system boots
from. This is commonly shown as a list of devices, such as
Floppy, CDROM,
First Hard Disk, and so on.If you needed to prepare boot floppies then make sure that the
floppy disk is selected. If you are booting from the CDROM then
make sure that that is selected instead. In case of doubt you
should consult the manual that came with your computer, and/or its
motherboard.Make the change, then save, and exit. The computer should now
restart.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in
then one of them will be the
first boot disc, probably the one containing
kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy
drive.If you are booting from CDROM then you will need to turn on
the computer, and insert the CDROM at the first
opportunity.If your computer starts up as normal, and loads your existing
operating system then either:The disks were not inserted early enough in the boot
process. Leave them in, and try restarting your
computer.The BIOS changes earlier did not work correctly. You
should redo that step until you get the right option.FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from CDROM you
will see a display similar to this:Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM :
1. FD 2.88MB System Type-(00)
/boot.config: -P
Keyboard: yes
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive B: is disk1
BIOS drive C: is disk2
BIOS drive C: is disk3
BIOS 639kB/64512kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
(jkh@bento.freebsd.org, Mon Nov 20 11:41:23 GMT 2000)
|
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _If you are booting from floppy disc you will see a display
similar to this:Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive C: is disk1
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
(jkh@narf.osd.bsdi.com, Sat Apr 21 08:46:19 GMT 2001)
/kernel text=0x24f1bb data=0x307ac+0x2062c |
Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:Follow these instructions by removing the
kern.flp disc, insert the
mfsroot.flp disc, and press
Enter.Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the
boot process will then get to this point.Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This
will then launch the kernel configuration menu.Kernel ConfigurationThe kernel is the core of the operating
system. It is responsible for many things, including access to all
the devices you may have on your system, such as hard disks, network
cards, sound cards, and so on. Each piece of hardware supported by
the FreeBSD kernel has a driver associated with it. Each driver has a
two or three letter name, such as sa for the
SCSI sequential access driver, or sio for the
Serial I/O driver (which manages com ports).When the kernel starts each driver checks the system to see
whether or not the hardware it supports exists on your system. If it
does then the driver configures the hardware, and makes it available
to the rest of the kernel.This checking is commonly referred to as device
probing. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to do
this in a safe way. Some hardware drivers do not co-exist well
together, and probing for one piece of hardware can sometimes leave
another piece of hardware in an inconsistent state. This is a basic
limitation of the design of the PC.Many older devices are what is called ISA devices—as opposed
to PCI devices. The ISA specification requires each device to have
some information hard coded in to it, typically the Interrupt Request
Line number (IRQ) and IO port address that the driver uses. This
information is commonly set by using physical
jumpers on the card, or by using a DOS based
utility.This was often a source of problems, because it was not possible
to have two devices that shared the same IRQ or port address.Newer devices follow the PCI specification, which does not require
this, as the devices are supposed to cooperate with the BIOS, and be
told which IRQ and IO port addresses to use.If you have any ISA devices in your computer then FreeBSD's
driver for that device will need to be configured with the IRQ and
port address that you have set the card to. This is why carrying out
an inventory of your hardware (see ) can be so useful.Unfortunately, the default IRQs and memory ports used by some
drivers clash. This is because some ISA devices are shipped with IRQs
or memory ports that clash. The defaults in FreeBSD's drivers are
deliberately set to mirror the manufacturer's defaults, so that, out
of the box, as many devices as possible will work.This is almost never an issue when running FreeBSD day-to-day.
Your computer will not normally contain two pieces of hardware that
clash, because then one of them would not work (irrespective of the
operating system you are using).It becomes an issue when you are installing FreeBSD for the first
time because the kernel used to carry out the install has to contain
as many drivers as possible, so that as many different hardware
configurations can be supported as possible. This means that some of
those drivers will have conflicting configurations. The devices are
probed in a strict order, and if you own a device that is probed late
in the process, but that an earlier probe conflicted with, then your
hardware might not function, or be probed correctly when you install
FreeBSD.Because of this, the first thing you have the opportunity to do
when installing FreeBSD is look at the list of drivers that are
configured in to the kernel, and either disable some of them, if you
do not own that device, or confirm (and alter) the driver's
configuration if you do own the device but the defaults are
wrong.That probably sounds much more complicated than it actually
is. shows the first kernel
configuration menu. We recommend that you choose the
Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual
mode option, as it presents the easiest interface for
the new user.Kernel Configuration MenuThe kernel configuration screen ()
is then divided in to four sections.A collapsible list of all the drivers that are currently
marked as active, subdivided in to groups such as
Storage, and Network. Each
driver is shown as a description, its two three letter driver
name, and the IRQ and memory port used by that driver. In
addition, if an active driver conflicts with another active driver
then CONF is shown next to the driver name.
This section also shows the total number of conflicting drivers
that are currently active.Drivers that have been marked inactive. They remain in the
kernel, but they will not probe for their device when the kernel
starts. These are subdivided in to groups in the same way as the
active driver list.More detail about the currently selected driver, including its
IRQ and memory port address.Information about the keystrokes that are valid at this point
in time.The Kernel Device Configuration Visual InterfaceAt this point there will always be conflicts listed. Do not worry
about this, it is to be expected; all the drivers are enabled, and
as has already been explained, some of them will conflict with one
another.You now have to work through the list of drivers, resolving the
conflicts.Resolving Driver ConflictsPress X. This will completely expand the
list of drivers, so you can see all of them. You will need to use
the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through the active driver
list. shows the result of
pressing X. Expanded Driver ListDisable all the drivers for devices that you do not have. To
disable a driver, highlight it with the arrow keys and press
Del. The driver will be moved to the
Inactive Drivers list.If you inadvertently disable a device that you need then press
Tab to switch to the Inactive
Drivers list, select the driver that you disabled, and
press Enter to move it back to the active
list.Do not disable sc0. This controls
the screen, and you will need this unless you are installing
over a serial cable.Only disable atkbd0 if you are
using a USB keyboard. If you have a normal keyboard then you
must keep atkbd0.If there are no conflicts listed then you can skip this step.
Otherwise, the remaining conflicts need to be examined. If they
do not have the indication of an "allowed conflict" in the message
area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe will need to be
changed, or the IRQ/address on the hardware
will need to be changed.To change the driver's configuration for IRQ and IO port
address, select the device and press Enter. The
cursor will move to the third section of the screen, and you can
change the values. You should enter the values for IRQ and port
address that you discovered when you made your hardware inventory.
Press Q to finish editing the device's
configuration and return to the active driver list.If you are not sure what these figures should be then you can
try using -1. Some FreeBSD drivers can safely
probe the hardware to discover what the correct value should be,
and a value of -1 configures them to do
this.The procedure for changing the address on the hardware varies
from device to device. For some devices you may need to
physically remove the card from your computer and adjust jumper
settings or DIP switches. Other cards may have come with a DOS
floppy that contains the programs used to reconfigure the card.
In any case, you should refer to the documentation that came with
the device. This will obviously entail restarting your computer,
so you will need to boot back in to the FreeBSD installation
routine when you have reconfigured the card.When all the conflicts have been resolved the screen will look
similar to .Driver Configuration With No ConflictsAs you can see, the active driver list is now much smaller,
with only drivers for the hardware that actually exists being
listed.You can now save these changes, and move on to the next step
of the install. Press Q to quit the device
configuration interface. This message will appear.Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel)Answer Y to save the parameters and the
probing will start. After displaying the probe results in white
on black text Sysinstall will start,
and display its main menu
().Sysinstall Main MenuReviewing the Device Probe ResultsThe last few hundred lines that have been displayed on screen are
stored, and can be reviewed.To review the buffer, press Scroll Lock. This
turns on scrolling in the display. You can then use the arrow keys, or
PageUp and PageDown to view the
results. Press Scroll Lock again to stop
scrolling,Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when
the kernel was carrying out the device probes. You will see text
similar to , although the precise
text will differ depending on the devices that you have in your
computer.Typical Device Probe Resultsavail memory = 58880000 (57500K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc065d000.
md1: Malloc disk
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq6 drq2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x6f on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0c3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags-0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1: at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c
/stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0Check the probe results carefully to make sure that FreeBSD found
all the devices you expected. If a device was not found then it will
be listed as missing. If the device's driver required configuring
with the IRQ and port address then you should check that you entered
them correctly.If you need to make changes to the UserConfig device probing,
its easy to exit the sysinstall program
and start over again. Its also a good way to become more familiar
with the process.Select Sysinstall ExitUse the arrow keys to select
Exit Install from the Main
Install Screen menu. The following message will display: User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot
(be sure to remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] NoThe install program will start again if the CDROM is left
in the drive and [Yes] is selected.If you are booting from floppies it will be necessary to remove
the mfs.root floppy and replace it with
kern.flp before rebooting.Introducing SysinstallSysinstall is the installation
application provided by the FreeBSD Project. It is text based, and is
divided in to a number of menus and screens that you can use to
configure and control the installation process.The Sysinstall menu system is controlled
by the arrow keys, Enter, Space. and
other keys. A detailed description of these keys, and what they do, is
contained in sysinstall's usage information.To review this information, ensure that the
Usage entry is highlighted and that the
[Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter.The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After
reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main
Menu.Selecting Usage From Sysinstall Main MenuSelecting The Documentation MenuFrom the Main Menu, select Doc with
the arrow keys and
press Enter.Selecting Documentation MenuThis will display the Documentation Menu.Sysinstall Documentation MenuIt is important to read the documents provided.To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and
press Enter. When finished reading a document,
pressing Enter will return to the Documentation
Menu.To return to the Main Installation Menu, select
Exit with the
arrow keys and press Enter.Selecting The Keymap MenuTo change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select
Keymap from the menu and press
EnterSysinstall Main MenuA different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the
menu item using up/down arrow keys and pressing Space.
Pressing Space again will unselect the item. When
finished, choose the [ OK ] using the
arrow keys and press
Enter.Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation.
Selecting [Cancel] will use the default
keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.Sysinstall Keymap MenuInstallation Options ScreenSelect Options and press
EnterSysinstall Main MenuSysinstall OptionsThe default values are usually fine for most users and do
not need to be changed.The description of the selected item will appear at the
bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the
options is Use Defaults to reset all
values to startup defaults.Press F1 to read the help screen about the
various options.Pressing Q will return to the Main Install
menu.Begin A Standard InstallationThe Standard installation is the
option recommended for those new to Unix or FreeBSD. Use the arrow
keys to select Standard and
then press Enter to start the installation.Begin Standard InstallationAllocating Disk SpaceYour first task is to allocate disk space for FreeBSD, and label
that space so that Sysinstall can prepare
it. In order to do this you need to know how FreeBSD expects to find
information on the disk.Disk OrganizationThe smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files
is the filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that
readme.txt and README.TXT
are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension
(.txt) of a file to determine whether the file is
program, or a document, or some other form of data.Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no
files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also
contain other directories, allowing you to build up a hierarchy of
directories within one another. This makes it much easier to organize
your data.Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or
directory name, followed by a forward slash, /,
followed by any other directory names that are necessary. If you have
directory foo, which contains directory
bar, which contains the file
readme.txt, then the full name, or
path to the file is
foo/bar/readme.txt.Directories and files are stored in a filesystem. Each filesystem
contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the
root directory for that filesystem. This root
directory can then contain other directories.So far this is probably similar to any other operating system you
may have used. There are a few differences; for example, DOS uses
\ to separate file and directory names, while MacOS
uses :.FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the
path. You would not write c:/foo/bar/readme.txt
on FreeBSD.Instead, one filesystem is designated the root
filesystem. The root filesystem's root directory is
referred to as /. Every other filesystem is then
mounted under the root filesystem. No matter
how many disks you have on your FreeBSD system, every directory
appears to be part of the same disk.Suppose you have three filesystems, called A,
B, and C. Each filesystem has
one root directory, which contains two other directories, called
A1, A2 (and likewise
B1, B2 and
C1, C2).Call A the root filesystem. If you used the
ls command to view the contents of this directory
you would see two subdirectories, A1 and
A2. The directory tree looks like this. /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2A filesystem must be mounted on to a directory in another
filesystem. So now suppose that you mount filesystem
B on to the directory A1. The
root directory of B replaces A1,
and the directories in B appear accordingly. /
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- B1
| |
| `--- B2
|
`--- A2Any files that are in the B1 or
B2 directories can be reached with the path
/A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as
necessary. Any files that were in /A1 have been
temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is
unmounted from A.If B had been mounted on A2
then the diagram would look like this; /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2and the paths would be /A2/B1 and
/A2/B2 respectively.Filesystems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the
last example, the C filesystem could be mounted on
top of the B1 directory in the B
filesystem, leading to this arrangement. /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- B2Or C could be mounted directly on to the
A filesystem, under the A1
directory. /
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2If you are familiar with DOS, this is similar, although not
identical, to the join command.This is not normally something you need to concern yourself with.
Typically you create filesystems when installing FreeBSD and decide
where to mount them, and then never change them unless you add a new
disk.It is entirely possible to have one large root filesystem, and not
need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach,
and one advantage.Benefits of multiple filesystemsDifferent filesystems can have different mount
options. For example, with careful planning, the
root filesystem can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for
you to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file.FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a
filesystem, depending on how the filesystem is being used. So a
filesystem that contains many small files that are written
frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains
fewer, larger files. By having one big filesystem this
optimization breaks down.FreeBSD's filesystems are very robust should you lose power.
However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the
structure of the filesystem. By splitting your data over multiple
filesystems it is more likely that the system will still come up,
making it easier for you to restore from backup as
necessary.Benefit of a single filesystemFilesystems are a fixed size. If you create a filesystem when
you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later
discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not
easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the filesystems
with the size, and then restoring.FreeBSD 5.0 will feature a new command,
growfs, which will make it possible to
increase the size of a filesystem on the fly, removing this
limitation.Filesystems are contained in partitions. This does not have the
same meaning as the earlier usage of the term partition in this
chapter, because of FreeBSD's Unix heritage. Each partition is
identified by a letter, a through to
h. Each partition can only contain one filesystem,
which means that filesystems are often described by either their
typical mount point on the root filesystem, or the letter of the
partition they are contained in.FreeBSD also uses disk space for swap
space. Swap space provides FreeBSD with
virtual memory. This allows your computer to
behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When
FreeBSD runs out of memory it moves some of the data that is not
currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving
something else out) when it needs it.Some partitions have certain conventions associated with
them.PartitionConventionaNormally contains the root filesystembNormally contains swap spacecNormally the same size as the enclosing slice. This
allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice (for
example, a bad block scanner) to work on the
c partition. You would not normally create
a filesystem on this partition.dPartition d used to have a special
meaning associated with it, although that is now gone. To
this day, some tools may operate oddly if told to work on
partition d, so
Sysinstall will not normally create
partition d.Each partition-that-contains-a-filesystem is stored in what
FreeBSD calls a slice. Slice is FreeBSD's term
for what were earlier called partitions, and again, this is because of
FreeBSD's Unix background. Slices are numbered, starting at 1,
through to 4.Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name
starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number,
indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at
0. Common codes that you will see are listed in
.When referring to a partition FreeBSD requires that you also name
the slice and disk that contains the partition, and when referring to
a slice you should also refer to the disk name. Do this by listing
the disk name, s, the slice number, and then the
partition letter. Examples are shown in
. shows a conceptual
model of the disk layout that should help make things clearer.In order to install FreeBSD you must first configure the disk
slices, then create partitions within the slice you will use for
FreeBSD, and then create a filesystem (or swap space) in each
partition, and decide where that filesystem will be mounted.
Disk Device CodesCodeMeaningadATAPI (IDE) diskdaSCSI direct access diskacdATAPI (IDE) CDROMcdSCSI CDROMfdFloppy disk
Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition NamesNameMeaningad0s1aThe first partition (a) on the first
slice (s1) on the first IDE disk
(ad0).da1s2eThe fifth partition (e) on the
second slice (s2) on the second SCSI disk
(da1).Conceptual Model of a DiskThis diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first IDE disk attached
to the system. Assume that the disk is 4GB in size, and contains
two 2GB slices (DOS partitions). The first slice contains a DOS
disk, C:, and the second slice contains a
FreeBSD installation. The FreeBSD installation has three
partitions, and a swap partition.The three partitions will each hold a filesystem. Partition
a will be used for the root filesystem,
e for the /var directory
hierarchy, and f for the
/usr directory hierarchy..-----------------. --.
| | |
| DOS / Windows | |
: : > First slice, ad0s1
: : |
| | |
:=================: ==: --.
| | | Partition a, mounted as / |
| | > referred to as ad0s2a |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | Partition b, used as swap |
| | > referred to as ad0s2b |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: | Partition c, no
| | | Partition e, used as /var > filesystem, all
| | > referred to as ad0s2e | of FreeBSD slice,
| | | | ad0s2c
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | |
: : | Partition f, used as /usr |
: : > referred to as ad0s2f |
: : | |
| | | |
| | --' |
`-----------------' --'Creating Slices using FDiskNo changes you make at this point will be written to the disk.
