diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml
index 22c29f5283..235a346099 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/diskless-x/article.sgml
@@ -1,349 +1,349 @@
%man;
]>
Diskless X Server: a how to guideJerryKendalljerry@kcis.com28-December-19961996Jerry KendallWith the help of some friends on the FreeBSD-hackers list, I have
been able to create a diskless X terminal. The creation of the X
terminal required first creating a diskless system with minimal
utilities mounted via NFS. These same steps were used to create 2
separate diskless systems. The first is altair.kcis.com. A diskless X terminal that I
+ role="fqdn">altair.example.com. A diskless X terminal that I
run on my old 386DX-40. It has a 340Meg hard disk but, I did not want
to change it. So, it boots from antares.kcis.com across a Ethernet. The second
+ role="fqdn">antares.example.com across a Ethernet. The second
system is a 486DX2-66. I setup a diskless FreeBSD (complete) that
uses no local disk. The server in that case is a Sun 670MP running
SunOS 4.1.3. The same setup configuration was needed for both.I am sure that there is stuff that needs to be added
to this. Please send me any comments.Creating the boot floppy (On the diskless system)Since the network boot loaders will not work with some of the TSR's
and such that MS-DOS uses, it is best to create a dedicated boot floppy
or, if you can, create an MS-DOS menu that will (via the
config.sys/autoexec.bat files)
ask what configuration to load when the system starts. The later is the
method that I use and it works great. My MS-DOS (6.x) menu is
below.config.sys[menu]
menuitem=normal, normal
menuitem=unix, unix
[normal]
....
normal config.sys stuff
...
[unix]autoexec.bat@ECHO OFF
goto %config%
:normal
...
normal autoexec.bat stuff
...
goto end
:unix
cd \netboot
nb8390.com
:endGetting the network boot programs (On the server)Compile the 'net-boot' programs that are located in
/usr/src/sys/i386/boot/netboot. You should read
the comments at the top of the Makefile. Adjust as
required. Make a backup of the original in case it gets foobar'd. When
the build is done, there should be 2 MS-DOS executables,
nb8390.com and nb3c509.com.
One of these two programs will be what you need to run on the diskless
server. It will load the kernel from the boot server. At this point,
put both programs on the MS-DOS boot floppy created earlier.Determine which program to run (On the diskless system)If you know the chipset that your Ethernet adapter uses, this is
easy. If you have the NS8390 chipset, or a NS8390 based chipset, use
nb8390.com. If you have a 3Com 509 based chipset,
use the nb3C509.com boot program. If you are not
sure which you have, try using one, if it says No adapter
found, try the other. Beyond that, you are pretty much on
your own.Booting across the networkBoot the diskless system with out any config.sys/autoexec.bat
files. Try running the boot program for your Ethernet adapter.My Ethernet adapter is running in WD8013 16bit mode so I run
nb8390.comC:>cd \netbootC:>nb8390Boot from Network (Y/N) ?Y
BOOTP/TFTP/NFS bootstrap loader ESC for menu
Searching for adapter..
WD8013EBT base 0x0300, memory 0x000D8000, addr 00:40:01:43:26:66
Searching for server...At this point, my diskless system is trying to find a machine to act
as a boot server. Make note of the addr line above,
you will need this number later. Reset the diskless system and modify
your config.sys and
autoexec.bat files to do these steps automatically
for you. Perhaps in a menu. If you had to run
nb3c509.com instead of nb8390.com
the output is the same as above. If you got No adapter
found at the Searching for adapter...
message, verify that you did indeed set the compile time defines in the
Makefile correctly.Allowing systems to boot across the network (On the server)Make sure the /etc/inetd.conf file has entries
for tftp and bootps. Mine are listed below:tftp dgram udp wait nobody /usr/libexec/tftpd tftpd /tftpboot
#
# Additions by who ever you are
bootps dgram udp wait root /usr/libexec/bootpd bootpd /etc/bootptabIf you have to change the /etc/inetd.conf file,
send a HUP signal to inetd. To do this, get the
process ID of inetd with ps -ax | grep inetd | grep -v
grep. Once you have it, send it a HUP signal. Do this by
kill -HUP <pid>. This will force inetd to
re-read its config file.Did you remember to note the addr line from the
output of the boot loader on the diskless system? Guess what, here is
where you need it.Add an entry to /etc/bootptab (maybe creating the
file). It should be laid out identical to this:altair:\
:ht=ether:\
:ha=004001432666:\
:sm=255.255.255.0:\
:hn:\
:ds=199.246.76.1:\
:ip=199.246.76.2:\
:gw=199.246.76.1:\
:vm=rfc1048:The lines are as follows:altairthe diskless systems name without the domain name.ht=etherthe hardware type of 'ethernet'.ha=004001432666the hardware address (the number noted above).sm=255.255.255.0the subnet mask.hntells server to send client's hostname to the
client.ds=199.246.76.1tells the client who the domain server is.ip=199.246.76.2tells the client what its IP address is.gw=199.246.76.1tells the client what the default gateway is.vm=...just leave it there.Be sure to setup the IP addresses correctly, the addresses above
are my own.Create the directory /tftpboot on the server it will contain the
configuration files for the diskless systems that the server will serve.
These files will be named cfg.ip where ip is the IP
address of the diskless system. The config file for altair is
/tftpboot/cfg.199.246.76.2. The contents is:rootfs 199.246.76.1:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair
-hostname altair.kcis.com
+hostname altair.example.com
- The line hostname altair.kcis.com simply tells
+ The line hostname altair.example.com simply tells
the diskless system what its fully qualified domain name is.The line rootfs
199.246.76.1:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair tells the diskless
system where its NFS mountable root filesystem is located.The NFS mounted root filesystem will be mounted read
only.The hierarchy for the diskless system can be re-mounted allowing
read-write operations if required.I use my spare 386DX-40 as a dedicated X terminal.The hierarchy for altair is:/
/bin
/etc
/tmp
/sbin
/dev
/dev/fd
/usr
/var
/var/runThe actual list of files is:-r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 779984 Dec 11 23:44 ./kernel
-r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 299008 Dec 12 00:22 ./bin/sh
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 499 Dec 15 15:54 ./etc/rc
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 1411 Dec 11 23:19 ./etc/ttys
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 157 Dec 15 15:42 ./etc/hosts
-rw-r--r-- 1 root bin 1569 Dec 15 15:26 ./etc/XF86Config.altair
-r-x------ 1 bin bin 151552 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/init
-r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 176128 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/ifconfig
-r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 110592 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/mount_nfs
-r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 135168 Jun 10 1995 ./sbin/reboot
-r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 73728 Dec 13 22:38 ./sbin/mount
-r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 1992 Jun 10 1995 ./dev/MAKEDEV.local
-r-xr-xr-x 1 root wheel 24419 Jun 10 1995 ./dev/MAKEDEVDo not forget to run MAKEDEV all in the
dev directory.My /etc/rc for altair
is:#!/bin/sh
#
PATH=/bin:/
export PATH
#
# configure the localhost
/sbin/ifconfig lo0 127.0.0.1
#
# configure the ethernet card
/sbin/ifconfig ed0 199.246.76.2 netmask 0xffffff00
#
# mount the root filesystem via NFS
/sbin/mount antares:/DiskLess/rootfs/altair /
#
# mount the /usr filesystem via NFS
/sbin/mount antares:/DiskLess/usr /usr
#
/usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_SVGA -query antares -xf86config /etc/XF86Config.altair > /dev/null 2>&1
#
# Reboot after X exits
/sbin/reboot
#
# We blew up....
exit 1Any comments and all questions welcome.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml
index 2f9601fa13..814df87057 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml
@@ -1,12517 +1,12517 @@
%man;
%freebsd;
%authors;
%bookinfo;
%mailing-lists;
]>
Frequently Asked Questions for FreeBSD 2.X, 3.X and 4.XThe FreeBSD Documentation Project
- $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.sgml,v 1.271 2001/10/03 20:29:11 ue Exp $
+ $FreeBSD$1995199619971998199920002001The FreeBSD Documentation Project
&bookinfo.legalnotice;
This is the FAQ for FreeBSD versions 2.X, 3.X, and 4.X.
All entries are assumed to be relevant to FreeBSD 2.0.5 and later,
unless otherwise noted. Any entries with a <XXX> are under
construction. If you are interested in helping with this project,
send email to the &a.doc;. The latest version of this
document is always available from the FreeBSD World Wide Web
server. It may also be downloaded as one large HTML file with HTTP or as plain text,
postscript, PDF, etc. from the FreeBSD FTP
server. You may also want to Search the
FAQ.IntroductionWelcome to the FreeBSD 2.X-4.X FAQ!As is usual with Usenet FAQs, this document aims to cover the
most frequently asked questions concerning the FreeBSD operating
system (and of course answer them!). Although originally intended
to reduce bandwidth and avoid the same old questions being asked
over and over again, FAQs have become recognized as valuable
information resources.Every effort has been made to make this FAQ as informative as
possible; if you have any suggestions as to how it may be improved,
please feel free to mail them to the &a.faq;.What is FreeBSD?Briefly, FreeBSD is a UN*X-like operating system for the
i386 and Alpha/AXP platforms based on U.C. Berkeley's
4.4BSD-Lite release, with some 4.4BSD-Lite2 enhancements.
It is also based indirectly on William Jolitz's port of U.C.
Berkeley's Net/2 to the i386, known as 386BSD, though very
little of the 386BSD code remains. A fuller description of
what FreeBSD is and how it can work for you may be found on
the FreeBSD home
page.FreeBSD is used by companies, Internet Service Providers,
researchers, computer professionals, students and home users
all over the world in their work, education and recreation.
See some of them in the FreeBSD
Gallery.For more detailed information on FreeBSD, please see the
FreeBSD
Handbook.What are the goals of FreeBSD?The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software
that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached.
Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and
project) and would certainly not mind a little financial
compensation now and then, but we are definitely not prepared
to insist on it. We believe that our first and foremost
mission is to provide code to any and all
comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the
widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit.
This is, we believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free
Software and one that we enthusiastically support.That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU General Public
License (GPL) or GNU Library
General Public License (LGPL) comes with slightly more
strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access
rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities
that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software, we do,
however, endeavor to replace such software with submissions under
the more relaxed
FreeBSD copyright whenever possible.Why is it called FreeBSD?It may be used free of charge, even by commercial
users.Full source for the operating system is freely
available, and the minimum possible restrictions have
been placed upon its use, distribution and incorporation
into other work (commercial or non-commercial).Anyone who has an improvement and/or bug fix is free
to submit their code and have it added to the source tree
(subject to one or two obvious provisions).For those of our readers whose first language is not
English, it may be worth pointing out that the word
free is being used in two ways here, one meaning
at no cost, the other meaning you can do
whatever you like. Apart from one or two things you
cannot do with the FreeBSD code, for
example pretending you wrote it, you really can do whatever you
like with it.What is the latest version of FreeBSD?Version &rel.current;
is the latest STABLE version; it was
released in &rel.current.date;. This is also the latest
RELEASE version.Briefly explained, -STABLE is aimed
at the ISP or other corporate user who wants stability and a
low change count over the wizzy new features of the latest
-CURRENT snapshot. Releases can come
from either branch, but you should only use
-CURRENT if you are sure that you are
prepared for its increased volatility (relative to
-STABLE, that is).Releases are only made every
few months. While many people stay more up-to-date with
the FreeBSD sources (see the questions on FreeBSD-CURRENT and FreeBSD-STABLE) than that, doing so
is more of a commitment, as the sources are a moving
target.What is FreeBSD-CURRENT?FreeBSD-CURRENT
is the development version of the operating system, which will
in due course become 5.0-RELEASE. As such, it is really only
of interest to developers working on the system and die-hard
hobbyists. See the relevant
section in the handbook for details on
running -CURRENT.If you are not familiar with the operating system or are
not capable of identifying the difference between a real
problem and a temporary problem, you should not use
FreeBSD-CURRENT. This branch sometimes evolves quite quickly
and can be un-buildable for a number of days at a time.
People that use FreeBSD-CURRENT are expected to be able to
analyze any problems and only report them if they are deemed
to be mistakes rather than glitches. Questions
such as make world produces some error about
groups on the -CURRENT mailing list are sometimes
treated with contempt.Every day, snapshot
releases are made based on the current state of the
-CURRENT and -STABLE branches. Nowadays, distributions of the
occasional snapshot are now being made available. The goals
behind each snapshot release are:To test the latest version of the installation
software.To give people who would like to run -CURRENT or
-STABLE but who do not have the time and/or bandwidth to
follow it on a day-to-day basis an easy way of
bootstrapping it onto their systems.To preserve a fixed reference point for the code in
question, just in case we break something really badly
later. (Although CVS normally prevents anything horrible
like this happening :)To ensure that any new features in need of testing
have the greatest possible number of potential
testers.No claims are made that any -CURRENT snapshot can be
considered production quality for any purpose.
If you want to run a stable and fully tested system, you will
have to stick to full releases, or use the -STABLE
snaphosts.Snapshot releases are directly available from
ftp://current.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ for 5.0-CURRENT
and
releng4.FreeBSD.org for 4-STABLE snapshots.
3-STABLE snapshots are not being produced at the time of
this writing (May 2000).Snapshots are generated, on the average, once a day for
all actively developed branches.What is the FreeBSD-STABLE concept?Back when FreeBSD 2.0.5 was released, we decided to
branch FreeBSD development into two parts. One branch was
named -STABLE,
with the intention that only well-tested bug fixes and small
incremental enhancements would be made to it (for Internet
Service Providers and other commercial enterprises for whom
sudden shifts or experimental features are quite
undesirable). The other branch was -CURRENT,
which essentially has been one unbroken line leading towards
5.0-RELEASE (and beyond) since 2.0 was released. If a little
ASCII art would help, this is how it looks: 2.0
|
|
| [2.1-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 2.0.5 -> 2.1 -> 2.1.5 -> 2.1.6 -> 2.1.7.1 [2.1-STABLE ends]
| (Mar 1997)
|
|
| [2.2-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 2.2.1 -> 2.2.2-RELEASE -> 2.2.5 -> 2.2.6 -> 2.2.7 -> 2.2.8 [end]
| (Mar 1997) (Oct 97) (Apr 98) (Jul 98) (Dec 98)
|
|
3.0-SNAPs (started Q1 1997)
|
|
3.0-RELEASE (Oct 1998)
|
| [3.0-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 3.1-RELEASE (Feb 1999) -> 3.2 -> 3.3 -> 3.4 -> 3.5 -> 3.5.1
| (May 1999) (Sep 1999) (Dec 1999) (June 2000) (July 2000)
|
| [4.0-STABLE]
*BRANCH* 4.0 (Mar 2000) -> 4.1 -> 4.1.1 -> 4.2 -> 4.3 -> 4.4 -> ... future 4.x releases ...
|
| (July 2000) (Sep 2000) (Nov 2000)
\|/
+
[5.0-CURRENT continues]The 2.2-STABLE branch was retired with the release of 2.2.8.
The 3-STABLE branch has ended with the release of 3.5.1, the
final 3.X release. The only changes made to either of these
branches will be, for the most part, security-related bug
fixes.4-STABLE is the actively developed -STABLE branch. The
latest release on the 4-STABLE is &rel.current;-RELEASE, which was released
in &rel.current.date;.The 5-CURRENT branch is slowly progressing toward 5.0-RELEASE
and beyond. See What is
FreeBSD-CURRENT? for more information on this branch.When are FreeBSD releases made?As a general principle, the FreeBSD core team only release
a new version of FreeBSD when they believe that there are
sufficient new features and/or bug fixes to justify one, and
are satisfied that the changes made have settled down
sufficiently to avoid compromising the stability of the
release. Many users regard this caution as one of the best
things about FreeBSD, although it can be a little frustrating
when waiting for all the latest goodies to become
available...Releases are made about every 4 months on average.For people needing (or wanting) a little more excitement,
binary snapshots are made every day... see above.Who is responsible for FreeBSD?The key decisions concerning the FreeBSD project, such as
the overall direction of the project and who is allowed to add
code to the source tree, are made by a core team of
9 people. There is a much larger team of more than 200 committers who
are authorized to make changes directly to the FreeBSD source
tree.However, most non-trivial changes are discussed in advance
in the mailing lists, and there
are no restrictions on who may take part in the
discussion.Where can I get FreeBSD?Every significant release of FreeBSD is available via
anonymous FTP from the
FreeBSD FTP site:For the current 3.X-STABLE release, 3.5.1-RELEASE, see
the 3.5.1-RELEASE directory.The current 4-STABLE release, &rel.current;-RELEASE can be
found in the &rel.current;-RELEASE directory.4.X
snapshots are usually made once a day.
5.0 Snapshot releases are made once a day for the
-CURRENT branch, these being
of service purely to bleeding-edge testers and
developers.Information about obtaining FreeBSD on CD, DVD, and other
media can be found in the
Handbook.Where do I find info on the FreeBSD mailing lists?You can find full information in the Handbook
entry on mailing-lists.Where do I find the FreeBSD Y2K info?You can find full information in the FreeBSD Y2K
page.What FreeBSD news groups are available?You can find full information in the Handbook entry on
newsgroups.Are there FreeBSD IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
channels?Yes, most major IRC networks host a FreeBSD chat
channel:Channel #FreeBSD on
EFNet
is a FreeBSD forum, but do not go there for tech
support or to try and get folks there to help you avoid
the pain of reading man pages or doing your own research.
It is a chat channel, first and foremost, and topics there
are just as likely to involve sex, sports or nuclear
weapons as they are FreeBSD. You Have Been Warned!
Available at server irc.chat.org.Channel #FreeBSDhelp on
EFNet
is a channel dedicated to helping FreeBSD users. They
are much more sympathetic to questions then
#FreeBSD is.Channel #FreeBSD on
DALNET
is available at irc.dal.net in the
US and irc.eu.dal.net in Europe.Channel #FreeBSD on
UNDERNET
is available at us.undernet.org
in the US and eu.undernet.org in Europe.
Since it is a help channel, be prepared to read the
documents you are referred to.Channel #FreeBSD on HybNet. This channel
is a help channel. A list of servers
can be found on the HybNet web site.Each of these channels are distinct and are not connected
to each other. Their chat styles also differ, so you may need
to try each to find one suited to your chat style. As with
all types of IRC traffic, if you are easily offended or cannot
deal with lots of young people (and more than a few older
ones) doing the verbal equivalent of jello wrestling, do not
even bother with it.How do I access the Problem Report database?The Problem Report database of all user change requests
may be queried (or submitted to) by using our web-based PR
submission
and
query
interfaces. The &man.send-pr.1; command can
also be used to submit problem reports and change requests via
electronic mail.Is the documentation available in other formats, such as plain
text (ASCII), or Postscript?Yes. The documentation is available in a number of different
formats and compression schemes on the FreeBSD FTP site, in the
/pub/FreeBSD/doc/ directory.The documentation is categorised in a number of different
ways. These include:The document's name, such as faq, or
handbook.The document's language and encoding. These are based on
the locale names you will find under
/usr/share/locale on your FreeBSD
system. The current languages and encodings that we have for
documentation are as follows:NameMeaningen_US.ISO8859-1US Englishde_DE.ISO8859-1Germanes_ES.ISO8859-1Spanishfr_FR.ISO8859-1Frenchja_JP.eucJPJapanese (EUC encoding)ru_RU.KOI8-RRussian (KOI8-R encoding)zh_TW.Big5Chinese (Big5 encoding)Some documents may not be available in all
languages.The document's format. We produce the documentation in a
number of different output formats to try and make it as
flexible as possible. The current formats are;FormatMeaninghtml-splitA collection of small, linked, HTML
files.htmlOne large HTML file containing the entire
documentpdbPalm Pilot database format, for use with the
iSilo
reader.pdfAdobe's Portable Document FormatpsPostscriptrtfMicrosoft's Rich Text FormatPage numbers are not automatically updated
when loading this format in to Word. Press
CTRLA,
CTRLEND,
F9 after loading the document, to
update the page numbers.txtPlain textThe compression and packaging scheme. There are three of
these currently in use.Where the format is html-split, the
files are bundled up using &man.tar.1;. The resulting
.tar file is then compressed using
the compression schemes detailed in the next point.All the other formats generate one file, called
book.format
(i.e., book.pdb,
book.html, and so on).These files are then compressed using three
compression schemes.SchemeDescriptionzipThe Zip format. If you want to uncompress
this on FreeBSD you will need to install the
archivers/unzip port
first.gzThe GNU Zip format. Use &man.gunzip.1; to
uncompress these files, which is part of
FreeBSD.bz2The BZip2 format. Less widespread than the
others, but generally gives smaller files.
Install the archivers/bzip2
port to uncompress these files.So the Postscript version of the Handbook, compressed
using BZip2 will be stored in a file called
book.ps.bz2 in the
handbook/ directory.The formatted documentation is also available as a
FreeBSD package, of which more later.After choosing the format and compression mechanism that you
want to download, you must then decide whether or not you want to
download the document as a FreeBSD
package.The advantage of downloading and installing the package is
that the documentation can then be managed using the normal
FreeBSD package management comments, such as &man.pkg.add.1; and
&man.pkg.delete.1;.If you decide to download and install the package then you
must know the filename to download. The documentation-as-packages
files are stored in a directory called
packages. Each package file looks like
document-name.lang.encoding.format.tgz.For example, the FAQ, in English, formatted as PDF, is in the
package called
faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf.tgz.Knowing this, you can use the following command to install the
English PDF FAQ package.&prompt.root; pkg_add ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/packages/faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf.tgzHaving done that, you can use &man.pkg.info.1; to determine
where the file has been installed.&prompt.root; pkg_info -f faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf
Information for faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf:
Packing list:
Package name: faq.en_US.ISO8859-1.pdf
CWD to /usr/share/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq
File: book.pdf
CWD to .
File: +COMMENT (ignored)
File: +DESC (ignored)As you can see, book.pdf will have been
installed in to
/usr/share/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq.
If you do not want to use the packages then you will have to
download the compressed files yourself, uncompress them, and then
copy the appropriate documents in to place.For example, the split HTML version of the FAQ, compressed
using &man.gzip.1;, can be found in the
en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.html-split.tar.gz
file. To download and uncompress that file you would have to do
this.&prompt.root; fetch ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.html-split.tar.gz
&prompt.root; gzip -d book.html-split.tar.gz
&prompt.root; tar xvf book.html-split.tarYou will be left with a collection of
.html files. The main one is called
index.html, which will contain the table of
contents, introductory material, and links to the other parts of
the document. You can then copy or move these to their final
location as necessary.How do I become a FreeBSD Web mirror?Certainly! There are multiple ways to mirror the Web
pages.Using CVSup:
You can retrieve the formatted files
using CVSup, and connecting to
a CVSup server.To retrieve the webpages, please look at the example
supfile, which can be found in
/usr/share/examples/cvsup/www-supfile.
Using FTP mirror: You can download the FTP server's
copy of the web site sources using your favorite ftp mirror
tool. Keep in mind that you have to build these sources before
publishing them. Simply start at
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/www.What other sources of information are there?The following newsgroups contain pertinent discussion for
FreeBSD users:comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce
(moderated)comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misccomp.unix.bsd.miscWeb resources:The FreeBSD Home Page.If you have a laptop, be sure and see
Tatsumi
Hosokawa's Mobile Computing page in Japan.For information on SMP (Symmetric
MultiProcessing), please see the SMP support page.For information on FreeBSD
multimedia applications, please see the multimedia
page. If you are interested specifically in the Bt848
video capture chip, then follow that link.The FreeBSD handbook also has a fairly complete bibliography
section which is worth reading if you are looking for actual
books to buy.NikClaytonnik@freebsd.orgInstallationWhich file do I download to get FreeBSD?Prior to release 3.1, you only needed one floppy image to
install FreeBSD, namely floppies/boot.flp.
However, since release 3.1 the Project has added base support
for a wide variety of hardware which needed more space, and
thus for 3.x and 4.x we now use two floppy images, namely
floppies/kernel.flp and
floppies/mfsroot.flp. These images need to
be copied onto floppies by tools like
fdimage or &man.dd.1;.If you need to download the distributions yourself (for a
DOS filesystem install, for instance), below are some
recommendations for distributions to grab:bin/manpages/compat*/doc/src/ssys.*Full instructions on this procedure and a little bit more
about installation issues in general can be found in the
Handbook entry on
installing FreeBSD.What do I do if the floppy images does not fit on a single
floppy?A 3.5 inch (1.44MB) floppy can accomodate 1474560 bytes
of data. The boot image is exactly 1474560 bytes in size.Common mistakes when preparing the boot floppy are:Not downloading the floppy image in
binary mode when using
FTP.Some FTP clients default their transfer mode to
ascii and attempt to change any
end-of-line characters received to match the conventions
used by the client's system. This will almost invariably
corrupt the boot image. Check the size of the downloaded
boot image: if it is not exactly that
on the server, then the download process is suspect.To workaround: type binary at the
FTP command prompt after getting connected to the server
and before starting the download of the image.Using the DOS copy command (or
equivalent GUI tool) to transfer the boot image to
floppy.Programs like copy will not work as
the boot image has been created to be booted into directly.
The image has the complete content of the floppy, track for
track, and is not meant to be placed on the floppy as a
regular file. You have to transfer it to the floppy
raw, using the low-level tools (e.g.
fdimage or rawrite)
described in the installation guide to
FreeBSD.Where are the instructions for installing FreeBSD?Installation instructions can be found in the
Handbook entry on installing FreeBSD.What do I need in order to run FreeBSD?You will need a 386 or better PC, with 5 MB or more of RAM
and at least 60 MB of hard disk space. It can run with a low
end MDA graphics card but to run X11R6, a VGA or better video
card is needed.See also the section on
I have only 4 MB of RAM. Can I install FreeBSD?FreeBSD 2.1.7 was the last version of FreeBSD that could
be installed on a 4MB system. Newer versions of FreeBSD, like
2.2, need at least 5MB to install on a new system.All versions of FreeBSD, including 3.0, will
run in 4MB of RAM, they just cannot run the
installation program in 4MB. You can add extra memory for the
install process, if you like, and then after the system is up
and running, go back to 4MB. Or you could always just swap your
disk into a system which has >4MB, install onto it and then
swap it back.There are also situations in which FreeBSD 2.1.7 will not
install in 4 MB. To be exact: it does not install with 640 kB
base + 3 MB extended memory. If your motherboard can remap some
of the lost memory out of the 640kB to 1MB
region, then you may still be able to get FreeBSD 2.1.7
up.Try to go into your BIOS setup and look for a
remap option. Enable it. You may also have to
disable ROM shadowing.It may be easier to get 4 more MB just for the install.