If you think you have made a mistake and want to start again you can
use the menus to exit Sysinstall and try
again. If you get confused and can not see how to exit you can
always turn your computer off.After choosing to begin a standard installation in
Sysinstall you will be shown this
message. Message
In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk")
partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote
all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on
the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default
partitioning scheme followed by a (Quit. If you wish to allocate only
free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the
(C)reate command.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter as instructed. You will then be
shown a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it
carried out the device probes.
shows an example from a
system with two IDE disks. They have been called
ad0 and ad2.Select Drive for FDISKYou might be wondering why ad1 is not
listed here. Why has it been missed?Consider what would happen if you had two IDE hard disks, one
as the master on the first IDE controller, and one as the master on
the second IDE controller. If FreeBSD numbered these as it found
them, as ad0 and
ad1 then everything would work.But if you then added a third disk, as the slave device on the
first IDE controller, it would now be ad1,
and the previous ad1 would become
ad2. Because device names (such as
ad1s1a) are used to find filesystems, you
may suddenly discover that some of your filesystems no longer
appear correctly, and you would need to change your FreeBSD
configuration.To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE
disks based on where they are, and not the order in which they were
found. With this scheme the master disk on the second IDE
controller will always be
ad2, even if there are no
ad0 or ad1
devices.This configuration is the default for the FreeBSD kernel, which
is why this display shows ad0 and
ad2. The machine on which this screenshot
was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE
controllers, and no disks on the slave channels.You should select the disk on which you want to install FreeBSD,
and then press OK.
FDisk will start, with a display similar to
that shown in .The FDisk display is broken in to three
sections.The first section, covering the first two lines of the display,
shows details about the currently selected disk, including its FreeBSD
name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk.The second section shows the slices that are currently on the
disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name FreeBSD
gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two
small unused slices, which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the
PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which almost certainly appears
as C: in DOS / Windows, and an extended
slice, which may contain other drive letters for DOS / Windows.The third section shows the commands that are available in
FDisk.Typical Fdisk Partitions Before EditingWhat you do now will depend on how you want to slice up your
disk.If you want to use FreeBSD for the entire disk (which will delete
all the other data on this disk when you confirm that you want
Sysinstall to continue later in the
installation process) then you can press A, which
corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option.
The existing slices will be removed, and replaced with a small area
flagged as unused (again, an artifact of PC disk
layout), and then one large slice for FreeBSD. If you do this then
you should then select the newly created FreeBSD slice using the arrow
keys, and press S to mark the slice as being
bootable. The screen will then look very similar to
. Note the
A in the Flags column, which
indicates that this slice is active, and will be
booted from.If you will be deleting an existing slice to make space for
FreeBSD then you should select the slice using the arrow keys, and
then press D. You can then press C,
and be prompted for size of slice you want to create. Enter the
appropriate figure and press Enter.If you have already made space for FreeBSD (perhaps by using a
tool such as Partition Magic) then you can
press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be
prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.Fdisk Partition Using Entire DiskWhen finished, press Q. Your changes will be
saved in Sysinstall, but will not yet be
written to disk.Install a Boot ManagerYou now have the option to install a boot manager. In general,
you should choose to install the FreeBSD boot manager if:You have more than one drive, and have installed FreeBSD on to
a drive other than the first one.You have installed FreeBSD alongside another operating system
on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start FreeBSD
or the other operating system when you start the computer.Make your choice, and then select [OK] and
press Enter.Sysinstall Boot Manager MenuThe help screen, reached by pressing F1,
discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share
the hard disk between operating systems.Creating Slices on Another DriveIf there is more than one drive, it will return to the
Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. If you wish to
install FreeBSD on to more than one disk than you can select another
disk here, and repeat the slice process using
FDisk,Exit Select DriveMake sure [ OK ] is highlighted, then
press Enter
to continue with the installation.Creating Partitions using
DisklabelYou must now create some partitions inside each slice that you
have just created. Remember that each partition is lettered, from
a through to h, and that
partitions b, c, and
d have conventional meanings that you should adhere
to.Certain applications can benefit from particular partition
schemes, especially if you are laying out partitions across more than
one disk. However, for this, your first FreeBSD installation, you do
not need to give too much thought to how you partition the disk. It
is more important that you install FreeBSD and start learning how to
use it. You can always re-install FreeBSD to change your partition
scheme when you are more familiar with the operating system.This scheme features four partitions—one for swap space, and
three for filesystems.
Partition Layout for First DiskPartitionFilesystemSizeDescriptiona/64MBThis is the root file system. Every other filesystem
will be mounted somewhere under this one. 64MB is a
reasonable size for this filesystem. You will not be storing
too much data on it, as a regular FreeBSD install will put
about 40MB of data here. The remaining space is for temporary
data, and also leaves expansion space if future versions of
FreeBSD need more space in /bN/A2-3 x RAMThe system's swap space is kept on this partition.
Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an
art. A good rule of thumb is that you should have two or
three times the amount of RAM as swap space. So if you have
64MB of RAM then you should have between 128MB and 196MB of swap.
You should also have at least 64MB of swap, so if you have
less than 32MB of RAM in your computer then set the swap
amount to 64MB.If you have more than one disk then you can put swap
space on each disk. FreeBSD will then use each disk for
swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In
this case, calculate the total amount of swap you need
(e.g., 128MB), and then divide this by the number of disks
you have (e.g., two disks) to give the amount of swap you
should put on each disk, in this example, 64MB of swap per
disk.e/var50MBThe /var directory contains variable
length files; log files, and other administrative files. Many
of these files are read-from or written-to extensively during
FreeBSD's day-to-day running. Putting these files on another
filesystem allows FreeBSD to optimise the access of these
files without affecting other files in other directories that
do not have the same access pattern.f/usrRest of diskAll your other files will typically be stored in
/usr, and its subdirectories.
If you will be installing FreeBSD on to more than one disk then
you must also create partitions in the other slices that you
configured. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on
each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem.
Partition Layout for Subsequent DisksPartitionFilesystemSizeDescriptionbN/ASee descriptionAs already discussed, you can split swap space across
each disk. Even though the a partition is
free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the
b partition.e/disknRest of diskThe rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition.
This could easily be put on the a
partition, instead of the e partition.
However, convention says that the a
partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will
be the root (/) filesystem. You do not
have to follow this convention, but
Sysinstall does, so following it
yourself makes the installation slightly cleaner. You can
choose to mount this filesystem anywhere; this example
suggests that you mount them as directories
/diskn, where
n is a number that changes for each
disk. But you can use another scheme if you prefer.
Having chosen your partition layout you can now create it using
Sysinstall. You will see this
message. Message
Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk
partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk
space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply
use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have
more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by
(A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout.
[ OK ] Press Enter to start the FreeBSD partition
editor, called Disklabel. shows the display when you first
start Disklabel. The display is divided in
to three sections.The first few lines show the name of the disk you are currently
working on, and the slice that contains the partitions you are
creating (at this point Disklabel calls
this the Partition name rather than slice name).
This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice;
that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet
been assigned to a partition.The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been
created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains,
their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the
filesystem.The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid
in Disklabel.Sysinstall Disklabel EditorDisklabel can automatically create
partitions for you, and assign them default sizes. Try this now, by
Pressing A. You will see a display similar to that
shown in . Depending on the size of
the disk you are using the defaults may or may not be appropriate.
This does not matter, as you do not have to accept the
defaults.Sysinstall Disklabel Editor With Auto DefaultsTo delete the suggested partitions, and replace them with your
own, use the arrow keys to select the first partition, and press
D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the
suggested partitions.To create the first partition (a, mounted as
/), make sure the disk information at the top of
the screen is selected, and press C. A dialog box
will appear prompting you for the size of the new partition (as shown
in ). You can enter the size as
the number of disk blocks you want to use, or, more usefully, as a
number followed by either M for megabytes,
G for gigabytes, or C for
cylinders.Free Space For Root PartitionThe default size shown will create a partition that takes up the
rest of the slice. If you are using the partition sizes described
earlier then delete the existing figure using
Backspace, and then type in
64M, as shown in
. Then press
OK.Edit Root Partition SizeHaving chosen the partition's size you will then asked whether
this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog
box is shown in . This first
partition will contain a filesystem, so check that
FS is selected and then press
Enter.Choose The Root Partition TypeFinally, because you are creating a filesystem, you must tell
Disklabel where the filesystem is to be
mounted. The dialog box is shown in
. The root filesystem's mount
point is /, so type /, and
then press Enter.Choose The Root Mount PointThe display will then update to show you the newly created
partition. You should repeat this procedure for the other
partitions. When you create the swap partition you will not be
prompted for the filesystem mount point, as swap partitions are never
mounted. When you create the final partition,
/usr, you can leave the suggested size as is, to
use the rest of the slice.Your final FreeBSD DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to
, although your values chosen may
be different. Press Q to finish.Sysinstall Disklabel EditorChoosing What To InstallSelect The Distribution SetDeciding which distribution set to install will depend largely
on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space
available. The predefined options range from installing the
smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are
new to Unix and/or FreeBSD should almost certainly select one
of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is
typically for the more experienced user.Press F1 for more information on the
distribution set options and what they contain. When finished
reviewing the help, pressing Enter will return
to the Select Distributions Menu.If a graphical user interface is desired then a distribution
set that is preceded by an X should be
chosen. The configuration of XFree86 and selection of a default
desktop is part of the post-installation steps.The default XFree86 version installed is the 3.x branch. You
should check to see whether your video card is supported at the
XFree86 web site.
If it is only supported under the 4.x branch, then you will need
to install and configure XFree86 4.x after installation. Select a
distribution without X and refer to for
- more information.
+ more information.If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option
which includes the source code. For more information on why a
custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel see
.Obviously, the most versatile system is one that includes
everything. If there is adequate disk space, select
All as shown in
by using the arrow keys and
press Enter. If there is a concern about disk
space consider using an option that is more suitable for the
situation. Other distributions can be added after installation.Choose DistributionsInstalling The Ports Collection
After selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to
install the FreeBSD Ports Collection is presented. The ports
collection is an easy and convenient way to install software.
The ports collection does not contain the source code necessary
to compile the software. It is a collection of files which
automates the downloading, compiling and installation.
discusses how to use the ports
collection.The installation program does not check to see if you have
adequate space. Select this option only if you have
adequate hard disk space. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection?
This will give you ready access to over 5000 ported software packages,
at a cost of around 70MB of disk space when "clean" and possibly much
more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded
(unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution
available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less
of a problem).
The ports collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having
on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option.
For more information on the ports collection & the latest ports,
visit:
http://www.freebsd.org/ports
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] with the arrow keys to
install the ports collection or [ No ] to
skip this option. Press Enter to continue.
The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.Confirm DistributionsIf satisfied with the options, select
Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that
[ OK ] is highlighted, and press
Enter to continue.Choosing Your Installation MediaIf Installing from a CDROM, use the arrow keys to highlight
Install from a FreeBSD CDROM. Ensure
that [ OK ] is highlighted, then press
Enter to proceed with the installation.For other methods of installation, select the appropriate
option and follow the instructions.Press F1 to display the Online Help for
installation media. Press Enter to return
to the media selection menu.Choose Installation MediaFTP Installation ModesinstallationnetworkFTPThere are three FTP installation modes you can choose from:
active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy.FTP Active, Install from an FTP
serverThis option will make all FTP transfers
use Active
mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will
often work with older FTP servers that do not support
passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive
mode (the default), try active!FTP Passive, Install from an FTP server through a
firewallFTPPassive modeThis option instructs FreeBSD to use
Passive mode for all FTP operations.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow incoming connections on random port
addresses.FTP via a HTTP proxy, Install from an FTP server
through a http proxyFTPvia a HTTP proxyThis option instructs FreeBSD to use the HTTP
protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy
for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate
the requests and send them to the FTP server.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP
proxy.
In this case, you have to specify the proxy in
addition to the FTP server.For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the
server you really want as a part of the username, after an
@ sign. The proxy server then fakes
the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from
ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP
server foo.bar.com, listening on port
1024.In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username
to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your
email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or
passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL
ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD.Since /pub/FreeBSD from
ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under
foo.bar.com, you are able to install
from that machine (which will fetch the files
from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your
installation requests them.Committing to the InstallationThe installation can now proceed if desired. This is also
the last chance for aborting the installation to prevent changes
to the hard drive. User Confirmation Requested
Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to proceed.The installation time will vary according to the distribution
chosen and installation media used. There will be a series of
messages displayed indicating the status.The installation is complete when the following message is
displayed: Message
Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system.
We will now move on to the final configuration questions.
For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No.
If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may
do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall .
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter to proceed with post-installation
configurations.Selecting [ No ] and pressing
Enter will abort
the installation so no changes will be made to your system. The
following message will appear : Message
Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll
through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature.
You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the
installation menus to try and retry whichever operations have failed.
[ OK ]This message is generated because nothing was installed.
Pressing Enter will return to the
Main Installation Menu to exit the installation.Post-installationConfiguration of various options follows the successful
installation. An option can be configured by re-entering the
configuration options before booting the new FreeBSD
system or after installation using
/stand/sysinstall and selecting
Configure.Network Device ConfigurationIf you previously configured PPP for an FTP install, this screen
will not display and can be configured later as described
above.For detailed information on Local Area Networks and
configuring FreeBSD as a gateway/router refer to the tutorial
PPP- Pendantic PPP Primer. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices?
[ Yes ] NoTo configure a network device, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
Otherwise, select [ No ] to continue.Selecting An Ethernet DeviceSelect the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press
Enter. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]In this private local area network the current Internet
type protocol (IPv4) was sufficient and [ No ]
was selected with the arrow keys and Enter
pressed.If you want to try the new Internet protocol (IPv6), choose
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
It will take several seconds for scanning RA servers. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]If DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is not required
select [ No ] with the arrow keys and press
Enter.Selecting [ Yes ] will execute
dhclient, and if successful, will fill
in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to
for more information.The following Network Configuration screen shows the
configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act
as the gateway for a Local Area Network.Set Network Configuration For ed0Use Tab to select the information fields and
fill in appropriate information:HostThe fully-qualified hostname, e.g. k6-2.weeble.com in
this case.DomainThe name of the domain that your machine is
in, e.g. weeble.com for this case.IPv4 GatewayIP address of host forwarding packets to non-local
destinations. Fill this in only if the machine is a node
on the network. Leave this field blank
if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the
network.Name serverIP address of your local DNS server. There is no local
DNS server on this private local area network so the IP
address of the provider's DNS server (208.163.10.2) was
used.IPv4 addressThe IP address to be used for this interface was
(192.168.0.1).NetmaskThe address block being used for this local area
network is a Class C block (192.168.0.0 -
192.168.255.255). The default netmask is for a Class C
network (255.255.255.0).Extra options to ifconfigAny interface-specific options to ifconfig
you would like to add. There were none in this case.Use Tab to select [ OK ]
when finished and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now?
[ Yes ] NoChoosing [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will bring
the machine up on the network and be ready for use after leaving
leaving the installation.Configure Internet Services User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides?
Yes [ No ]If [ No ] is selected, various services
such telnetd will not be enabled. This
means that remote users will not be able to
telnet into this machine. Local users
will be still be able to access remote machines with
telnet.These services can be enabled after installation by editing
/etc/inetd.conf with your favorite text editor.
See for more information.Select [ Yes ] if you wish to
configure these services during install. An additional
confirmation will display. User Confirmation Requested
The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet
services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling
these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing
the exposure of your system.
With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] to continue. User Confirmation Requested
inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine
which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD
inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be
specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will
function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for
IPv6 must be seperately enabled from IPv4 services.
Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to
use the current settings.
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] will allow adding
services by deleting the # at the beginning
of a line.Editing inetd.confAfter adding the desired services, pressing Esc
will display a menu which will allow exiting and saving
the changes.Configure Gateway User Confirmation Requested
Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway?
[ Yes ] NoIf the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area
network and forwarding packets between other machines then select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
If the machine is a node on a network then
select [ No ] and press
Enter to continue.Anonymous FTP User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine?
Yes [ No ]Deny Anonymous FTPSelecting the default [ No ] and pressing
Enter will still allow users who have accounts
with passwords to use FTP to access the machine.Allow Anonymous FTPAnyone can access your machine if you elect to allow
anonymous FTP connections. The security implications should be
considered before enabling this option. For more information
about security see .To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
The following screens (or similar) will display :Default Anonymous FTP ConfigurationPressing F1 will display the help :This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user.
The following configuration values are editable:
UID: The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user.
All files uploaded will be owned by this ID.
Group: Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in.
Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd
FTP Root Directory:
Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept.
Upload subdirectory:
Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go.The ftp root directory will be put in /var
by default. If you do not have enough room there for the
anticipated FTP needs, the /usr directory
could be used by setting the FTP Root Directory to
/usr/ftp.When you are satisfied with the values, press
Enter to continue. User Confirmation Requested
Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users?