Build a custom kernel with only the options you need and then
get the 4MB out again.You may also install 2.0.5 and then upgrade your system to
2.1.7 with the upgrade option of the 2.1.7
installation program.After the installation, if you build a custom kernel, it
will run in 4 MB. Someone has even succeeded in booting with 2
MB (the system was almost unusable though :-))How can I make my own custom install floppy?Currently there is no way to just
make a custom install floppy. You have to cut a whole new
release, which will include your install floppy.To make a custom release, follow the instructions
here.Can I have more than one operating system on my PC?Have a look at
The multi-OS page.Can Windows 95/98 co-exist with FreeBSD?Install Windows 95/98 first, after that FreeBSD.
FreeBSD's boot manager will then manage to boot Win95/98 and
FreeBSD. If you install Windows 95/98 second, it will boorishly
overwrite your boot manager without even asking. If that
happens, see the next section.Windows 95/98 killed my boot manager!
How do I get it back?You can reinstall the boot manager FreeBSD comes with in
one of three ways:Running DOS, go into the tools/ directory of your
FreeBSD distribution and look for
bootinst.exe. You run it like
so:...\TOOLS>bootinst.exe boot.binand the boot manager will be reinstalled.Boot the FreeBSD boot floppy again and go to the
Custom installation menu item. Choose Partition. Select the
drive which used to contain your boot manager (likely the
first one) and when you come to the partition editor for
it, as the very first thing (e.g. do not make any changes)
select (W)rite. This will ask for confirmation, say yes,
and when you get the Boot Manager selection prompt, be
sure to select Boot Manager. This will
re-write the boot manager to disk. Now quit out of the
installation menu and reboot off the hard disk as
normal.Boot the FreeBSD boot floppy (or CDROM) and choose the
Fixit menu item. Select either the Fixit
floppy or CDROM #2 (the live file system
option) as appropriate and enter the fixit shell. Then
execute the following command:Fixit#fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 bootdevicesubstituting bootdevice for
your real
boot device such as ad0 (first IDE
disk), ad4 (first IDE disk on
auxiliary controller), da0 (first
SCSI disk), etc.My A, T, or X series IBM Thinkpad locks up when I first
booted up my FreeBSD installation. How can I solve this?A bug in early revisions of IBM's BIOS on these machines
mistakenly identifies the FreeBSD partition as a potential FAT
suspend-to-disk partition. When the BIOS tries to parse the
FreeBSD partition it hangs.According to IBMIn an e-mail from Keith
Frechette
kfrechet@us.ibm.com., the
following model/BIOS release numbers incorporate the fix.ModelBIOS revisionT20IYET49WW or laterT21KZET22WW or laterA20pIVET62WW or laterA20mIWET54WW or laterA21pKYET27WW or laterA21mKXET24WW or laterA21eKUET30WWIt has been reported that later IBM BIOS revisions may have
reintroduced the bug. This message
from Jacques Vidrine to the &a.mobile; describes a procedure
which may work if your newer IBM laptop does not boot FreeBSD
properly, and you can upgrade or downgrade the BIOS..If you have an earlier BIOS, and upgrading is not an option a
workaround is to install FreeBSD, change the partition ID FreeBSD
uses, and install new boot blocks that can handle the different
partition ID.First, you will need to restore the machine to a state where
it can get through its self-test screen. Doing this requires
powering up the machine without letting it find a FreeBSD
partition on its primary disk. One way is to remove the hard disk
and temporarily move it to an older ThinkPad (such as a ThinkPad
600) or a desktop PC with an appropriate conversion cable. Once
it is there, you can delete the FreeBSD partition and move the hard
disk back. The ThinkPad should now be in a bootable state
again.With the machine functional again, you can use the workaround
procedure described here to get a working FreeBSD
installation.Download boot1 and
boot2 from http://people.freebsd.org/~bmah/ThinkPad/.
Put these files somewhere you will be able to retrieve them
later.Install FreeBSD as normal on to the ThinkPad.
Do not use Dangerously
Dedicated mode. Do not
reboot when the install has finished.Either switch to the Emergency Holographic
Shell (ALTF4) or start a
fixit shell.Use &man.fdisk.8; to change the FreeBSD partition ID from
165 to 166 (this is the
type used by OpenBSD).Bring the boot1 and
boot2 files to the local
filesystem.Use &man.disklabel.8; to write boot1
and boot2 to your FreeBSD slice.&prompt.root; disklabel -B -b boot1 -s boot2 ad0snn is the number of the slice
where you installed FreeBSD.Reboot. At the boot prompt you will be given the option
of booting OpenBSD. This will actually
boot FreeBSD.Getting this to work in the case where you want to dual boot
OpenBSD and FreeBSD on the same laptop is left as an exercise for
the reader.Can I install on a disk with bad blocks?Prior to 3.0, FreeBSD included a utility known as
bad144, which automatically remapped bad
blocks. Because modern IDE drives perform this function
themselves, bad144 has been removed from the
FreeBSD source tree. If you wish to install FreeBSD 3.0 or
later, we strongly suggest you purchase a newer disk drive. If
you do not wish to do this, you must run FreeBSD 2.x.If you are seeing bad block errors with a modern IDE
drive, chances are the drive is going to die very soon (the
drive's internal remapping functions are no longer sufficient
to fix the bad blocks, which means the disk is heavily
corrupted); we suggest you buy a new hard drive.If you have a SCSI drive with bad blocks, see
this answer.Strange things happen when I boot the install floppy!
What is happening?If you are seeing things like the machine grinding to a halt
or spontaneously rebooting when you try to boot the install
floppy, here are three questions to ask yourself:-Did you use a new, freshly-formatted, error-free floppy
(preferably a brand-new one straight out of the box, as
opposed to the magazine coverdisk that has been lying under
the bed for the last three years)?Did you download the floppy image in binary (or image)
mode? (do not be embarrassed, even the best of us have
accidentally downloaded a binary file in ASCII mode at
least once!)If you are using Windows95 or Win98 did you run
fdimage or rawrite in
pure DOS mode? These OS's can interfere with programs that
write directly to hardware, which the disk creation program
does; even running it inside a DOS shell in the GUI can
cause this problem.There have also been reports of Netscape causing problems
when downloading the boot floppy, so it is probably best to use
a different FTP client if you can.I booted from my ATAPI CDROM, but the install program says no
CDROM is found. Where did it go?The usual cause of this problem is a mis-configured CDROM
drive. Many PCs now ship with the CDROM as the slave device on
the secondary IDE controller, with no master device on that
controller. This is illegal according to the ATAPI specification,
but Windows plays fast and loose with the specification, and the
BIOS ignores it when booting. This is why the BIOS was able to
see the CDROM to boot from it, but why FreeBSD cannot see it to
complete the install.Reconfigure your system so that the CDROM is either the
master device on the IDE controller it is attached to, or make
sure that it is the slave on an IDE controller that also has a
master device.Why can I not install from tape?If you are installing 2.1.7R from tape, you must create
the tape using a tar blocksize of 10 (5120 bytes). The default
tar blocksize is 20 (10240 bytes), and tapes created using this
default size cannot be used to install 2.1.7R; with these
tapes, you will get an error that complains about the record
size being too big.Can I install on my laptop over PLIP (Parallel Line
IP)?Connect the two computers using a Laplink parallel cable
to use this feature:
See also this note on the
Mobile Computing page.Which geometry should I use for a disk drive?By the geometry of a disk, we mean the
number of cylinders, heads and sectors/track on a disk - I will
refer to this as C/H/S for convenience. This is how the PC's
BIOS works out which area on a disk to read/write from.This seems to cause a lot of confusion for some reason.
First of all, the physical geometry of a
SCSI drive is totally irrelevant, as FreeBSD works in term of
disk blocks. In fact, there is no such thing as
the physical geometry, as the sector
density varies across the disk - what manufacturers claim is
the physical geometry is usually the
geometry that they have worked out results in the least wasted
space. For IDE disks, FreeBSD does work in terms of C/H/S, but
all modern drives will convert this into block references
internally as well.All that matters is the logical
geometry - the answer that the BIOS gets when it asks
what is your geometry? and then uses to access
the disk. As FreeBSD uses the BIOS when booting, it is very
important to get this right. In particular, if you have more
than one operating system on a disk, they must all agree on the
geometry, otherwise you will have serious problems
booting!For SCSI disks, the geometry to use depends on whether
extended translation support is turned on in your controller
(this is often referred to as support for DOS disks
>1GB or something similar). If it is turned off, then
use N cylinders, 64 heads and 32
sectors/track, where N is the
capacity of the disk in MB. For example, a 2GB disk should
pretend to have 2048 cylinders, 64 heads and 32
sectors/track.If it is turned on (it is often supplied
this way to get around certain limitations in MSDOS) and the
disk capacity is more than 1GB, use M cylinders, 63 sectors per
track (not 64), and 255 heads, where 'M' is the disk capacity
in MB divided by 7.844238 (!). So our example 2GB drive would
have 261 cylinders, 63 sectors per track and 255 heads.If you are not sure about this, or FreeBSD fails to detect
the geometry correctly during installation, the simplest way
around this is usually to create a small DOS partition on the
disk. The correct geometry should then be detected (and you can
always remove the DOS partition in the partition editor if you
do not want to keep it, or leave it around for programming
network cards and the like).Alternatively, there is a freely available utility
distributed with FreeBSD called pfdisk.exe
(located in the tools subdirectory on the
FreeBSD CDROM or on the various FreeBSD FTP sites) which can be
used to work out what geometry the other operating systems on
the disk are using. You can then enter this geometry in the
partition editor.Are there any restrictions on how I divide the disk up?Yes. You must make sure that your root partition is below
1024
cylinders so the BIOS can boot the kernel from it. (Note that
this is a limitation in the PC's BIOS, not FreeBSD).For a SCSI drive, this will normally imply that the root
partition will be in the first 1024MB (or in the first 4096MB
if extended translation is turned on - see previous question).
For IDE, the corresponding figure is 504MB.Is FreeBSD compatible with any disk managers?FreeBSD recognizes the Ontrack Disk Manager and makes
allowances for it. Other disk managers are not supported.If you just want to use the disk with FreeBSD you do not
need a disk manager. Just configure the disk for as much space
as the BIOS can deal with (usually 504 megabytes), and FreeBSD
should figure out how much space you really have. If you are
using an old disk with an MFM controller, you may need to
explicitly tell FreeBSD how many cylinders to use.If you want to use the disk with FreeBSD and another
operating system, you may be able to do without a disk manager:
just make sure the FreeBSD boot partition and the slice for
the other operating system are in the first 1024 cylinders. If
you are reasonably careful, a 20 megabyte boot partition should
be plenty.When I boot FreeBSD I get Missing Operating
System. What is happening?This is classically a case of FreeBSD and DOS or some other
OS conflicting over their ideas of disk geometry. You will have to reinstall
FreeBSD, but obeying the instructions given above will almost
always get you going.Why can I not get past the boot manager's F?
prompt?This is another symptom of the problem described in the
preceding question. Your BIOS geometry and FreeBSD geometry
settings do not agree! If your controller or BIOS supports
cylinder translation (often marked as >1GB drive
support), try toggling its setting and reinstalling
FreeBSD.Do I need to install the complete sources?In general, no. However, we would strongly recommend that
you install, at a minimum, the base source
kit, which includes several of the files mentioned here, and
the sys (kernel) source kit, which includes
sources for the kernel. There is nothing in the system which
requires the presence of the sources to operate, however,
except for the kernel-configuration program &man.config.8;.
With the exception of the kernel sources, our build structure
is set up so that you can read-only mount the sources from
elsewhere via NFS and still be able to make new binaries.
(Because of the kernel-source restriction, we recommend that
you not mount this on /usr/src directly,
but rather in some other location with appropriate symbolic
links to duplicate the top-level structure of the source
tree.)Having the sources on-line and knowing how to build a
system with them will make it much easier for you to upgrade
to future releases of FreeBSD.To actually select a subset of the sources, use the Custom
menu item when you are in the Distributions menu of the
system installation tool.Do I need to build a kernel?Building a new kernel was originally pretty much a required
step in a FreeBSD installation, but more recent releases have
benefited from the introduction of a much friendlier kernel
configuration tool. When at the FreeBSD boot prompt (boot:),
use the flag and you will be dropped into a
visual configuration screen which allows you to configure the
kernel's settings for most common ISA cards.It is still recommended that you eventually build a new
kernel containing just the drivers that you need, just to save a
bit of RAM, but it is no longer a strict requirement for most
systems.Should I use DES passwords, or MD5, and how do I specify
which form my users receive?The default password format on FreeBSD is to use
MD5-based passwords. These are believed to
be more secure than the traditional Unix password format, which
used a scheme based on the DES algorithm.
DES passwords are still available if you need to share your
password file with legacy operating systems which still use the
less secure password format (they are available if you choose
to install the crypto distribution in
sysinstall, or by installing the crypto sources if building
from source). Which password format to use for new passwords is
controlled by the passwd_format login capability
in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of
either des (if available) or md5.
See the &man.login.conf.5; manpage for more information about login
capabilities.Why does the boot floppy start, but hang at the
Probing Devices... screen?If you have a IDE Zip or Jaz drive installed, remove it
and try again. The boot floppy can get confused by the drives.
After the system is installed you can reconnect the drive.
Hopefully this will be fixed in a later release.Why do I get a panic: can't mount root
error when rebooting the system after installation?This error comes from confusion between the boot block's
and the kernel's understanding of the disk devices. The error
usually manifests on two-disk IDE systems, with the hard disks
arranged as the master or single device on separate IDE
controllers, with FreeBSD installed on the secondary IDE
controller. The boot blocks think the system is installed on
wd1 (the second BIOS disk) while the kernel assigns the first
disk on the secondary controller device wd2. After the device
probing, the kernel tries to mount what the boot blocks think
is the boot disk, wd1, while it is really wd2, and
fails.To fix the problem, do one of the following:For FreeBSD 3.3 and later, reboot the system and hit
Enter at the Booting kernel
in 10 seconds; hit [Enter] to interrupt prompt.
This will drop you into the boot loader.Then type
set root_disk_unit="disk_number"
. disk_number
will be 0 if FreeBSD is installed on
the master drive on the first IDE controller,
1 if it is installed on the slave on
the first IDE controller, 2 if it is
installed on the master of the second IDE controller, and
3 if it is installed on the slave of
the second IDE controller.Then type boot, and your system
should boot correctly.To make this change permanent (ie so you do not have to
do this every time you reboot or turn on your FreeBSD
machine), put the line
root_disk_unit="disk_number" in /boot/loader.conf.local
.If using FreeBSD 3.2 or earlier, at the Boot: prompt,
enter 1:wd(2,a)kernel and press Enter.
If the system starts, then run the command
echo "1:wd(2,a)kernel" > /boot.config
to make it the default boot string.Move the FreeBSD disk onto the primary IDE controller,
so the hard disks are consecutive.Rebuild
your kernel, modify the wd configuration lines to
read:controller wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr
disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0
# disk wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # comment out this line
controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15 vector wdintr
disk wd1 at wdc1 drive 0 # change from wd2 to wd1
disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 1 # change from wd3 to wd2Install the new kernel. If you moved your disks and
wish to restore the previous configuration, replace the
disks in the desired configuration and reboot. Your
system should boot successfully.What are the limits for memory?For memory, the limit is 4 gigabytes. This configuration
has been tested, see wcarchive's
configuration for more details. If you plan to install
this much memory into a machine, you need to be careful. You will
probably want to use ECC memory and to reduce capacitive
loading use 9 chip memory modules versus 18 chip memory
modules.What are the limits for ffs filesystems?For ffs filesystems, the maximum theoretical limit is 8
terabytes (2G blocks), or 16TB for the default block size of
8K. In practice, there is a soft limit of 1 terabyte, but with
modifications filesystems with 4 terabytes are possible (and
exist).The maximum size of a single ffs file is approximately 1G
blocks (4TB) if the block size is 4K.
Maximum file sizesfs block size2.2.7-stable3.0-currentworksshould work4K4T-14T-14T-1>4T8K>32G8T-1>32G32T-116K>128G16T-1>128G32T-132K>512G32T-1>512G64T-164K>2048G64T-1>2048G128T-1
When the fs block size is 4K, triple indirect blocks work
and everything should be limited by the maximum fs block number
that can be represented using triple indirect blocks (approx.
1K^3 + 1K^2 + 1K), but everything is limited by a (wrong) limit
of 1G-1 on fs block numbers. The limit on fs block numbers
should be 2G-1. There are some bugs for fs block numbers near
2G-1, but such block numbers are unreachable when the fs block
size is 4K.For block sizes of 8K and larger, everything should be
limited by the 2G-1 limit on fs block numbers, but is actually
limited by the 1G-1 limit on fs block numbers, except under
-STABLE triple indirect blocks are unreachable, so the limit is
the maximum fs block number that can be represented using
double indirect blocks (approx. (blocksize/4)^2 +
(blocksize/4)), and under -CURRENT exceeding this limit may
cause problems. Using the correct limit of 2G-1 blocks does
cause problems.How can I put 1TB files on my floppy?I keep several virtual ones on floppies :-). The maximum
file size is not closely related to the maximum disk size. The
maximum disk size is 1TB. It is a feature that the file size
can be larger than the disk size.The following example creates a file of size 8T-1 using a
whole 32K of disk space (3 indirect blocks and 1 data block) on
a small root partition. The dd command requires a dd that works
with large files.&prompt.user; cat foo
df .
dd if=/dev/zero of=z bs=1 seek=`echo 2^43 - 2 | bc` count=1
ls -l z
du z
df .
&prompt.user; sh foo
Filesystem 1024-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/da0a 64479 27702 31619 47% /
1+0 records in
1+0 records out
1 bytes transferred in 0.000187 secs (5346 bytes/sec)
-rw-r--r-- 1 bde bin 8796093022207 Sep 7 16:04 z
32 z
Filesystem 1024-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/da0a 64479 27734 31587 47% /Bruce Evans, September 1998Why do I get an error message,
archsw.readin.failed after compiling
and booting a new kernel?You can boot by specifying the kernel directly at the second
stage, pressing any key when the | shows up before loader is
started. More specifically, you have upgraded the source for
your kernel, and installed a new kernel builtin from them
without making world. This is not
supported. Make world.How do I upgrade from 3.X -> 4.X?We strongly recommend that you use
binary snapshots to do this. 4-STABLE snapshots are available at
releng4.FreeBSD.org.If you wish to upgrade using source, please see the FreeBSD
Handbook for more information.Upgrading via source is never recommended for new
users, and upgrading from 3.X to 4.X is even less so; make sure
you have read the instructions carefully before attempting to
upgrade via source.What are these security profiles?A security profile is a set of configuration
options that attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security
to convenience by enabling and disabling certain programs and
other settings. The more severe the security profile, the
fewer programs will be enabled by default. This is one of the
basic principles of security: do not run anything except what
you must.Please note that the security profile is just a default
setting. All programs can be enabled and disabled after you
have installed FreeBSD by editing or adding the appropriate
line(s) to /etc/rc.conf. For more
information, please see the &man.rc.conf.5; manual page.The following table describes what each of the security
profiles does. The columns are the choices you have for a
security profile, and the rows are the program or feature that
the profile enables or disables.
Possible security profilesExtremeModerate&man.sendmail.8;NOYES&man.sshd.8;NOYES&man.portmap.8;NOMAYBE
The portmapper is enabled if the machine has
been configured as an NFS client or server earlier
in the installation.NFS serverNOYES&man.securelevel.8;YES (2)
If you choose a security profile that sets the
securelevel (Extreme or High), you must be aware
of the implications. Please read the &man.init.8;
manual page and pay particular attention to the
meanings of the security levels, or you may have
significant trouble later!NO
The security profile is not a silver bullet! Even if you use the
extreme setting, you need to keep up with security
issues by reading an appropriate mailing
list, using good passwords and passphrases, and
generally adhering to good security practices. It simply
sets up the desired security to convenience ratio out of
the box.The security profile mechanism is meant to be used
when you first install FreeBSD. If you already have
FreeBSD installed, it would probably be more beneficial to
simply enable or disable the desired functionality. If
you really want to use a security profile, you can re-run
&man.sysinstall.8; to set it.Hardware compatibilityDoes FreeBSD support architectures other than the
x86?Yes. FreeBSD currently runs on both Intel x86 and
DEC (now Compaq) Alpha architectures. Interest has also
been expressed in a port of FreeBSD to the SPARC architecture,
join the freebsd-sparc@FreeBSD.org mailing list if you are interested
in joining that project. Most recent additions to the list of
upcoming platforms are IA-64 and PowerPC, join the
freebsd-ia64@FreeBSD.org and/or
freebsd-ppc@FreeBSD.org mailing lists for more information.
For general discussion on new architectures, join
the freebsd-platforms@FreeBSD.org
mailing list.If your machine has a different architecture and you need
something right now, we suggest you look at NetBSD or OpenBSD.What kind of hard drives does FreeBSD support?FreeBSD supports EIDE and SCSI drives (with a compatible
controller; see the next section), and all drives using the
original Western Digital interface (MFM, RLL,
ESDI, and of course IDE). A few ESDI controllers that use
proprietary interfaces may not work: stick to WD1002/3/6/7
interfaces and clones.Which SCSI controllers are supported?See the complete list in the Handbook.Which CDROM drives are supported by FreeBSD?Any SCSI drive connected to a supported controller is
supported.The following proprietary CDROM interfaces are also
supported:Mitsumi LU002 (8bit), LU005 (16bit) and FX001D
(16bit 2x Speed).Sony CDU 31/33ASound Blaster Non-SCSI CDROMMatsushita/Panasonic CDROMATAPI compatible IDE CDROMsAll non-SCSI cards are known to be extremely slow compared
to SCSI drives, and some ATAPI CDROMs may not work.As of 2.2 the FreeBSD CDROM from the FreeBSD Mall supports
booting directly from the CD.Which CD-RW drives are supported by FreeBSD?FreeBSD supports any ATAPI-compatible IDE CD-R or CD-RW
drive. For FreeBSD versions 4.0 and later, see the man page for
&man.burncd.8;. For earlier FreeBSD versions, see the examples
in /usr/share/examples/atapi.FreeBSD also supports any SCSI CD-R or CD-RW drives.
Install and use the cdrecord command from the
ports or packages system, and make sure that you have the
pass device compiled in your
kernel.Does FreeBSD support ZIP drives?FreeBSD supports the SCSI ZIP drive out of the box, of
course. The ZIP drive can only be set to run at SCSI target IDs
5 or 6, but if your SCSI host adapter's BIOS supports it you
can even boot from it. It is not clear which host
adapters support booting from targets other than 0 or 1,
so you will have to consult your adapter's documentation
if you would like to use this feature.ATAPI (IDE) Zip drives are supported in FreeBSD 2.2.6 and
later releases.FreeBSD has contained support for Parallel Port Zip Drives
since version 3.0. If you are using a sufficiently up to date
version, then you should check that your kernel contains the
scbus0, da0,
ppbus0, and
vp0 drivers (the GENERIC kernel
contains everything except vp0). With
all these drivers present, the Parallel Port drive should be
available as /dev/da0s4. Disks can be
mounted using mount /dev/da0s4 /mnt OR (for
dos disks) mount_msdos /dev/da0s4 /mnt as
appropriate.Also check out this note on removable
drives, and this note on
formatting.Does FreeBSD support JAZ, EZ and other removable
drives?Apart from the IDE version of the EZ drive, these are all
SCSI devices, so they should all look like SCSI disks to
FreeBSD, and the IDE EZ should look like an IDE drive.I am not sure how well FreeBSD supports
changing the media out while running. You will of course need
to dismount the drive before swapping media, and make sure that
any external units are powered on when you boot the system so
FreeBSD can see them.See this note on
formatting.Which multi-port serial cards are supported by
FreeBSD?There is a list of these in the Miscellaneous
devices section of the handbook.Some unnamed clone cards have also been known to work,
especially those that claim to be AST compatible.Check the &man.sio.4;
man page to get more information on configuring such cards.Does FreeBSD support my USB keyboard?USB device support was added to FreeBSD 3.1. However, it
is still in preliminary state and may not always work as of
version 3.2. If you want to experiment with the USB keyboard
support, follow the procedure described below.Use FreeBSD 3.2 or later.Add the following lines to your kernel configuration
file, and rebuild the kernel.device uhci
device ohci
device usb
device ukbd
options KBD_INSTALL_CDEVIn versions of FreeBSD before 4.0, use this
instead:controller uhci0
controller ohci0
controller usb0
controller ukbd0
options KBD_INSTALL_CDEVGo to the /dev directory and create
device nodes as follows:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV kbd0 kbd1Edit /etc/rc.conf and add the
following lines:usbd_enable="YES"
usbd_flags=""After the system is rebooted, the AT keyboard becomes
/dev/kbd0 and the USB keyboard becomes
/dev/kbd1, if both are connected to the
system. If there is the USB keyboard only, it will be
/dev/ukbd0.If you want to use the USB keyboard in the console, you
have to explicitly tell the console driver to use the existing
USB keyboard. This can be done by running the following
command as a part of system initialization.&prompt.root; kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd1 < /dev/ttyv0 > /dev/nullNote that if the USB keyboard is the only keyboard, it is
accessed as /dev/kbd0, thus, the command
should look like:&prompt.root; kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd0 < /dev/ttyv0 > /dev/null/etc/rc.i386 is a good place to add the
above command.Once this is done, the USB keyboard should work in the X
environment as well without any special settings.Hot-plugging and unplugging of the USB keyboard may not
work quite right yet. It is a good idea to connect the keyboard
before you start the system and leave it connected until the
system is shutdown to avoid troubles.See the &man.ukbd.4; man page for more information.I have an unusual bus mouse. How do I set it up?FreeBSD supports the bus mouse and the InPort bus mouse
from such manufactures as Microsoft, Logitech and ATI. The bus
device driver is compiled in the GENERIC kernel by default in
FreeBSD versions 2.X, but not included in version 3.0 or later.
If you are building a custom kernel with the bus mouse driver,
make sure to add the following line to the kernel config
fileIn FreeBSD 3.0 or before, add:device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq5 vector mseintrIn FreeBSD 3.X, the line should be:device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c tty irq5And in FreeBSD 4.X and later, the line should read:device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c irq5Bus mice usually comes with dedicated interface cards.