[ Yes ] NoIf you select [ Yes ] and press
Enter, an editor will automatically start
allowing you to edit the message.Edit The FTP Welcome MessageThis is a text editor called ee. Use the
instructions to change the message or change the message later
using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location
at the bottom.Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default
to a) leave editor. Press
Enter to exit and continue.Configure Network File ServicesNetwork File Services (NFS) allows sharing of files across a
network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or
both. Refer to for a more information.NFS Server User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server?
Yes [ No ]If there is no need for a Network File System server or
client, select [ No ] and press
Enter.If [ Yes ] is chosen, a message will
pop-up indicating that the exports file must be created. Message
Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an
/etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of
access to your local file systems.
Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports
[ OK ]Press Enter to continue. A text editor will
start allowing the exports file to be created and edited.Editing the Exports FileUse the instructions to add the actual exported filesystems
now or later using a text editor of your choice. Note the
filename/location at the bottom of the editor screen.Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to
a) leave editor. Press
Enter to exit and continue.NFS Client User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client?
Yes [ No ]With the arrow keys, select [ Yes ]
or [ No ] as appropriate and
press Enter.Security ProfileA security profile is a set of configuration options that
attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security to convenience by
enabling and disabling certain programs and other settings. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select
No for "medium" security)?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ No ] and pressing
Enter will set the security profile to medium.Selecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will allow selecting a different security
profile.Security Profile OptionsPress F1 to display the help. Press
Enter to return to selection menu.Use the arrow keys to choose Medium
unless your are sure that another level is required for your needs.
With [ OK ] highlighted, press
Enter.An appropriate confirmation message will display depending on
which security setting was chosen. Message
Moderate security settings have been selected.
Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are
disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK] Message
Extreme security settings have been selected.
Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and
securelevels have been enabled.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK]Press Enter to continue with the
post-installation configuration.System Console SettingsThere are several options available to customize the system
console. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to customize your system console settings?
[ Yes ] NoTo view and configure the options, select
- [ Yes ] and press Enter.
+ [ Yes ] and press Enter.Screensaver OptionsA commonly used option is the screensaver. Use the arrow keys
to select Saver and then press
Enter.Screensaver OptionsSelect the desired screen saver using the arrow keys
and then press Enter. The System Console
Configuration menu will redisplay.The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time
interval, select Saver again. At the
Screensaver Options menu, select Timeout
using the arrow keys and press Enter. A pop-up
menu will appear :Screensaver TimeoutThe value can be changed, then select [ OK ]
and press Enter to return to the System Console
Configuration menu.System Console Configuration ExitSelecting Exit and pressing
Enter will continue with the post-installation
configurations.Setting The Time ZoneSetting the timezone for your machine will allow it to
automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform
other timezone related functions properly.The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern
time zone of the United States. Your selections will vary according
to your geographical location. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to set this machine's time zone now?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to set the time zone. User Confirmation Requested
Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time
or you don't know, please choose NO here!
Yes [ No ]Select [ Yes ]
or [ No ] according to how the machine's
clock is configured and press Enter.Select Your RegionThe appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys
and then press Enter.Select Your CountrySelect the appropriate country using the arrow keys
and press Enter.Select Your TimezoneThe appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow
keys and pressing Enter. Confirmation
Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable?
[ Yes ] NoConfirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct.
If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with
the post-installation configuration.Linux Compatibility User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will allow
running Linux software on FreeBSD. The install will proceed to add
the appropriate packages for Linux compatibility.If installing by FTP, the machine will need to be connected to
the Internet. Sometimes a remote ftp site will not have all the
distributions like the Linux binary compatibility. This can
be installed later if necessary.Mouse SettingsThis option will allow you to cut and past text in the
console and user programs with a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button
mouse, refer to manual page, &man.moused.8;, after installation for
details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a
non-USB mouse. User Confirmation Requested
Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] for a non-USB mouse or
[ No ] for a USB mouse and press
Enter.Select Mouse Protocol TypeUse the arrow keys to select Type and
press EnterSet Mouse ProtocolThe mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default
Auto was
appropriate. To change protocol, use the arrow keys to select
another option. Ensure that [ OK ] is
highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.Configure Mouse PortUse the arrow keys to select Port and
press Enter.Setting The Mouse PortThis system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default
PS/2 was
appropriate. To change the port, use the arrow keys and then
press Enter.Enable The Mouse DaemonLast, the mouse daemon is enabled and tested.Test The Mouse DaemonThe cursor moved around the screen so the mouse daemon is
running:Select [ Yes ] to return to the previous
menu then select Exit
with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to
continue with the post-installation configuration.Configure X-ServerIn order to use a graphical user interface such as KDE, GNOME,
or others, the X server will need to be configured.To see whether your video card is supported, check the
XFree86 web site.
If your video card is only supported under XFree86 4.x, refer to
for installation and configuration. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure your X server at this time?
[ Yes ] NoIt is necessary to know your monitor specifications and
video card information. Equipment damage can occur if settings
are incorrect. If you do not have this information, select
[ No ] and perform the configuration
after installation when you have the information using
/stand/sysinstall, selecting
Configure and then
XFree86.
If you have graphics card and monitor information, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter
to proceed with configuring the X server.Select Configuration Method MenuThere are several ways to configure the X
server. XF86Setup is fully graphical and
probably the easiest. Use the arrow keys to select the
XF86Setup and press
Enter. Message
You have configured and been running the mouse daemon.
Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or
"MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]The indicates that the mouse daemon previously configured has been
detected. Press Enter to continue. Press [Enter] to switch to graphics mode.
This may take a while...
[ OK ]Press Enter to switch to the graphics mode and
continue. It will not try to switch to the
graphics mode until Enter is pressed. The screen
will go black and then shortly a screen with a large X in the
center will appear. Be patient and wait.After a few more moments, the XF86Setup
introduction will display. Read all instructions
carefully. Press Enter to
continue.XF86Setup OverviewThere are several areas of configuration to be completed.
The configuration choices you make will depend on the hardware
in the system so only a general overview can be given here.Along the top of the configuration tool there are buttons
indicating the areas to be configured. You should be able to use
the mouse if it was previously configured and select each item by
clicking on it. Review each area and make appropriate selections
for your system.MouseThe mouse is the first item to be configured. If you
previously configured your mouse, the mouse daemon will already
be running and should indicate SysMouse
automatically for the mouse protocol. If you are use a two
button mouse, you should also select
Emulate3Buttons. There are other
settings that can be tweaked if necessary.After completing your selections, click on the
Apply and check the mouse actions are
working properly. If further adjustment is needed, make them
and recheck the operation by clicking on
Apply again. When finished, move
on to the next item.KeyboardSelect the appropriate keyboard model. The default
keyboard is Generic 101-key PC.Select the language layout for your keyboard. The default
layout is U.S. English. If you are
not using a U.S. keyboard, you may need to additionally
select a variant.There are other options under Group Shift/Lock behavior and
Control Key Position that can be selected if desired. Generally
the default settings are fine.After completing the keyboard configuration, click on
Apply and move on to the next
item.CardClick on Read README file for
additional help in configuring your video card.Select the appropriate video card from the list using the
scrollbar. Clicking on your card will show as
Card selected: above the list box.Next, the Detailed Setup was
selected just to check details. Typically, if your video
card was in the list, no changes will be needed here.When finished, move on to the next item.MonitorThere are two ways to proceed. One method requires that you
enter the horizontal and vertical sweep capabilities of your
monitor in the text boxes.Choosing one of the monitor options listed that the monitor
is the other method. After selecting a listed option, the
horizontal and vertical sweep rates that will be used will
display. Compare those to your monitor specifications. The
monitor must be capable of using those ranges.Do not exceed the ratings of your monitor. Damage could
occur. If you have doubts select ABORT
and get the information. The remainder of the installation process
will be unaffected and configuring the X-Server can be done
later using /stand/sysinstall.
- When finished, move on to the next item.
+ When finished, move on to the next item.ModeSelect the video mode(s) that you want to use. You can select
more than one option. Typically, useful ranges are 640x480,
800x600, and 1024x768 but those are a function of video card
capability, monitor size, and eye comfort.Next, select the default color depth you want to use. Your
choices are 8bpp, 16bpp, 24bpp, and 32bpp. Select the highest
color depth that your video card will support.When finished, move on to the next item.OtherThere default settings are reasonable values so you
probably won't need to change anything here.The default setting which allows the server to be killed
with the hotkey sequence CtrlAltBackspace should be left on. This
can be executed if something is wrong with the server settings and
prevent hardware damage.The default setting that allows video mode switching will
permit changing of the mode while running X with the hotkey
sequence
Alt+ or
Alt-.
Testing the ServerVerify all the settings once again and select
Done and the following message will
display :If you've finished configuring everything press the
Okay button to start the X server using the configuration
you've selected. If you still wish to configure some things,
press one of the buttons at the top and then press "Done" again,
when you've finished.After selecting Okay, some messages
will briefly appear advising to wait and attempting to start
the x-server. This process takes a few moments, so be
patient.The screen will go blank for a short period of time and
then a screen will appear with the message
Congratulations, you've got a running server!If nothing appears or is distorted, kill the x-server using
CtrlAltBackspace
and adjust the settings or revisit them after installation.Running xvidtuneThe display can be adjusted for height, width, or centering
by using xvidtune.There are warnings that improper settings can
damage your equipment. Heed them. If in doubt, do not do
it. Instead, use the monitor controls to adjust the display for
x-windows. There may be some display differences when switching
back to text mode, but it is better than damaging equipment. The
xvidtune can be ran later using
/stand/sysinstall.Read the xvidtune before making
any adjustments.Saving ConfigurationWhen you are satisfied, the configuration can now be saved.
Select Save the configuration and Exit
The configuration file will be saved to
/etc/XF86Config.Once the configuration is done, the installation program will
need to create a link to the server : Do you want to create an 'X' link to the SVGA server?
(the link will be created in the directory:
/usr/X11R6/bin) Okay?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to create the link. Link created successfully.
[ OK ]Press Enter to continue configuration.Select Default X DesktopThere are a variety of window managers available. They range
from very basic environments to full desktop environments with a
large suite of software. Some require only minimal disk space and
low memory while others with more features require much more. The
best way to determine which is most suitable for you is to try a few
different ones. Those are available from the ports collection or as
packages and can be added after installation.You can select one of the popular desktops to be installed
and configured as the default desktop. This will allow you
to start it right after installation.Select Default DesktopUse the arrow keys to select a desktop and press
Enter. Installation of the selected desktop will
proceed.Install PackagesThe packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient
way to install software.Installation of one package is shown for purposes of
illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this
time if desired. After installation
/stand/sysinstall can be used to add additional
packages. User Confirmation Requested
The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of
ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers
and more. Would you like to browse the collection now?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will be
followed by the Package Selection screens:Select Package CategoryAll packages available will be displayed if
All is selected or you can select a
particular category. Highlight your selection with the arrow
keys and press Enter.A menu will display showing all the packages available for
the selection made.Select PackagesThe bash shell is shown selected.
Select as many as desired by highlighting the package and pressing
the Space.
A short description of each package will appear in the lower left
corner of the screen.When you have finished marking the packages for installation,
select [ OK ] and press
Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.Install PackagesUse the arrow keys to select [ Install ]
and press Enter. You will then need to confirm
that you want to install the packages.Confirm Package InstallationSelecting [ OK ] and pressing
Enter will start
the package installation. Installing messages will appear until
completed. Make note if there are any error messages.The final configuration continues after packages are
installed.Add User/GroupsYou should add at least one user during the installation so
that you can use the system without being logged in as root. The
root partition is generally small and running applications as
root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below : User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding
at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since
working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which
adversely affect the entire system).
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to continue with adding a user.Select Add UserSelect Add User with the arrow keys
and press Enter.Add User InformationThe following descriptions will appear in the lower part of
the screen as the items are selected with Tab
to assist with entering the required information.Login IDThe login name of the new user (mandatory)UIDThe numerical ID for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice)GroupThe login group name for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice)PasswordThe password for this user (enter this field with
care!)Full nameThe user's full name (comment)Member groupsThe groups this user belongs to (i.e. gets access
rights for)Home directoryThe user's home directory (leave blank for
default)Login shellThe user's login shell (leave blank for
default). (/bin/sh)The login shell was changed from
/bin/sh to
/usr/local/bin/bash to use the
bash shell
that was previously installed as a package. Do not try to
use a shell that does not exist or you will not be able to
login.The user was also added to the group "wheel" to be able to
become a superuser with root privileges.When you are satisfied, press [ OK ] and
the User and Group Management menu will redisplay.Exit User and Group ManagementGroups could also be added at this time if specific needs
are known. Otherwise, this may be accessed through using
/stand/sysinstall after installation is
completed.When you are finished adding users, select
Exit with the arrow keys and press
Enter to continue the installation.Set Root Password Message
Now you must set the system manager's password.
This is the password you'll use to log in as "root".
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter to set the root password.The password will need to be typed in twice
correctly. Needless to say, make sure you have a way of finding
the password if you forget.Changing local password for root.
New password :
Retype new password :The installation will continue after the password is
successfully entered.Exiting InstallIf you need to configure additional network devices or to
do any other configurations, you can do it at this point or
after installation with /stand/sysinstall. User Confirmation Requested
Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last
options?
Yes [ No ]Selecting [ No ] with the arrow keys
and pressing Enter returns to the Main
Installation MenuExit InstallSelect [X Exit Install] with the arrow
keys and press Enter. You will be asked to
confirm exiting the installation : User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to
remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and remove floppy if
booting from floppy. The CDROM drive is locked until the machine
starts to reboot. The CDROM drive is then unlocked and can
be removed from drive (quickly).The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that
may appear.FreeBSD BootupIf everything went well, you will see messages scroll
off the screen and you will arrive at a login prompt. You can view
the content of the messages by pressing Scroll-Lock
and using PgUp and PgDn.
Pressing Scroll-Lock again will return
to the prompt.The entire message may not display (buffer limitation) but
it can be viewed from the command line after logging in by typing
dmesg at the prompt.Login using the username/password you set during installation
(rpratt, in this example). Avoid logging in as root except when
necessary.Typical boot messages :Copyright (c) 1992-2001 The FreeBSD Project.
Copyright (c) 1982, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD 4.3-RELEASE #0: Sat Apr 21 10:54:49 GMT 2001
jkh@narf.osd.bsdi.com:/usr/src/sys/compile/GENERIC
Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU)
Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0
Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX>
AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!>
real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes)
config> di sn0
config> di lnc0
config> di le0
config> di ie0
config> di fe0
config> di cs0
config> di bt0
config> di ata1
config> di aic0
config> di aha0
config> di adv0
config> q
avail memory = 256983040 (250960K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc044d000.
Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc044d09c.
md0: Malloc disk
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at
device 10.0 on pci0
ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x6f on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0
lpt0: Interrupt-driven port
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a
swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device
Automatic boot in progress...
/dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1a: clean, 70119 free (655 frags, 8683 blocks, 0.7% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1f: clean, 6976313 free (51774 frags, 829297 blocks, 0.7% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1e: clean, 97952 free (9 frags, 12381 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
Doing initial network setup: hostname.
lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384
inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8
inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128
inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
Additional routing options: tcp extensions=NO IP gateway=YES TCP
keepalive=YES
routing daemons:.
additional daemons: syslogd.
Doing additional network setup: portmap.
Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key
Generating RSA keys: Key generation complete.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
2d:02:37:d2:0e:68:93:8f:9c:46:de:92:f4:be:60:0a root@k6-2.weeble.com
creating ssh DSA host key
Generating DSA parameter and key.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
38:af:d2:1f:63:14:00:d8:83:fd:dd:4b:97:1c:43:6d root@k6-2.weeble.com.
setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib
/usr/local/lib
setting a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout
/usr/X11R6/lib/aout
starting standard daemons: inetd cron sendmail sshd usbd.
Initial rc.i386 initialization: linux.
rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused.
Additional ABI support: linux.
Local package initilization:.
Additional TCP options:.
login: rpratt
Password:Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower
machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new
installation. Subsequent boots will be faster.If the X server has been configured and a Default Desktop
chosen, it can be started by typing startx at
the command line.FreeBSD ShutdownIt is important to properly shutdown the operating
system. Do not just turn off power. First, become a superuser by
typing su at the command line and entering the
root password. This will work only if the user is a member of the
group wheel. Otherwise, login as root and use
shutdown -h now.The operating system has halted.
Please press any key to reboot.It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command
has been issued and the message "Please press any key to reboot"
appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power
switch, the system will reboot.Supported HardwarehardwareFreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and
PCI bus-based PCs with Intel, AMD, Cyrix, or NexGen
x86 processors, as well as a number of
machines based on the Compaq Alpha processor.