These cards may allow you to set the port address and the IRQ
number other than shown above. Refer to the manual of your
mouse and the &man.mse.4; man page for more information.How do I use my PS/2 (mouse port or
keyboard) mouse?If you are running a post-2.2.5 version of FreeBSD, the
necessary driver, psm, is included and
enabled in the kernel. The kernel should detect your PS/2 mouse
at boot time.If you are running a previous but relatively recent version
of FreeBSD (2.1.x or better) then you can simply enable it in
the kernel configuration menu at installation time, otherwise
later with at the boot:
prompt. It is disabled by default, so you will need to enable
it explicitly.If you are running an older version of FreeBSD then you will
have to add the following lines to your kernel configuration
file and compile a new kernel.In FreeBSD 3.0 or earlier, the line should be:device psm0 at isa? port "IO_KBD" conflicts tty irq 12 vector psmintrIn FreeBSD 3.1 or later, the line should be:device psm0 at isa? tty irq 12In FreeBSD 4.0 or later, the line should be:device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12See the Handbook entry on
configuring the kernel if you have no experience with
building kernels.Once you have a kernel detecting
psm0 correctly at boot time, make sure
that an entry for psm0 exists in
/dev. You can do this by typing:&prompt.root; cd /dev; sh MAKEDEV psm0when logged in as root.Is it possible to make use of a mouse in any way outside
the X Window system?If you are using the default console driver, syscons, you
can use a mouse pointer in text consoles to cut & paste
text. Run the mouse daemon, moused, and turn on the mouse
pointer in the virtual console:&prompt.root; moused -p /dev/xxxx -t yyyy
&prompt.root; vidcontrol -m onWhere xxxx is the mouse device
name and yyyy is a protocol type for
the mouse. See the &man.moused.8; man page for supported
protocol types.You may wish to run the mouse daemon automatically when the
system starts. In version 2.2.1, set the following variables in
/etc/sysconfig.mousedtype="yyyy"
mousedport="xxxx"
mousedflags=""In versions 2.2.2 to 3.0, set the following variables in
/etc/rc.conf.moused_type="yyyy"
moused_port="xxxx"
moused_flags=""In 3.1 and later, assuming you have a PS/2 mouse, all you
need to is add moused_enable="YES" to
/etc/rc.conf.In addition, if you would like to be able to use the mouse
daemon on all virtual terminals instead of just console at
boot-time, add the following to
/etc/rc.conf.allscreens_flags="-m on"Staring from FreeBSD 2.2.6, the mouse daemon is capable of
determining the correct protocol type automatically unless the
mouse is a relatively old serial mouse model. Specify
auto the protocol to invoke automatic
detection.When the mouse daemon is running, access to the mouse
needs to be coordinated between the mouse daemon and other
programs such as the X Window. Refer to another section on this
issue.How do I cut and paste text with mouse in the text
console?Once you get the mouse daemon running (see
previous section), hold down the
button 1 (left button) and move the mouse to select a region of
text. Then, press the button 2 (middle button) or the button 3
(right button) to paste it at the text cursor.In versions 2.2.6 and later, pressing the button 2 will
paste the text. Pressing the button 3 will
extend the selected region of text. If your
mouse does not have the middle button, you may wish to emulate
it or remap buttons using moused options. See the
&man.moused.8; man page for details.Does FreeBSD support any USB mice?USB device support was added to FreeBSD 3.1. However, it
is still in a preliminary state and may not always work as of
version 3.2. If you want to experiment with the USB mouse
support, follow the procedure described below.Use FreeBSD 3.2 or later.Add the following lines to your kernel configuration
file, and rebuild the kernel.device uhci
device ohci
device usb
device umsIn versions of FreeBSD before 4.0, use this
instead:controller uhci0
controller ohci0
controller usb0
device ums0Go to the /dev directory and
create a device node as follows:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ums0Edit /etc/rc.conf and add the
following lines:moused_enable="YES"
moused_type="auto"
moused_port="/dev/ums0"
moused_flags=""
usbd_enable="YES"
usbd_flags=""See the previous section
for more detailed discussion on moused.In order to use the USB mouse in the X session, edit
XF86Config. If you are using XFree86
3.3.2 or later, be sure to have the following lines in the
Pointer section:Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Protocol "Auto"If you are using earlier versions of XFree86, be sure to
have the following lines in the Pointer
section:Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Protocol "SysMouse"Refer to another section
on the mouse support in the X environment.Hot-plugging and unplugging of the USB mouse may not work
quite right yet. It is a good idea connect the mouse before you
start the system and leave it connected until the system is
shutdown to avoid trouble.My mouse has a fancy wheel and buttons. Can I use them in
FreeBSD?The answer is, unfortunately, It depends.
These mice with additional features require specialized driver
in most cases. Unless the mouse device driver or the user
program has specific support for the mouse, it will act just
like a standard two, or three button mouse.For the possible usage of wheels in the X Window
environment, refer to that
section.Why does my wheel-equipped PS/2 mouse cause my mouse cursor
to jump around the screen?The PS/2 mouse driver psm in FreeBSD versions 3.2 or
earlier has difficulty with some wheel mice, including Logitech
model M-S48 and its OEM siblings. Apply the following patch to
/sys/i386/isa/psm.c and rebuild the
kernel.Index: psm.c
===================================================================
RCS file: /src/CVS/src/sys/i386/isa/Attic/psm.c,v
retrieving revision 1.60.2.1
retrieving revision 1.60.2.2
diff -u -r1.60.2.1 -r1.60.2.2
--- psm.c 1999/06/03 12:41:13 1.60.2.1
+++ psm.c 1999/07/12 13:40:52 1.60.2.2
@@ -959,14 +959,28 @@
sc->mode.packetsize = vendortype[i].packetsize;
/* set mouse parameters */
+#if 0
+ /*
+ * A version of Logitech FirstMouse+ won't report wheel movement,
+ * if SET_DEFAULTS is sent... Don't use this command.
+ * This fix was found by Takashi Nishida.
+ */
i = send_aux_command(sc->kbdc, PSMC_SET_DEFAULTS);
if (verbose >= 2)
printf("psm%d: SET_DEFAULTS return code:%04x\n", unit, i);
+#endif
if (sc->config & PSM_CONFIG_RESOLUTION) {
sc->mode.resolution
= set_mouse_resolution(sc->kbdc,
- (sc->config & PSM_CONFIG_RESOLUTION) - 1);
+ (sc->config & PSM_CONFIG_RESOLUTION) - 1);
+ } else if (sc->mode.resolution >= 0) {
+ sc->mode.resolution
+ = set_mouse_resolution(sc->kbdc, sc->dflt_mode.resolution);
+ }
+ if (sc->mode.rate > 0) {
+ sc->mode.rate = set_mouse_sampling_rate(sc->kbdc, sc->dflt_mode.rate);
}
+ set_mouse_scaling(sc->kbdc, 1);
/* request a data packet and extract sync. bits */
if (get_mouse_status(sc->kbdc, stat, 1, 3) < 3) {Versions later than 3.2 should be all right.How do I use the mouse/trackball/touchpad on my
laptop?Please refer to the answer to
the previous question. And check out
this note on the Mobile Computing
page.What types of tape drives are supported?FreeBSD supports SCSI and QIC-36 (with a QIC-02 interface).
This includes 8-mm (aka Exabyte) and DAT drives.Some of the early 8-mm drives are not quite compatible
with SCSI-2, and may not work well with FreeBSD.Does FreeBSD support tape changers?FreeBSD 2.2 supports SCSI changers using the
&man.ch.4;
device and the
&man.chio.1;
command. The details of how you actually control the changer
can be found in the
&man.chio.1;
man page.If you are not using AMANDA
or some other product that already understands changers,
remember that they only know how to move a tape from one
point to another, so you need to keep track of which slot a
tape is in, and which slot the tape currently in the drive
needs to go back to.Which sound cards are supported by FreeBSD?FreeBSD supports the SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro,
SoundBlaster 16, Pro Audio Spectrum 16, AdLib and Gravis
UltraSound sound cards. There is also limited support for
MPU-401 and compatible MIDI cards. Cards conforming to the
Microsoft Sound System specification are also supported through
the pcm driver.This is only for sound! This driver does not support
CDROMs, SCSI or joysticks on these cards, except for the
SoundBlaster. The SoundBlaster SCSI interface and some
non-SCSI CDROMS are supported, but you cannot boot off this
device.Workarounds for no sound from es1370 with pcm driver?You can run the following command every time the machine
booted up:&prompt.root; mixer pcm 100 vol 100 cd 100Which network cards does FreeBSD support?See the
Ethernet cards section of the handbook for a more
complete list.I do not have a math co-processor - is that bad?This will only affect 386/486SX/486SLC owners - other
machines will have one built into the CPU.In general this will not cause any problems, but there are
circumstances where you will take a hit, either in performance
or accuracy of the math emulation code (see the section on FP emulation). In particular, drawing
arcs in X will be VERY slow. It is highly recommended that you
buy a math co-processor; it is well worth it.Some math co-processors are better than others. It
pains us to say it, but nobody ever got fired for buying
Intel. Unless you are sure it works with FreeBSD, beware of
clones.What other devices does FreeBSD support?See the Handbook
for the list of other devices supported.Does FreeBSD support power management on my laptop?FreeBSD supports APM on certain machines. Please look in
the LINT kernel config file, searching for
the
APM
keyword. Further information can be found in &man.apm.4;.Why does my Micron system hang at boot time?Certain Micron motherboards have a non-conforming PCI BIOS
implementation that causes grief when FreeBSD boots because PCI
devices do not get configured at their reported addresses.Disable the Plug and Play Operating System
flag in the BIOS to work around this problem. More information
can be found at
http://cesdis.gsfc.nasa.gov/linux/drivers/vortex.html#micronWhy does FreeBSD not recognize my Adaptec SCSI
controller card?The newer AIC789x series Adaptec chips are supported under
the CAM SCSI framework which made it's debut in 3.0. Patches
against 2.2-STABLE are in
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/cam/.
A CAM-enhanced boot floppy is available at
http://people.FreeBSD.org/~abial/cam-boot/.
In both cases read the README before beginning.How come FreeBSD cannot find my internal Plug & Play
modem?You will need to add the modem's PnP ID to the PnP ID
list in the serial driver. To enable Plug & Play support,
compile a new kernel with controller pnp0 in
the configuration file, then reboot the system. The kernel will
print the PnP IDs of all the devices it finds. Copy the PnP ID
from the modem to the table in
/sys/i386/isa/sio.c, at about line 2777.
Look for the string SUP1310 in the structure
siopnp_ids[] to find the table. Build the
kernel again, install, reboot, and your modem should be
found.You may have to manually configure the PnP devices using
the pnp command in the boot-time
configuration with a command likepnp 1 0 enable os irq0 3 drq0 0 port0 0x2f8to make the modem show.How do I get the boot: prompt to show on the serial
console?Build a kernel with
options COMCONSOLE.Create /boot.config and place
as the only text in the file.Unplug the keyboard from the system.See
/usr/src/sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial
for information.Why doesn't my 3Com PCI network card work with my Micron
computer?Certain Micron motherboards have a non-conforming PCI BIOS
implementation that does not configure PCI devices at the
addresses reported. This causes grief when FreeBSD
boots.To work around this problem, disable the
Plug and Play Operating System flag in the
BIOS.More information on this problem is available at URL:
http://cesdis.gsfc.nasa.gov/linux/drivers/vortex.html#micronDoes FreeBSD support Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)?SMP is supported in 3.0-STABLE and later releases only.
SMP is not enabled in the GENERIC kernel,
so you will have to recompile your kernel to enable SMP. Take a
look at /sys/i386/conf/LINT to figure out
what options to put in your kernel config file.The boot floppy hangs on a system with an ASUS K7V
motherboard. How do I fix this?Go in to the BIOS setup and disable the boot virus
protection.TroubleshootingWhat do I do when I have bad blocks on my hard drive?With SCSI drives, the drive should be capable of re-mapping
these automatically. However, many drives are shipped with
this feature disabled, for some mysterious reason...To enable this, you will need to edit the first device page
mode, which can be done on FreeBSD by giving the command
(as root)&prompt.root; scsi -f /dev/rsd0c -m 1 -e -P 3and changing the values of AWRE and ARRE from 0 to 1:-AWRE (Auto Write Reallocation Enbld): 1
ARRE (Auto Read Reallocation Enbld): 1The following paragraphs were submitted by Ted Mittelstaedt
tedm@toybox.placo.com:For IDE drives, any bad block is usually a sign of
potential trouble. All modern IDE drives come with internal
bad-block remapping turned on. All IDE hard drive manufacturers
today offer extensive warranties and will replace drives with
bad blocks on them.If you still want to attempt to rescue an IDE drive with
bad blocks, you can attempt to download the IDE drive
manufacturer's IDE diagnostic program, and run this against the
drive. Sometimes these programs can be set to force the drive
electronics to rescan the drive for bad blocks and lock them
out.For ESDI, RLL and MFM drives, bad blocks are a normal part
of the drive and are no sign of trouble, generally. With a PC,
the disk drive controller card and BIOS handle the task of
locking out bad sectors. This is fine for operating systems
like DOS that use BIOS code to access the disk. However,
FreeBSD's disk driver does not go through BIOS, therefore a
mechanism, bad144, exists that replaces this functionality.
bad144 only works with the wd driver (which means it is not
supported in FreeBSD 4.0), it is NOT able to be used with SCSI.
bad144 works by entering all bad sectors found into a special
file.One caveat with bad144 - the bad block special file is
placed on the last track of the disk. As this file may possibly
contain a listing for a bad sector that would occur near the
beginning of the disk, where the /kernel file might be located,
it therefore must be accessible to the bootstrap program that
uses BIOS calls to read the kernel file. This means that the
disk with bad144 used on it must not exceed 1024 cylinders, 16
heads, and 63 sectors. This places an effective limit of 500MB
on a disk that is mapped with bad144.To use bad144, simply set the Bad Block
scanning to ON in the FreeBSD fdisk screen during the initial
install. This works up through FreeBSD 2.2.7. The disk must
have less than 1024 cylinders. It is generally recommended that
the disk drive has been in operation for at least 4 hours prior
to this to allow for thermal expansion and track
wandering.If the disk has more than 1024 cylinders (such as a large
ESDI drive) the ESDI controller uses a special translation mode
to make it work under DOS. The wd driver understands about
these translation modes, IF you enter the
translated geometry with the set
geometry command in fdisk. You must also NOT use the
dangerously dedicated mode of creating the
FreeBSD partition, as this ignores the geometry. Also, even
though fdisk will use your overridden geometry, it still knows
the true size of the disk, and will attempt to create a too
large FreeBSD partition. If the disk geometry is changed to the
translated geometry, the partition MUST be manually created
with the number of blocks.A quick trick to use is to set up the large ESDI disk with
the ESDI controller, boot it with a DOS disk and format it with
a DOS partition. Then, boot the FreeBSD install and in the
fdisk screen, read off and write down the blocksize and block
numbers for the DOS partition. Then, reset the geometry to the
same that DOS uses, delete the DOS partition, and create a
cooperative FreeBSD partition using the
blocksize you recorded earlier. Then, set the partition
bootable and turn on bad block scanning. During the actual
install, bad144 will run first, before any filesystems are
created. (you can view this with an Alt-F2) If it has any
trouble creating the badsector file, you have set too large a
disk geometry - reboot the system and start all over again
(including repartitioning and reformatting with DOS).If remapping is enabled and you are seeing bad blocks,
consider replacing the drive. The bad blocks will only get
worse as time goes on.How come FreeBSD does not recognize my Bustek 742a EISA
SCSI controller?This info is specific to the 742a but may also cover
other Buslogic cards. (Bustek = Buslogic)There are 2 general versions of the 742a
card. They are hardware revisions A-G, and revisions H -
onwards. The revision letter is located after the Assembly
number on the edge of the card. The 742a has 2 ROM chips on it,
one is the BIOS chip and the other is the Firmware chip.
FreeBSD does not care what version of BIOS chip you have but it
does care about what version of firmware chip. Buslogic will
send upgrade ROMS out if you call their tech support dept. The
BIOS and Firmware chips are shipped as a matched pair. You must
have the most current Firmware ROM in your adapter card for
your hardware revision.The REV A-G cards can only accept BIOS/Firmware sets up to
2.41/2.21. The REV H- up cards can accept the most current
BIOS/Firmware sets of 4.70/3.37. The difference between the
firmware sets is that the 3.37 firmware supports round
robinThe Buslogic cards also have a serial number on them. If
you have a old hardware revision card you can call the Buslogic
RMA department and give them the serial number and attempt to
exchange the card for a newer hardware revision. If the card is
young enough they will do so.FreeBSD 2.1 only supports Firmware revisions 2.21 onward.
If you have a Firmware revision older than this your card will
not be recognized as a Buslogic card. It may be recognized as
an Adaptec 1540, however. The early Buslogic firmware contains
an AHA1540 emulation mode. This is not a good
thing for an EISA card, however.If you have an old hardware revision card and you obtain
the 2.21 firmware for it, you will need to check the position
of jumper W1 to B-C, the default is A-B.How come FreeBSD does not detect my HP Netserver's SCSI
controller?This is basically a known problem. The EISA on-board SCSI
controller in the HP Netserver machines occupies EISA slot
number 11, so all the true EISA slots are in
front of it. Alas, the address space for EISA slots >= 10
collides with the address space assigned to PCI, and FreeBSD's
auto-configuration currently cannot handle this situation very
well.So now, the best you can do is to pretend there is no
address range clash :), by bumping the kernel option
EISA_SLOTS to a value of 12. Configure and
compile a kernel, as described in the Handbook entry on
configuring the kernel.Of course, this does present you with a chicken-and-egg
problem when installing on such a machine. In order to work
around this problem, a special hack is available inside
UserConfig. Do not use the
visual interface, but the plain command-line
interface there. Simply typeeisa 12
quitat the prompt, and install your system as usual. While
it is recommended you compile and install a custom kernel
anyway.Hopefully, future versions will have a proper fix for
this problem.You cannot use a
dangerously dedicated disk
with an HP Netserver. See this
note for more info.What is going on with my CMD640 IDE controller?It is broken. It cannot handle commands on both channels
simultaneously.There's a workaround available now and it is enabled
automatically if your system uses this chip. For the details
refer to the manual page of the disk driver (man 4 wd).If you are already running FreeBSD 2.2.1 or 2.2.2 with a
CMD640 IDE controller and you want to use the second channel,
build a new kernel with options "CMD640"
enabled. This is the default for 2.2.5 and later.I keep seeing messages like
ed1: timeout. What do these messages
mean?This is usually caused by an interrupt conflict (e.g.,
two boards using the same IRQ). FreeBSD prior to 2.0.5R used to
be tolerant of this, and the network driver would still
function in the presence of IRQ conflicts. However, with 2.0.5R
and later, IRQ conflicts are no longer tolerated. Boot with the
-c option and change the ed0/de0/... entry to match your
board.If you are using the BNC connector on your network card,
you may also see device timeouts because of bad termination. To
check this, attach a terminator directly to the NIC (with no
cable) and see if the error messages go away.Some NE2000 compatible cards will give this error if there
is no link on the UTP port or if the cable is disconnected.Why do I get Incorrect super block when
mounting a CDROM?You have to tell &man.mount.8;
the type of the device that you want to mount. By default,
&man.mount.8;
will assume the filesystem is of type ufs.
You want to mount a CDROM filesystem, and you do this by
specifying the option to
&man.mount.8;. This does, of course, assume that the
CDROM contains an ISO 9660 filesystem, which is what most CDROMs
have. As of 1.1R, FreeBSD automatically understands the Rock
Ridge (long filename) extensions as well.As an example, if you want to mount the CDROM device,
/dev/cd0c, under /mnt,
you would execute:&prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mntNote that your device name (/dev/cd0c
in this example) could be different, depending on the CDROM
interface. Note that the option just
causes the &man.mount.cd9660.8; command to be
executed, and so the above example could be shortened
to:&prompt.root; mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mntWhy do I get Device not configured when
mounting a CDROM?This generally means that there is no CDROM in the CDROM
drive, or the drive is not visible on the bus. Feed the drive
something, and/or check its master/slave status if it is IDE
(ATAPI). It can take a couple of seconds for a CDROM drive to
notice that it has been fed, so be patient.Sometimes a SCSI CDROM may be missed because it had not
enough time to answer the bus reset. If you have a SCSI CDROM
please try to add the following symbol into your kernel
configuration file and recompile.options "SCSI_DELAY=15"Why do all non-English characters in filenames show up as
? on my CDs when mounted in FreeBSD?Most likely your CDROM uses the Joliet
extension for storing information about files and directories.
This extension specifies that all filenames are stored using
Unicode two-byte characters. Currently, efforts are under way
to introduce a generic Unicode interface into the FreeBSD
kernel, but since that is not ready yet, the CD9660 driver does
not have the ability to decode the characters in the
filenames.As a temporary solution, starting with FreeBSD 4.3, a
special hook has been added into the CD9660 driver to allow the
user to load an appropriate conversion table on the fly.
Modules for some of the common encodings are available via the
sysutils/cd9660_unicode port.My printer is ridiculously slow. What can I do?If it is parallel, and the only problem is that it is terribly
slow, try setting your printer port into polled
mode:&prompt.root; lptcontrol -pSome newer HP printers are claimed not to work correctly in
interrupt mode, apparently due to some (not yet exactly
understood) timing problem.Why do my programs occasionally die with
Signal 11 errors?Signal 11 errors are caused when your process has attempted
to access memory which the operating system has not granted it
access to. If something like this is happening at seemingly
random intervals then you need to start investigating things
very carefully.These problems can usually be attributed to either:If the problem is occurring only in a specific
application that you are developing yourself it is probably
a bug in your code.If it is a problem with part of the base FreeBSD system,
it may also be buggy code, but more often than not these
problems are found and fixed long before us general FAQ
readers get to use these bits of code (that is what -current
is for).In particular, a dead giveaway that this is not a FreeBSD
bug is if you see the problem when you are compiling a program,
but the activity that the compiler is carrying out changes
each time.For example, suppose you are running make
buildworld, and the compile fails while trying to
compile ls.c in to
ls.o. If you then run make
buildworld again, and the compile fails in the same
place then this is a broken build -- try updating your sources
and try again. If the compile fails elsewhere then this is
almost certainly hardware.What you should do:In the first case you can use a debugger e.g. gdb to find
the point in the program which is attempting to access a bogus
address and then fix it.In the second case you need to verify that it is not your
hardware at fault.Common causes of this include:Your hard disks might be overheating: Check the fans in
your case are still working, as your disk (and perhaps
other hardware might be overheating).The processor running is overheating: This might be
because the processor has been overclocked, or the fan on
the processor might have died. In either case you need to
ensure that you have hardware running at what it is
specified to run at, at least while trying to solve this
problem. i.e. Clock it back to the default settings.If you are overclocking then note that it is far cheaper
to have a slow system than a fried system that needs
replacing! Also the wider community is not often
sympathetic to problems on overclocked systems, whether you
believe it is safe or not.Dodgy memory: If you have multiple memory SIMMS/DIMMS
installed then pull them all out and try running the
machine with each SIMM or DIMM individually and narrow the
problem down to either the problematic DIMM/SIMM or perhaps
even a combination.Over-optimistic Motherboard settings: In your BIOS
settings, and some motherboard jumpers you have options to
set various timings, mostly the defaults will be
sufficient, but sometimes, setting the wait states on RAM
too low, or setting the RAM Speed: Turbo option, or
similar in the BIOS will cause strange behaviour. A
possible idea is to set to BIOS defaults, but it might be
worth noting down your settings first!Unclean or insufficient power to the motherboard. If you
have any unused I/O boards, hard disks, or CDROMs in your
system, try temporarily removing them or disconnecting the
power cable from them, to see if your power supply can
manage a smaller load. Or try another power supply,
preferably one with a little more power (for instance, if
your current power supply is rated at 250 Watts try one
rated at 300 Watts).You should also read the SIG11 FAQ (listed below) which has
excellent explanations of all these problems, albeit from a
Linux viewpoint. It also discusses how memory testing software
or hardware can still pass faulty memory.Finally, if none of this has helped it is possible that
you have just found a bug in FreeBSD, and you should follow the
instructions to send a problem report.There is an extensive FAQ on this at
the SIG11 problem FAQWhy does the screen go black and lose sync when I
boot?This is a known problem with the ATI Mach 64 video card.
The problem is that this card uses address
2e8, and the fourth serial port does too.
Due to a bug (feature?) in the &man.sio.4;
driver it will touch this port even if you do not have the
fourth serial port, and even if
you disable sio3 (the fourth port) which normally uses this
address.Until the bug has been fixed, you can use this
workaround:Enter at the boot prompt.
(This will put the kernel into configuration mode).Disable sio0,
sio1,
sio2 and
sio3 (all of them). This way
the sio driver does not get activated -> no
problems.Type exit to continue booting.If you want to be able to use your serial ports, you will
have to build a new kernel with the following modification: in
/usr/src/sys/i386/isa/sio.c find the one
occurrence of the string 0x2e8 and remove
that string and the preceding comma (keep the trailing comma).
Now follow the normal procedure of building a new
kernel.Even after applying these workarounds, you may still find
that the X Window System does not work properly. If this is the
case, make sure that the XFree86 version you are using is at
least XFree86 3.3.3 or higher. This version and upwards has
built-in support for the Mach64 cards and even a dedicated X
server for those cards.How come FreeBSD uses only 64 MB of RAM when my system has
128 MB of RAM installed?Due to the manner in which FreeBSD gets the memory size
from the BIOS, it can only detect 16 bits worth of Kbytes in
size (65535 Kbytes = 64MB) (or less... some BIOSes peg the
memory size to 16M). If you have more than 64MB, FreeBSD will
attempt to detect it; however, the attempt may fail.To work around this problem, you need to use the kernel
option specified below. There is a way to get complete memory
information from the BIOS, but we do not have room in the
bootblocks to do it. Someday when lack of room in the
bootblocks is fixed, we will use the extended BIOS functions to
get the full memory information...but for now we are stuck with
the kernel option.options "MAXMEM=n"Where n is your memory in
Kilobytes. For a 128 MB machine, you would want to use
131072.Why does FreeBSD 2.0 panic with
kmem_map too small!?The message may also be
mb_map too small!The panic indicates that the system ran out of virtual
memory for network buffers (specifically, mbuf clusters). You
can increase the amount of VM available for mbuf clusters by
adding:options "NMBCLUSTERS=n"to your kernel config file, where
n is a number in the range 512-4096,
depending on the number of concurrent TCP connections you need
to support. I would recommend trying 2048 - this should get rid of
the panic completely. You can monitor the number of mbuf
clusters allocated/in use on the system with
netstat
-m (see &man.netstat.1;). The default value for NMBCLUSTERS is 512 +
MAXUSERS * 16.Why do I get an error reading CMAP
busy when rebooting with a new
kernel?The logic that attempts to detect an out of date
/var/db/kvm_*.db files sometimes fails
and using a mismatched file can sometimes lead to panics.If this happens, reboot single-user and do:&prompt.root; rm /var/db/kvm_*.dbWhat does the message ahc0: brkadrint,
Illegal Host Access at seqaddr 0x0
mean?This is a conflict with an Ultrastor SCSI Host Adapter.During the boot process enter the kernel configuration
menu and disable
uha0,
which is causing the problem.Why does Sendmail give me an error reading
mail loops back to
myself?This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows:- * I'm getting "Local configuration error" messages, such as:
553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself
554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error
How can I solve this problem?