Support for generic IDE or
ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA
cards, USB devices, and network and
serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's
microchannel (MCA) bus.A list of supported hardware is provided with each FreeBSD
release in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes. This document can
usually be found in a file named
HARDWARE.TXT, in the top-level directory of
a CDROM or FTP distribution or in sysinstall's documentation
menu. It lists, for a given architecture, what hardware devices
are known to be supported by each release of FreeBSD.TroubleshootinginstallationtroubleshootingThe following section covers basic installation troubleshooting,
such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few
questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with
MS-DOS.What to Do If Something Goes Wrong...Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is
impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a
few things you can do if it fails.Check the Hardware Notes document for your version of
FreeBSD to make sure your hardware is
supported.If your hardware is supported and you still experience
lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the
visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will
allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the
system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured
assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default
configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If
your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to
use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find
things.It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will
cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In
that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be
disabled.Do not disable any drivers you will need during the
installation, such as your screen (sc0).
If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving
the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed
something you should not have. Reboot and try again.In configuration mode, you can:List the device drivers installed in the kernel.Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in
your system.Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device
driver.After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware
configuration, type Q to boot with the new
settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you
made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have
to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that
you will eventually want to build a custom kernel.MS-DOS User's Questions and AnswersDOSMany users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS.
Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on
such systems.Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything
first?If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little
or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all
hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS
utility, provided
in the tools directory on the FreeBSD
CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite
useful.FIPSFIPS allows you to split an
existing MS-DOS partition
into two pieces, preserving the original partition and
allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You
first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows
DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer,
right-click on the
hard drive, and choose to defrag your
hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run
FIPS. It
will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs.
Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new
free slice. See the Distributions menu
for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the
kind of installation you want.Partition MagicThere is also a very useful
product from PowerQuest
called Partition Magic. This
application has far more functionality than
FIPS, and is
highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove
operating systems (like me). However, it does cost
money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then
leave it there, FIPS will probably
be fine for you.Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from
FreeBSD?No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or
DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever
portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest
of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the
stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that
file or you will probably regret it
greatly!It is probably better to create another uncompressed
primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications
between MS-DOS and FreeBSD.Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition?partitionsslicesYes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end
of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your
D: drive might be
/dev/da0s5, your
E: drive,
/dev/da0s6, and so on. This example
assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI
drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad
for da appropriately if installing
4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute
wd for da if you
are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise
mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other
DOS drive, for example:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_dValentinoVaschettoContributed by Advanced Installation GuideThis section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional
cases.Installing FreeBSD on a System without a Monitor or
Keyboardinstallationheadless (serial console)serial consoleThis type of installation is called a "headless install",
because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on
either doesnt have a monitor attached to it, or doesnt even
have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a
serial console. A serial console is basically using another
machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a
system. To do this, just follow these steps:Fetch the Right Boot Floppy ImagesFirst you will need to get the right disk images so
that you can boot into the install program. The secret
with using a serial console is that you tell the boot
loader to send I/O through a serial port instead of
displaying console output to the VGA device and trying to
read input from a local keyboard. Enough of that now,
let's get back to getting these disk images.You will need to get kern.flp and
mfsroot.flp from the
floppies directory.Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks.The image files, such as
kern.flp, are
not regular files that you copy to
the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete
contents of the disk.This means that you can not use
commands like DOS' copy to write the
files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the
images directly to the disk.fdimageIf you are creating the floppies on a computer running
DOS then we provide a tool to do this called
fdimage.If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and
your CDROM is the E: drive then
you would run this:E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Repeat this command for each .flp
file, replacing the floppy disk each time. Adjust the
command line as necessary, depending on where you have
placed the .flp files. If you do not
have the CDROM then fdimage can be
downloaded from the tools
directory on the FreeBSD FTP site.If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such
as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1;
command to write the image files directly to disk. On
FreeBSD you would run:&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to
the first floppy disk (the A:
drive). /dev/fd1 would be the
B: drive, and so on. Other Unix
variants might have different names for the floppy disk
devices, and you will need to check the documentation for
the system as necessary.Enabling the Boot Floppies to Boot into a Serial
ConsoleDo not try to mount the floppy if it is write-protectedmountIf you were to boot into the floppies that you just
made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We
want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our
install. To do this, you have to mount the
kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD
system using the &man.mount.8; command.&prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mntNow that you have the floppy mounted, you must
change into the floppy directory&prompt.root; cd /mntHere is where you must set the floppy to boot into a
serial console. You have to make a file called
boot.config containing "/boot/loader
-h". All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to
boot into a serial console.&prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.configNow that you have your floppy configured correctly,
you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8;
command&prompt.root; cd /
&prompt.root; umount /mntNow you can remove the floppy from the floppy
driveConnecting Your Null Modem Cablenull-modem cableYou now need to connect a null modem cable between
the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial
ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable
will not work here, you need a null modem
cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed
over.Booting Up for the InstallIt is now time to go ahead and start the install. Put
the kern.flp floppy in the floppy
drive of the machine you are doing the headless install
on, and power on the machine.Connecting to Your Headless MachinecuNow you have to connect to that machine with
&man.cu.1;:&prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0That's it! You should be able to control the headless
machine through your cu session now. It will ask
you to put
in the mfsroot.flp, and then it will come
up with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Just
select the FreeBSD color console and proceed with your
install!Preparing Your Own Installation MediaTo prevent repititon, FreeBSD disk in this context
means a FreeBSD CDROM or DVD that you have purchased, or produced
yourself.There may be some situations in which you need to create your own
FreeBSD installation media and/or source. This might be physical media,
such as a tape, or a source that Sysinstall
can use to retrieve the files, such as a local FTP site, or an MS-DOS
partition. For example;You have many machines connected to your local network, and one
FreeBSD disk. You want to create a local FTP site using the
contents of the FreeBSD disk, and then have your machines use this
local FTP site instead of needing to connect to the Internet.You have a FreeBSD disk, FreeBSD does not recognise your CD/DVD
drive, but DOS/Windows does. You want to copy the FreeBSD
installations files to a DOS partition on the same computer, and
then install FreeBSD using those files.The computer you want to install on does not have a CD/DVD
drive, or a network card, but you can connect a
Laplink-style serial or parallel cable to a computer
that does.You want to create a tape that can be used to install
FreeBSD.Creating a Local FTP Site with a FreeBSD DiskinstallationnetworkFTPFreeBSD disks are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This
makes it very easy for you to create a local FTP site that can be used
by other machines on your network when installing FreeBSD.On the FreeBSD computer that will host the FTP site, ensure
that the CDROM is in the drive, and mounted on
/cdrom.&prompt.root; mount /cdromCreate an account for anonymous FTP in
/etc/passwd. Do this by editing
/etc/passwd using &man.vipw.8; and adding
this line.ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistentEnsure that the FTP service is enabled in
/etc/inetd.conf.Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now
chose a media type of FTP and type in
ftp://your machine
after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during
the install.This approach is OK for a machine that is on your local network,
and that is protected by your firewall. Offering up FTP services to
other machines over the Internet (and not your local network)
exposes your computer to the attention of crackers and other
undesirables. We strongly recommend that you follow good security
practices if you do this.Creating Installation FloppiesinstallationfloppiesIf you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you
do not do), either due to unsupported
hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard
way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation.At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies
as it takes to hold all the files in the
bin (binary distribution) directory. If
you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they
MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS
FORMAT command. If you are using Windows,
use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the
A: drive, and select "Format".Do not trust factory pre-formatted
floppies. Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many
problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from
the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are
making a point of it now.If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine,
a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put
a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the
disklabel and newfs
commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the
following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy)
illustrates:&prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440
&prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3
&prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0Use fd0.1200 and
floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks.Then you can mount and write to them like any other
filesystem.After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy
the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks
conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional
1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many
files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the
distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each
distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.:
a:\bin\bin.aa,
a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on.Once you come to the Media screen during the install
process, select Floppy and you will be prompted
for the rest.Installing from an MS-DOS Partitioninstallationfrom MS-DOSTo prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition,
copy the files from the distribution into a directory on that
partition. For example, c:\freebsd. The directory
structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced
within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS
xcopy command if you are copying it from a
CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of
FreeBSD:C:\>md c:\freebsdC:\>xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /sC:\>xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /sAssuming that C: is where you have
free space and E: is where your CDROM
is mounted.If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the
distribution from
ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory;
for example, the bin distribution can be
found in the &rel.current;/bin directory.For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS
partition (and you have the free space for), install each one
under c:\freebsd — the
BIN distribution is the only one required for
a minimum installation.Creating an Installation Tapeinstallationfrom QIC/SCSI TapeInstalling from tape is probably the easiest method, short
of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation
program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape.
After getting all of the distribution files you are interested
in, simply tar them onto the tape;&prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir
&prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2When you go to do the installation, you should also make
sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory
(which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the
full contents of the tape you have created.
Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of
installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You
should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have
stuff written on tape.When starting the installation, the tape must be in the
drive before booting from the boot
floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find
it.Before Installing over a Networkinstallationnetworkserial (SLIP or PPP)installationnetworkparallel (PLIP)installationnetworkEthernetThere are three types of network installations you can do.
Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)),
or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some
PCMCIA)).The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily
to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a
laptop computer and another computer. The link should be
hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a
dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP
utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever
possible.If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly
your only choice. Make sure that you have your service
provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly
early in the installation process.If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other
words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without
using a script), then all you will need to do is type in
dial at the
ppp prompt. Otherwise,
you will need to know
how to dial your ISP using the AT commands
specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very
simple terminal emulator. Please refer
to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further
information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to
the screen using the command set log local
....If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or
later) machine is available, you might also consider installing
over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate
over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically
possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting
in a quicker installation.Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an
Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most
common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their
required settings) is provided in the Hardware Notes
for each release of FreeBSD. If you are
using one of the supported PCMCIA Ethernet cards, also be sure
that it is plugged in before the laptop is
powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support
hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation.You will also need to know your IP address on the network,
the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your
machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not
have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically
assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you
which values to use for your particular network setup. If you
will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address,
you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a
gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address)
to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a
HTTP proxy (see below), you will also need the proxy's address.
If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions,
then you should really probably talk to your system administrator
or ISP before trying this type of
installation.Before Installing via NFSinstallationnetworkNFSThe NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply
copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server
somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it.If this server supports only privileged port
(as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will
need to set this option in the Options menu before
installation can proceed.If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers
from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the
appropriate Options flag.In order for NFS installation to work, the server must
support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution
directory lives
on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then
ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting
of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just
/usr or
/usr/archive/stuff.In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this
is controlled by the . Other NFS
servers may have different conventions. If you are getting
permission denied messages from the server, then
it is likely that you do not have this enabled
properly.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
index 050120793c..64dfb60564 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,2817 +1,2815 @@
JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and updated by PPP and SLIPSynopsisPPPSLIPIf you are connecting to the Internet via modem, or wish to
provide dial-up connections to the Internet for others using FreeBSD,
you have the option of using PPP or SLIP.PPPuser PPPPPPkernel PPPPPPover EthernetThis chapter covers four varieties of PPP;
user, kernel,
PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet) and
PPPoA (PPP over ATM). It also covers
setting up a SLIP client and server.The first variety of PPP that will be covered is User PPP. User
PPP was introduced into FreeBSD in 2.0.5-RELEASE as an addition to
the already existing kernel implementation of PPP.You may be wondering what the main difference is between User
PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP processes the
inbound and outbound data in userland rather than in the kernel.
This is expensive in terms of copying the data between the kernel
and userland, but allows a far more feature-rich ppp implementation.
User PPP uses the tun device to communicate
with the outside world whereas kernel-ppp uses the
ppp device.From here on out in this chapter, user ppp will simply be
referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it
and any other PPP software such as pppd.
Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this
section should be executed as root.BrianSomersOriginally contributed by NikClaytonWith input from DirkFrömbergPeterChildsUsing User PPPUser PPPAssumptionsThis document assumes you have the following:ISPPPPAn account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which
you connect to using PPP. Further, you have a modem or
other device connected to your system and configured
correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP.The dial-up number(s) of your ISP.PAPCHAPUnixlogin namepasswordYour login name and password. This can be either a
regular Unix-style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP
login and password pair.nameserverThe IP address(es) of one or more name servers.
Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to
use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then
you can use the enable dns command in
your ppp.conf file to tell
ppp to set the name servers for
you. This feature depends on your ISPs PPP implementation
supporting DNS negotiation.The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but
is not completely necessary:The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is
the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as
your default route. If you do not have
this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP
server will tell us the correct value when we connect.This IP number is referred to as
HISADDR by
ppp.The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not
provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.255.static IP addressIf your ISP provides you with a static IP address and
hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the
peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit.If you do not have any of the required information, contact
your ISP and make sure they provide it to you.Preparing the KernelAs previously mentioned, ppp
uses the tun device. If this device
has not been compiled into your kernel,
ppp will load it on demand as a
module. The tunnel driver is dynamic, so any number of
devices may be created (you are not limited by any kernel
configuration values).It should be noted that the tunnel driver creates devices
on demand, so ifconfig -a will not necessarily
show up with any tun devices.Check the tun DeviceUnder normal circumstances, most users will only use one
tun device
(/dev/tun0). References to
tun0 below may be changed to
tunN where N is any unit number.For FreeBSD installations that do not have DEVFS enabled,
the existence of the tun0 device should
be verified (this is not necessary if DEVFS is enabled as device
nodes will be created on demand).The easiest way to make sure that the
tun0 device is configured correctly,
is to remake the device. To remake the device, do the
following:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need
to create them. This can be done by executing the following
commands:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15Name Resolution ConfigurationresolverhostnamehostsThe resolver is the part of the system that turns IP
addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured
to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of
two places. The first is a file called
/etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more
information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service
(DNS), a distributed data base, the discussion of which is
beyond the scope of this document.The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name
mappings, but you have to tell it where to find the
information. For versions of FreeBSD prior to 5.0, you do this
by first editing the file /etc/host.conf.
FreeBSD 5.0 uses the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.Edit /etc/host.confFor versions of FreeBSD prior to 5.0, this file should
contain the following two lines (in this order):hosts
bindThis instructs the resolver to first look in the file
/etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS
if the name was not found.Edit /etc/nsswitch.confFor FreeBSD version 5.0 or above, this file should
contain at least the following line:hosts: files, dnsThis instructs the resolver to first look in the file
/etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS
if the name was not found.Edit /etc/hostsThis file may contain the IP addresses and names of
machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain
entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming
that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1,
/etc/hosts should contain:127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost
::1 localhost.bar.com localhost
10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com fooThe first two lines define the alias
localhost as a synonym for the current
machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP addresses
for these lines should always be 127.0.0.1 and ::1. The last line maps
the name foo.bar.com (and the
shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1.If your provider allocates you a static IP address and
name, and you are not using that as your host name, add this
to the /etc/hosts too.Edit /etc/resolv.confThe /etc/resolv.conf file tells the
resolver how to behave. Normally, you will need to enter
the following line(s):domain bar.com
nameserver x.x.x.x
nameserver y.y.y.yThe x.x.x.x and
y.y.y.y
addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many
nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The
domain line is set to your hosts
domain name. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for
details of other possible entries in this file.If you are running a local name server, replace the
above nameserver lines with:nameserver 0.0.0.0PPPISPThe enable dns command (entered in the
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf file - see below) will
tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values.
If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no
nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP
will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values.PPP ConfigurationPPPconfigurationBoth ppp and pppd
(the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration
files located in the /etc/ppp directory.
Examples for user ppp can be found in
/usr/share/examples/ppp/.Configuring ppp requires that you edit a
number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put
in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP
addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and
always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address
changes each time you connect to your ISP).PPP and Static IP AddressesPPPwith static IP addressesYou will need to edit the
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf configuration file. It
should look similar to the example below.Lines that end in a : start in the
first column, all other lines should be indented as shown
using spaces or tabs.1 default:
2 set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command
3 ident user-ppp VERSION (built COMPILATIONDATE)
4 set device /dev/cuaa0
5 set speed 115200
6 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \
7 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT"
8 set timeout 180
9 enable dns
10
11 provider:
12 set phone "(123) 456 7890"
13 set authname foo
14 set authkey bar
15 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: \\U word: \\P col: ppp"
16 set timeout 300
17 set ifaddr x.x.x.xy.y.y.y 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0
18 add default HISADDRDo not include the line numbers, they are just for
reference in this discussion.Line 1:Identifies the default entry. Commands in this
entry are executed automatically when ppp is run.Line 2:Enables logging parameters. When the configuration
is working satisfactorily, this line should be reduced
to saying
set log phase tun
in order to avoid excessive log file sizes.Line 3:Tells PPP how to identify itself to the peer.
PPP identifies itself to the peer if it has any trouble
negotiating and setting up the link, providing information
that the peers administrator may find useful when
investigating such problems.Line 4:Identifies the device to which the modem is
connected. COM1 is
/dev/cuaa0 and
COM2 is
/dev/cuaa1.Line 5:Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200
does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem),
try 38400 instead.Line 6 & 7:PPPuser PPPThe dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send
syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to
the manual page for information on the features of this
language.Note that this command continues onto the next line
for readability. Any command in
ppp.conf may do this if the last
character on the line is a ``\'' character.Line 8:Sets the idle timeout for the link. 180 seconds
is the default, so this line is purely cosmetic.Line 9:Tells PPP to ask the peer to confirm the local
resolver settings. If you run a local name server, this
line should be commented out or removed.Line 10:A blank line for readability. Blank lines are ignored
by PPP.Line 11:Identifies an entry for a provider called
provider.Line 12:Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple
phone numbers may be specified using the colon
(:) or pipe character
(|)as a separator. The difference
between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;.
To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers,
use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the
first number first and only use the other numbers if the
first number fails, use the pipe character. Always
quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown.Line 13 & 14:Identifies the user name and password. When connecting
using a unix-style login prompt, these values are referred
to by the set login command using the \U
and \P variables. When connecting using PAP or CHAP, these
values are used at authentication time.Line 15:PAPCHAPIf you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login
at this point, and this line should be commented out or
removed. See PAP and CHAP
authentication for further details.The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as
the dial string. In this example, the string works for
a service whose login session looks like this:J. Random Provider
login: foo
password: bar
protocol: pppYou will need to alter this script to suit your own
needs. When you write this script for the first time,
you should ensure that you have enabled chat
logging so you can determine if the conversation is going
as expected.Line 16:timeoutSets the default idle timeout (in seconds) for the
connection. Here, the connection will be closed
automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you
never want to timeout, set this value to zero or use
the command line switch.Line 17:ISPSets the interface addresses. The string
x.x.x.x should be replaced by
the IP address that your provider has allocated to you.
The string y.y.y.y should be
replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for
their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If
your ISP has not given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use
a guessed address, make sure that you
create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the
instructions for PPP
and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is
omitted, ppp cannot run in
mode.Line 18:Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The
special word HISADDR is replaced with
the gateway address specified on line 9. It is
important that this line appears after line 9,
otherwise HISADDR will not yet be
initialized.If you do not wish to run ppp in ,
this line should be moved to the
ppp.linkup file.It is not necessary to add an entry to
ppp.linkup when you have a static IP
address and are running ppp in mode as your
routing table entries are already correct before you connect.
You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after
connection. This is explained later with the sendmail
example.Example configuration files can be found in the
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ directory.PPP and Dynamic IP AddressesPPPwith dynamic IP addressesIPCPIf your service provider does not assign static IP
addresses, ppp can be configured to
negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by
guessing an IP address and allowing
ppp to set it up correctly using the IP
Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The
ppp.conf configuration is the same as
PPP and Static IP
Addresses, with the following change:17 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255Again, do not include the line number, it is just for
reference. Indentation of at least one space is
required.Line 17:The number after the / character
is the number of bits of the address that ppp will
insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more
appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example
will always work.The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells
PPP to start negotiations using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1 and is necessary for some
ISPs. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first
argument to set ifaddr as it prevents
PPP from setting up an initial route in
mode.If you are not running in mode, you
will need to create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.
ppp.linkup is used after a connection has
been established. At this point, ppp will
have assigned the interface addresses and it will now be
possible to add the routing table entries:1 provider:
2 add default HISADDRLine 1:On establishing a connection, ppp
will look for an entry in ppp.linkup
according to the following rules: First, try to match
the same label as we used in
ppp.conf. If that fails, look for
an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry
is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not
found an entry, look for the MYADDR
entry.Line 2:This line tells ppp to add a
default route that points to HISADDR.
HISADDR will be replaced with the IP
number of the gateway as negotiated by the IPCP.See the pmdemand entry in the files
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a
detailed example.Receiving Incoming CallsPPPreceiving
incoming callsWhen you configure ppp to
receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you
must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you
do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's
subnet, and use the command enable proxy in
your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should
also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file
contains the following:gateway_enable="YES"Which getty?Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up
Services provides a good description on enabling
dial-up services using &man.getty.8;.An alternative to getty is mgetty,
a smarter version of getty designed with
dial-up lines in mind.The advantages of using mgetty is
that it actively talks to modems,
meaning if port is turned off in
/etc/ttys then your modem will not answer
the phone.Later versions of mgetty (from
0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of
PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to
your server.Refer to Mgetty and
AutoPPP for more information on
mgetty.PPP PermissionsThe ppp command must normally be run
as user id 0. If however, you wish to allow
ppp to run in server mode as a normal
user by executing ppp as described below,
that user must be given permission to run
ppp by adding them to the
network group in
/etc/group.You will also need to give them access to one or more
sections of the configuration file using the
allow command:allow users fred maryIf this command is used in the default
section, it gives the specified users access to
everything.PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP UsersPPP shellsCreate a file called
/etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the
following:#!/bin/sh
IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'`
CALLEDAS="$IDENT"
TTY=`tty`
if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then
IDENT=`basename $TTY`
fi
echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY"
echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT"
exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENTThis script should be executable. Now make a symbolic
link called ppp-dialup to this script
using the following commands:&prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialupYou should use this script as the
shell for all of your dialup users.
This is an example from /etc/password
for a dialup PPP user with username
pchilds (remember do not directly edit
the password file, use vipw).pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialupCreate a /home/ppp directory that
is world readable containing the following 0 byte
files:-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhostswhich prevents /etc/motd from being
displayed.PPP Shells for Static-IP UsersPPP shellsCreate the ppp-shell file as above
and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a
symbolic link to ppp-shell.For example, if you have three dialup customers
fred, sam, and
mary, that you route class C networks
for, you would type the following:&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred
&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam
&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-maryEach of these users dialup accounts should have their
shell set to the symbolic link created above (i.e.,
mary's shell should be
/etc/ppp/ppp-mary).Setting up ppp.conf for Dynamic-IP UsersThe /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should
contain something along the lines of:default:
set debug phase lcp chat
set timeout 0
ttyd0:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255
enable proxy
ttyd1:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255
enable proxyThe indenting is important.The default: section is loaded for
each session. For each dialup line enabled in
/etc/ttys create an entry similar to
the one for ttyd0: above. Each line
should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP
addresses for dynamic users.Setting up ppp.conf for Static-IP
UsersAlong with the contents of the sample
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add
a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users.
We will continue with our fred,
sam, and mary
example.fred:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255
sam:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255
mary:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should
also contain routing information for each static IP user if
required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the
client's ppp link.fred:
add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
sam:
add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
mary:
add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDRMore on mgetty, AutoPPP, and MS
Extensionsmgetty and AutoPPPmgettyAutoPPPLCPConfiguring and compiling mgetty with
the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows
mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP
connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell.
However, since the default login/password sequence does not
occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP
or CHAP.This section assumes the user has successfully
configured, compiled, and installed a version of
mgetty with the
AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or
later).Make sure your
/usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config
file has the following in it:/AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialupThis will tell mgetty to run the
ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP
connections.Create a file called
/etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the
following (the file should be executable):#!/bin/sh
exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENTFor each dialup line enabled in
/etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry
in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will
happily co-exist with the definitions we created
above.pap:
enable pap
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40
enable proxyEach user logging in with this method will need to have
a username/password in
/etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or
alternatively add the following option to authenticate users
via PAP from /etc/password file.enable passwdauthIf you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you
can specify the number as the third argument in
/etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for
examples.MS ExtensionsDNSNetBIOSPPPMicrosoft extensionsIt is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and
NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand.To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the
following lines might be added to the relevant section of
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf.enable msext
set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
set nbns 203.14.100.5And for PPP version 2 and above:accept dns
set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
set nbns 203.14.100.5This will tell the clients the primary and secondary
name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host.In version 2 and above, if the
set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the
values found in /etc/resolv.conf.PAP and CHAP AuthenticationPAPCHAPSome ISPs set their system up so that the authentication
part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or
CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP
will not give a login: prompt when you
connect, but will start talking PPP immediately.PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally
an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text
with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only.
There's not much room for crackers to
eavesdrop.Referring back to the PPP
and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses
sections, the following alterations must be made:7 set login
…
12 set authname MyUserName
13 set authkey MyPasswordAs always, do not include the line numbers, they are just
for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one
space is required.Line 7:Your ISP will not normally require that you log into
the server if you are using PAP or CHAP. You must
therefore disable your set login
string.Line 12:This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You
will need to insert the correct value for
MyUserName.Line 13:passwordThis line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You
will need to insert the correct value for
MyPassword. You may want to
add an additional line, such as:15 accept PAPor15 accept CHAPto make it obvious that this is the intention, but
PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default.Changing Your ppp Configuration on the
FlyIt is possible to talk to the ppp
program while it is running in the background, but only if a
suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the
following line to your configuration:set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177This will tell PPP to listen to the specified unix-domain
socket, asking clients for the specified password before
allowing access. The %d in the name is
replaced with the tun device number
that is in use.Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program
may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running
program.Final System ConfigurationPPPconfigurationYou now have ppp configured, but there
are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They
all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf
file.Working from the top down in this file, make sure the
hostname= line is set, e.g.:hostname="foo.bar.com"If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and
name, it is probably best that you use this name as your host
name.Look for the network_interfaces variable.
If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand,
make sure the tun0 device is added to
the list, otherwise remove it.network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0=The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be
empty, and a file called
/etc/start_if.tun0 should be created.
This file should contain the line:ppp -auto mysystemThis script is executed at network configuration time,
starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN
for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use
the switch. Refer to the manual page
for further details.Set the router program to NO with
following line in your
/etc/rc.conf:router_enable="NO"routedIt is important that the routed daemon is
not started (it is started by default), as it
routed tends to delete the default routing
table entries created by ppp.It is probably worth your while ensuring that the
sendmail_flags line does not include the
option, otherwise
sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup
every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out.
You may try:sendmail_flags="-bd"sendmailThe downside of this is that you must force
sendmail to re-examine the mail queue
whenever the ppp link is up by typing:&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -qYou may wish to use the !bg command in
ppp.linkup to do this automatically:1 provider:
2 delete ALL
3 add 0 0 HISADDR
4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30mSMTPIf you do not like this, it is possible to set up a
dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the
sample files for further details.Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine.All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting,
you can now either type:&prompt.root; pppand then dial provider to start the PPP
session, or, if you want ppp to establish
sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and
you have not created the start_if.tun0
script), type:&prompt.root; ppp -auto providerSummaryTo recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up
ppp for the first time:Client side:Ensure that the tun device is
built into your kernel.Ensure that the
tunX device
file is available in the /dev
directory.Create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The
pmdemand example should suffice for
most ISPs.If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.Update your /etc/rc.conf
file.Create a start_if.tun0 script if
you require demand dialing.Server side:Ensure that the tun device is
built into your kernel.Ensure that the
tunX device
file is available in the /dev
directory.Create an entry in /etc/passwd
(using the &man.vipw.8; program).Create a profile in this users home directory that runs
ppp -direct direct-server or
similar.Create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The
direct-server example should
suffice.Create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.Update your /etc/rc.conf
file.Gennady B.SorokopudParts originally contributed by RobertHuffUsing Kernel PPPSetting up Kernel PPPPPPkernel PPPBefore you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure
that pppd is located in
/usr/sbin and the directory
/etc/ppp exists.pppd can work in two modes:As a client, i.e., you want to connect your
machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or
modem line.PPPserveras a server, i.e. your machine is located on
the network and used to connect other computers using
PPP.In both cases you will need to set up an options file
(/etc/ppp/options or
~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on
your machine that uses PPP).You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably
kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the
remote host.Using pppd as a ClientPPPclientCiscoThe following /etc/ppp/options might be
used to connect to a CISCO terminal server PPP line.crtscts # enable hardware flow control
modem # modem control line
noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address.
# if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP
# negotiation , remove this option
passive # wait for LCP packets
domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here
:<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here
# it will be used to route packets via PPP link
# if you didn't specified the noipdefault option
# change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip>
defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your
# default routerTo connect:kermitmodemDial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem
program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever
is needed to enable PPP on the remote host).Exit kermit (without hanging up the line).Enter the following:&prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty0119200Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name.Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection
fails, you can add the option to the
/etc/ppp/options file and check messages on
the console to track the problem.Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make
all 3 stages automatically:#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial
pppd /dev/tty01 19200kermit/etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script
that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote
host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this
document).Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script
to disconnect the PPP line:#!/bin/sh
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill -TERM ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
/sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down
/sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup
/etc/ppp/ppptestCheck to see if PPP is still running by executing
/usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like
this:#!/bin/sh
pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then
echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE}
else
echo 'No pppd running.'
fi
set -x
netstat -n -I ppp0
ifconfig ppp0To hang up the modem, execute
/etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should
contain:set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here
set speed 19200
set file type binary
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
pau 1
out +++
inp 5 OK
out ATH0\13
echo \13
exitHere is an alternate method using chat
instead of kermit.The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a
pppd connection./etc/ppp/options:/dev/cuaa1 115200
crtscts # enable hardware flow control
modem # modem control line
connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script"
noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address.
# if the remote host doesn't send your IP during
# IPCP negotiation, remove this option
passive # wait for LCP packets
domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here
: # put the IP of remote PPP host here
# it will be used to route packets via PPP link
# if you didn't specified the noipdefault option
# change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip>
defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be
# your default router/etc/ppp/login.chat.script:The following should go on a single line.ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number>
CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id>
TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password>Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need
to do is run pppd, like so:&prompt.root; pppdThis sample is based primarily on information provided by:
Trev Roydhouse <Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org>
and used with permission.Using pppd as a Server/etc/ppp/options should contain something
similar to the following:crtscts # Hardware flow control
netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required )
192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts
# local ip must be different from one
# you assigned to the ethernet ( or other )
# interface on your machine.
# remote IP is ip address that will be
# assigned to the remote machine
domain ppp.foo.com # your domain
passive # wait for LCP
modem # modem lineThe following /etc/ppp/pppserv script
will enable tell pppd to behave as a
server:#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
# reset ppp interface
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete
# enable autoanswer mode
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans
# run ppp
pppd /dev/tty01 19200Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to
stop the server:#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noansThe following kermit script
(/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable
autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this:set line /dev/tty01
set speed 19200
set file type binary
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
pau 1
out +++
inp 5 OK
out ATH0\13
inp 5 OK
echo \13
out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable
; autoanswer mod
inp 5 OK
echo \13
exitA script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is
used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will
need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password
in this script; you will also need to change the input statement
depending on responses from your modem and remote host.;
; put the com line attached to the modem here:
;
set line /dev/tty01
;
; put the modem speed here:
;
set speed 19200
set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
set modem hayes
set dial hangup off
set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary,
set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary,
set input echo on
set input timeout proceed
set input case ignore
def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter
goto slhup
:slcmd ; put the modem in command mode
echo Put the modem in command mode.
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
pause 1
output +++ ; hayes escape sequence
input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK
if success goto slhup
output \13
pause 1
output at\13
input 1 OK\13\10
if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again
:slhup ; hang up the phone
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
pause 1
echo Hanging up the phone.
output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook
input 2 OK\13\10
if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode
:sldial ; dial the number
pause 1
echo Dialing.
output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here
assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter
:look
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
increment \%x ; Count the seconds
input 1 {CONNECT }
if success goto sllogin
reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10}
if success goto sldial
reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10}
if success goto slnodial
reinput 1 {\255}
if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127}
if success goto slhup
if < \%x 60 goto look
else goto slhup
:sllogin ; login
assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter
pause 1
echo Looking for login prompt.
:slloop
increment \%x ; Count the seconds
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
output \13
;
; put your expected login prompt here:
;
input 1 {Username: }
if success goto sluid
reinput 1 {\255}
if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127}
if success goto slhup
if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt
else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures
:sluid
;
; put your userid here:
;
output ppp-login\13
input 1 {Password: }
;
; put your password here:
;
output ppp-password\13
input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.}
echo
quit
:slnodial
echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7
exit 1
; local variables:
; mode: csh
; comment-start: "; "
; comment-start-skip: "; "
; end:JimMockContributed (from http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html) by Using PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE)PPPover EthernetPPPoEPPP, over EthernetThe following describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet, a.k.a,
PPPoE.Configuring the kernelNo kernel configuration is necessary for PPPoE any longer. If
the necessary netgraph support is not built into the kernel, it will
be dynamically loaded by ppp.Setting up ppp.confHere is an example of a working
ppp.conf:default:
set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish
set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0
name_of_service_provider:
set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device
set authname YOURLOGINNAME
set authkey YOURPASSWORD
set dial
set login
add default HISADDRRunning PPPAs root, you can run:&prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_providerStarting PPP at BootAdd the following to your /etc/rc.conf
file:ppp_enable="YES"
ppp_mode="ddial"
ppp_nat="YES" # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO
ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider"Using a PPPoE Service tagSometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to establish
your connection. Service tags are used to distinguish between
different PPPoE servers attached to a given network.You should have been given any required service tag information
in the documentation provided by your ISP. If you cannot locate
it there, ask your ISP's tech support personnel.As a last resort, you could try the method suggested by the
Roaring Penguin
PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. Bear in mind however,
this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so
think twice before doing it. Simply install the program shipped
with the modem by your provider. Then, access the
System menu from the program. The name of your
profile should be listed there. It is usually
ISP.The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE
configuration entry in ppp.conf as the provider
part of the set device command (see the &man.ppp.8;
manual page for full details). It should look like this:set device PPPoE:xl1:ISPDo not forget to change xl1
to the proper device for your Ethernet card.Do not forget to change ISP
to the profile you have just found above.For additional information, see:Cheaper
Broadband with FreeBSD on DSL by Renaud
Waldura in Daemon
News.PPPoE with a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem Dual LinkThis modem does not follow RFC 2516
(A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet
(PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts,
D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Instead, different packet
type codes have been used for the Ethernet frames. Please complain
to 3Com if you think it
should comply with the PPPoE specification.In order to make FreeBSD capable of communicating with this
device, a sysctl must be set. This can be done automatically at
boot time by updating /etc/sysctl.conf:net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1or can be done for immediate effect with the command
sysctl -w net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1.Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it is
not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and a
3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem at the same time.