You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be
forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net)
by using an MX record, but the relay machine doesn't recognize
itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw
(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add "Cw domain.net"
to /etc/sendmail.cf.
The current version of the sendmail
FAQ is no longer maintained with the sendmail release.
It is however regularly posted to comp.mail.sendmail,
comp.mail.misc, comp.mail.smail, comp.answers, and news.answers. You can also
receive a copy via email by sending a message to
mail-server@rtfm.mit.edu with the command
send usenet/news.answers/mail/sendmail-faq
as the body of the message.Why do full screen applications on remote machines
misbehave?The remote machine may be setting your terminal type
to something other than the cons25 terminal
type required by the FreeBSD console.There are a number of possible work-arounds for this
problem:After logging on to the remote machine, set your
TERM shell variable to ansi or
sco if the remote machine knows
about these terminal types.Use a VT100 emulator like
screen at the FreeBSD console.
screen offers you the ability
to run multiple concurrent sessions from one terminal,
and is a neat program in its own right. Each
screen window behaves like a
VT100 terminal, so the TERM variable at the remote end
should be set to vt100.Install the cons25 terminal
database entry on the remote machine. The way to do this
depends on the operating system on the remote machine.
The system administration manuals for the remote system
should be able to help you here.Fire up an X server at the FreeBSD end and login to
the remote machine using an X based terminal emulator
such as xterm or
rxvt. The TERM variable at the remote
host should be set to xterm or
vt100.Why does my machine print
calcru: negative time...?This can be caused by various hardware and/or software
ailments relating to interrupts. It may be due to bugs but can
also happen by nature of certain devices. Running TCP/IP over
the parallel port using a large MTU is one good way to provoke
this problem. Graphics accelerators can also get you here, in
which case you should check the interrupt setting of the card
first.A side effect of this problem are dying processes with the
message SIGXCPU exceeded cpu time limit.For FreeBSD 3.0 and later from Nov 29, 1998 forward: If the
problem cannot be fixed otherwise the solution is to set
this sysctl variable:&prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.timecounter.method=1This means a performance impact, but considering the cause
of this problem, you probably will not notice. If the problem
persists, keep the sysctl set to one and set the
NTIMECOUNTER option in your kernel to
increasingly large values. If by the time you have reached
NTIMECOUNTER=20 the problem is not solved,
interrupts are too hosed on your machine for reliable
timekeeping.I see pcm0 not found or my sound card is
found as pcm1 but I have
device pcm0 in my kernel config file. What is
going on?This occurs in FreeBSD 3.x with PCI sound cards. The
pcm0 device is reserved exclusively for
ISA-based cards so, if you have a PCI card, then you will see
this error, and your card will appear as pcm1.
You cannot remove the warning by simply changing the
line in the kernel config file to device
pcm1 as this will result in
pcm1 being reserved for ISA cards and
your PCI card being found as pcm2 (along
with the warning pcm1 not found).
If you have a PCI sound card you will also have to make the
snd1 device rather than
snd0:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV snd1This situation does not arise in FreeBSD 4.x as a lot
of work has been done to make it more
PnP-centric and the
pcm0 device is no longer reserved
exclusively for ISA cardsWhy is my PnP card no longer found (or found as
unknown) since upgrading to FreeBSD 4.x?FreeBSD 4.x is now much more PnP-centric
and this has had the side effect of some PnP devices (e.g. sound
cards and internal modems) not working even though they worked
under FreeBSD 3.x.The reasons for this behaviour are explained by the following
e-mail, posted to the freebsd-questions mailing list by Peter
Wemm, in answer to a question about an internal modem that was
no longer found after an upgrade to FreeBSD 4.x (the comments
in [] have been added to clarify the
context.
The PNP bios preconfigured it [the modem] and left it
laying around in port space, so [in 3.x] the old-style ISA
probes found it there.Under 4.0, the ISA code is much more PnP-centric. It was
possible [in 3.x] for an ISA probe to find a
stray device and then for the PNP device id to
match and then fail due to resource conflicts. So, it
disables the programmable cards first so this double probing
cannot happen. It also means that it needs to know the PnP
id's for supported PnP hardware. Making this more user
tweakable is on the TODO list.
To get the device working again requires finding its PnP id
and adding it to the list that the ISA probes use to identify
PnP devices. This is obtained using &man.pnpinfo.8; to probe the
device, for example this is the output from &man.pnpinfo.8; for
an internal modem:&prompt.root; pnpinfo
Checking for Plug-n-Play devices...
Card assigned CSN #1
Vendor ID PMC2430 (0x3024a341), Serial Number 0xffffffff
PnP Version 1.0, Vendor Version 0
Device Description: Pace 56 Voice Internal Plug & Play Modem
Logical Device ID: PMC2430 0x3024a341 #0
Device supports I/O Range Check
TAG Start DF
I/O Range 0x3f8 .. 0x3f8, alignment 0x8, len 0x8
[16-bit addr]
IRQ: 4 - only one type (true/edge)[more TAG lines elided]TAG End DF
End Tag
Successfully got 31 resources, 1 logical fdevs
-- card select # 0x0001
CSN PMC2430 (0x3024a341), Serial Number 0xffffffff
Logical device #0
IO: 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8
IRQ 5 0
DMA 4 0
IO range check 0x00 activate 0x01The information you require is in the
Vendor ID line at the start of the output. The
hexadecimal number in parentheses (0x3024a341 in this example)
is the PnP id and the string immediately before this (PMC2430)
is a unique ASCII id. This information needs adding to the file
/usr/src/sys/isa/sio.c.You should first make a backup of sio.c
just in case things go wrong. You will also need it to make the
patch to submit with your PR (you are going to submit a PR,
aren't you?) then edit sio.c and search
for the linestatic struct isa_pnp_id sio_ids[] = {then scroll down to find the correct place to add the entry
for your device. The entries look like this, and are sorted on
the ASCII Vendor ID string which should be included in the
comment to the right of the line of code along with all (if it
will fit) or part of the Device Description
from the output of &man.pnpinfo.8;:{0x0f804f3f, NULL}, /* OZO800f - Zoom 2812 (56k Modem) */
{0x39804f3f, NULL}, /* OZO8039 - Zoom 56k flex */
{0x3024a341, NULL}, /* PMC2430 - Pace 56 Voice Internal Modem */
{0x1000eb49, NULL}, /* ROK0010 - Rockwell ? */
{0x5002734a, NULL}, /* RSS0250 - 5614Jx3(G) Internal Modem */Add the hexadecimal Vendor ID for your device in the
correct place, save the file, rebuild your kernel, and reboot.
Your device should now be found as an sio
device as it was under FreeBSD 3.xWhy do I get the error nlist failed when
running, for example, top or
systat?The problem is that the application you are trying to run is
looking for a specific kernel symbol, but, for whatever reason,
cannot find it; this error stems from one of two problems:Your kernel and userland are not synchronized (i.e., you
built a new kernel but did not do an
installworld, or vice versa), and
thus the symbol table is different from what the user
application thinks it is. If this is the case, simply
complete the upgrade process (see
/usr/src/UPDATING for the correct
sequence).You are not using /boot/loader to load
your kernel, but doing it directly from boot2 (see
&man.boot.8;). While there is nothing wrong with bypassing
/boot/loader, it generally does a better
job of making the kernel symbols available to user
applications.Why does it take so long to connect to my computer via
ssh or telnet?The symptom: there is a long delay between the time the TCP
connection is established and the time when the client software
asks for a password (or, in &man.telnet.1;'s case, when a login
prompt appears).The problem: more likely than not, the delay is caused by
the server software trying to resolve the client's IP address
into a hostname. Many servers, including the Telnet and SSH
servers that come with FreeBSD, do this in order to, among
other things, store the hostname in a log file for future
reference by the administrator.The remedy: if the problem occurs whenever you connect from
your computer (the client) to any server, the problem is with
the client; likewise, if the problem only occurs when someone
connects to your computer (the server) the problem is with the
server.If the problem is with the client, the only remedy is to
fix the DNS so the server can resolve it. If this is on a
local network, consider it a server problem and keep reading;
conversely, if this is on the global Internet, you will most
likely need to contact your ISP and ask them to fix it for
you.If the problem is with the server, and this is on a local
network, you need to configure the server to be able to resolve
address-to-hostname queries for your local address range. See
the &man.hosts.5; and &man.named.8; manual pages for more
information. If this is on the global Internet, the problem
may be that your server's resolver is not functioning
correctly. To check, try to look up another host--say,
www.yahoo.com. If it does not work, that is
your problem.What does stray IRQ mean?Stray IRQs are indications of hardware IRQ glitches,
mostly from hardware that removes its interrupt request in
the middle of the interrupt request acknowledge
cycle.One has three options for dealing with this:Live with the warnings. All except the first 5
per irq are suppressed anyway.Break the warnings by changing 5 to 0 in
isa_strayintr() so that all the
warnings are suppressed.Break the warnings by installing parallel port
hardware that uses irq 7 and the ppp driver for it (this
happens on most systems), and install an ide drive or
other hardware that uses irq 15 and a suitable driver
for it.Why does file: table is full show up
repeatedly in dmesg?
This error is caused when you have exhausted the number of
available file descriptors on your system. The file table in
memory is full.
The solution:
Manually adjust the kern.maxfiles kernel limit
setting.
&prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.maxfiles=nAdjust n according to your system needs.
Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file descriptor.
A large-scale server may easily require tens of thousands of
file descriptors (10,000+), depending on the kind and number
of services running concurrently.The number of default file descriptors set in the kernel is
dictated by themaxusers 32maxusers line in your kernel
config file. Increasing this will proportionally increase
kern.maxfiles.
You can see what kern.maxfiles is
currently set to by:
&prompt.root; sysctl kern.maxfiles
kern.maxfiles: 1064Why does the clock on my laptop keep incorrect time?Your laptop has two or more clocks, and FreeBSD has chosen to
use the wrong one.Run &man.dmesg.8;, and check for lines that contain
Timecounter. The last line printed is the one
that FreeBSD chose, and will almost certainly be
TSC.&prompt.root; dmesg | grep Timecounter
Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
Timecounter "TSC" frequency 595573479 HzYou can confirm this by checking the
kern.timecounter.hardware
&man.sysctl.3;.&prompt.root; sysctl kern.timecounter.hardware
kern.timecounter.hardware: TSCThe BIOS may modify the TSC clock—perhaps to change the
speed of the processor when running from batteries, or going in to
a power saving mode, but FreeBSD is unaware of these adjustments,
and appears to gain or lose time.In this example, the i8254 clock is also
available, and can be selected by writing its name to the
kern.timecounter.hardware
&man.sysctl.3;.&prompt.root; sysctl -w kern.timecounter.hardware=i8254
kern.timecounter.hardware: TSC -> i8254Your laptop should now start keeping more accurate
time.To have this change automatically run at boot time, add the
following line to /etc/sysctl.conf.kern.timecounter.hardware=i8254Why does FreeBSD's boot loader display
Read error and stop after the BIOS
screen?FreeBSD's boot loader is incorrectly recognizing the hard
drive's geometry. This must be manually set within fdisk when
creating or modifying FreeBSD's slice.
The correct drive geometry values can be found within the
machine's BIOS. Look for the number of cylinders, heads and
sectors for the particular drive.
Within &man.sysinstall.8;'s fdisk, hit
G to set the drive geometry.A dialog will pop up requesting the number of cylinders, heads
and sectors. Type the numbers found from the BIOS separates by
forward slashes.
5000 cylinders, 250 sectors and 60 sectors would be entered as
5000/250/60Press enter to set the values, and hit
W to write the
new partition table to the drive.
Another operating system destroyed my Boot Manager. How do I
get it back?
Enter &man.sysinstall.8; and choose Configure,
then Fdisk. Select the disk the Boot Manager resided on
with the space key. Press
W to write changes to the drive. A prompt
will appear asking which boot loader to install. Select this,
and it will be restored.
Commercial ApplicationsThis section is still very sparse, though we are hoping, of
course, that companies will add to it! :) The FreeBSD group has
no financial interest in any of the companies listed here but
simply lists them as a public service (and feels that commercial
interest in FreeBSD can have very positive effects on FreeBSD's
long-term viability). We encourage commercial software vendors to
send their entries here for inclusion. See the
Vendors page for a longer list.Where can I get an Office Suite for FreeBSD?The FreeBSD Mall
offers a FreeBSD native version of VistaSource
ApplixWare 5.ApplixWare is a rich full-featured, commercial
Office Suite for FreeBSD containing a word processor,
spreadsheet, presentation program, vector drawing
package, and other applications.
You can purchase ApplixWare for FreeBSD here.
The Linux version of StarOffice
works flawlessly on FreeBSD. The easiest way to
install the Linux version of StarOffice is through the
FreeBSD
Ports collection. Future versions of the
open-source OpenOffice
suite should work as well.Where can I get Motif for FreeBSD?The Open Group has released the source code to Motif 2.1.30.
You can install the open-motif package, or
compile it from ports. Refer to
the ports section of the
Handbook for more information on how to do this.
The Open Motif distribution only allows redistribution
if it is running on an
open source operating system.In addition, there are commercial distributions of the Motif
software available. These, however, are not for free, but their
license allows them to be used in closed-source software.
Contact Apps2go for the
least expensive ELF Motif 2.1.20 distribution for FreeBSD
(either i386 or Alpha).There are two distributions, the developement
edition and the runtime edition (for
much less). These distributions includes:OSF/Motif manager, xmbind, panner, wsm.Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
and Imake files.Static and dynamic ELF libraries (for use with
FreeBSD 3.0 and above).Demonstration applets.Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version of
Motif when ordering (do not forget to mention the architecture
you want too)! Versions for NetBSD and OpenBSD are also sold by
Apps2go. This is currently a FTP only
download.More info
Apps2go WWW pageorsales@apps2go.com or
support@apps2go.comorphone (817) 431 8775 or +1 817 431-8775Contact Metro Link
for an either ELF or a.out Motif 2.1 distribution for
FreeBSD.This distribution includes:OSF/Motif manager, xmbind, panner, wsm.Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
and Imake files.Static and dynamic libraries (specify ELF for use
with FreeBSD 3.0 and later; or a.out for use with FreeBSD
2.2.8 and earlier).Demonstration applets.Preformatted man pages.Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version
of Motif when ordering! Versions for Linux are also sold by
Metro Link. This is available on either a
CDROM or for FTP download.Contact Xi Graphics for an
a.out Motif 2.0 distribution for FreeBSD.This distribution includes:OSF/Motif manager, xmbind, panner, wsm.Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
and Imake files.Static and dynamic libraries (for use with FreeBSD
2.2.8 and earlier).Demonstration applets.Preformatted man pages.Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version
of Motif when ordering! Versions for BSDI and Linux are also
sold by Xi Graphics. This is currently a 4
diskette set... in the future this will change to a unified CD
distribution like their CDE.Where can I get CDE for FreeBSD?Xi Graphics used to sell CDE
for FreeBSD, but no longer do.KDE is an open
source X11 desktop which is similar to CDE in many respects.
You might also like the look and feel of xfce. KDE and xfce are both
in the ports
system.Are there any commercial high-performance X servers?Yes, Xi Graphics
and Metro Link
sell Accelerated-X product for FreeBSD and other Intel based
systems.The Metro Link offering is a high performance X Server
that offers easy configuration using the FreeBSD Package suite
of tools, support for multiple concurrent video boards and is
distributed in binary form only, in a convenient FTP download.
Not to mention the Metro Link offering is available at the very
reasonable price of $39. Metro Link also sells both ELF and a.out Motif for
FreeBSD (see above).More info
Metro Link WWW pageorsales@metrolink.com
or tech@metrolink.comorphone (954) 938-0283 or +1 954 938-0283The Xi Graphics offering is a high performance X Server
that offers easy configuration, support for multiple concurrent
video boards and is distributed in binary form only, in a
unified diskette distribution for FreeBSD and Linux. Xi
Graphics also offers a high performance X Server tailored for
laptop support.There is a free compatibility demo of
version 5.0 available.Xi Graphics also sells Motif and CDE for FreeBSD (see
above).More info
Xi Graphics WWW pageorsales@xig.com
or support@xig.comorphone (800) 946 7433 or +1 303 298-7478.Are there any Database systems for FreeBSD?Yes! See the
Commercial Vendors section of FreeBSD's Web site.Also see the
Databases section of the Ports collection.Can I run Oracle on FreeBSD?Yes. The following pages tell you exactly how to setup
Linux-Oracle on FreeBSD:
http://www.scc.nl/~marcel/howto-oracle.html
http://www.lf.net/lf/pi/oracle/install-linux-oracle-on-freebsdUser ApplicationsSo, where are all the user applications?Please take a look at
the ports
page for info on software packages ported to FreeBSD.
The list currently tops 3400 and is growing daily, so come back
to check often or subscribe to the
freebsd-announce mailing list for periodic updates on
new entries.Most ports should be available for the 2.2, 3.x and 4.x
branches, and many of them should work on 2.1.x systems as
well. Each time a FreeBSD release is made, a snapshot of the
ports tree at the time of release in also included in the
ports/ directory.We also support the concept of a package,
essentially no more than a gzipped binary distribution with a
little extra intelligence embedded in it for doing whatever
custom installation work is required. A package can be
installed and uninstalled again easily without having to know
the gory details of which files it includes.Use the package installation menu in
/stand/sysinstall (under the
post-configuration menu item) or invoke the
&man.pkg.add.1; command on the specific package
files you are interested in installing. Package files can
usually be identified by their .tgz suffix
and CDROM distribution people will have a
packages/All directory on their CD which
contains such files. They can also be downloaded over the net
for various versions of FreeBSD at the following
locations:for 2.2.8-RELEASE/2.2.8-STABLE
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-2.2.8/for 3.X-RELEASE/3.X-STABLE
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-3-stable/for 4.X-RELEASE/4-STABLE
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-4-stable/for 5.X-CURRENT
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-5-currentor your nearest local mirror site.Note that all ports may not be available as packages since
new ones are constantly being added. It is always a good idea
to check back periodically to see which packages are available
at the ftp.FreeBSD.org
master site.Where do I find libc.so.3.0?You are trying to run a package built on 2.2 and later on
a 2.1.x system. Please take a look at the previous section and
get the correct port/package for your system.Why do I get a message reading Error: can't find
libc.so.4.0?You accidently downloaded packages meant for 4.X and 5.X
systems and attempted to install them on your 2.X or 3.X
FreeBSD system. Please download the correct version of the
packages.Why does ghostscript give lots of errors with my
386/486SX?You do not have a math co-processor, right?
You will need to add the alternative math emulator to your
kernel; you do this by adding the following to your kernel
config file and it will be compiled in.options GPL_MATH_EMULATEYou will need to remove the
MATH_EMULATE option when you do
this.Why do SCO/iBCS2 applications bomb on
socksys? (FreeBSD 3.0 and older only).You first need to edit the
/etc/sysconfig (or
/etc/rc.conf, see &man.rc.conf.5;) file in the last section to change the
following variable to YES:# Set to YES if you want ibcs2 (SCO) emulation loaded at startup
ibcs2=NOIt will load the ibcs2 kernel module at startup.You will then need to set up /compat/ibcs2/dev to look
like:lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Oct 15 22:20 X0R@ -> /dev/null
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 7 Oct 15 22:20 nfsd@ -> socksys
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root wheel 0 Oct 28 12:02 null
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 9 Oct 15 22:20 socksys@ -> /dev/null
crw-rw-rw- 1 root wheel 41, 1 Oct 15 22:14 spxYou just need socksys to go to
/dev/null (see &man.null.4;)
to fake the open & close. The code in -CURRENT will handle
the rest. This is much cleaner than the way it was done before.
If you want the spx driver for a local
socket X connection, define SPX_HACK when
you compile the system.How do I configure INN (Internet News) for my machine?After installing the inn package or port, an excellent
place to start is Dave Barr's
INN Page where you will find the INN FAQ.What version of Microsoft FrontPage should I get?Use the Port, Luke! A pre-patched version of Apache is
available in the ports tree.Does FreeBSD support Java?Yes. Please see
http://www.FreeBSD.org/java/.Why can't I build this port on my 3.X-STABLE machine?If you are running a FreeBSD version that lags
significantly behind -CURRENT or -STABLE, you may need a ports
upgrade kit from
http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/. If you are up to date,
then someone might have committed a change to the port which
works for -CURRENT but which broke the port for -STABLE. Please
submit a bug report on this with the
&man.send-pr.1; command, since the ports
collection is supposed to work for both the -CURRENT and
-STABLE branches.Where do I find ld.so?If you want to run some a.out applications like
Netscape Navigator on an Elf'ened machine such as 3.1-R or
later, it would need /usr/libexec/ld.so
and some a.out libs. They are included in the compat22
distribution. Use /stand/sysinstall or
install.sh in the compat22 subdirectory
and install it. Also read ERRATAs for 3.1-R and 3.2-R.I updated the sources, now how do I update my installed
ports?Unfortunately, there is no easy way to update installed
ports. The &man.pkg.version.1; command can be used
to generate a script that will update the installed ports with
a newer version in the ports tree:&prompt.root; pkg_version > /tmp/myscriptThe output script must be edited by
hand before you use it. Current versions of
&man.pkg.version.1; force this by inserting an
&man.exit.1; at the beginning of the script.You should save the output of the script, as it will note
packages that depend on the one that has been updated. These
may or may not need to be updated as well. The usual case where
they need to be updated is that a shared library has changed
version numbers, so the ports that used that library need to be
rebuilt to use the new version.If your system is up full time, the &man.periodic.8 system
can be used to generate a weekly list of ports that might need
updating by setting
weekly_status_pkg_enable="YES" in
/etc/periodic.conf.Why is /bin/sh so minimal? Why doesn't
FreeBSD use bash or another shell?Because POSIX says that there shall be such a shell.The more complicated answer: many people need to write shell
scripts which will be portable across many systems. That is why
POSIX specifies the shell and utility commands in great detail.
Most scripts are written in Bourne shell, and because several
important programming interfaces (&man.make.1;, &man.system.3;,
&man.popen.3;, and analogues in higher-level scripting
languages like Perl and Tcl) are specified to use the Bourne
shell to interpret commands. Because the Bourne shell is so
often and widely used, it is important for it to be quick to
start, be deterministic in its behavior, and have a small
memory footprint.The existing implementation is our best effort at meeting as
many of these requirements simultaneously as we can. In order to
keep /bin/sh small, we have not provided many
of the convenience features that other shells have. That is why the
Ports Collection includes more featureful shells like bash, scsh,
tcsh, and zsh. (You can compare for yourself the memory
utilization of all these shells by looking at the
VSZ and RSS columns in a ps
-u listing.)Kernel ConfigurationI would like to customize my kernel. Is it difficult?Not at all! Check out the
kernel config section of the Handbook.It is recommended that you make a dated snapshot
of your kernel
in kernel.YYMMDD after you get it all
working, that way if you do something dire the next time
you play with your configuration you can boot that kernel
instead of having to go all the way back to
kernel.GENERIC. This is particularly
important if you are now booting off a controller that is not
supported in the GENERIC kernel.My kernel compiles fail because
_hw_float is missing. How do I solve
this problem?Let me guess. You removed
npx0 (see &man.npx.4;)
from your kernel configuration file because you do not have a
math co-processor, right? Wrong! :-) The
npx0 is
MANDATORY. Even if you do not have a
mathematic co-processor, you must
include the npx0 device.Why is my kernel so big (over 10MB)?Chances are, you compiled your kernel in
debug mode. Kernels built in debug
mode contain many symbols that are used for debugging, thus
greatly increasing the size of the kernel. Note that if you
running a FreeBSD 3.0 or later system, there will be little
or no performance decrease from running a debug kernel,
and it is useful to keep one around in case of a system
panic.However, if you are running low on disk space, or
you simply do not want to run a debug kernel, make sure
that both of the following are true:You do not have a line in your kernel
configuration file that reads:makeoptions DEBUG=-gYou are not running &man.config.8; with
the option.Both of the above situations will cause your kernel to
be built in debug mode. As long as you make sure you follow
the steps above, you can build your kernel normally, and you
should notice a fairly large size decrease; most kernels
tend to be around 1.5MB to 2MB.Why do I get interrupt conflicts with multi-port serial
code?When I compile a kernel
with multi-port serial code, it tells me that only the first
port is probed and the rest skipped due to interrupt conflicts.
How do I fix this?The problem here is that
FreeBSD has code built-in to keep the kernel from getting
trashed due to hardware or software conflicts. The way to fix
this is to leave out the IRQ settings on all but one port. Here
is a example:#
# Multiport high-speed serial line - 16550 UARTS
#
device sio2 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty irq 5 flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio3 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio4 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio5 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointrWhy does every kernel I try to build fail to compile, even
GENERIC?There are a number of possible causes for this problem.
They are, in no particular order:You are not using the new make
buildkernel and make
installkernel targets, and your source tree is
different from the one used to build the currently running
system (e.g., you are compiling 4.3-RELEASE on a 4.0-RELEASE
system). If you are attempting an upgrade, please read the
/usr/src/UPDATING file, paying
particular attention to the COMMON ITEMS
section at the end.You are using the new make
buildkernel and make
installkernel targets, but you failed to assert
the completion of the make buildworld
target. The make buildkernel target
relies on files generated by the make
buildworld target to complete its job
correctly.Even if you are trying to build FreeBSD-STABLE, it is possible that
you fetched the source tree at a time when it was either
being modified, or broken for other reasons; only releases
are absolutely guaranteed to be buildable, although FreeBSD-STABLE builds fine the
majority of the time. If you have not already done so, try
re-fetching the source tree and see if the problem goes
away. Try using a different server in case the one you are
using is having problems.System AdministrationWhere are the system start-up configuration files?From 2.0.5R to 2.2.1R, the primary configuration file is
/etc/sysconfig. All the options are to be
specified in this file and other files such as
/etc/rc (see &man.rc.8;)
and /etc/netstart just include it.Look in the /etc/sysconfig file and
change the value to match your system. This file is filled with
comments to show what to put in there.In post-2.2.1 and 3.0, /etc/sysconfig
was renamed to a more self-describing &man.rc.conf.5;
file and the syntax cleaned up a bit in the process.
/etc/netstart was also renamed to
/etc/rc.network so that all files could be
copied with a
cp
/usr/src/etc/rc* /etc command.And, in 3.1 and later, /etc/rc.conf
has been moved to /etc/defaults/rc.conf.
Do not edit this file! Instead, if there
is any entry in /etc/defaults/rc.conf that
you want to change, you should copy the line into
/etc/rc.conf and change it there.For example, if you wish to start named, the DNS server
included with FreeBSD in FreeBSD 3.1 or later, all you need to
do is:&prompt.root; echo named_enable="YES" >> /etc/rc.confTo start up local services in FreeBSD 3.1 or later, place
shell scripts in the /usr/local/etc/rc.d
directory. These shell scripts should be set executable, and
end with a .sh. In FreeBSD 3.0 and earlier releases, you should
edit the /etc/rc.local file.The /etc/rc.serial is for serial port
initialization (e.g. locking the port characteristics, and so
on.).The /etc/rc.i386 is for Intel-specifics
settings, such as iBCS2 emulation or the PC system console
configuration.How do I add a user easily?Use the &man.adduser.8;
command. For more complicated usage, the &man.pw.8;
command.To remove the user again, use the &man.rmuser.8;
command. Once again, &man.pw.8; will work as
well.How can I add my new hard disk to my FreeBSD system?See the Disk Formatting Tutorial at
www.FreeBSD.org.I have a new removable drive, how do I use it?Whether it is a removable drive like a ZIP or an EZ drive
(or even a floppy, if you want to use it that way), or a new
hard disk, once it is installed and recognized by the system,
and you have your cartridge/floppy/whatever slotted in, things
are pretty much the same for all devices.(this section is based on
Mark Mayo's ZIP FAQ)If it is a ZIP drive or a floppy , you have already got a DOS
filesystem on it, you can use a command like this:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/fd0c /floppyif it is a floppy, or this:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/da2s4 /zipfor a ZIP disk with the factory configuration.For other disks, see how they are laid out using
&man.fdisk.8; or
&man.sysinstall.8;.The rest of the examples will be for a ZIP drive on da2,
the third SCSI disk.Unless it is a floppy, or a removable you plan on sharing
with other people, it is probably a better idea to stick a BSD
file system on it. You will get long filename support, at least a
2X improvement in performance, and a lot more stability. First,
you need to redo the DOS-level partitions/filesystems. You can
either use &man.fdisk.8; or
/stand/sysinstall, or for a small drive
that you do not want to bother with multiple operating system
support on, just blow away the whole FAT partition table
(slices) and just use the BSD partitioning:&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda2 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da2 autoYou can use disklabel or
/stand/sysinstall to create multiple BSD
partitions. You will certainly want to do this if you are adding
swap space on a fixed disk, but it is probably irrelevant on a
removable drive like a ZIP.Finally, create a new file system, this one is on our ZIP
drive using the whole disk:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda2cand mount it:&prompt.root; mount /dev/da2c /zipand it is probably a good idea to add a line like this to
/etc/fstab (see &man.fstab.5;) so you can just type
mount /zip in the future:/dev/da2c /zip ffs rw,noauto 0 0Why do I keep getting messages like root: not
found after editing my crontab file?This is normally caused by editing the system crontab
(/etc/crontab) and then using
&man.crontab.1; to install it:&prompt.root; crontab /etc/crontabThis is not the correct way to do things. The system
crontab has a different format to the per-user crontabs
which &man.crontab.1; updates (the &man.crontab.5; manual
page explains the differences in more detail).If this is what you did, the extra crontab is simply a
copy of /etc/crontab in the wrong
format it. Delete it with the command:&prompt.root; crontab -rNext time, when you edit
/etc/crontab, you should not do
anything to inform &man.cron.8; of the changes, since it
will notice them automatically.If you want something to be run once per day, week, or
month, it is probably better to add shell scripts
/usr/local/etc/periodic, and let the
&man.periodic.8; command run from the system cron schedule
it with the other periodic system tasks.The actual reason for the error is that the system
crontab has an extra field, specifying which user to run the
command as. In the default system crontab provided with
FreeBSD, this is root for all entries.
When this crontab is used as the root
user's crontab (which is not the
same as the system crontab), &man.cron.8; assumes the string
root is the first word of the command to
execute, but no such command exists.Why do I get the error, you are not in the correct
group to su root when I try to su to root?This is a security feature. In order to su to
root (or any other account with superuser
privileges), you must be in the wheel
group. If this feature were not there, anybody with an account
on a system who also found out root's
password would be able to gain superuser level access to the
system. With this feature, this is not strictly true;
&man.su.1; will prevent them from even trying to enter the
password if they are not in wheel.To allow someone to su to root, simply
put them in the wheel group.I made a mistake in rc.conf,
or another startup file, and
now I cannot edit it because the filesystem is read-only.
What should I do?When you get the prompt to enter the shell
pathname, simply press ENTER, and run
mount / to re-mount the root filesystem in
read/write mode. You may also need to run mount -a -t
ufs to mount the filesystem where your favourite
editor is defined. If your favourite editor is on a network
filesystem, you will need to either configure the network
manually before you can mount network filesystems, or use an
editor which resides on a local filesystem, such as
&man.ed.1;.If you intend to use a full screen editor such
as &man.vi.1; or &man.emacs.1;, you may also need to
run export TERM=cons25 so that these
editors can load the correct data from the &man.termcap.5;
database.Once you have performed these steps, you can edit
/etc/rc.conf as you usually would
to fix the syntax error. The error message displayed
immediately after the kernel boot messages should tell you
the number of the line in the file which is at fault.How do I mount a secondary DOS partition?The secondary DOS partitions are found after ALL the primary
partitions. For example, if you have an E
partition as the second DOS partition on the second SCSI drive,
you need to create the special files for slice 5
in /dev, then mount /dev/da1s5:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV da1s5
&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/da1s5 /dos/eCan I mount other foreign filesystems under FreeBSD?Digital UNIXUFS CDROMs can be mounted directly on FreeBSD.
Mounting disk partitions from Digital UNIX and other
systems that support UFS may be more complex, depending
on the details of the disk partitioning for the operating
system in question.LinuxAs of 2.2, FreeBSD supports ext2fs
partitions. See &man.mount.ext2fs.8; for more
information.NTA read-only NTFS driver exists for FreeBSD. For more
information, see this tutorial by Mark Ovens at
http://ukug.uk.freebsd.org/~mark/ntfs_install.html.
Any other information on this subject would be
appreciated.How can I use the NT loader to boot FreeBSD?This procedure is slightly different for 2.2.x and 3.x
(with the 3-stage boot) systems.The general idea is that you copy the first sector of your
native root FreeBSD partition into a file in the DOS/NT
partition. Assuming you name that file something like
c:\bootsect.bsd (inspired by
c:\bootsect.dos), you can then edit the
c:\boot.ini file to come up with something
like this:[boot loader]
timeout=30
default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS
[operating systems]
multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS="Windows NT"
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD="FreeBSD"
C:\="DOS"For 2.2.x systems this procedure assumes that DOS, NT,
FreeBSD, or whatever have been installed into their respective
fdisk partitions on the same
disk. This example was tested on a system where DOS & NT
were on the first fdisk partition, and FreeBSD on the second.
FreeBSD was also set up to boot from its native partition, not
the disk's MBR.Mount a DOS-formatted floppy (if you have converted to NTFS)
or the FAT partition, under, say,
/mnt.&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/rda0a of=/mnt/bootsect.bsd bs=512 count=1Reboot into DOS or NT. NTFS users copy the
bootsect.bsd and/or the
bootsect.lnx file from the floppy to
C:\. Modify the attributes (permissions)
on boot.ini with:C:\>attrib -s -r c:\boot.iniEdit to add the appropriate entries from the example
boot.ini above, and restore the
attributes:C:\>attrib +s +r c:\boot.iniIf FreeBSD is booting from the MBR, restore it with the DOS
fdisk command after you reconfigure them to
boot from their native partitions.For FreeBSD 3.x systems the procedure is somewhat
simpler.If FreeBSD is installed on the same disk as the NT boot
partition simply copy /boot/boot1 to
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD However, if FreeBSD is
installed on a different disk /boot/boot1
will not work, /boot/boot0 is needed.
DO NOT SIMPLY COPY /boot/boot0
INSTEAD OF /boot/boot1, YOU WILL
OVERWRITE YOUR PARTITION TABLE AND RENDER YOUR COMPUTER
UN-BOOTABLE!/boot/boot0 needs to be installed using
sysinstall by selecting the FreeBSD boot manager on the
screen which asks if you wish to use a boot manager. This is
because /boot/boot0 has the partition
table area filled with NULL characters but sysinstall copies
the partition table before copying
/boot/boot0 to the MBR.When the FreeBSD boot manager runs it records the last
OS booted by setting the active flag on the partition table
entry for that OS and then writes the whole 512-bytes of itself
back to the MBR so if you just copy
/boot/boot0 to
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD then it writes an empty
partition table, with the active flag set on one entry, to the
MBR.How do I boot FreeBSD and Linux from LILO?If you have FreeBSD and Linux on the same disk, just follow
LILO's installation instructions for booting a non-Linux
operating system. Very briefly, these are:Boot Linux, and add the following lines to
/etc/lilo.conf:other=/dev/hda2
table=/dev/hda
label=FreeBSD(the above assumes that your FreeBSD slice is known to Linux
as /dev/hda2; tailor to suit your setup).
Then, run lilo as root and you should be
done.If FreeBSD resides on another disk, you need to add
loader=/boot/chain.b to the LILO entry.
For example:other=/dev/dab4
table=/dev/dab
loader=/boot/chain.b
label=FreeBSDIn some cases you may need to specify the BIOS drive number
to the FreeBSD boot loader to successfully boot off the second
disk. For example, if your FreeBSD SCSI disk is probed by BIOS
as BIOS disk 1, at the FreeBSD boot loader prompt you need to
specify:Boot: 1:da(0,a)/kernelOn FreeBSD 2.2.5 and later, you can configure
&man.boot.8;
to automatically do this for you at boot time.The
Linux+FreeBSD mini-HOWTO is a good reference for
FreeBSD and Linux interoperability issues.How do I boot FreeBSD and Linux using BootEasy?Install LILO at the start of your Linux boot partition
instead of in the Master Boot Record. You can then boot LILO
from BootEasy.If you are running Windows-95 and Linux this is recommended
anyway, to make it simpler to get Linux booting again if you
should need to reinstall Windows95 (which is a Jealous
Operating System, and will bear no other Operating Systems in
the Master Boot Record).Will a dangerously dedicated disk endanger
my health?The installation procedure allows
you to chose two different methods in partitioning your
harddisk(s). The default way makes it compatible with other
operating systems on the same machine, by using fdisk table
entries (called slices in FreeBSD), with a
FreeBSD slice that employs partitions of its own. Optionally,
one can chose to install a boot-selector to switch between the
possible operating systems on the disk(s). The alternative uses
the entire disk for FreeBSD, and makes no attempt to be
compatible with other operating systems.So why it is called dangerous? A disk in
this mode does not contain what normal PC utilities would
consider a valid fdisk table. Depending on how well they have
been designed, they might complain at you once they are getting
in contact with such a disk, or even worse, they might damage
the BSD bootstrap without even asking or notifying you. In
addition, the dangerously dedicated disk's
layout is known to confuse many BIOSsen, including those from
AWARD (eg. as found in HP Netserver and Micronics systems as
well as many others) and Symbios/NCR (for the popular 53C8xx
range of SCSI controllers). This is not a complete list, there
are more. Symptoms of this confusion include the read
error message printed by the FreeBSD bootstrap when it
cannot find itself, as well as system lockups when
booting.Why have this mode at all then? It only saves a few kbytes
of disk space, and it can cause real problems for a new
installation. Dangerously dedicated mode's
origins lie in a desire to avoid one of the most common
problems plaguing new FreeBSD installers - matching the BIOS
geometry numbers for a disk to the disk
itself.Geometry is an outdated concept, but one
still at the heart of the PC's BIOS and its interaction with
disks. When the FreeBSD installer creates slices, it has to
record the location of these slices on the disk in a fashion
that corresponds with the way the BIOS expects to find them. If
it gets it wrong, you will not be able to boot.Dangerously dedicated mode tries to work
around this by making the problem simpler. In some cases, it
gets it right. But it is meant to be used as a last-ditch
alternative - there are better ways to solve the problem 99
times out of 100.So, how do you avoid the need for DD mode
when you are installing? Start by making a note of the geometry
that your BIOS claims to be using for your disks. You can
arrange to have the kernel print this as it boots by specifying
at the boot: prompt, or
using boot -v in the loader. Just before the
installer starts, the kernel will print a list of BIOS
geometries. Do not panic - wait for the installer to start and
then use scrollback to read the numbers. Typically the BIOS
disk units will be in the same order that FreeBSD lists your
disks, first IDE, then SCSI.When you are slicing up your disk, check that the disk
geometry displayed in the FDISK screen is correct (ie. it
matches the BIOS numbers); if it is wrong, use the
g key to fix it. You may have to do this if
there is absolutely nothing on the disk, or if the disk has been
moved from another system. Note that this is only an issue with
the disk that you are going to boot from; FreeBSD will sort
itself out just fine with any other disks you may have.Once you have got the BIOS and FreeBSD agreeing about the
geometry of the disk, your problems are almost guaranteed to be
over, and with no need for DD mode at all. If,
however, you are still greeted with the dreaded read
error message when you try to boot, it is time to cross
your fingers and go for it - there's nothing left to
lose.To return a dangerously dedicated disk
for normal PC use, there are basically two options. The first
is, you write enough NULL bytes over the MBR to make any
subsequent installation believe this to be a blank disk. You
can do this for example with&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda0 count=15Alternatively, the undocumented DOS
featureC:\>fdisk /mbrwill to install a new master boot record as well, thus
clobbering the BSD bootstrap.How can I add more swap space?The best way is to increase the size of your swap partition,
or take advantage of this convenient excuse to add another
disk. The general rule of thumb is to have around 2x the swap
space as you have main memory. However, if you have a very
small amount of main memory you may want to configure swap
beyond that. It is also a good idea to configure sufficient
swap relative to anticipated future memory upgrades so you do
not have to futz with your swap configuration later.Adding swap onto a separate disk makes things faster than
simply adding swap onto the same disk. As an example, if you
are compiling source located on one disk, and the swap is on
another disk, this is much faster than both swap and compile on
the same disk. This is true for SCSI disks specifically.When you have several disks, configuring a swap partition on
each one is usually beneficial, even if you wind up putting
swap on a work disk. Typically, each fast disk in your system
should have some swap configured. FreeBSD supports up to 4
interleaved swap devices by default. When configuring multiple
swap partitions you generally want to make them all about the
same size, but people sometimes make their primary swap
partition larger in order to accomodate a kernel core dump. Your
primary swap partition must be at least as large as main memory
in order to be able to accomodate a kernel core.IDE drives are not able to allow access to both drives on
the same channel at the same time (FreeBSD does not support mode
4, so all IDE disk I/O is programmed).
It is still suggested that you put your swap partition on a
separate driver, however: the drives are so cheap, it is not
worth worrying about.Swapping over NFS is only recommended if you do not have a
local disk to swap to. Swapping over NFS is slow and
inefficient in FreeBSD releases prior to 4.x, but reasonably
fast in releases greater or equal to 4.0. Even so, it will be
limited to the network bandwidth available and puts an
additional burden on the NFS server.Here is an example for 64Mb vn-swap
(/usr/swap0, though of course you can use
any name that you want).Make sure your kernel was built with the linepseudo-device vn 1 #Vnode driver (turns a file into a device)in your config-file. The GENERIC kernel already contains
this.create a vn-device&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV vn0create a swapfile (/usr/swap0)&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/swap0 bs=1024k count=64set proper permissions on (/usr/swap0)&prompt.root; chmod 0600 /usr/swap0enable the swap file in /etc/rc.confswapfile="/usr/swap0" # Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired.reboot the machineTo enable the swap file immediately, type&prompt.root; vnconfig -e /dev/vn0b /usr/swap0 swapWhy am I having trouble setting up my printer?Please have a look at the Handbook entry on printing. It
should cover most of your problem. See the
Handbook entry on printing.Some printers require a host-based driver to do any kind of
printing. These so-called WinPrinters are not
natively supported by FreeBSD. If your printer does not work
in DOS or Windows NT 4.0, it is probably a WinPrinter. Your
only hope of getting one of these to work is to check if the
ports/print/pnm2ppa port supports it.
From its
package description:
This software creates output using the PPA (printer
performance architecture) protocol. This protocol is used by
some HP "Windows-only" printers, including the HP Deskjet
820C series, the HP DeskJet 720 series, and the HP DeskJet
1000 series. [...]WWW: http://pnm2ppa.sourceforge.net/
How can I correct the keyboard mappings for my system?The kbdcontrol program has an option to load a keyboard
map file. Under /usr/share/syscons/keymaps
are a number of map files. Choose the one relevant to your
system and load it.&prompt.root; kbdcontrol -l uk.isoBoth the /usr/share/syscons/keymaps
and the .kbd extension are assumed by
&man.kbdcontrol.1;.This can be configured in /etc/sysconfig
(or
&man.rc.conf.5;). See the appropriate comments in this
file.In 2.0.5R and later, everything related to text fonts,
keyboard mapping is in
/usr/share/examples/syscons.The following mappings are currently supported:Belgian ISO-8859-1Brazilian 275 keyboard Codepage 850Brazilian 275 keyboard ISO-8859-1Danish Codepage 865Danish ISO-8859-1French ISO-8859-1German Codepage 850German ISO-8859-1Italian ISO-8859-1Japanese 106Japanese 106xLatin AmericanNorwegian ISO-8859-1Polish ISO-8859-2 (programmer's)Russian Codepage 866 (alternative)Russian koi8-r (shift)Russian koi8-rSpanish ISO-8859-1Swedish Codepage 850Swedish ISO-8859-1Swiss-German ISO-8859-1United Kingdom Codepage 850United Kingdom ISO-8859-1United States of America ISO-8859-1United States of America dvorakUnited States of America dvorakxWhy do I get messages like: unknown: <PNP0303>
can't assign resources on boot?The following is an excerpt from a post to the
freebsd-current mailing list.
&a.wollman;, 24 April 2001The can't assign resources messages
indicate that the devices are legacy ISA devices for which a
non-PnP-aware driver is compiled into the kernel. These
include devices such as keyboard controllers, the
programmable interrupt controller chip, and several other
bits of standard infrastructure. The resources cannot be
assigned because there is already a driver using those
addresses.
How come I cannot get user quotas to work properly?Do not turn on quotas on /,Put the quota file on the file system that the quotas
are to be enforced on. ie:FilesystemQuota file/usr/usr/admin/quotas/home/home/admin/quotas……What is inappropriate about my ccd?The symptom of this is:&prompt.root; ccdconfig -C
ccdconfig: ioctl (CCDIOCSET): /dev/ccd0c: Inappropriate file type or formatThis usually happens when you are trying to concatenate
the c partitions, which default to type
unused. The ccd driver requires the
underlying partition type to be FS_BSDFFS. Edit the disklabel
of the disks you are trying to concatenate and change the types
of partitions to 4.2BSD.Why can't I edit the disklabel on my ccd?The symptom of this is:&prompt.root; disklabel ccd0
(it prints something sensible here, so let's try to edit it)
&prompt.root; disklabel -e ccd0
(edit, save, quit)
disklabel: ioctl DIOCWDINFO: No disk label on disk;
use "disklabel -r" to install initial labelThis is because the disklabel returned by ccd is actually
a fake one that is not really on the disk.
You can solve this problem by writing it back explicitly,
as in:&prompt.root; disklabel ccd0 > /tmp/disklabel.tmp
&prompt.root; disklabel -Rr ccd0 /tmp/disklabel.tmp
&prompt.root; disklabel -e ccd0
(this will work now)Does FreeBSD support System V IPC primitives?Yes, FreeBSD supports System V-style IPC. This includes
shared memory, messages and semaphores. You need to add the
following lines to your kernel config to enable them.options SYSVSHM # enable shared memory
options SYSVSEM # enable for semaphores
options SYSVMSG # enable for messagingIn FreeBSD 3.2 and later, these options are already
part of the GENERIC kernel, which
means they should already be compiled into your
system.Recompile and install your kernel.How do I use sendmail for mail delivery with UUCP?The sendmail configuration that ships with FreeBSD is
suited for sites that connect directly to the Internet.
Sites that wish to exchange their mail via UUCP must install
another sendmail configuration file.Tweaking /etc/sendmail.cf manually is
considered something for purists. Sendmail version 8 comes with
a new approach of generating config files via some
&man.m4.1;
preprocessing, where the actual hand-crafted configuration is
on a higher abstraction level. You should use the configuration
files under
/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cfIf you did not install your system with full sources,
the sendmail config stuff has been broken out into a separate
source distribution tarball just for you. Assuming you have got
your CDROM mounted, do:&prompt.root; cd /cdrom/src
&prompt.root; cat scontrib.?? | tar xzf - -C /usr/src contrib/sendmailDo not panic, this is only a few hundred kilobytes in size.
The file README in the
cf directory can serve as a basic
introduction to m4 configuration.For UUCP delivery, you are best advised to use the
mailertable feature. This constitutes a
database that sendmail can use to base its routing decision
upon.First, you have to create your .mc
file. The directory
/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf is the
home of these files. Look around, there are already a few
examples. Assuming you have named your file
foo.mc, all you need to do in order to
convert it into a valid sendmail.cf
is:&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf
&prompt.root; make foo.cf
&prompt.root; cp foo.cf /etc/sendmail.cfA typical .mc file might look
like:include(`../m4/cf.m4')
VERSIONID(`Your version number')
OSTYPE(bsd4.4)
FEATURE(nodns)
FEATURE(nocanonify)
FEATURE(mailertable)
define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay)
define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000)
MAILER(local)
MAILER(smtp)
MAILER(uucp)
Cw your.alias.host.name
Cw youruucpnodename.UUCPThe nodns and
nocanonify features will prevent any usage
of the DNS during mail delivery. The
UUCP_RELAY clause is needed for bizarre
reasons, do not ask. Simply put an Internet hostname there that
is able to handle .UUCP pseudo-domain addresses; most likely,
you will enter the mail relay of your ISP there.Once you have got this, you need this file called
/etc/mailertable. A typical example of
this gender again:#
# makemap hash /etc/mailertable.db < /etc/mailertable
#
horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus
.interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
.heep.sax.de smtp8:%1
horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus
if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus
. uucp-dom:As you can see, this is part of a real-life file. The
first three lines handle special cases where domain-addressed
mail should not be sent out to the default route, but instead
to some UUCP neighbor in order to shortcut the
delivery path. The next line handles mail to the local Ethernet
domain that can be delivered using SMTP. Finally, the UUCP
neighbors are mentioned in the .UUCP pseudo-domain notation, to
allow for a uucp-neighbor
!recipient
override of the default rules. The last line is always a single
dot, matching everything else, with UUCP delivery to a UUCP
neighbor that serves as your universal mail gateway to the
world. All of the node names behind the
uucp-dom: keyword must be valid UUCP
neighbors, as you can verify using the command
uuname.As a reminder that this file needs to be converted into a
DBM database file before being usable, the command line to
accomplish this is best placed as a comment at the top of
the mailertable. You always have to execute this command
each time you change your mailertable.Final hint: if you are uncertain whether some particular
mail routing would work, remember the
option to sendmail. It starts sendmail in address
test mode; simply enter 0,
followed by the address you wish to test for the mail routing.
The last line tells you the used internal mail agent, the
destination host this agent will be called with, and the
(possibly translated) address. Leave this mode by typing
Control-D.&prompt.user; sendmail -bt
ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked)
Enter <ruleset> <address>
>0 foo@interface-business.de
rewrite: ruleset 0 input: foo @ interface-business . de
...
rewrite: ruleset 0 returns: $# uucp-dom $@ if-bus $: foo \
< @ interface-business . de >
>^DHow do I set up mail with a dialup connection to the
'net?If you have got a statically assigned IP number, you should
not need to adjust anything from the default. Set your host
name up as your assigned Internet name and sendmail will do
the rest.If you have got a dynamically assigned IP number and use a
dialup ppp connection to the
Internet, you will probably be given a mailbox on your ISPs
mail server. Lets assume your ISPs domain is
myISP.com, and that your user name is
user. Lets also assume you have
called your machine bsd.home and that your
ISP has told you that you may use
relay.myISP.com as a mail relay.In order to retrieve mail from your mailbox, you will need
to install a retrieval agent. Fetchmail is a good choice as it supports
many different protocols. Usually, POP3 will be provided by
your ISP. If you have chosen to use user-ppp, you can
automatically fetch your mail when a connection to the 'net is
established with the following entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup:MYADDR:
!bg su user -c fetchmailIf you are using sendmail
(as shown below) to deliver mail to non-local accounts, put
the command !bg su user -c "sendmail -q"after the above shown entry. This forces sendmail to
process your mailqueue as soon as the connection to the 'net
is established.I am assuming that you have an account for
user on
bsd.home. In the home directory of
user on
bsd.home, create a
.fetchmailrc file:poll myISP.com protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecretNeedless to say, this file should not be readable by
anyone except user as it contains
the password MySecret.In order to send mail with the correct
from: header, you must tell
sendmail to use user@myISP.com rather than
user@bsd.home. You may also wish to tell
sendmail to send all mail via
relay.myISP.com, allowing quicker mail
transmission.The following .mc file should
suffice:VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0')
OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl
FEATURE(nouucp)dnl
MAILER(local)dnl
MAILER(smtp)dnl
Cwlocalhost
Cwbsd.home
MASQUERADE_AS(`myISP.com')dnl
FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl
FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl
FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl
FEATURE(nodns)dnl
define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.myISP.com')
Dmbsd.home
define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl
define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnlRefer to the previous section for details of how to turn
this .mc file into a
sendmail.cf file. Also, don't forget to
restart sendmail after updating sendmail.cf.What is this UID 0 toor account? Have I
been compromised?Do not worry. toor is an
alternative superuser account (toor is root
spelt backwards). Previously it was created when the
&man.bash.1; shell was installed but now it is created by
default. It is intended to be used with a non-standard shell so
you do not have to change root's default
shell. This is important as shells which are not part of the
base distribution (for example a shell installed from ports or
packages) are likely be to be installed in
/usr/local/bin which, by default, resides
on a different filesystem. If root's shell
is located in /usr/local/bin and
/usr (or whatever filesystem contains
/usr/local/bin) is not mounted for some
reason, root will not be able to log in to
fix a problem (although if you reboot into single user mode
you will be prompted for the path to a shell).Some people use toor for
day-to-day root tasks with a non-standard shell, leaving
root, with a standard shell, for
single user mode or emergencies. By default you cannot log
in using toor as it does not have a
password, so log in as root and set a password for
toor if you want to use it.I have forgotten the root password! What do I do?Do not Panic! Simply restart the system, type
boot -s at the Boot: prompt (just
-s for FreeBSD releases before 3.2) to
enter Single User mode. At the question about the shell to use,
hit ENTER. You will be dropped to a &prompt.root; prompt. Enter
mount -u / to remount your root filesystem
read/write, then run mount -a to remount all
the filesystems. Run passwd root to change
the root password then run &man.exit.1; to continue
booting.How do I keep Control-Alt-Delete from rebooting the
system?If you are using syscons (the default console driver)
in FreeBSD 2.2.7-RELEASE or later,
build and install a new kernel with the lineoptions SC_DISABLE_REBOOTin the configuration file. If you use the PCVT console
driver in FreeBSD 2.2.5-RELEASE or later, use the following
kernel configuration line instead:options PCVT_CTRL_ALT_DELFor older versions of FreeBSD, edit the keymap you are
using for the console and replace the boot
keywords with nop. The default keymap is
/usr/share/syscons/keymaps/us.iso.kbd. You
may have to instruct /etc/rc.conf to load
this keymap explicitly for the change to take effect. Of course
if you are using an alternate keymap for your country, you
should edit that one instead.How do I reformat DOS text files to Unix ones?Simply use this perl command:&prompt.user; perl -i.bak -npe 's/\r\n/\n/g' file ...file is the file(s) to process. The modification is done
in-place, with the original file stored with a .bak
extension.Alternatively you can use the
&man.tr.1;
command:&prompt.user; tr -d '\r' < dos-text-file > unix-filedos-text-file is the file
containing DOS text while unix-file
will contain the converted output. This can be quite a bit
faster than using perl.How do I kill processes by name?Use &man.killall.1;.Why is su bugging me about not being in
root's ACL?The error comes from the Kerberos distributed
authentication system. The problem is not fatal but annoying.