- Using PPP over ATM (PPPoA)PPPover ATMPPPoAPPP, over ATMThe following describes how to set up PPP over ATM, a.k.a,
PPPoA. Currently, the only hardware supported is the Alcatel
Speedtouch USB ADSL modemInstalling PPPoAPPPoA is supplied as a port in FreeBSD because the firmware
is not distributable under
Alcatel's license agreement.To install the port, simply use the
ports collection to install the net/pppoa port and follow
the instructions provided there.
- SatoshiAsamiOriginally contributed by GuyHelmerWith input from PieroSeriniUsing SLIPSLIPSetting up a SLIP ClientSLIPclientThe following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP
on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e.,
your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to
do something much fancier.First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to.
Many people setup a symbolic link, such as
/dev/modem, to point to the real device name,
/dev/cuaaN. This allows you to
abstract the actual device name should you ever need to move
the modem to a different port. It can become quite cumbersome when you
need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and
.kermrc files all over the system!/dev/cuaa0 is
COM1, cuaa1 is
COM2, etc.Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration
file:pseudo-device sl 1It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so
this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it.Things You Have to Do Only OnceAdd your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to
your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like
this:127.0.0.1 localhost loghost
136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia
136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway
128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1
128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2Make sure you have before
in your
/etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny
things may happen.Edit the /etc/rc.conf file.Set your hostname by editing the line that
says:hostname=myname.my.domainYou should give it your full Internet
hostname.Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by
changing the line that says:network_interfaces="lo0"to:network_interfaces=lo0 sl0Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a
line:ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up"default routeDesignate the default router by changing the
line:defaultrouter=NOto:defaultrouter=slip-gatewayMake a file /etc/resolv.conf which
contains:domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU
nameserver 128.32.136.9
nameserver 128.32.136.12nameserverdomain nameAs you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of
course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your
environment.Set the password for root and
toor (and any other
accounts that do not have a password). Use passwd or
&man.vipw.8;, do not edit the
/etc/passwd or
/etc/master.passwd files!Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the
correct hostname.Making a SLIP ConnectionSLIPconnecting withDial up, type slip at the prompt,
enter your machine name and password. The things you need
to enter depends on your environment. If you use kermit, you
can try a script like this:# kermit setup
set modem hayes
set line /dev/modem
set speed 115200
set parity none
set flow rts/cts
set terminal bytesize 8
set file type binary
# The next macro will dial up and login
define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, -
output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, -
output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, -
output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0aOf course, you have to change the hostname and password
to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type
slip from the kermit prompt to get
connected.Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the
filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own
risk.Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by
z) and as root, type:&prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modemIf you are able to ping hosts on the
other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not
work, you might want to try instead of
as an argument to
slattach.How to Shutdown the ConnectionDo the following:&prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid`to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be
root to do the above. Then go back to
kermit (fg if you suspended it) and exit from
it (q).The slattach manual page says you have
to use ifconfig sl0 down
to mark the interface down, but this does not
seem to make any difference for me.
(ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.)Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier
(mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit
it again. It usually goes out on the second try.TroubleshootingIf it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that
people tripped over so far:Not using or in
slattach (This shouldn't be fatal,
but some users have reported that this solves their
problems.)Using instead of
(might be hard to see the difference on
some fonts).Try ifconfig sl0 to see your
interface status. For example, you might get:&prompt.root; ifconfig sl0
sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT>
inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00Also, netstat -r will give the
routing table, in case you get the no route to
host messages from ping. Mine looks like:&prompt.root; netstat -r
Routing tables
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks:
(root node)
(root node)
Route Tree for Protocol Family inet:
(root node) =>
default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - -
localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438
inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - -
silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438
(root node)This is after transferring a bunch of files, your
numbers should be smaller).Setting up a SLIP ServerSLIPserverThis document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server
services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring
your system to automatically startup connections upon login for
remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based
on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be
different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and
the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose
data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here.PrerequisitesTCP/IP networkingThis document is very technical in nature, so background
knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with
the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node
addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and
routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a
dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if
you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either
Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration
published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number
0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP
protocol.modemIt is further assumed that you have already setup your
modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow
logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your
system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring
dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available,
browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/.
You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for
information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;,
&man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for
information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins
on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting
serial port parameters (such as clocal for
directly-connected serial interfaces).Quick OverviewIn its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server
works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server
system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses
/usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's
shell. The sliplogin program browses the
file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a
matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match,
connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then
runs the shell script
/etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the
SLIP interface.An Example of a SLIP Server LoginFor example, if a SLIP user ID were
Shelmerg, Shelmerg's
entry in /etc/master.passwd would look
something like this (except it would be all on one
line):Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliploginWhen Shelmerg logs in,
sliplogin will search
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that
had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that
reads:Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocompsliplogin will find that matching line,
hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface,
and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login
like this:/etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocompIf all goes well,
/etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an
ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which
sliplogin attached itself (slip interface
0,in the above example, which was the first parameter in the
list given to slip.login) to set the
local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address
(sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP
interface (0xfffffc00), and
any additional flags (autocomp). If
something goes wrong, sliplogin usually
logs good informational messages via the
daemon syslog facility, which usually goes
into /var/log/messages (see the manual
pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps
check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which
files syslogd is logging).OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into
setting up the system.Kernel ConfigurationkernelconfigurationFreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP
interfaces defined (sl0 and
sl1); you can use netstat
-i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your
kernel.Sample output from netstat -i:Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll
ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133
ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133
lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0
lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0
sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0
sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0The sl0 and
sl1 interfaces shown in
netstat -i's output indicate that there are
two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after
the sl0 and sl1 indicate
that the interfaces are down.)However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured
to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a
router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see
RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122
[Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers],
and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]),
so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you
will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and
change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to
.You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take
effect.You will notice that near the end of the default kernel
configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC)
is a line that reads:pseudo-device sl 2SLIPThis is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices
available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is
the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating
simultaneously.Please refer to Configuring the
FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your
kernel.Sliplogin ConfigurationAs mentioned earlier, there are three files in the
/etc/sliphome directory that are part of
the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin
(see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for
sliplogin): slip.hosts,
which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP
addresses; slip.login, which usually just
configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally)
slip.logout, which undoes
slip.login's effects when the serial
connection is terminated.slip.hosts Configuration/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains
lines which have at least four items, separated by
whitespace:SLIP user's login IDLocal address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP
linkRemote address of the SLIP linkNetwork maskThe local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved
to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the
domain name service, depending on your specifications in
/etc/host.conf), and the
network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup
into /etc/networks. On a sample system,
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like
this:#
# login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2
# (normal,compress,noicmp)
#
Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocompAt the end of the line is one or more of the
options. — no header
compression — compress
headers — compress headers if
the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets
(so any ping packets will be dropped instead
of using up your bandwidth)Note that sliplogin under early releases
of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized,
so the options ,
, , and
had no effect until support was added
in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login
script included code to make use of the flags).SLIPTCP/IP networkingYour choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP
links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP
subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on
your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but
that is the terminology used in this document to describe it).
If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP
addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the
slips-prereqs section
and/or consult your IP network manager.gatedIf you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP
clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of
your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP
client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will
probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP
subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or
install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server
and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to
your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's
route to the SLIP subnet.EthernetOtherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP
method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP
addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you
will also need to adjust your
/etc/sliphome/slip.login and
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use
&man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP
server's ARP table.slip.login ConfigurationThe typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login
file looks like this:#!/bin/sh -
#
# @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90
#
# generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6This slip.login file merely
ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface
with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the
SLIP interface.If you have decided to use the proxy ARP
method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP
clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login
file will need to look something like this:#!/bin/sh -
#
# @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90
#
# generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6
# Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr
/usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pubThe additional line in this
slip.login, arp -s
$5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry
in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the
SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC
address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to
speak to the SLIP client's IP address.EthernetMAC addressWhen using the example above, be sure to replace the
Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of
your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP
will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's
Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running
netstat -i; the second line of the output
should look something like:ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC
address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a
— the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by
netstat -i must be changed to colons and
leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal
number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8;
desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete
information on usage.When you create
/etc/sliphome/slip.login and
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the
execute bit (ie, chmod 755
/etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout)
must be set, or sliplogin will be unable
to execute it.slip.logout Configuration/etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not
strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy
ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an
example of a basic
slip.logout script:#!/bin/sh -
#
# slip.logout
#
# logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 downIf you are using proxy ARP, you will want to
have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the
ARP entry for the SLIP client:#!/bin/sh -
#
# @(#)slip.logout
#
# logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down
# Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client
/usr/sbin/arp -d $5The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry
that the proxy ARPslip.login added when the SLIP client
logged in.It bears repeating: make sure
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute
bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout).Routing ConsiderationsSLIProutingIf you are not using the proxy ARP method for
routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your
network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either
have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to
route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will
probably need to install and configure gated
on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers
via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet.Static Routesstatic routesAdding static routes to your nearest default routers can
be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to
do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your
organization, some routers, such as those made by Cisco and Proteon, may
not only need to be configured with the static route to the
SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to
tell other routers about, so some expertise and
troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get
static-route-based routing to work.Running gatedgatedAn alternative to the headaches of static routes is to
install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server
and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols
(RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP
subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build
it yourself from the
GateD anonymous FTP site; the current version
as of this writing is
gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes
support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete
information and documentation on gated is
available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD
Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a
/etc/gated.conf file to configure your
gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a
FreeBSD SLIP server:#
# gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5
# Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface
#
#
# tracing options
#
traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ;
rip yes {
interface sl noripout noripin ;
interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ;
traceoptions route ;
} ;
#
# Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel:
kernel {
traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ;
} ;
#
# Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP
#
export proto rip interface ed {
proto direct {
xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections
} ;
} ;
#
# Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces
import proto rip interface ed {
all ;
} ;RIPThe above sample gated.conf file
broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet
xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the
Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than
the ed driver, you will need to
change the references to the ed
interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up
tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for
debugging gated's activity; you can
certainly turn off the tracing options if
gated works OK for you. You will need to
change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the
network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the
net mask in the proto direct clause as
well).Once you have installed and configured
gated on your system, you will need to
tell the FreeBSD startup scripts to run
gated in place of
routed. The easiest way to accomplish
this is to set the router and
router_flags variables in
/etc/rc.conf. Please see the manual
page for gated for information on
command-line parameters.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml
index 3a5c2af150..6c5ecd3f8e 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,3237 +1,3238 @@
MatthewDillonMuch of this chapter has been taken from the
security(7) manual page by SecuritysecuritySynopsisThe following chapter will provide a basic introduction to
system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some
advanced topics such as S/Key, OpenSSL, Kerberos, and others.IntroductionSecurity is a function that begins and ends with the system
administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some
inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional
security mechanisms to keep those users honest is
probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin.
Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns
are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix
systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of
simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as
servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk
to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become
today's desktops, and as computers become networked and
internetworked, security becomes an even bigger issue.Security is best implemented through a layered
onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is
to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then
carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to
overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection
side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of
any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set
the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every
system binary because
while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an
attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change
that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker
at all.System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of
attack, including attacks that attempt to crash, or otherwise make a
system unusable, but do not attempt to break root. Security concerns
can be split up into several categories:Denial of service attacks.User account compromises.Root compromise through accessible servers.Root compromise via user accounts.Backdoor creation.DoS attacksDenial of Service (DoS)securityDoS attacksDenial of Service (DoS)Denial of Service (DoS)A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the
machine of needed resources. Typically, DoS attacks are
brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a
machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some
DoS attacks try to take advantage of bugs in the networking
stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only
be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers
can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load
the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions.
Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A
spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop,
short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be
able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your
Internet connection.securityaccount compromisesA user account compromise is even more common than a DoS
attack. Many sysadmins still run standard
telnetd, rlogind,
rshd,
and ftpd servers on their machines.
These servers, by default, do
not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you
have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging
into your system from a remote location (which is the most common
and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her
password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his
remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for
successful logins.One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a
user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is
that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user
account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The
distinction is important because without access to root the attacker
cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do
nothing more than mess with the user's files, or crash the machine.
User account compromises are very common because users tend not to
take the precautions that sysadmins take.securitybackdoorsSystem administrators must keep in mind that there are
potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker
may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a
root-run server and be able to break root over a network
connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in
a suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once
he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found
a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need
to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes
found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work
by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install
backdoors. A backdoor provides the attacker with a way to easily
regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart
system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion.
Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may
actually be detrimental to your security, because it will not
close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first
place.Security remedies should always be implemented with a
multi-layered onion peel approach and can be
categorized as follows:Securing root and staff accounts.Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid
binaries.Securing user accounts.Securing the password file.Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and
filesystems.Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the
system.Paranoia.The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet
items in greater depth.securitysecuringSecuring FreeBSDThe sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your
FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter.Securing the root Account and Staff AccountssuFirst off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have
not secured the root account. Most systems have a password
assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume
that the password is always compromised.
This does not mean that you should remove the password. The
password is almost always necessary for console access to the
machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it
possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly
even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that
your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the
/etc/ttys file so that direct root logins
via telnet or rlogin are
disallowed. If using other login services such as
sshd, make sure that direct root logins
are disabled there as well. Consider every access method –
services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root
logins should only be allowed via the system console.wheelOf course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root,
so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require
additional password verification to operate. One way to make root
accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the
wheel group (in
/etc/group). The staff members placed in the
wheel group are allowed to
su to root. You should never give staff
members native wheel access by putting them in the
wheel group in their password entry. Staff
accounts should be placed in a staff group, and
then added to the wheel group via the
/etc/group file. Only those staff members
who actually need to have root access should be placed in the
wheel group. It is also possible, when using
an authentication method such as kerberos, to use kerberos'
.k5login file in the root account to allow a
&man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the
wheel group. This may be the better solution
since the wheel mechanism still allows an
intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your
password file and can break into a staff account. While having
the wheel mechanism is better than having
nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option.An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately
root access is to use an alternative login access method and
do what is known as *'ing out the crypted
password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8;
command, one can replace each instance of a crypted password
with a single * character. This command
will update the /etc/master.passwd file
and user/password database to disable password-authenticated
logins.A staff account entry such as:foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcshShould be changed to this :foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcshThis change will prevent normal logins from occurring,
since the encrypted password will never match
*. With this done, staff members must use
another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as
&man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key
pair. When using something like kerberos, one generally must
secure the machines which run the kerberos servers and your
desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair
with ssh, one must generally secure
the machine used to login from (typically
one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be
added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when
creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to
* out the passwords for staff accounts also
guarantees that staff members can only login through secure
access methods that you have setup. This forces all staff
members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their
sessions, which closes an important hole used by many
intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated,
less secure machine.The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are
logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive
server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of
servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for
your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few
servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and
you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course,
given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any
sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that
you should consider, but you should also consider the fact that the
vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from
people who do not have physical access to your workstation or
servers.KerberosUsing something like kerberos also gives you the ability to
disable or change the password for a staff account in one place,
and have it immediately effect all the machines on which the staff
member may have an account. If a staff member's account gets
compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all
machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords,
changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also
impose re-passwording restrictions with kerberos: not only can a
kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the kerberos
system can require that the user choose a new password after a
certain period of time (say, once a month).Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID BinariesntalkcomsatfingersandboxessshdtelnetdrshdrlogindThe prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no
more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the
most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of
imapd or
popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire
world. Never run a server that you have not checked out
carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For
example, the ntalk,
comsat, and
finger daemons can be run in special
user sandboxes. A sandbox is not perfect, unless
you go through a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to
security still stands: If someone is able to break in through
a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the
sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the
lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically
been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including
basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which
people only login via sshd and never
login via telnetd or
rshd or
rlogind, then turn off those
services!FreeBSD now defaults to running
ntalkd,
comsat, and
finger in a sandbox. Another program
which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;.
/etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments
necessary to run named in a sandbox in a
commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new
system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts
used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent
sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers
whenever possible.sendmailThere are a number of other servers that typically do not run
in sandboxes: sendmail,
popper,
imapd, ftpd,
and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but
installing them may require more work than you are willing to
perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to
run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect
break-ins that might occur through them.The other big potential root holes in a system are the
suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of
these binaries, such as rlogin, reside
in /bin, /sbin,
/usr/bin, or /usr/sbin.