You can either run su with the -K option, or uninstall
Kerberos as described in the next question.How do I uninstall Kerberos?To remove Kerberos from the system, reinstall the bin
distribution for the release you are running. If you have
the CDROM, you can mount the cd (we will assume on /cdrom)
and run&prompt.root; cd /cdrom/bin
&prompt.root; ./install.shAlternately, you can remove all "MAKE_KERBEROS"
options from /etc/make.conf and rebuild
world.How do I add pseudoterminals to the system?If you have lots of telnet, ssh, X, or screen users,
you will probably run out of pseudoterminals. Here is how to
add more:Build and install a new kernel with the linepseudo-device pty 256in the configuration file.Run the commands&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV pty{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}to make 256 device nodes for the new terminals.Edit /etc/ttys and add lines
for each of the 256 terminals. They should match the form
of the existing entries, i.e. they look likettyqc none networkThe order of the letter designations is
tty[pqrsPQRS][0-9a-v], using a
regular expression. Reboot the system with the new kernel and you are
ready to go.How come I cannot create the snd0 device?There is no snd device. The name
is used as a shorthand for the various devices that make up the
FreeBSD sound driver, such as mixer,
sequencer, and
dsp.To create these devices you should&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0How do I re-read /etc/rc.conf and re-start /etc/rc without
a reboot?Go into single user mode and then back to multi user
mode.On the console do:&prompt.root; shutdown now
(Note: without -r or -h)
&prompt.root; return
&prompt.root; exitWhat is a sandbox?Sandbox is a security term. It can mean
two things:A process which is placed inside a set of virtual
walls that are designed to prevent someone who breaks
into the process from being able to break into the wider
system.The process is said to be able to
play inside the walls. That is,
nothing the process does in regards to executing code is
supposed to be able to breech the walls so you do not
have to do a detailed audit of its code to be able to
say certain things about its security.The walls might be a userid, for example. This is
the definition used in the security and named man
pages.Take the ntalk service, for
example (see /etc/inetd.conf). This service used to run
as userid root. Now it runs as userid tty. The tty user
is a sandbox designed to make it more difficult for
someone who has successfully hacked into the system via
ntalk from being able to hack beyond that user id.A process which is placed inside a simulation of the
machine. This is more hard-core. Basically it means that
someone who is able to break into the process may believe
that he can break into the wider machine but is, in fact,
only breaking into a simulation of that machine and not
modifying any real data.The most common way to accomplish this is to build a
simulated environment in a subdirectory and then run the
processes in that directory chroot'd (i.e.
/ for that process is this
directory, not the real / of the
system).Another common use is to mount an underlying
filesystem read-only and then create a filesystem layer
on top of it that gives a process a seemingly writeable
view into that filesystem. The process may believe it is
able to write to those files, but only the process sees
the effects - other processes in the system do not,
necessarily.An attempt is made to make this sort of sandbox so
transparent that the user (or hacker) does not realize
that he is sitting in it.Unix implements two core sandboxes. One is at the
process level, and one is at the userid level.Every Unix process is completely firewalled off from every
other Unix process. One process cannot modify the address
space of another. This is unlike Windows where a process
can easily overwrite the address space of any other, leading
to a crash.A Unix process is owned by a particular userid. If the
userid is not the root user, it serves to firewall the process
off from processes owned by other users. The userid is also
used to firewall off on-disk data.What is securelevel?The securelevel is a security mechanism implemented in the
kernel. Basically, when the securelevel is positive, the
kernel restricts certain tasks; not even the superuser (i.e.,
root) is allowed to do them. At the time
of this writing, the securelevel mechanism is capable of, among
other things, limiting the ability to,unset certain file flags, such as
schg (the system immutable flag),write to kernel memory via
/dev/mem and
/dev/kmem,load kernel modules, andalter &man.ipfirewall.4; rules.To check the status of the securelevel on a running system,
simply execute the following command:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevelThe output will contain the name of the &man.sysctl.8;
variable (in this case, kern.securelevel)
and a number. The latter is the current value of the
securelevel. If it is positive (i.e., greater than 0), at
least some of the securelevel's protections are enabled.You cannot lower the securelevel of a running system; being
able to do that would defeat its purpose. If you need to do a
task that requires that the securelevel be non-positive (e.g.,
an installworld or changing the date),
you will have to change the securelevel setting in
/etc/rc.conf (you want to look for the
kern_securelevel and
kern_securelevel_enable variables) and
reboot.For more information on securelevel and the specific things
all the levels do, please consult the &man.init.8; manual
page.Securelevel is not a silver bullet; it has many known
deficiencies. More often than not, it provides a false
sense of security.One of its biggest problems is that in order for it to
be at all effective, all files used in the boot process up
until the securelevel is set must be protected. If an
attacker can get the system to execute their code prior to
the securelevel being set (which happens quite late in the
boot process since some things the system must do at
start-up cannot be done at an elevated securelevel), its
protections are invalidated. While this task of protecting
all files used in the boot process is not technically
impossible, if it is achieved, system maintenance will
become a nightmare since one would have to take the system
down, at least to single-user mode, to modify a
configuration file.This point and others are often discussed on the
mailing lists, particularly freebsd-security. Please search
the archives here for an
extensive discussion. Some people are hopeful that
securelevel will soon go away in favor of a more
fine-grained mechanism, but things are still hazy in this
respect.Consider yourself warned.How do I let ordinary users mount floppies, CDROMs and other removable
media?Ordinary users can be permitted to mount devices. Here is
how:As root set the sysctl variable
vfs.usermount to
1.&prompt.root; sysctl -w vfs.usermount=1As root assign the appropriate
permissions to the block device associated with the
removable media.For example, to allow users to mount the first floppy
drive, use:&prompt.root; chmod 666 /dev/fd0To allow users in the group
operator to mount the CDROM drive,
use:&prompt.root; chgrp operator /dev/cd0c
&prompt.root; chmod 640 /dev/cd0cFinally, add the line
vfs.usermount=1 to the file
/etc/sysctl.conf so that it is reset
at system boot time.All users can now mount the floppy
/dev/fd0 onto a directory that they
own:&prompt.user; mkdir ~/my-mount-point
&prompt.user; mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 ~/my-mount-pointUsers in group operator can now
mount the CDROM /dev/cd0c onto a
directory that they own:&prompt.user; mkdir ~/my-mount-point
&prompt.user; mount -t msdos /dev/cd0c ~/my-mount-pointUnmounting the device is simple:&prompt.user; umount ~/my-mount-point>Enabling vfs.usermount, however, has
negative security implications. A better way to access MSDOS
formatted media is to use the mtools package in the ports collection.How do I move my system over to my huge new disk?The best way is to reinstall the OS on the new
disk, then move the user data over. This is highly
recommended if you have been tracking -stable for more
than one release, or have updated a release instead of
installing a new one. You can install booteasy on both
disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, and dual boot them until
you are happy with the new configuration. Skip the
next paragraph to find out how to move the data after
doing this.Should you decide not to do a fresh install, you
need to partition and label the new disk with either
/stand/sysinstall, or &man.fdisk.8;
and &man.disklabel.8;. You should also install booteasy
on both disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, so that you can
dual boot to the old or new system after the copying
is done. See the
formatting-media tutorial for details on this
process.Now you have the new disk set up, and are ready
to move the data. Unfortunately, you cannot just blindly
copy the data. Things like device files (in
/dev), flags, and links tend to
screw that up. You need to use tools that understand
these things, which means &man.dump.8;.
Although it is suggested that you move the data in single user
mode, it is not required.You should never use anything but &man.dump.8; and
&man.restore.8; to move the root file system. The
&man.tar.1; command may work - then again, it may not.
You should also use &man.dump.8; and &man.restore.8;
if you are moving a single partition to another empty
partition. The sequence of steps to use dump to move
a partitions data to a new partition is:newfs the new partition.mount it on a temporary mount point.cd to that directory.dump the old partition, piping output to the
new one.For example, if you are going to move root to
/dev/ad1s1a, with
/mnt as the temporary mount point,
it is:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -Rearranging your partitions with dump takes a bit more
work. To merge a partition like /var
into it's parent, create the new partition large enough
for both, move the parent partition as described above,
then move the child partition into the empty directory
that the first move created:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -
&prompt.root; cd var
&prompt.root; dump 0af - /var | restore xf -To split a directory from it's parent, say putting
/var on it's own partition when it wasn't
before, create both partitions, then mount the child partition
on the approriate directory in the temporary mount point, then
move the old single partition:&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1d
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; mkdir /mnt/var
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1d /mnt/var
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -You might prefer &man.cpio.1;, &man.pax.1;,
&man.tar.1; to &man.dump.8; for user data. At the time of
this writing, these are known to lose file flag information,
so use them with caution.I tried to update my system to the latest -STABLE, but
got -RC or -BETA! What is going on?Short answer: it is just a name. RC stands for
Release Candidate. It signifies that a
release is imminent. In FreeBSD, -BETA is typically synonymous
with the code freeze before a release.Long answer: FreeBSD derives its releases from one of
two places. Major, dot-zero, releases, such as
3.0-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE, are branched from the head of
the development stream, commonly referred to as -CURRENT. Minor releases, such
as 3.1-RELEASE or 4.2-RELEASE, have been snapshots of the active
-STABLE branch. Starting with
4.3-RELEASE, each release also now has its own branch which can be
tracked by people requiring an extremely conservative rate
of development (typically only security advisories).When a release is about to be made, the branch from
which it will be derived from has to undergo a certain
process. Part of this process is a code freeze. When a
code freeze is initiated, the name of the branch is
changed to reflect that it is about to become a release.
For example, if the branch used to be called 4.0-STABLE,
its name will be changed to 4.1-BETA to signify the code
freeze and signify that extra pre-release testing should
be happening. Bug fixes can still be committed to be part
of the release. When the source code is in shape for the
release the name will be changed to 4.1-RC to signify that a
release is about to be made from it. Once in the RC stage,
only the most critical bugs found can be fixed.
Once the release, 4.1-RELEASE in this example, has been made,
the branch will be renamed to 4.1-STABLE.I tried to install a new kernel, and the chflags failed.
How do I get around this?Short answer: You are probably at security level
greater than 0. Reboot directly to single user mode to
install the kernel.Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing system flags
at security levels greater than 0. You can check your
security level with the command:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevelYou cannot lower the security level; you have to boot to
single mode to install the kernel, or change the security
level in /etc/rc.conf then reboot. See
the &man.init.8; man page for details on securelevel, and see
/etc/defaults/rc.conf and the
&man.rc.conf.5; man page for more information on
rc.conf.I cannot change the time on my system by more than one second!
How do I get around this?Short answer: You are probably at security level
greater than 1. Reboot directly to single user mode to
change the date.Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing the time by
more that one second at security levels greater than 1. You
can check your security level with the command:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevelYou cannot lower the security level; you have to boot
to single mode to change the date, or change the security
level in /etc/rc.conf then reboot. See
the &man.init.8; man page for details on securelevel, and
see /etc/defaults/rc.conf and the
&man.rc.conf.5; man page for more information on rc.conf.Why is rpc.statd using 256 megabytes of
memory?No, there is no memory leak, and it is not using 256 Mbytes
of memory. It simply likes to (i.e., always does) map an
obscene amount of memory into its address space for convenience.
There is nothing terribly wrong with this from a technical
standpoint; it just throws off things like &man.top.1; and
&man.ps.1;.&man.rpc.statd.8; maps its status file (resident on
/var) into its address space; to save
worrying about remapping it later when it needs to grow, it maps
it with a generous size. This is very evident from the source
code, where one can see that the length argument to &man.mmap.2;
is 0x10000000, or one sixteenth of the
address space on an IA32, or exactly 256MB.Why can't I unset the schg file
flag?You are running at an elevated (i.e., greater than 0)
securelevel. Lower the securelevel and try again. For more
information, see the FAQ entry on
securelevel and the &man.init.8; manual page.Why doesn't SSH authentication through
.shosts work by default in recent
versions of FreeBSD?The reason why .shosts
authentication does not work by default in more recent
versions of FreeBSD is because &man.ssh.1;
is not installed suid root by default. To
fix this, you can do one of the
following:As a permanent fix, set
ENABLE_SUID_SSH to true
in /etc/make.conf and rebuild ssh
(or run make world).As a temporary fix, change the mode on
/usr/bin/ssh to 4555
by running chmod 4755 /usr/bin/ssh as
root. Then add
ENABLE_SUID_SSH= true to
/etc/make.conf so the change takes
effect the next time make world is
run.The X Window System and Virtual ConsolesI want to run X, how do I go about it?The easiest way is to simply specify that you want to
run X during the installation process.Then read and follow the documentation on the
xf86config tool, which assists you in configuring
XFree86(tm) for your particular graphics card/mouse/etc.You may also wish to investigate the Xaccel server.
See the section on Xi Graphics or
Metro Link for more details.I tried to run X, but I get an
KDENABIO failed (Operation not permitted)
error when I type startx. What do I do
now?Your system is running at a raised securelevel, is not
it? It is, indeed, impossible to start X at a raised
securelevel. To see why, look at the &man.init.8; man
page.So the question is what else you should do instead,
and you basically have two choices: set your securelevel
back down to zero (usually from /etc/rc.conf),
or run &man.xdm.1; at boot time (before the securelevel is
raised).See for more information about
running &man.xdm.1; at boot time.Why doesn't my mouse work with X?If you are using syscons (the default console driver),
you can configure FreeBSD to support a mouse pointer on each
virtual screen. In order to avoid conflicting with X, syscons
supports a virtual device called
/dev/sysmouse. All mouse events received
from the real mouse device are written to the sysmouse device
via moused. If you wish to use your mouse on one or more
virtual consoles, and use X, see
and set up
moused.Then edit /etc/XF86Config and make
sure you have the following lines.Section Pointer
Protocol "SysMouse"
Device "/dev/sysmouse"
.....The above example is for XFree86 3.3.2 or later. For
earlier versions, the Protocol should be
MouseSystems.Some people prefer to use /dev/mouse
under X. To make this work, /dev/mouse
should be linked to
/dev/sysmouse (see &man.sysmouse.4;):&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; rm -f mouse
&prompt.root; ln -s sysmouse mouseMy mouse has a fancy wheel. Can I use it in X?Yes. But you need to customize X client programs. See
Colas Nahaboo's web page
(http://www.inria.fr/koala/colas/mouse-wheel-scroll/)
.If you want to use the imwheel
program, just follow these simple steps.Translate the Wheel EventsThe imwheel program
works by translating mouse button 4 and mouse button 5
events into key events. Thus, you have to get the
mouse driver to translate mouse wheel events to button
4 and 5 events. There are two ways of doing this, the
first way is to have &man.moused.8; do the
translation. The second way is for the X server
itself to do the event translation.Using &man.moused.8; to Translate Wheel
EventsTo have &man.moused.8; perform the event
translations, simply add to
the command line used to start &man.moused.8;.
For example, if you normally start &man.moused.8;
via moused -p /dev/psm0 you
would start it by entering moused -p
/dev/psm0 -z 4 instead. If you start
&man.moused.8; automatically during bootup via
/etc/rc.conf, you can simply
add to the
moused_flags variable in
/etc/rc.conf.You now need to tell X that you have a 5
button mouse. To do this, simply add the line
Buttons 5 to the
Pointer section of
/etc/XF86Config. For
example, you might have the following
Pointer section in
/etc/XF86Config.Pointer Section for Wheeled
Mouse in XFree86 3.3.x series XF86Config with moused
TranslationSection "Pointer"
Protocol "SysMouse"
Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Buttons 5
EndSectionInputDevice Section for Wheeled
Mouse in XFree86 4.x series XF86Config with
automatic protocol recognition and button mapping
TranslationSection "InputDevice"
Identifier "Mouse1"
Driver "mouse"
Option "Protocol" "auto"
Option "Device" "/dev/psm0"
Option "Buttons" "5"
Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"
EndSection.emacs example for naive
page scrolling with Wheeled Mouse;; wheel mouse
(global-set-key [mouse-4] 'scroll-down)
(global-set-key [mouse-5] 'scroll-up)Using Your X Server to Translate the Wheel
EventsIf you are not running &man.moused.8;, or if
you do not want &man.moused.8; to translate your
wheel events, you can have the X server do the
event translation instead. This requires a couple
of modifications to your
/etc/XF86Config file. First,
you need to choose the proper protocol for your
mouse. Most wheeled mice use the
IntelliMouse protocol. However,
XFree86 does support other protocols, such as
MouseManPlusPS/2 for the Logitech
MouseMan+ mice. Once you have chosen the protocol
you will use, you need to add a
Protocol line to the
Pointer section.Secondly, you need to tell the X server to
remap wheel scroll events to mouse buttons 4 and
5. This is done with the
ZAxisMapping option.For example, if you are not using
&man.moused.8;, and you have an IntelliMouse
attached to the PS/2 mouse port you would use
the following in
/etc/XF86Config.Pointer Section for Wheeled
Mouse in XF86Config with X
Server TranslationSection "Pointer"
Protocol "IntelliMouse"
Device "/dev/psm0"
ZAxisMapping 4 5
EndSectionInstall imwheelNext, install imwheel
from the Ports collection. It can be found in the
x11 category. This program will
map the wheel events from your mouse into keyboard
events. For example, it might send Page
Up to a program when you scroll the wheel
forwards. Imwheel uses a
configuration file to map the wheel events to
keypresses so that it can send different keys to
different applications. The default
imwheel configuration file
is installed in
/usr/X11R6/etc/imwheelrc. You
can copy it to ~/.imwheelrc and
then edit it if you wish to customize
imwheel's configuration.
The format of the configuration file is documented in
&man.imwheel.1;.Configure Emacs to Work
with Imwheel
(optional)If you use emacs or
Xemacs, then you need to
add a small section to your
~/.emacs file. For
emacs, add the
following:Emacs Configuration
for Imwheel;;; For imwheel
(setq imwheel-scroll-interval 3)
(defun imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-down imwheel-scroll-interval))
(defun imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-up imwheel-scroll-interval))
(global-set-key [?\M-\C-\)] 'imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines)
(global-set-key [?\M-\C-\(] 'imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines)
;;; end imwheel sectionFor Xemacs, add the
following to your ~/.emacs file
instead:Xemacs Configuration
for Imwheel;;; For imwheel
(setq imwheel-scroll-interval 3)
(defun imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-down imwheel-scroll-interval))
(defun imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-up imwheel-scroll-interval))
(define-key global-map [(control meta \))] 'imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines)
(define-key global-map [(control meta \()] 'imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines)
;;; end imwheel sectionRun ImwheelYou can just type imwheel
in an xterm to start it up once it is installed. It
will background itself and take effect immediately.
If you want to always use
imwheel, simply add it to
your .xinitrc or
.xsession file. You can safely
ignore any warnings imwheel
displays about PID files. Those warnings only apply
to the Linux version of
imwheel.Why do X Window menus and dialog boxes not work right?Try turning off the Num Lock key.If your Num Lock key is on by default at boot-time, you
may add the following line in the Keyboard
section of the XF86Config file.# Let the server do the NumLock processing. This should only be
# required when using pre-R6 clients
ServerNumLockWhat is a virtual console and how do I make more?Virtual consoles, put simply, enable you to have several
simultaneous sessions on the same machine without doing anything
complicated like setting up a network or running X.When the system starts, it will display a login prompt on
the monitor after displaying all the boot messages. You can
then type in your login name and password and start working (or
playing!) on the first virtual console.At some point, you will probably wish to start another
session, perhaps to look at documentation for a program
you are running or to read your mail while waiting for an
FTP transfer to finish. Just do Alt-F2 (hold down the Alt
key and press the F2 key), and you will find a login prompt
waiting for you on the second virtual console!
When you want to go back to the original session, do
Alt-F1.The default FreeBSD installation has three virtual consoles
enabled (8 starting with 3.3-RELEASE), and Alt-F1, Alt-F2, and
Alt-F3 will switch between these virtual consoles.To enable more of them, edit
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;)
and add entries for ttyv4
to ttyvc after the comment on
Virtual terminals:# Edit the existing entry for ttyv3 in /etc/ttys and change
# "off" to "on".
ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv4 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv5 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv6 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv8 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv9 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyva "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secureUse as many or as few as you want. The more virtual
terminals you have, the more resources that are used; this
can be important if you have 8MB RAM or less. You may also
want to change the secure
to insecure.If you want to run an X server you
must leave at least one virtual
terminal unused (or turned off) for it to use. That is to
say that if you want to have a login prompt pop up for all
twelve of your Alt-function keys, you are out of luck - you
can only do this for eleven of them if you also want to run
an X server on the same machine.The easiest way to disable a console is by turning it off.
For example, if you had the full 12 terminal allocation
mentioned above and you wanted to run X, you would change
settings for virtual terminal 12 from:ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secureto:ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secureIf your keyboard has only ten function keys, you would
end up with:ttyv9 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
ttyva "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure(You could also just delete these lines.)Once you have edited
/etc/ttys, the next step is to make sure that you
have enough virtualterminal devices. The easiest way to do
this is:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV vty12Next, the easiest (and cleanest) way to activate the
virtual consoles is to reboot. However, if you really do not
want to reboot, you can just shut down the X Window system
and execute (as root):&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1It is imperative that you completely shut down X Window if
it is running, before running this command. If you don't,
your system will probably appear to hang/lock up after
executing the kill command.How do I access the virtual consoles from X?Use CtrlAltFn to switch back to a virtual console.
CtrlAltF1 would return you to the first virtual console.Once you are back to a text console, you can then use
AltFn as normal to move between them.To return to the X session, you must switch to the virtual
console running X. If you invoked X from the command line, (e.g.,
using startx) then the X session will attach to
the next unused virtual console, not the text console from which
it was invoked. If you have eight active virtual terminals then X
will be running on the ninth, and you would use
AltF9 to return.How do I start XDM on boot?There are two schools of thought on how to start
xdm. One school starts xdm from
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;)
using the supplied example, while the other simply runs xdm
from
rc.local (see &man.rc.8;)
or from a X.sh script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d. Both are equally
valid, and one may work in situations where the other does not.
In both cases the result is the same: X will popup a graphical
login: prompt.The ttys method has the advantage of documenting which
vty X will start on and passing the responsibility of
restarting the X server on logout to init. The rc.local
method makes it easy to kill xdm if there is a problem
starting the X server.If loaded from rc.local, xdm should
be started without any arguments (i.e., as a daemon). xdm must
start AFTER getty runs, or else getty and xdm will conflict,
locking out the console. The best way around this is to have
the script sleep 10 seconds or so then launch xdm.If you are to start xdm from
/etc/ttys, there still is a chance of
conflict between xdm and
&man.getty.8;. One way to avoid this is to add the
vt number in the
/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xservers
file.:0 local /usr/X11R6/bin/X vt4The above example will direct the X server to run in
/dev/ttyv3. Note the number is offset by
one. The X server counts the vty from one, whereas the FreeBSD
kernel numbers the vty from zero.Why do I get Couldn't open console
when I run xconsole?If you start X
with
startx, the permissions on
/dev/console will
not get changed, resulting in
things like
xterm -C and
xconsole not working.This is because of the way console permissions are set
by default. On a multi-user system, one does not necessarily
want just any user to be able to write on the system console.
For users who are logging directly onto a machine with a VTY,
the &man.fbtab.5;
file exists to solve such problems.In a nutshell, make sure an uncommented line of the
form/dev/ttyv0 0600 /dev/consoleis in
/etc/fbtab (see &man.fbtab.5;) and it will ensure that whomever logs in on
/dev/ttyv0 will own the console.Before, I was able to run XFree86 as a regular user. Why does
it now say that I must be root?All X servers need to be run as root in order to get direct
access to your video hardware. Older versions of XFree86
(<= 3.3.6) installed all bundled servers to be automatically
run as root (setuid to root). This is obviously a security
hazard because X servers are large, complicated programs.
Newer versions of XFree86 do not install the servers setuid to
root for just this reason.Obviously, running an X server as the root user is not
acceptable, nor a good idea security-wise. There are two ways
to be able to use X as a regular user. The first is to use
xdm or another display manager
(e.g., kdm); the second is to use the
Xwrapper.xdm is a daemon that handles graphical
logins. It is usually started at boot time, and is responsible
for authenticating users and starting their sessions; it is
essentially the graphical counterpart of
&man.getty.8; and &man.login.1;. For
more information on xdm see
the XFree86
documentation, and the the FAQ
entry on it.Xwrapper is the X server wrapper; it is
a small utility to enable one to manually run an X server while
maintaining reasonable safety. It performs some sanity checks
on the command line arguments given, and if they pass, runs the
appropriate X server. If you do not want to run a display
manger for whatever reason, this is for you. If you have
installed the complete ports collection, you can find the port in
/usr/ports/x11/wrapper.Why does my PS/2 mouse misbehave under X?Your mouse and the mouse driver may have somewhat become
out of synchronization.In versions 2.2.5 and earlier, switching away from X to a
virtual terminal and getting back to X again may make them
re-synchronized. If the problem occurs often, you may add the
following option in your kernel configuration file and
recompile it.options PSM_CHECKSYNCSee the section on building
a kernel if you have no experience with building
kernels.With this option, there should be less chance of
synchronization problem between the mouse and the driver.
If, however, you still see the problem, click any mouse
button while holding the mouse still to re-synchronize the
mouse and the driver.Note that unfortunately this option may not work with all
the systems and voids the tap feature of the
ALPS GlidePoint device attached to the PS/2 mouse port.In versions 2.2.6 and later, synchronization check is done
in a slightly better way and is standard in the PS/2 mouse
driver. It should even work with GlidePoint. (As the check code
has become a standard feature, PSM_CHECKSYNC option is not
available in these versions.) However, in rare case the driver
may erroneously report synchronization problem and you may see
the kernel message:psmintr: out of sync (xxxx != yyyy)and find your mouse does not seem to work properly.If this happens, disable the synchronization check code
by setting the driver flags for the PS/2 mouse driver to 0x100.
Enter UserConfig by giving the
option at the boot prompt:boot: -cThen, in the UserConfig command
line, type:UserConfig> flags psm0 0x100
UserConfig> quitHow come my PS/2 mouse from MouseSystems does not seem
to work?There have been some reports that certain model of PS/2
mouse from MouseSystems works only if it is put into the
high resolution mode. Otherwise, the mouse
cursor may jump to the upper-left corner of the screen every
so often.Unfortunately there is no workaround for versions 2.0.X
and 2.1.X. In versions 2.2 through 2.2.5, apply the following
patch to /sys/i386/isa/psm.c and rebuild
the kernel. See the section on building a kernel if you have no
experience with building kernels.@@ -766,6 +766,8 @@
if (verbose >= 2)
log(LOG_DEBUG, "psm%d: SET_DEFAULTS return code:%04x\n",
unit, i);
+ set_mouse_resolution(sc->kbdc, PSMD_RES_HIGH);
+
#if 0
set_mouse_scaling(sc->kbdc); /* 1:1 scaling */
set_mouse_mode(sc->kbdc); /* stream mode */In versions 2.2.6 or later, specify the flags 0x04 to
the PS/2 mouse driver to put the mouse into the high
resolution mode. Enter UserConfig by
giving the option at the boot prompt:boot: -cThen, in the UserConfig command line,
type:UserConfig> flags psm0 0x04
UserConfig> quitSee the previous section for another possible cause of mouse
problems.When building an X app, imake cannot
find Imake.tmpl. Where is it?Imake.tmpl is part of the Imake package, a standard X
application building tool. Imake.tmpl, as well as several
header files that are required to build X apps, is contained
in the X prog distribution. You can install this from sysinstall
or manually from the X distribution files.How do I reverse the mouse buttons?Run the command
xmodmap -e "pointer = 3 2 1" from your
.xinitrc or .xsession.How do I install a splash screen and where do I find
them?Just prior to the release of FreeBSD 3.1, a new feature
was added to allow the display of splash screens
during the boot messages. The splash screens currently must be
a 256 color bitmap (*.BMP) or ZSoft PCX
(*.PCX) file. In addition, they must have
a resolution of 320x200 or less to work on standard VGA
adapters. If you compile VESA support into your kernel, then
you can use larger bitmaps up to 1024x768. Note that VESA
support requires the VM86 kernel option to
be compiled into the kernel. The actual VESA support can either
be compiled directly into the kernel with the
VESA kernel config option or by loading the
VESA kld module during bootup.To use a splash screen, you need to modify the startup
files that control the boot process for FreeBSD. The files for
this changed prior to the release of FreeBSD 3.2, so there are
now two ways of loading a splash screen:FreeBSD 3.1The first step is to find a bitmap version of your
splash screen. Release 3.1 only supports Windows bitmap
splash screens. Once you have found your splash screen of
choice copy it to /boot/splash.bmp.
Next, you need to have a
/boot/loader.rc file that contains
the following lines:load kernel
load -t splash_image_data /boot/splash.bmp
load splash_bmp
autobootFreeBSD 3.2+In addition to adding support for PCX splash screens,
FreeBSD 3.2 includes a nicer way of configuring the boot
process. If you wish, you can use the method listed above
for FreeBSD 3.1. If you do and you want to use PCX,
replace splash_bmp with
splash_pcx. If, on the other hand, you
want to use the newer boot configuration, you need to
create a /boot/loader.rc file that
contains the following lines:include /boot/loader.4th
startand a /boot/loader.conf that
contains the following:splash_bmp_load="YES"
bitmap_load="YES"This assumes you are using
/boot/splash.bmp for your splash
screen. If you would rather use a PCX file, copy it to
/boot/splash.pcx, create a
/boot/loader.rc as instructed
above, and create a
/boot/loader.conf that
contains:splash_pcx_load="YES"
bitmap_load="YES"
bitmap_name="/boot/splash.pcx"Now all you need is a splash screen. For that you can
surf on over to the gallery at http://www.baldwin.cx/splash/.Can I use the Windows(tm) keys on my keyboard in X?Yes. All you need to do is use &man.xmodmap.1; to define
what function you wish them to perform.Assuming all Windows(tm) keyboards are
standard then the keycodes for the 3 keys are115 - Windows(tm) key, between the left-hand Ctrl and
Alt keys116 - Windows(tm) key, to the right of the Alt-Gr
key117 - Menu key, to the left of the right-hand Ctrl
keyTo have the left Windows(tm) key print a comma, try
this.&prompt.root; xmodmap -e "keycode 115 = comma"You will probably have to re-start your window manager
to see the result.To have the Windows(tm) key-mappings enabled automatically
every time you start X either put the xmodmap
commands in your ~/.xinitrc file or,
preferably, create a file ~/.xmodmaprc and
include the xmodmap options, one per line,
then add the linexmodmap $HOME/.xmodmaprcto your ~/.xinitrc.For example, you could map the 3 keys top be F13, F14, and
F15, respectively. This would make it easy to map them to
useful functions within applications or your window
manager, as demonstrated further down.To do this put the following in
~/.xmodmaprc.keycode 115 = F13
keycode 116 = F14
keycode 117 = F15If you use fvwm2, for example, you
could map the keys
so that F13 iconifies (or de-iconifies) the window the cursor
is in, F14 brings the window the cursor is in to the front or,
if it is already at the front, pushes it to the back, and F15
pops up the main Workplace (application) menu even if the
cursor is not on the desktop, which is useful if you do not have
any part of the desktop visible (and the logo on the key
matches its functionality).The following entries in
~/.fvwmrc implement the
aforementioned setup:Key F13 FTIWS A Iconify
Key F14 FTIWS A RaiseLower
Key F15 A A Menu Workplace NopNetworkingWhere can I get information on
diskless booting?Diskless booting means that the FreeBSD
box is booted over a network, and reads the necessary files
from a server instead of its hard disk. For full details,
please read the
Handbook entry on diskless bootingCan a FreeBSD box be used as a dedicated network
router?Internet standards and good engineering practice prohibit
us from providing packet forwarding by default in FreeBSD. You
can however enable this feature by changing the following
variable to YES in
&man.rc.conf.5;:gateway_enable=YES # Set to YES if this host will be a gatewayThis option will put the
&man.sysctl.8; variable
net.inet.ip.forwarding
to 1.In most cases, you will also need to run a routing process
to tell other systems on your network about your router;
FreeBSD comes with the standard BSD routing daemon
&man.routed.8;
or for more complex situations you may want to try
GaTeD (available from http://www.gated.org/)
which supports FreeBSD as of 3_5Alpha7.It is our duty to warn you that, even when FreeBSD is
configured in this way, it does not completely comply with
the Internet standard requirements for routers; however,
it comes close enough for ordinary usage.Can I connect my Win95 box to the Internet via
FreeBSD?Typically, people who ask this question have two PC's
at home, one with FreeBSD and one with Win95; the idea is to
use the FreeBSD box to connect to the Internet and then be able
to access the Internet from the Windows95 box through the
FreeBSD box. This is really just a special case of the previous
question.... and the answer is yes! In FreeBSD
3.x, user-mode ppp contains a option. If
you run ppp with the ,
set gateway_enable to
YES in /etc/rc.conf,
and configure your Windows machine correctly, this should work
fine.More detailed information about setting this up can be
found in the
Pedantic PPP Primer by Steve Sims.If you are using kernel-mode ppp, or have an Ethernet
connection to the Internet, you will have to use
&man.natd.8;. Please look at the
natd section of this FAQ.Why does recompiling the latest BIND from ISC fail?There is a conflict between the
cdefs.h file in the distribution and the
one shipped with FreeBSD. Just remove
compat/include/sys/cdefs.h.Does FreeBSD support SLIP and PPP?Yes. See the manual pages for &man.slattach.8;,
&man.sliplogin.8;, &man.ppp.8;, and &man.pppd.8;. &man.ppp.8;
and &man.pppd.8; provide support for both incoming and outgoing
connections, while &man.sliplogin.8; deals exclusively with
incoming connections, and &man.slattach.8; deals exclusively
with outgoing connections.For more information on how to use these, please see the
Handbook chapter on
PPP and SLIP.If you only have access to the Internet through a
shell account, you may want to have a look at
the
slirp package. It can provide you with (limited)
access to services such as ftp and http direct from your local
machine.Does FreeBSD support NAT or Masquerading?If you have a local subnet (one or more local machines),
but have been allocated only a single IP number from your
Internet provider (or even if you receive a dynamic IP number),
you may want to look at the &man.natd.8;
program. &man.natd.8; allows you to connect an
entire subnet to the Internet using only a single IP
number.The &man.ppp.8;
program has similar functionality built in via
the switch. The
alias library (&man.libalias.3;) is used in both cases.How do I connect two FreeBSD systems over a parallel line
using PLIP?Get a laplink cable. Make sure both computer have a kernel
with lpt driver support.&prompt.root; dmesg | grep lp
lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa
lpt0: Interrupt-driven
lp0: TCP/IP capable interfacePlug in the laplink cable into the parallel interface.Configure the network interface parameters for lp0 on both
sites as root. For example, if you want connect the host max
with moritz max <-----> moritz
IP Address 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2on max start&prompt.root; ifconfig lp0 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2on moritz start&prompt.root; ifconfig lp0 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.1Thats all! Please read also the manpages
&man.lp.4; and &man.lpt.4; .You should also add the hosts to
/etc/hosts.127.0.0.1 localhost.my.domain localhost
10.0.0.1 max.my.domain max
10.0.0.2 moritz.my.domainTo check if it works do:on max:&prompt.root; ifconfig lp0
lp0: flags=8851<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
inet 10.0.0.1 --> 10.0.0.2 netmask 0xff000000
&prompt.root; netstat -r
Routing tables
Internet:
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
moritz max UH 4 127592 lp0
&prompt.root; ping -c 4 moritz
PING moritz (10.0.0.2): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=0 ttl=255 time=2.774 ms
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=1 ttl=255 time=2.530 ms
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=2 ttl=255 time=2.556 ms
64 bytes from 10.0.0.2: icmp_seq=3 ttl=255 time=2.714 ms
--- moritz ping statistics ---
4 packets transmitted, 4 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 2.530/2.643/2.774/0.103 msHow come I cannot create a /dev/ed0
device?In the Berkeley networking framework, network interfaces
are only directly accessible by kernel code. Please see the
/etc/rc.network file and the manual pages
for the various network programs mentioned there for more
information. If this leaves you totally confused, then you
should pick up a book describing network administration on
another BSD-related operating system; with few significant
exceptions, administering networking on FreeBSD is basically
the same as on SunOS 4.0 or Ultrix.How can I setup Ethernet aliases?Add netmask 0xffffffff to your
&man.ifconfig.8; command-line like the following:&prompt.root; ifconfig ed0 alias 204.141.95.2 netmask 0xffffffffHow do I get my 3C503 to use the other network
port?If you want to use the other ports, you will have to specify
an additional parameter on the
&man.ifconfig.8; command line. The default port is
link0. To use the AUI port instead of the
BNC one, use link2. These flags should be
specified using the ifconfig_* variables in
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;).Why am I having trouble with NFS and FreeBSD?Certain PC network cards are better than others (to put
it mildly) and can sometimes cause problems with network
intensive applications like NFS.See
the Handbook entry on NFS for more information on
this topic.Why can't I NFS-mount from a Linux box?Some versions of the Linux NFS code only accept mount
requests from a privileged port; try&prompt.root; mount -o -P linuxbox:/blah /mntWhy can't I NFS-mount from a Sun box?Sun workstations running SunOS 4.X only accept mount
requests from a privileged port; try&prompt.root; mount -o -P sunbox:/blah /mntWhy does mountd keep telling me it
can't change attributes and that I have a
bad exports list on my FreeBSD NFS
server?The most frequent problem is not understanding this
passage from the &man.exports.5; manual page
correctly:
Each line in the file (other than comment
lines that begin with a #) specifies the mount point(s)
and export flags within one local server filesystem for
one or more hosts. A host may be specified only once
for each local filesystem on the server and there may be
only one default entry for each server filesystem that
applies to all other hosts.
This is made more clear by an example of a common
mistake. If everything above /usr is
part of one filesystem (there are no mounts above
/usr) the following exports list is
not valid:/usr/src client
/usr/ports clientThere are two lines specifying properties for one
filesystem, /usr, exported to the
same host, client. The correct format
is:/usr/src /usr/ports clientTo rephrase the passage from the manual page, the
properties of one filesystem exported to a given host
(world-wide exports are treated like another unique host)
must all occur on one line. And yes, this does cause
limitation in how you can export filesystems without ugly
workarounds, but for most people, this is not an
issue.The following is an example of a valid export list,
where /usr and
/exports are local
filesystems:# Export src and ports to client01 and client02, but only
# client01 has root privileges on it
/usr/src /usr/ports -maproot=0 client01
/usr/src /usr/ports client02
# The "client" machines have root and can mount anywhere
# up /exports. The world can mount /exports/obj read-only
/exports -alldirs -maproot=0 client01 client02
/exports/obj -roWhy am I having problems talking PPP to NeXTStep
machines?Try disabling the TCP extensions in
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;) by changing the following variable to
NO:tcp_extensions=NOXylogic's Annex boxes are also broken in this regard and
you must use the above change to connect thru them.How do I enable IP multicast support?Multicast host operations are fully supported in FreeBSD
2.0 and later by default. If you want your box to run as a
multicast router, you will need to recompile your kernel with
the MROUTING option and run
&man.mrouted.8;. FreeBSD 2.2 and later will start
&man.mrouted.8; at boot time if the flag
mrouted_enable is set to
"YES" in
/etc/rc.conf.MBONE tools are available in their own ports category,
mbone. If you are looking for the conference tools
vic and vat,
look there!For more information, see the Mbone Information Web.Which network cards are based on the DEC PCI
chipset?Here is a list compiled by Glen Foster
gfoster@driver.nsta.org,
with some more modern additions:
Network cards based on the DEC PCI chipsetVendorModelASUSPCI-L101-TBAcctonENI1203CogentEM960PCICompexENET32-PCID-LinkDE-530DaynaDP1203, DP2100DECDE435, DE450DanpexEN-9400P3JCISCondor JC1260LinksysEtherPCIMylexLNP101SMCEtherPower 10/100 (Model 9332)SMCEtherPower (Model 8432)TopWareTE-3500PZnyx (2.2.x)ZX312, ZX314, ZX342, ZX345, ZX346, ZX348Znyx (3.x)ZX345Q, ZX346Q, ZX348Q, ZX412Q, ZX414, ZX442, ZX444,
ZX474, ZX478, ZX212, ZX214 (10mbps/hd)
Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my
site?You will probably find that the host is actually in a
- different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and
+ different domain; for example, if you are in foo.example.org and
you wish to reach a host called mumble in the
- bar.edu domain, you will
+ example.org domain, you will
have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just
+ role="fqdn">mumble.example.org, instead of just
mumble.Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers.
However the current version of
bind (see &man.named.8;)
that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default
abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than
the domain you are in. So an unqualified host
mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched
+ role="fqdn">mumble.foo.example.org, or it will be searched
for in the root domain.This is different from the previous behavior, where the
search continued across
- mumble.bar.edu, and
+ mumble.example.org, and
mumble.edu. Have a look at
RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a
security hole.As a good workaround, you can place the line
- search foo.bar.edu bar.edu
+ search foo.example.org example.orginstead of the previous
- domain foo.bar.edu
+ domain foo.example.orginto your
/etc/resolv.conf file (see &man.resolv.conf.5;). However, make sure that the
search order does not go beyond the boundary between
local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls
it.Why do I get an error, Permission denied,
for all networking operations?If you have compiled your kernel with the
IPFIREWALL option, you need to be aware
that the default policy as of 2.1.7R (this actually changed
during 2.1-STABLE development) is to deny all packets that are
not explicitly allowed.If you had unintentionally misconfigured your system for
firewalling, you can restore network operability by typing
the following while logged in as root:&prompt.root; ipfw add 65534 allow all from any to anyYou can also set firewall_type="open"
in /etc/rc.conf.For further information on configuring a FreeBSD firewall,
see the
Handbook section.How much overhead does IPFW incur?The answer to this depends mostly on your rule set and
processor speed. For most applications dealing with Ethernet
and small rule sets, the answer is, negligible. For those of
you that need actual measurements to satisfy your curiosity,
read on.The following measurements were made using 2.2.5-STABLE
on a 486-66. IPFW was modified to measure the time spent
within the ip_fw_chk routine, displaying
the results to the console every 1000 packets.Two rule sets, each with 1000 rules were tested. The
first set was designed to demonstrate a worst case scenario
by repeating the rule:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to any 55555This demonstrates worst case by causing most of IPFW's
packet check routine to be executed before finally deciding
that the packet does not match the rule (by virtue of the port
number). Following the 999th iteration of this rule was an
allow ip from any to any.The second set of rules were designed to abort the rule
check quickly:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny ip from 1.2.3.4 to 1.2.3.4The nonmatching source IP address for the above rule causes
these rules to be skipped very quickly. As before, the 1000th
rule was an allow ip from any to any.The per-packet processing overhead in the former case was
approximately 2.703ms/packet, or roughly 2.7 microseconds per
rule. Thus the theoretical packet processing limit with these
rules is around 370 packets per second. Assuming 10Mbps
Ethernet and a ~1500 byte packet size, we would only be able to
achieve a 55.5% bandwidth utilization.For the latter case each packet was processed in
approximately 1.172ms, or roughly 1.2 microseconds per rule.
The theoretical packet processing limit here would be about
853 packets per second, which could consume 10Mbps Ethernet
bandwidth.The excessive number of rules tested and the nature of
those rules do not provide a real-world scenario -- they were
used only to generate the timing information presented here.
Here are a few things to keep in mind when building an
efficient rule set:Place an established rule early
on to handle the majority of TCP traffic. Do not put any
allow tcp statements before this
rule.Place heavily triggered rules earlier in the rule
set than those rarely used (without
changing the permissiveness of the firewall,
of course). You can see which rules are used most often
by examining the packet counting statistics with
ipfw -a l.Why is my ipfwfwd rule
to redirect a service to another machine not working?Possibly because you want to do network address translation
(NAT) and not just forward packets. A fwd rule
does exactly what it says; it forwards packets. It does not
actually change the data inside the packet. Say we have a rule
like:01000 fwd 10.0.0.1 from any to foo 21When a packet with a destination address of
foo arrives at the machine with this
rule, the packet is forwarded to
10.0.0.1, but it still has the
destination address of foo! The
destination address of the packet is not
changed to 10.0.0.1. Most machines
would probably drop a packet that they receive with a
destination address that is not their own. Therefore, using a
fwd rule does not often work the way the user
expects. This behavior is a feature and not a bug.See the FAQ about
redirecting services, the &man.natd.8; manual, or one of
the several port redirecting utilities in the ports collection for a correct way to do
this.How can I redirect service requests from one machine to
another?You can redirect FTP (and other service) request with
the socket package, available in the ports
tree in category sysutils. Simply replace the
service's commandline to call socket instead, like so:
- ftp stream tcp nowait nobody /usr/local/bin/socket socket ftp.foo.comftp
+ ftp stream tcp nowait nobody /usr/local/bin/socket socket ftp.example.comftp
- where ftp.foo.com and
+ where ftp.example.com and
ftp are the host and port to
redirect to, respectively.Where can I get a bandwidth management tool?There are three bandwidth management tools available for
FreeBSD. &man.dummynet.4; is integreated into FreeBSD (or more
specifically, &man.ipfw.4;); ALTQ
is available for free; Bandwidth Manager from Emerging Technologies is a
commercial product.BIND (named) is listening on port 53 and
some other high-numbered port. Has my host been
compromised?Probably not. FreeBSD 3.0 and later use a version of BIND
that uses a random high-numbered port for outgoing queries. If
you want to use port 53 for outgoing queries, either to get
past a firewall or to make yourself feel better, you can try
the following in
/etc/namedb/named.conf:options {
query-source address * port 53;
};You can replace the * with a single IP
address if you want to tighten things further.Congratulations, by the way. It is good practice to read
your &man.sockstat.1; output and notice odd
things!Why do I get /dev/bpf0: device not
configured?The Berkeley Packet Filter (&man.bpf.4;)
driver needs to be enabled before running programs that
utilize it. Add this to your kernel config file and build
a new kernel:pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley Packet FilterSecondly, after rebooting you will have to create the
device node. This can be accomplished by a change to the
/dev directory, followed by the execution
of:&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV bpf0Please see the
handbook's entry on device nodes for more information
on creating devices.How do I mount a disk from a Windows machine that is on my
network, like smbmount in Linux?Use the sharity light
package in the ports collection.What are these messages about icmp-response
bandwidth limit 300/200 pps in my log
files?This is the kernel telling you that some activity is
provoking it to send more ICMP or TCP reset (RST)
responses than it thinks it should. ICMP responses are
often generated as a result of attempted connections to
unused UDP ports. TCP resets are generated as a result of
attempted connections to unopened TCP ports. Among
others, these are the kinds of activities which may cause
these messages:Brute-force denial of service (DoS) attacks (as
opposed to single-packet attacks which exploit a
specific vulnerability).Port scans which attempt to connect to a large
number of ports (as opposed to only trying a few
well-known ports).The first number in the message tells you how many
packets the kernel would have sent if the limit was not in
place, and the second number tells you the limit. You can
control the limit using the
net.inet.icmp.icmplim sysctl variable
like this, where 300 is the limit in
packets per second:&prompt.root; sysctl -w net.inet.icmp.icmplim=300If you do not want to see messages about this in your
log files, but you still want the kernel to do response
limiting, you can use the
net.inet.icmp.icmplim_output sysctl
variable to disable the output like this:&prompt.root; sysctl -w net.inet.icmp.icmplim_output=0Finally, if you want to disable response limiting, you
can set the net.inet.icmp.icmplim
sysctl variable (see above for an example) to
0. Disabling response limiting is
discouraged for the reasons listed above.PPPI cannot make &man.ppp.8; work. What am I doing wrong?You should first read the
&man.ppp.8;
man page and the
ppp section of the handbook. Enable logging with
the commandset log Phase Chat Connect Carrier lcp ipcp ccp commandThis command may be typed at the
ppp command prompt or it may be
entered in the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf
configuration file (the start of the
default section is the best
place to put it). Make sure that
/etc/syslog.conf (see &man.syslog.conf.5;) contains the lines!ppp
*.* /var/log/ppp.logand that the file /var/log/ppp.log
exists. You can now find out a lot about what is going on
from the log file. Do not worry if it does not all make sense.
If you need to get help from someone, it may make sense to
them.If your version of ppp does not understand the
set log command, you should download the
latest version. It will build on FreeBSD version
2.1.5 and higher.Why does &man.ppp.8; hang when I run it?This is usually because your hostname will not resolve.
The best way to fix this is to make sure that
/etc/hosts is consulted by your
resolver first by editing /etc/host.conf
and putting the hosts line first. Then,
simply put an entry in /etc/hosts for
your local machine. If you have no local network, change your
localhost line:127.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo localhostOtherwise, simply add another entry for your host.
Consult the relevant man pages for more details.You should be able to successfully
ping -c1 `hostname` when you are done.Why won't &man.ppp.8; dial in -auto
mode?First, check that you have got a default route. By running
netstat -rn (see &man.netstat.1;), you should see two entries like this:Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default 10.0.0.2 UGSc 0 0 tun0
10.0.0.2 10.0.0.1 UH 0 0 tun0This is assuming that you have used the addresses from the
handbook, the man page or from the ppp.conf.sample file.
If you haven't got a default route, it may be because you are
running an old version of &man.ppp.8;
that does not understand the word HISADDR
in the ppp.conf file. If your version of
ppp is from before FreeBSD
2.2.5, change theadd 0 0 HISADDRline to one sayingadd 0 0 10.0.0.2Another reason for the default route line being missing
is that you have mistakenly set up a default router in your
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;) file (this file was called
/etc/sysconfig prior to release 2.2.2),
and you have omitted the line sayingdelete ALLfrom ppp.conf. If this is the case,
go back to the
Final system configuration section of the
handbook.What does No route to host mean?This error is usually due to a missingMYADDR:
delete ALL
add 0 0 HISADDRsection in your /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup
file. This is only necessary if you have a dynamic IP address
or do not know the address of your gateway. If you are using
interactive mode, you can type the following after entering
packet mode (packet mode is
indicated by the capitalized PPP in the
prompt):delete ALL
add 0 0 HISADDRRefer to the
PPP and Dynamic IP addresses section of the handbook
for further details.Why does my connection drop after about 3 minutes?The default ppp timeout is 3 minutes. This can be
adjusted with the lineset timeout NNNwhere NNN is the number of
seconds of inactivity before the connection is closed. If
NNN is zero, the connection is never
closed due to a timeout. It is possible to put this command in
the ppp.conf file, or to type it at the
prompt in interactive mode. It is also possible to adjust it on
the fly while the line is active by connecting to
ppps server socket using
&man.telnet.1; or &man.pppctl.8;.
Refer to the
&man.ppp.8; man
page for further details.Why does my connection drop under heavy load?If you have Link Quality Reporting (LQR) configured,
it is possible that too many LQR packets are lost between
your machine and the peer. Ppp deduces that the line must
therefore be bad, and disconnects. Prior to FreeBSD version
2.2.5, LQR was enabled by default. It is now disabled by
default. LQR can be disabled with the linedisable lqrWhy does my connection drop after a random amount of
time?Sometimes, on a noisy phone line or even on a line with
call waiting enabled, your modem may hang up because it
thinks (incorrectly) that it lost carrier.There is a setting on most modems for determining how
tolerant it should be to temporary losses of carrier. On a
USR Sportster for example, this is measured by the S10
register in tenths of a second. To make your modem more
forgiving, you could add the following send-expect sequence
to your dial string:set dial "...... ATS10=10 OK ......"Refer to your modem manual for details.Why does my connection hang after a random amount of
time?Many people experience hung connections with no apparent
explanation. The first thing to establish is which side of
the link is hung.If you are using an external modem, you can simply try
using &man.ping.8; to see if the
TD light is flashing when you transmit data.