While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid
binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are
occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in
Xlib in 1998 that made
xterm (which is typically suid)
vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent
sysadmin will restrict suid binaries, that only staff should run,
to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of
(chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses.
A server with no display generally does not need an
xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be
almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary,
the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem
and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising
any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks
group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through
pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure
methods. An intruder that breaks the tty
group can write to
almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or
emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can
potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal
to echo a command, which is then run as that user.Securing User AccountsUser accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While
you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and
* out their passwords, you may not be able to
do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do
have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure
the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more
vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of
ssh and kerberos for user accounts is
more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical
support required, but still a very good solution compared to a
crypted password file.Securing the Password FileThe only sure fire way is to * out as many
passwords as you can and use ssh or
kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted
password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read
by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access
to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write
access.Your security scripts should always check for and report
changes to the password file (see Checking file integrity
below).Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and
FilesystemsIf an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but
there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels
have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it
is called the bpf device. An intruder
will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised
machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and
most systems do not have the need for the
bpf device compiled in.sysctlBut even if you turn off the bpf
device, you still have
/dev/mem and
/dev/kmem
to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to
raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called
the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can
use a KLD module to install his own bpf
device, or other sniffing
device, on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to
run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1.
The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on
the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have
set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be
denied and special chflags flags,
such as schg,
will be enforced. You must also ensure that the
schg flag is set on critical startup binaries,
directories, and script files – everything that gets run up
to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing
it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you
operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the
system at a higher secure level but not set the
schg flag for every system file and directory
under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount
/ and /usr read-only.
It should be noted that being too Draconian in what you attempt to
protect may prevent the all-important detection of an
intrusion.Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files,
Etc.When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core
system configuration and control files so much before the
convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using
chflags to set the schg bit
on most of the files in / and
/usr is probably counterproductive, because
while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window.
The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most
important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty
much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of
safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job
of the onion is to slow down the attacker, rather than stop him, in
order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch
him in the act.The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified,
missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified
files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system.
Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access
system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this
is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally
have to give the limited-access box significant access to the
other machines in the business, usually either by doing a
read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access
box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to
allow the limited-access box to ssh to
the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the
least visible method – allowing you to monitor the
filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your
limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a
switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your
limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a
hub, or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be
too insecure (network-wise) and using
ssh may be the better choice even with
the audit-trail tracks that ssh
lays.Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the
client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts
to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write
scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and
&man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files
at least once a day, and to test control files such as those
found in /etc and
/usr/local/etc even more often. When
mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the
limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a
sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also
check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files
on system partitions such as / and
/usr.When using ssh rather than NFS,
writing the security script is much more difficult. You
essentially have to scp the scripts to the client
box in order to
run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to
scp the binaries (such as find) that those
scripts use. The ssh daemon on the
client box may already be compromised. All in all, using
ssh may be necessary when running over
unsecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with.A good security script will also check for changes to user and
staff members access configuration files:
.rhosts, .shosts,
.ssh/authorized_keys and so forth…
files that might fall outside the purview of the
MD5 check.If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too
long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case,
setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those
partitions is a good idea. The nodev and
nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you
want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least
once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in
whether or not the break-in is effective.Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively
low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help
as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially
useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into
a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in
occurs.Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the
logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as
possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder
tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the
sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial
break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is
to run the system console to a serial port and collect the
information on a continuing basis through a secure machine
monitoring the consoles.ParanoiaA little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add
any number of security features, as long as they do not effect
convenience, and can add security features that
do effect convenience with some added thought.
Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a
bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this
document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the
prospective attacker who also has access to this document.Denial of Service AttacksDenial of Service (DoS)This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack
is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do
about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network,
you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks
cannot take down your servers.Limiting server forks.Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping
broadcast, etc.).Kernel Route Cache.A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts
to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory,
until the machine dies. inetd
(see &man.inetd.8;) has several
options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that
while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is
not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted
by the attack. Read the inetd manual
page carefully and pay
specific attention to the , ,
and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks
will circumvent the option to
inetd, so
typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone
servers have self-fork-limitation parameters.Sendmail has its
option, which tends to work
much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options
due to the load lag. You should specify a
MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start
sendmail, high enough to handle your
expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that
number of sendmails without falling on
its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode
() and to run the daemon
(sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs
(sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time
delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as
, but be sure to specify a reasonable
MaxDaemonChildren option for
that sendmail to prevent cascade failures.
Syslogd can be attacked directly
and it is strongly recommended that you use the
option whenever possible, and the option
otherwise.You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services
such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd,
which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use
the reverse-ident feature of
tcpwrappers for this reason.It is a very good idea to protect internal services from
external access by firewalling them off at your border routers.
The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your
LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based
root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e.,
firewall everything except ports A, B,
C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your
low ports except for certain specific services such as
named (if you are primary for a zone),
ntalkd,
sendmail, and other Internet-accessible
services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way
– as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good
chance that you will forget to close a couple of
services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget
to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered
port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation,
without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD
allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic
binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrangesysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep
portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your
firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal
first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to
65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall
(except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of
course).ICMP_BANDLIMAnother common DoS attack is called a springboard attack
– to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to
generate responses which overloads the server, the local
network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this
nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack.
The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast
address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they
wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to
stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up
generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to
saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same
trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen
different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred
and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common
springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system.
By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an
attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the
server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This
type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of
mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses
it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel
compile option called
which limits the effectiveness
of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard
attacks is related to certain internal
inetd services such as the
udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the
source address being server A's echo port, and the destination
address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both
on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and
forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers
and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner.
Similar problems exist with the internal
chargen port. A
competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test
services.Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel
route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire,
rtminexpire, and rtmaxcachesysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack
that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a
temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with
netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes
typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects
that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically
reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it
to less than rtminexpire. There are two
problems:The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly
loaded server is suddenly attacked.The rtminexpire is not low enough for
the kernel to survive a sustained attack.If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or
better, it may be prudent to manually override both
rtexpire and rtminexpire
via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless
you want to crash the machine). Setting both
parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route
table from attack.Access Issues with Kerberos and SSHsshKerberosThere are a few issues with both kerberos and
ssh that need to be addressed if
you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent
authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized
telnet and
rlogin applications that make them
unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default
kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the
option. ssh
encrypts everything by default.ssh works quite well in every
respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What
this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys
that give you access to the rest of the system, and you
ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys
becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but
ssh installs a forwarding port for the
duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken root on the
unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain
access to any other machine that your keys unlock.We recommend that you use ssh in
combination with kerberos whenever possible for staff logins.
ssh can be compiled with kerberos
support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable
ssh keys while at the same time
protecting passwords via kerberos. ssh
keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines
(something that kerberos is unsuited to). We also recommend that
you either turn off key-forwarding in the
ssh configuration, or that you make use
of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that
ssh allows in its
authorized_keys file to make the key only
usable to entities logging in from specific machines.BillSwingleParts rewritten and updated by DES, MD5, and CryptsecuritycryptcryptDESMD5Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with
their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be
known only to the user and the actual operating system. In
order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with
what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can
only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what
we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the
operating system itself does not really know
the password. It only knows the encrypted
form of the password. The only way to get the
plain-text password is by a brute force search of the
space of possible passwords.Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when
Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption
Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in
the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported
outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with
US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix
variants that still used DES.The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries
so that US users could install the DES libraries and use
DES but international users still had an encryption method
that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to
use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to
be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily
for compatibility reasons.Recognizing Your Crypt MechanismIt is pretty easy to identify which encryption method
FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in
the /etc/master.passwd file is one way.
Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those
encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters
$1$. DES password strings do not
have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are
shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character
alphabet which does not include the $
character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with
a dollar sign is very likely a DES password.The libraries can identify the passwords this way as well.
As a result, the DES libraries are able to identify MD5
passwords, and use MD5 to check passwords that were encrypted
that way, and DES for the rest. They are able to do this
because the DES libraries also contain MD5. Unfortunately, the
reverse is not true, so the MD5 libraries cannot authenticate
passwords that were encrypted with DES.Identifying which library is being used by the programs on
your system is easy as well. Any program that uses crypt is linked
against libcrypt, which for each type of library is a symbolic link
to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using
the DES versions:&prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt*
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 13 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 18 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 15 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.aOn a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will
be present, but the target will be libscrypt
rather than libdescrypt.If you have installed the DES-capable crypt library
libdescrypt (e.g. by installing the
"crypto" distribution), then which password format will be used
for new passwords is controlled by the
passwd_format login capability in
/etc/login.conf, which takes values of
either des or md5. See the
&man.login.conf.5; manual page for more information about login
capabilities.S/KeyS/KeysecurityS/KeyS/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash
function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other
systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the
FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a
growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered
trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc.There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk
about in the discussion below. The first is your usual Unix-style or
Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password.
The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the
S/Key key program and accepted by the
keyinit program and the login prompt; we will
call this a one-time password. The final sort of
password is the secret password which you give to the
key program (and sometimes the
keyinit program) which it uses to generate
one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password
or just unqualified password.The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix
password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key
secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like Unix passwords,
they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word
long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key system
operates completely independently of the Unix password
system.Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that
are important to S/Key. One is what is known as the
seed or key, consisting of two letters
and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration
count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the
one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password,
then applying the MD4 hash as many times as specified by the
iteration count and turning the result into six short English words.
These six English words are your one-time password. The
login and su programs keep
track of the last one-time password used, and the user is
authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to
the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is
impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully
used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after
each successful login to keep the user and the login program in
sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1 S/Key must be
reinitialized.There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we
will discuss below. The key program accepts an
iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a
one-time password. The keyinit program is used
to initialize S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or
seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count,
seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo program
examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out
the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the
login and su programs contain
the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for
authentication. The login program is also
capable of disallowing the use of Unix passwords on connections
coming from specified addresses.There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The
first is using the keyinit program over a secure
connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your
password or seed. The second operation is using the
keyinit program over an insecure connection, in
conjunction with the key program over a secure
connection, to do the same. The third is using the
key program to log in over an insecure
connection. The fourth is using the key program
to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed
out to carry with you when going to some location without secure
connections to anywhere.Secure Connection InitializationTo initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password,
or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection
(e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the
keyinit command without any parameters while
logged in as yourself:&prompt.user; keyinit
Adding unfurl:
Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected.
If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s.
Enter secret password:
Again secret password:
ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757
DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFTAt the Enter secret password: prompt you
should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the
password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate
your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the
parameters of your particular S/Key instance; your login name, the
iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system
will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you
do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular
one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your
secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this
one-time password is the one you would use.Insecure Connection InitializationTo initialize S/Key or change your secret password over an
insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure
connection to some place where you can run the
key program; this might be in the form of a
desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you
trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is
probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a
randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the
machine you are initializing), use the keyinit
-s command:&prompt.user; keyinit -s
Updating unfurl:
Old key: to17758
Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command.
Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100
Enter new key [default to17759]:
s/key 100 to 17759
s/key access password:To accept the default seed (which the
keyinit program confusingly calls a
key), press return. Then before entering an
access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk
accessory, and give it the same parameters:&prompt.user; key 100 to17759
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORENow switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the
one-time password generated by key over to the
keyinit program:s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE
ID unfurl s/key is 100 to17759
CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GOREThe rest of the description from the previous section applies
here as well.Generating a Single one-time PasswordOnce you have initialized S/Key, when you login you will be
presented with a prompt like this:&prompt.user; telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.
FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)
login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: As a side note, the S/Key prompt has a useful feature
(not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the
login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are
typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to
type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. Also, if this
machine were configured to disallow Unix passwords over a
connection from the source machine, the prompt would have also included
the annotation (s/key required), indicating
that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted.MS-DOSWindowsMacOSAt this point you need to generate your one-time password to
answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system
that you can run the key command on. (There
are versions of the key program for MS-DOS,
Windows and MacOS as well.) The key program
needs both the iteration count and the seed as command line
options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt
on the machine that you are logging in to.On the trusted system:&prompt.user; key 97 fw13894
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password:
WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAGNow that you have your one-time password you can continue
logging in:login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: <return to enable echo>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG
Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... This is the easiest mechanism if you have
a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key
applet, The Java OTP
Calculator, that you can download and run locally on any
Java supporting browser.Generating Multiple one-time PasswordsSometimes you have to go places where you do not have
access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case,
it is possible to use the key command to
generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed
out and taken with you. For example:&prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT
27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT
28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT
29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG
30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILKThe requests five keys in sequence, the
specifies what the last iteration number
should be. Note that these are printed out in
reverse order of eventual use. If you are
really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand;
otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note
that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time
password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as
you use them.Restricting Use of Unix PasswordsRestrictions can be placed on the use of Unix passwords based
on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a
login session. These restrictions can be found in the
configuration file /etc/skey.access. The
&man.skey.access.5; manual page has more info on the complete
format of the file and also details some security cautions to be
aware of before depending on this file for security.If there is no /etc/skey.access file
(this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to
use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users
will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do
otherwise by configuration statements in the
skey.access file. In all cases, Unix
passwords are permitted on the console.Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the
three most common sorts of configuration statements:permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0
permit user fnord
permit port ttyd0The first line (permit internet) allows
users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing)
matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This
should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means
to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network
and need to use S/Key for authentication.The second line (permit user) allows the
specified username, in this case fnord, to use
Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only
be used for people who are either unable to use the
key program, like those with dumb terminals, or
those who are uneducable.The third line (permit port) allows all
users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix
passwords; this would be used for dial-ups.MarkMurrayContributed by MarkDapozBased on a contribution by KerberosKerberosKerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to
authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server.
Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file
copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more
controllable.The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up
Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the
relevant manual pages for a complete description.4.4BSD-LiteIn FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite,
distribution, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD
1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and was thus
available to system owners outside those countries during the era
of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA.Creating the Initial DatabaseThis is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that
you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change
to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that
only the following files are present:&prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV
&prompt.root; ls
README krb.conf krb.realmsIf any additional files (such as principal.*
or master_key) exist, then use the
kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos
database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra
files.You should now edit the krb.conf and
krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm.
In this case the realm will be GRONDAR.ZA and the
server is grunt.grondar.za. We edit or create
the krb.conf file:&prompt.root; cat krb.conf
GRONDAR.ZA
GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server
CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu
LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu
TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu
ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.govIn this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are
here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple
realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity.The first line names the realm in which this system works. The
other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a
realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a
key distribution center. The words admin
server following a host's name means that host also
provides an administrative database server. For further explanation
of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages.Now we have to add grunt.grondar.za
to the GRONDAR.ZA realm and also add an entry to
put all hosts in the .grondar.za
domain in the GRONDAR.ZA realm. The
krb.realms file would be updated as
follows:&prompt.root; cat krb.realms
grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA
.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA
.berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU
.MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU
.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDUAgain, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as
an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You
may wish to remove them to simplify things.The first line puts the specific system into
the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of
a particular subdomain to a named realm.Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run
on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the
kdb_init command to do this:&prompt.root; kdb_initRealm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]:GRONDAR.ZA
You will be prompted for the database Master Password.
It is important that you NOT FORGET this password.
Enter Kerberos master key:Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine
can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do
this.&prompt.root; kstashEnter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!This saves the encrypted master password in
/etc/kerberosIV/master_key.Making It All RunTwo principals need to be added to the database for
each system that will be secured with Kerberos.
Their names are kpasswd and rcmd
These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being
the name of the individual system.These daemons, kpasswd and
rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos
passwords and run commands like rcp,
rlogin and rsh.Now let us add these entries:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:passwdInstance:grunt
<Not found>, Create [y] ?y
Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Random password [y] ?y
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name:rcmdInstance:grunt
<Not found>, Create [y] ?
Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Random password [y] ?
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitCreating the Server FileWe now have to extract all the instances which define the services
on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab
command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved
by secure means to each Kerberos client's
/etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server
and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos.&prompt.root; ext_srvtab gruntEnter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'....Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be
renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick
it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on
the original system:&prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtabIf the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed
safe, then copy the
client-new-srvtab to
removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to
rename it to srvtab in the client's
/etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is
mode 600:&prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab
&prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtabPopulating the DatabaseWe now have to add some user entries into the database. First
let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the
kdb_edit command to do this:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:janeInstance:
<Not found>, Create [y] ?y
Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter a secure password here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitTesting It All OutFirst we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you
have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this
will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on
the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what
they need from the /etc/kerberosIV
directory.&prompt.root; kerberos &
Kerberos server starting
Sleep forever on error
Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Current Kerberos master key version is 1
Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA
&prompt.root; kadmind -n &
KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing
Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a
regular kill instead
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!Now we can try using the kinit command to get a
ticket for the id jane that we created
above:&prompt.user; kinit jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane"
Password:Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we
really have them:&prompt.user; klist
Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245
Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA
Issued Expires Principal
Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZANow try changing the password using passwd to
check if the kpasswd daemon can get
authorization to the Kerberos database:&prompt.user; passwd
realm GRONDAR.ZA
Old password for jane:New Password for jane:
Verifying password
New Password for jane:
Password changed.Adding su PrivilegesKerberos allows us to give each user who
needs root privileges their own separatesu password. We could now add an id which is
authorized to su to root.
This is controlled by having an instance of root
associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can
create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos
database:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:janeInstance:root
<Not found>, Create [y] ? y
Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?12 <--- Keep this short!
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitNow try getting tokens for it to make sure it works:&prompt.root; kinit jane.root
MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root"
Password:Now we need to add the user to root's
.klogin file:&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@GRONDAR.ZANow try doing the su:&prompt.user; suPassword:and take a look at what tokens we have:&prompt.root; klist
Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245
Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA
Issued Expires Principal
May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZAUsing Other CommandsIn an earlier example, we created a principal called
jane with an instance root.
This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this
is a Kerberos default; that a
<principal>.<instance> of the form
<username>.root will allow
that <username> to su to
root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin
file in root's home directory:&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@GRONDAR.ZALikewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the
form:&prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin
jane@GRONDAR.ZA
jack@GRONDAR.ZAThis allows anyone in the GRONDAR.ZA realm
who has authenticated themselves to jane or
jack (via kinit, see above)
access to rlogin to jane's
account or files on this system (grunt) via
rlogin, rsh or
rcp.For example, Jane now logs into another system using
Kerberos:&prompt.user; kinit
MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za)
Password:
&prompt.user; rlogin grunt
Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having
set up the .klogin file as above, and the person
in charge of Kerberos having set up principal
jack with a null instance:&prompt.user; kinit
&prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za)
Password:
Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995GaryPalmerContributed by AlexNashFirewallsfirewallsecurityfirewallsFirewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are
connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private
networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully
explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the
facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them.People often think that having a firewall between your
internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all
your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall
system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A
firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it
cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal
network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your
firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that
much easier.What Is a Firewall?There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use
on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a
packet filtering router, where the kernel on a
multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based
on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy
server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to
forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel
packet forwarding disabled.Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a
certain machine (known as a bastion host) is
allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an
internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which
are generally more secure than normal authentication
mechanisms.FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as
IPFW), which is what the rest of this
section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD
from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy
servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this
section.Packet Filtering RoutersA router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more
networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in
its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before
deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing
software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to
forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a
set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the
packet should be allowed to pass or not.To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks
through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of
this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is
obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the
packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator.
Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order.
Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule
chain.The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software
used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source
IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source
port number, the destination port number (for protocols which
support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP,
etc).Proxy ServersProxy servers are machines which have had the normal system
daemons (telnetd,
ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers.
These
servers are called proxy servers as they
normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you
to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host,
and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go
through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the
internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for
signals coming from the internal network and heading out).Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and
often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available,
including one-shot password systems so that even if
someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be
able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password
instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the
host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install
backdoors around your security system.Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so
that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often
they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to
which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available
depends largely on what proxy software you choose.What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do?ipfwIPFW, the software supplied with
FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in
the kernel, and has a user-land control utility,
&man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the
rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions.There are two related parts to IPFW.
The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is
also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your
router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows
you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from
a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is
forwarding.As a result of the way that IPFW is
designed, you can use IPFW on non-router
machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing
connections. This is a special case of the more general use of
IPFW, and the same commands and techniques
should be used in this situation.Enabling IPFW on FreeBSDipfwenablingAs the main part of the IPFW system
lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your
kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and
recompile your kernel. See reconfiguring
the kernel for more details on how to recompile your
kernel.There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to
IPFW:options IPFIREWALLCompiles into the kernel the code for packet
filtering.options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSEEnables code to allow logging of packets through
&man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify
that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will
happen.options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10Limits the number of packets logged through
&man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use
this option in hostile environments in which you want to log
firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of
service attack via syslog flooding.When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified,
logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume
logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the
&man.ipfw.8; utility:&prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue
logging.Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an
IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as
the firewall code automatically includes accounting
facilities.Configuring IPFWipfwconfiguringThe configuration of the IPFW software
is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this
command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you
understand its structure.There are currently four different command categories used by the
utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing.
Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets
are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the
contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet
counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from
the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting
entries.Altering the IPFW RulesThe syntax for this form of the command is:
ipfw-NcommandindexactionlogprotocoladdressesoptionsThere is one valid flag when using this form of the
command:-NResolve addresses and service names in output.The command given can be shortened to the
shortest unique form. The valid commands
are:addAdd an entry to the firewall/accounting rule listdeleteDelete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule
listPrevious versions of IPFW used
separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version
provides packet accounting with each firewall entry.If an index value is supplied, it is used to
place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the
entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than
the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule
65535, deny).The log option causes matching rules to be
output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with
IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE.Valid actions are:rejectDrop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable
(as appropriate) packet to the source.allowPass the packet on as normal. (aliases:
pass and
accept)denyDrop the packet. The source is not notified via an
ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never
arrived at the destination).countUpdate packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet
based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain
entry.Each action will be recognized by the
shortest unambiguous prefix.The protocols which can be specified
are:allMatches any IP packeticmpMatches ICMP packetstcpMatches TCP packetsudpMatches UDP packetsThe address specification is:fromaddress/maskporttoaddress/maskportvia interfaceYou can only specify port in
conjunction with protocols which support ports
(UDP and TCP).The is optional and may specify the IP
address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name
(e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming
through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified
with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp*
would match all kernel PPP interfaces.The syntax used to specify an
address/mask is:
address
or
address/mask-bits
or
address:mask-patternA valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address.
is a decimal
number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set.
e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a
mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case,
192.216.222) to be matched.
is an IP
address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The
keyword any may be used to specify any IP
address.The port numbers to be blocked are specified as:
port,port,port…
to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or
port-port
to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range
with a list, but the range must always be specified first.The options available are:fragMatches if the packet is not the first fragment of the
datagram.inMatches if the packet is on the way in.outMatches if the packet is on the way out.ipoptions specMatches if the IP header contains the comma separated list
of options specified in spec. The
supported list of IP options are: ssrr
(strict source route), lsrr (loose source
route), rr (record packet route), and
ts (time stamp). The absence of a
particular option may be denoted with a leading
!.establishedMatches if the packet is part of an already established
TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can
optimize the performance of the firewall by placing
established rules early in the
chain.setupMatches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP
connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is
not).tcpflags flagsMatches if the TCP header contains the comma separated
list of flags. The supported flags
are fin, syn,
rst, psh,
ack, and urg. The
absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading
!.icmptypes typesMatches if the ICMP type is present in the list
types. The list may be specified
as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated
by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0
echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination
unreachable, 5 redirect,
8 echo request (ping request), and
11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL
expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;).Listing the IPFW RulesThe syntax for this form of the command is:
ipfw-a-t-NlThere are three valid flags when using this form of the
command:-aWhile listing, show counter values. This option is the
only way to see accounting counters.-tDisplay the last match times for each chain entry. The
time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the
&man.ipfw.8; utility.-NAttempt to resolve given addresses and service
names.Flushing the IPFW RulesThe syntax for flushing the chain is:
ipfwflushThis causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed
except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index
65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy
will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries
are added to the chain.Clearing the IPFW Packet CountersThe syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is:
ipfwzeroindexWhen used without an index argument,
all packet counters are cleared. If an
index is supplied, the clearing operation
only affects a specific chain entry.Example Commands for ipfwThis command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the
host nice.people.org:&prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire
crackers.org network (a class C) to
the nice.people.org machine (any
port).&prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.orgIf you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal
network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the
necessary filtering:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setupTo see the accounting records:
&prompt.root; ipfw -a list
or in the short form
&prompt.root; ipfw -a lYou can also see the last time a chain entry was matched
with:&prompt.root; ipfw -at lBuilding a Packet Filtering FirewallThe following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The
requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you
how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements.When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test
bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled
environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the
commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to
quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much
disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I
recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of
possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your
requirements alter.If you use the logging versions of the accept
command, it can generate large amounts of log
data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes
through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really
slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those
packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the
packet can be passed on. syslogd will
also start using up a lot
more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it
could quite easily fill the partition /var/log
is located on.You should enable your firewall from
/etc/rc.conf.local or
/etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains
which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations.
If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list
will output the current ruleset into a file that you can
pass to rc.conf. If you do not use
/etc/rc.conf.local or
/etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall,
it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before
any IP interfaces are configured.
The next problem is what your firewall should actually
do! This is largely dependent on what access to
your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access
to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general
rules are:Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is
where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger,
SMTP (mail) and telnet.Block all incoming UDP traffic. There
are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful
traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and
NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a
connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks
the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for
people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers.
If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow
packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port
through the firewall. ntp is another
service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port
123.Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the
port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat
(especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost
+ on their workstations). X11 can actually use a
range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X
displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined
by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063.Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers,
etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they
normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above.Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from
CERT at http://www.cert.org/tech_tips/packet_filtering.htmlAs stated above, these are only guidelines.
You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your
firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone
breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given
above.OpenSSLsecurityOpenSSLOpenSSLAs of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base
system. OpenSSL
provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the
Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer
Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols.However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA)
included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and
elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use.
IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not
built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the
license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and
rebuild your sources using 'make world'.Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other
countries. In the past it was protected by a patent.OpenSSLinstallSource Code InstallationsOpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and
src-secure cvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more
information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source
code.YoshinobuInoueContributed by IPsecIPsecsecurityIPsecThe IPsec mechanism provides secure communication for IP
layer and socket layer communication. This section should
explain how to use them. For implementation details, please
refer to The
Developers' Handbook.The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode
and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions.
http://www.kame.net/newsletter/
has more comprehensive examples.Please be aware that in order to use this functionality, you
must have the following options compiled into your kernel:options IPSEC #IP security
options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/IPSEC)Transport Mode Example with IPv4Let us setup security association to deploy a secure channel
between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little
complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used.
From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined.Now we should choose an algorithm to be used corresponding to
"AH"/"new AH"/"ESP"/"new ESP". Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man
page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1
for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP.Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key
length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1,
and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose "MYSECRETMYSECRET",
"KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME", "PASSWORD", respectively.OK, let us assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol.
Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three
security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for
from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater
than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively.
(1)
HOST A ------> HOST B
(1)PROTO=AH
ALG=MD5(RFC1826)
KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET
SPI=1000
(2.1)
HOST A <------ HOST B
<------
(2.2)
(2.1)
PROTO=AH
ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH)
KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME
SPI=2000
(2.2)
PROTO=ESP
ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP)
IV length = 8
KEY=PASSWORD
SPI=3000
Now, let us setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8;
on both HOST A and B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ;
add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ;
add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ;
^D
Actually, IPsec communication does not process until security policy
entries are defined. In this case, you must setup each host.
At A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec
ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ;
^D
At B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec
esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ;
spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec
ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ;
^D
HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E
10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8
| |
========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========>
<========= new AH hmac-sha1 ===========
<========= new ESP des-cbc ============
Transport Mode Example with IPv6Another example using IPv6.ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between
Host-A and Host-B.
============ ESP ============
| |
Host-A Host-B
fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11
Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is "kamekame", and
authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is "this is the test
key". Configuration at Host-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ;
spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ;
add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001
-m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002
-m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
EOF
and at Host-B:&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ;
spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ;
add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
EOF
Note the direction of SP.Tunnel Mode Example with IPv4Tunnel mode between two security gatewaysSecurity protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by
RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is "this is the test" as
authentication algorithm.
======= AH =======
| |
Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B
10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24
Configuration at Gateway-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ;
spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ;
add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
If the port number field is omitted such as above then "[any]" is
employed. `-m' specifies the mode of SA to be used. "-m any" means
wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both
tunnel and transport mode.and at Gateway-B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ;
spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ;
add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
Making SA bundle between two security gatewaysAH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between
Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first,
and AH transport mode is next.
========== AH =========
| ======= ESP ===== |
| | | |
Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B
fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64
Tunnel Mode Example with IPv6Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm
for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5.
Configuration at Gateway-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require
ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ;
spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require
ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel
-E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel
-E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
Making SAs with the different endESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption
algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is
hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B.
Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is
hmac-md5.
================== ESP =================
| ======= ESP ======= |
| | | |
Host-A Gateway-A Host-B
fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2
Configuration at Host-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ;
spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001
-m transport
-E cast128-cbc "12341234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002
-E rc5-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003
-m transport
-E cast128-cbc "12341234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004
-E rc5-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
ChernLeeContributed by OpenSSHOpenSSHsecurityOpenSSHSecure shell is a set of network connectivity tools used to
access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct
replacement for rlogin,
rsh, rcp, and
telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP
connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through ssh.
ssh encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping,
connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks.OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based
upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It
is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been
in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0.Advantages of Using OpenSSHNormally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;,
data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form.
Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can
steal your user/password information or data transferred in
your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and
encryption methods to prevent this from happening.Enabling sshdOpenSSHenablingBe sure to make the following additions to your
rc.conf file:
sshd_enable="YES"This will load the ssh daemon the next time your system
initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run the
sshd daemon.SSH ClientOpenSSHclientThe &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to
&man.rlogin.1;.
&prompt.root ssh user@foobardomain.com
Host key not found from the list of known hosts.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Host 'foobardomain.com' added to the list of known hosts.
user@foobardomain.com's password: *******The login will continue just as it would have if a session was
created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a
key fingerprint
system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the
client connects. The user is prompted to enter 'yes' only when
connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all
verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client
will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the
received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints
are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or
~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2 fingerprints.
By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both
SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose
between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and
secure than its predecessor.ssh can be forced to use either protocol
by passing it the or argument
for v1 and v2, respectively.Secure CopyOpenSSHsecure copyscpThe scp command works similarly to rcp;
it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a
secure fashion.&prompt.root scp user@foobardomain.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT
user@foobardomain.com's password:
COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735
00:00
&prompt.rootSince the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the
previous example, it is verified when using scp
here.
The arguments passed to scp are similar
to cp, with the file or files in the first
argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is
fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file
arguments takes on the form
.ConfigurationOpenSSHconfigurationThe system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH
daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh
directory.
ssh_config configures the client
settings, while sshd_config configures the
daemon.
Additionally, the
(/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and
rc.conf
options can provide more levels of configuration.ssh-keygenInstead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can
be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user.
&prompt.user ssh-keygen
Initializing random number generator...
Generating p: .++ (distance 66)
Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498)
Computing the keys...
Key generation complete.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity):
Enter passphrase:
Enter the same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity.
...&man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private
key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in
~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is
stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public
key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
of the remote machine in order for the setup to work.
This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon
RSA authentication instead of passwords.If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user
will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private
key.A SSH v2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using
the ssh-keygen -t dsa command. This will
create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH v2 sessions only.
The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub,
while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.DSA public keys are placed in
~/.ssh/authorized_keys2 on the remote
machine.&man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are
utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys.
SSH TunnelingOpenSSHtunnelingOpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate
another protocol in an encrypted session.The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel
for telnet.&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.bar.com
&prompt.user;The ssh command is used with the
following options:Forces ssh to use version 2 of
the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older
ssh servers)Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted,
ssh would initiate a normal
session.Forces ssh to run in the
background.Indicates a local tunnel in
localport:remotehost:remoteport
fashion.The remote SSH server.An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on localhost
on the specified port. It then forwards any connection received
on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified
remote host and port.In the example, port 5023 on
localhost is being forwarded to port
23 on localhost of the remote
machine. Since 23 is telnet, this
would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel.
This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols
such as smtp, pop3, ftp, etc.
A typical SSH Tunnel&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.foobar.com
user@mailserver.foobar.com's password: *****
&prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025
Trying 127.0.0.1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
220 mailserver.foobar.com ESMTPThis can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1;
and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free
SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing
a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user.
Practical SSH Tunneling ExamplesSecure Access of a POP3 serverAt work, there is an SSH server that accepts
connections from the outside. On the same office network
resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network,
or network path between your home and office may or may not
be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check
your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create
an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel
through to the mail server.&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.office-foobar.com user@ssh-server.office-foobar.com
user@ssh-server.office-foobar.com's password: ******When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your
mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost
port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across
the tunnel to mail.office-foobar.com.Bypassing a Draconian FirewallSome network administrators impose extremely Draconian
firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections,
but outgoing connections. You may be only given access
to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH
and web surfing.You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work
related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream
music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other
port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it.The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine
outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to
the Ogg Vorbis server.&prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.foobar.com:8000 user@unfirewalled.myserver.com
user@unfirewalled.myserver.com's password: *******Your streaming client can now be pointed to
localhost port 8888, which will be
forwarded over to music.foobar.com port
8000, successfully evading the firewall.
+ Further ReadingOpenSSH&man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1;
&man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1;&man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8;