If it flashes (and the RD light does not),
the problem is with the remote end. If TD
does not flash, the problem is local. With an internal modem,
you will need to use the set server command in
your ppp.conf file. When the hang occurs,
connect to ppp using pppctl. If your network connection
suddenly revives (ppp was revived due to the activity on the
diagnostic socket) or if you cannot connect (assuming the
set socket command succeeded at startup
time), the problem is local. If you can connect and things are
still hung, enable local async logging with set log
local async and use &man.ping.8; from
another window or terminal to make use of the link. The async
logging will show you the data being transmitted and received
on the link. If data is going out and not coming back, the
problem is remote.Having established whether the problem is local or remote,
you now have two possibilities:The remote end is not responding. What can I do?There is very little you can do about this. Most ISPs
will refuse to help if you are not running a Microsoft OS.
You can enable lqr in your
ppp.conf file, allowing ppp to detect
the remote failure and hang up, but this detection is
relatively slow and therefore not that useful. You may want to
avoid telling your ISP that you are running user-ppp....First, try disabling all local compression by adding the
following to your configuration:disable pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vj
deny pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vjThen reconnect to ensure that this makes no difference.
If things improve or if the problem is solved completely,
determine which setting makes the difference through trial
and error. This will provide good ammunition when you contact
your ISP (although it may make it apparent that you are not
running a Microsoft product).Before contacting your ISP, enable async logging locally
and wait until the connection hangs again. This may use up
quite a bit of disk space. The last data read from the port
may be of interest. It is usually ascii data, and may even
describe the problem
(Memory fault, core dumped?).If your ISP is helpful, they should be able to enable
logging on their end, then when the next link drop occurs,
they may be able to tell you why their side is having a
problem. Feel free to send the details to &a.brian;, or
even to ask your ISP to contact me directly.&man.ppp.8; has hung. What can I do?Your best bet here is to rebuild ppp by adding
CFLAGS+=-g and STRIP=
to the end of the Makefile, then doing a
make clean && make && make
install. When ppp hangs, find the ppp process id
with ps ajxww | fgrep ppp and run
gdb ppp PID.
From the gdb prompt, you can then use bt
to get a stack trace.Send the results to brian@Awfulhak.org.Why does nothing happen after the Login OK!
message?Prior to FreeBSD version 2.2.5, once the link was
established, &man.ppp.8;
would wait for the peer to initiate the Line Control Protocol
(LCP). Many ISPs will not initiate negotiations and expect
the client to do so. To force
ppp to initiate the LCP, use the
following line:set openmode activeIt usually does no
harm if both sides initiate negotiation, so openmode is now
active by default. However, the next section explains when
it does do some harm.I keep seeing errors about magic being the same. What does
it mean?Occasionally, just after connecting, you may see messages
in the log that say magic is the same.
Sometimes, these messages are harmless, and sometimes one side
or the other exits. Most ppp implementations cannot survive
this problem, and even if the link seems to come up, you will see
repeated configure requests and configure acknowledgments in
the log file until ppp eventually gives up and closes the
connection.This normally happens on server machines with slow disks
that are spawning a getty on the port, and executing ppp from
a login script or program after login. I have also heard reports
of it happening consistently when using slirp. The reason is
that in the time taken between getty exiting and ppp starting,
the client-side ppp starts sending Line Control Protocol (LCP)
packets. Because ECHO is still switched on for the port on
the server, the client ppp sees these packets
reflect back.One part of the LCP negotiation is to establish a magic
number for each side of the link so that
reflections can be detected. The protocol says
that when the peer tries to negotiate the same magic number, a
NAK should be sent and a new magic number should be chosen.
During the period that the server port has ECHO turned on, the
client ppp sends LCP packets, sees the same magic in the
reflected packet and NAKs it. It also sees the NAK reflect
(which also means ppp must change its magic). This produces a
potentially enormous number of magic number changes, all of
which are happily piling into the server's tty buffer. As soon
as ppp starts on the server, it is flooded with magic number
changes and almost immediately decides it has tried enough to
negotiate LCP and gives up. Meanwhile, the client, who no
longer sees the reflections, becomes happy just in time to see
a hangup from the server.This can be avoided by allowing the peer to start
negotiating with the following line in your ppp.conf
file:set openmode passiveThis tells ppp to wait for the server to initiate LCP
negotiations. Some servers however may never initiate
negotiations. If this is the case, you can do something
like:set openmode active 3This tells ppp to be passive for 3 seconds, and then to
start sending LCP requests. If the peer starts sending
requests during this period, ppp will immediately respond
rather than waiting for the full 3 second period.LCP negotiations continue 'till the connection is
closed. What is wrong?There is currently an implementation mis-feature in
ppp where it does not associate
LCP, CCP & IPCP responses with their original requests. As
a result, if one ppp
implementation is more than 6 seconds slower than the other
side, the other side will send two additional LCP configuration
requests. This is fatal.Consider two implementations,
A and
B. A starts
sending LCP requests immediately after connecting and
B takes 7 seconds to start. When
B starts, A
has sent 3 LCP REQs. We are assuming the line has ECHO switched
off, otherwise we would see magic number problems as described in
the previous section. B sends a
REQ, then an ACK to the first of
A's REQs. This results in
A entering the OPENED
state and sending and ACK (the first) back to
B. In the meantime,
B sends back two more ACKs in response to
the two additional REQs sent by A
before B started up.
B then receives the first ACK from
A and enters the
OPENED state.
A receives the second ACK from
B and goes back to the
REQ-SENT state, sending another (forth) REQ
as per the RFC. It then receives the third ACK and enters the
OPENED state. In the meantime,
B receives the forth REQ from
A, resulting in it reverting to the
ACK-SENT state and sending
another (second) REQ and (forth) ACK as per the RFC.
A gets the REQ, goes into
REQ-SENT and sends another REQ. It
immediately receives the following ACK and enters
OPENED.This goes on 'till one side figures out that they are
getting nowhere and gives up.The best way to avoid this is to configure one side to be
passive - that is, make one side
wait for the other to start negotiating. This can be done
with theset openmode passivecommand. Care should be taken with this option. You
should also use theset stopped Ncommand to limit the amount of time that
ppp waits for the peer to begin
negotiations. Alternatively, theset openmode active Ncommand (where N is the
number of seconds to wait before starting negotiations) can be
used. Check the manual page for details.Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up shortly after connection?Prior to version 2.2.5 of FreeBSD, it was possible that
your link was disabled shortly after connection due to
ppp mis-handling Predictor1
compression negotiation. This would only happen if both sides
tried to negotiate different Compression Control Protocols
(CCP). This problem is now corrected, but if you are still
running an old version of ppp,
the problem can be circumvented with the linedisable pred1Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up when I shell out to test it?When you execute the shell or
! command, ppp executes a
shell (or if you have passed any arguments,
ppp will execute those arguments). Ppp will
wait for the command to complete before continuing. If you
attempt to use the ppp link while running the command, the link
will appear to have frozen. This is because
ppp is waiting for the command to
complete.If you wish to execute commands like this, use the
!bg command instead. This will execute
the given command in the background, and ppp can continue to
service the link.How come &man.ppp.8; over a null-modem cable never exits?There is no way for ppp to
automatically determine that a direct connection has been
dropped. This is due to the lines that are used in a
null-modem serial cable. When using this sort of connection,
LQR should always be enabled with the lineenable lqrLQR is accepted by default if negotiated by the peer.Why does &man.ppp.8; dial for no reason in -auto mode?If ppp is dialing
unexpectedly, you must determine the cause, and set up Dial
filters (dfilters) to prevent such dialing.To determine the cause, use the following line:set log +tcp/ipThis will log all traffic through the connection. The
next time the line comes up unexpectedly, you will see the
reason logged with a convenient timestamp next to it.You can now disable dialing under these circumstances.
Usually, this sort of problem arises due to DNS lookups. To
prevent DNS lookups from establishing a connection (this will
not prevent
ppp from passing the packets
through an established connection), use the following:set dfilter 1 deny udp src eq 53
set dfilter 2 deny udp dst eq 53
set dfilter 3 permit 0/0 0/0This is not always suitable, as it will effectively break
your demand-dial capabilities - most programs will need a DNS
lookup before doing any other network related things.In the DNS case, you should try to determine what is
actually trying to resolve a host name. A lot of the time,
&man.sendmail.8; is the culprit. You should make sure that
you tell sendmail not to do any DNS lookups in its
configuration file. See the section on
Mail Configuration for details
on how to create your own configuration file and what should
go into it. You may also want to add the following line to
your .mc file:define(`confDELIVERY_MODE', `d')dnlThis will make sendmail queue everything until the queue
is run (usually, sendmail is invoked with
, telling it to run the queue every
30 minutes) or until a sendmail -q is done
(perhaps from your ppp.linkup file).What do these CCP errors mean?I keep seeing the following errors in my log file:CCP: CcpSendConfigReq
CCP: Received Terminate Ack (1) state = Req-Sent (6)This is because ppp is trying to negotiate Predictor1
compression, and the peer does not want to negotiate any
compression at all. The messages are harmless, but if you
wish to remove them, you can disable Predictor1 compression
locally too:disable pred1Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up during file transfers with IO
errors?Under FreeBSD 2.2.2 and before, there was a bug in the
tun driver that prevents incoming packets of a size larger
than the tun interface's MTU size. Receipt of a packet
greater than the MTU size results in an IO error being logged
via syslogd.The ppp specification says that an MRU of 1500 should
always be accepted as a minimum,
despite any LCP negotiations, therefore it is possible that
should you decrease the MTU to less than 1500, your ISP will
transmit packets of 1500 regardless, and you will tickle this
non-feature - locking up your link.The problem can be circumvented by never setting an MTU of
less than 1500 under FreeBSD 2.2.2 or before.Why doesn't &man.ppp.8; log my connection speed?In order to log all lines of your modem
conversation, you must enable the
following:set log +connectThis will make &man.ppp.8; log
everything up until the last requested expect
string.If you wish to see your connect speed and are using PAP
or CHAP (and therefore do not have anything to
chat after the CONNECT in the dial script - no
set login script), you must make sure that
you instruct ppp to expect the whole CONNECT
line, something like this:set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 4 \
\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK ATDT\\T TIMEOUT 60 CONNECT \\c \\n"Here, we get our CONNECT, send nothing, then expect a
line-feed, forcing ppp to read
the whole CONNECT response.Why does &man.ppp.8; ignore the \ character
in my chat script?Ppp parses each line in your config files so that it can
interpret strings such as
set phone "123 456 789" correctly (and
realize that the number is actually only
one argument. In order to specify
a " character, you must escape it using a
backslash (\).When the chat interpreter parses each argument, it
re-interprets the argument in order to find any special
escape sequences such as \P or
\T (see the man page). As a result of this
double-parsing, you must remember to use the correct number of
escapes.If you wish to actually send a \
character to (say) your modem, you would need something
like:set dial "\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK AT\\\\X OK"resulting in the following sequence:ATZ
OK
AT\X
OKorset phone 1234567
set dial "\"\" ATZ OK ATDT\\T"resulting in the following sequence:ATZ
OK
ATDT1234567Why does &man.ppp.8; get a seg-fault, but I see no
ppp.core file?Ppp (or any other program for that matter) should never
dump core. Because ppp runs with an effective user id of 0,
the operating system will not write ppp's core image to disk
before terminating it. If, however ppp
is actually terminating due to a
segmentation violation or some other signal that normally
causes core to be dumped, and
you are sure you are using the latest version (see the start of
this section), then you should do the following:&prompt.user; tar xfz ppp-*.src.tar.gz
&prompt.user; cd ppp*/ppp
&prompt.user; echo STRIP= >>Makefile
&prompt.user; echo CFLAGS+=-g >>Makefile
&prompt.user; make clean all
&prompt.user; su
&prompt.root; make install
&prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/sbin/pppYou will now have a debuggable version of ppp installed.
You will have to be root to run ppp as all of its privileges
have been revoked. When you start ppp, take a careful note
of what your current directory was at the time.Now, if and when ppp receives the segmentation violation,
it will dump a core file called ppp.core. You should then do
the following:&prompt.user; su
&prompt.root; gdb /usr/sbin/ppp ppp.core(gdb)bt
.....
(gdb)f 0
....
(gdb)i args
....
(gdb)l
.....All of this information should be given alongside your
question, making it possible to diagnose the problem.If you are familiar with gdb, you may wish to find out some
other bits and pieces such as what actually caused the dump and
the addresses & values of the relevant variables.Why does the process that forces a dial in auto mode never
connect?This was a known problem with
ppp set up to negotiate a
dynamic local IP number with the peer in auto mode. It is
fixed in the latest version - search the man page for
iface.The problem was that when that initial program calls
&man.connect.2;, the IP number of the tun interface is assigned
to the socket endpoint. The kernel creates the first outgoing
packet and writes it to the tun device.
ppp then reads the packet and
establishes a connection. If, as a result of
ppp's dynamic IP assignment, the
interface address is changed, the original socket endpoint will
be invalid. Any subsequent packets sent to the peer will
usually be dropped. Even if they are not, any responses will
not route back to the originating machine as the IP number is
no longer owned by that machine.There are several theoretical ways to approach this
problem. It would be nicest if the peer would re-assign the
same IP number if possible :-)
The current version of ppp does
this, but most other implementations do not.The easiest method from our side would be to never change
the tun interface IP number, but instead to change all outgoing
packets so that the source IP number is changed from the
interface IP to the negotiated IP on the fly. This is
essentially what the iface-alias option in
the latest version of ppp is
doing (with the help of
&man.libalias.3; and ppp's switch) -
it is maintaining all previous interface addresses and NATing
them to the last negotiated address.Another alternative (and probably the most reliable) would
be to implement a system call that changes all bound sockets
from one IP to another. ppp would
use this call to modify the sockets of all existing programs
when a new IP number is negotiated. The same system call could
be used by dhcp clients when they are forced to re-bind() their
sockets.Yet another possibility is to allow an interface to be
brought up without an IP number. Outgoing packets would be
given an IP number of 255.255.255.255 up until the first
SIOCAIFADDR ioctl is done. This would result in fully binding
the socket. It would be up to ppp
to change the source IP number, but only if it is set to
255.255.255.255, and only the IP number and IP checksum would
need to change. This, however is a bit of a hack as the kernel
would be sending bad packets to an improperly configured
interface, on the assumption that some other mechanism is
capable of fixing things retrospectively.Why don't most games work with the -nat switch?The reason games and the like do not work when libalias
is in use is that the machine on the outside will try to open a
connection or send (unsolicited) UDP packets to the machine on
the inside. The NAT software does not know that it should send
these packets to the interior machine.To make things work, make sure that the only thing
running is the software that you are having problems with, then
either run tcpdump on the tun interface of the gateway or
enable ppp tcp/ip logging (set log +tcp/ip)
on the gateway.When you start the offending software, you should see
packets passing through the gateway machine. When something
comes back from the outside, it will be dropped (that is the
problem). Note the port number of these packets then shut down
the offending software. Do this a few times to see if the port
numbers are consistent. If they are, then the following line in
the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf will make the
software functional:nat port protointernalmachine:portportwhere proto is either
tcp or udp,
internalmachine is the machine that
you want the packets to be sent to and
port is the destination port number
of the packets.You will not be able to use the software on other machines
without changing the above command, and running the software
on two internal machines at the same time is out of the question
- after all, the outside world is seeing your entire internal
network as being just a single machine.If the port numbers are not consistent, there are three
more options:Submit support in
libalias. Examples of special cases can be found
in /usr/src/lib/libalias/alias_*.c
(alias_ftp.c is a good prototype). This
usually involves reading certain recognised outgoing packets,
identifying the instruction that tells the outside machine to
initiate a connection back to the internal machine on a
specific (random) port and setting up a route in
the alias table so that the subsequent packets know where to
go.This is the most difficult solution, but it is the best
and will make the software work with multiple machines.Use a proxy. The
application may support socks5 for example, or (as in the
cvsup case) may have a passive
option that avoids ever requesting that the peer open
connections back to the local machine.Redirect everything to
the internal machine using nat addr. This
is the sledge-hammer approach.Has anybody made a list of useful port numbers?Not yet, but this is intended to grow into such a list
(if any interest is shown). In each example,
internal should be replaced with
the IP number of the machine playing the game.Asheron's Callnat port udp
internal
:65000 65000Manually change the port number within the game to
65000. If you have got a number of machines that you wish
to play on assign a unique port number for each (i.e.
65001, 65002, etc) and add a nat port
line for each one.Half Lifenat port udp
internal:27005
27015PCAnywhere 8.0nat port udp
internal:5632
5632nat port tcp
internal:5631
5631Quakenat port udp
internal:6112
6112Alternatively, you may want to take a look at
www.battle.net for Quake proxy support.Quake 2nat port udp
internal:27901
27910nat port udp
internal:60021
60021nat port udp
internal:60040
60040Red Alertnat port udp
internal:8675
8675nat port udp
internal:5009
5009What are FCS errors?FCS stands for Frame
Check
Sequence. Each ppp packet
has a checksum attached to ensure that the data being
received is the data being sent. If the FCS of an incoming
packet is incorrect, the packet is dropped and the HDLC FCS
count is increased. The HDLC error values can be displayed
using the show hdlc command.If your link is bad (or if your serial driver is dropping
packets), you will see the occasional FCS error. This is not
usually worth worrying about although it does slow down the
compression protocols substantially. If you have an external
modem, make sure your cable is properly shielded from
interference - this may eradicate the problem.If your link freezes as soon as you have connected and you
see a large number of FCS errors, this may be because your link
is not 8 bit clean. Make sure your modem is not using software
flow control (XON/XOFF). If your datalink
must use software flow control, use the
command set accmap 0x000a0000 to tell
ppp to escape the ^Q and
^S characters.Another reason for seeing too many FCS errors may be that
the remote end has stopped talking PPP. You
may want to enable async logging at this
point to determine if the incoming data is actually a login or
shell prompt. If you have a shell prompt at the remote end,
it is possible to terminate ppp without dropping the line by
using the close lcp command (a following
term command will reconnect you to the shell
on the remote machine.If nothing in your log file indicates why the link might
have been terminated, you should ask the remote administrator
(your ISP?) why the session was terminated.Why do MacOS and Windows 98 connections freeze when
running PPPoE on the gateway?Thanks to Michael Wozniak
mwozniak@netcom.ca for figuring this out and
Dan Flemming danflemming@mac.com for the Mac
solution:This is due to what is called a Black Hole
router. MacOS and Windows 98 (and maybe other Microsoft OSs)
send TCP packets with a requested segment size too big to fit
into a PPPoE frame (MTU is 1500 by default for Ethernet)
and have the do not
fragment bit set (default of TCP) and the Telco router
is not sending ICMP must fragment back to the
www site you are trying to load. (Alternatively, the router is
sending the ICMP packet correctly, but the firewall at the www
site is dropping it.) When the www server is sending
you frames that do not fit into the PPPoE pipe the Telco router
drops them on the floor and your page does not load (some
pages/graphics do as they are smaller than a MSS.) This seems
to be the default of most Telco PPPoE configurations (if only
they knew how to program a router... sigh...)One fix is to use regedit on your 95/98 boxes to add the
following registry entry...HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Services\Class\NetTrans\0000\MaxMTUIt should be a string with a value 1436, as
some ADSL routers are reported to be unable to deal with packets
larger than this. This registry key has been changed to
Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\ID for adapter\MTU
in Windows 2000 and becomes a DWORD.Refer to the Microsoft Knowledge Base documents Q158474
- Windows TCPIP Registry Entries and Q120642
- TCPIP & NBT Configuration Parameters for Windows
NT for more information on changing Windows MTU to
work with a NAT router.Another regedit possibility under Windows 2000 is to
set the
Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\ID for
adapter\EnablePMTUBHDetect DWORD
to 1 as mentioned in the Microsoft document 120642
mentioned above.Unfortunately, MacOS does not provide an interface for
changing TCP/IP settings. However, there is commercial software
available, such as OTAdvancedTuner (OT for OpenTransport, the
MacOS TCP/IP stack) by Sustainable Softworks,
that will allow users to customize TCP/IP settings. MacOS NAT
users should select ip_interface_MTU from
the drop-down menu, enter 1450 instead of
1500 in the box, click the box next to
Save as Auto Configure, and click
Make Active.The latest version of ppp
(2.3 or greater) has an enable tcpmssfixup
command that will automatically adjust the MSS to an appropriate
value. This facility is enabled by default. If you are stuck
with an older version of ppp, you
may want to look at the tcpmssd
port.None of this helps - I am desperate! What can I do?If all else fails, send as much information as you can,
including your config files, how you are starting
ppp, the relevant parts of your
log file and the output of the netstat -rn
command (before and after connecting) to the &a.questions; or
the
comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc news group, and someone
should point you in the right direction.Serial CommunicationsThis section answers common questions about serial
communications with FreeBSD. PPP and SLIP are covered in the
section.How do I tell if FreeBSD found my serial ports?As the FreeBSD kernel boots, it will probe for the serial
ports in your system for which the kernel was configured.
You can either watch your system closely for the messages it
prints or run the command&prompt.user; dmesg | grep sioafter your system is up and running.Here is some example output from the above command:sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa
sio1: type 16550AThis shows two serial ports. The first is on irq 4, is
using port address 0x3f8, and has a
16550A-type UART chip. The second uses the same kind of chip
but is on irq 3 and is at port address 0x2f8.
Internal modem cards are treated just like serial ports---except
that they always have a modem attached to the
port.The GENERIC kernel includes support
for two serial ports using the same irq and port address
settings in the above example. If these settings are not
right for your system, or if you've added modem cards or have
more serial ports than your kernel is configured for, just
reconfigure your kernel. See section
about building a kernel for
more details.How do I tell if FreeBSD found my modem cards?Refer to the answer to the previous question.I just upgraded to 2.0.5 and my
tty0X
are missing! How do I solve this problem?Do not worry, they have been merged with the
ttydX devices. You will have to change
any old configuration files you have, though.How do I access the serial ports on FreeBSD?The third serial port,
sio2
(see &man.sio.4;, known as COM3 in DOS), is on /dev/cuaa2
for dial-out devices, and on /dev/ttyd2
for dial-in devices. What is the difference between these two
classes of devices?You use ttydX for dial-ins. When
opening /dev/ttydX in blocking mode, a
process will wait for the corresponding
cuaaX device to become inactive, and then
wait for the carrier detect line to go active. When you open
the cuaaX device, it makes sure the serial
port is not already in use by the ttydX
device. If the port is available, it steals it
from the ttydX device. Also, the
cuaaX device does not care about carrier
detect. With this scheme and an auto-answer modem, you can have
remote users log in and you can still dialout with the same
modem and the system will take care of all the
conflicts.How do I enable support for a multiport serial
card?Again, the section on kernel configuration provides
information about configuring your kernel. For a multiport
serial card, place an &man.sio.4; line
for each serial port on the card in the kernel configuration
file. But place the irq and vector specifiers on only one of
the entries. All of the ports on the card should share one irq.
For consistency, use the last serial port to specify the irq.
Also, specify the COM_MULTIPORT
option.The following example is for an AST 4-port serial card on
irq 7:options "COM_MULTIPORT"
device sio4 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty flags 0x781
device sio5 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x781
device sio6 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x781
device sio7 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x781 irq 7 vector siointrThe flags indicate that the master port has minor number 7
(0x700), diagnostics enabled during probe
(0x080), and all the ports share an irq
(0x001).Can FreeBSD handle multiport serial cards sharing
irqs?Not yet. You will have to use a different irq for each
card.Can I set the default serial parameters for a
port?The ttydX (or
cuaaX) device is the regular device
you will want to open for your applications. When a process
opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O
settings. You can see these settings with the command&prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1When you change the settings to this device, the settings
are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened,
it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the
default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the
initial state device. For example, to turn on
CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and
XON/XOFF flow control by default for
ttyd5, do:&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoffA good place to do this is in
/etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will
have these settings by default when it opens
ttyd5. It can still change these settings
to its liking, though.You can also prevent certain settings from being changed
by an application by making adjustments to the
lock state device. For example, to lock the
speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600Now, an application that opens ttyd5
and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with
57600 bps.Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state
devices writable only by root. The
&man.MAKEDEV.8;
script does NOT do this when it creates the
device entries.How can I enable dialup logins on my modem?So you want to become an Internet service provider, eh?
First, you will need one or more modems that can auto-answer.
Your modem will need to assert carrier-detect when it detects a
carrier and not assert it all the time. It will need to hang up
the phone and reset itself when the data terminal ready
(DTR) line goes from on to off. It should
probably use RTS/CTS flow control or no
local flow control at all. Finally, it must use a constant
speed between the computer and itself, but (to be nice to your
callers) it should negotiate a speed between itself and the
remote modem.For many Hayes command-set--compatible modems, this
command will make these settings and store them in
nonvolatile memory:AT &C1 &D3 &K3 &Q6 S0=1 &WSee the section on sending AT
commands below for information on how to make these
settings without resorting to an MS-DOS terminal program.Next, make an entry in
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;) for the modem. This file lists all the ports
on which the operating system will await logins. Add a line
that looks something like this:ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.57600" dialup on insecureThis line indicates that the second serial port
(/dev/ttyd1) has a modem connected
running at 57600 bps and no parity
(std.57600, which comes from the file
/etc/gettytab, see &man.gettytab.5;).
The terminal type for this port is dialup.
The port is on and is
insecure---meaning root logins on the port
are not allowed. For dialin ports like this one, use the
ttydX entry.It is common practice to use dialup as
the terminal type. Many users set up in their .profile or
.login files a prompt for the actual terminal type if the
starting type is dialup. The example shows the port as
insecure. To become root on this port, you have to login as a
regular user, then &man.su.1; to become
root. If you use secure
then root can login in directly.After making modifications to
/etc/ttys, you need to send a hangup or
HUP signal to the
&man.init.8; process:&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1This forces the &man.init.8; process to reread
/etc/ttys. The init process will then start getty
processes on all on ports. You can find
out if logins are available for your port by typing&prompt.user; ps -ax | grep '[t]tyd1'You should see something like:747 ?? I 0:00.04 /usr/libexec/getty std.57600 ttyd1How can I connect a dumb terminal to my FreeBSD
box?If you are using another computer as a terminal into your
FreeBSD system, get a null modem cable to go between the two
serial ports. If you are using an actual terminal, see its
accompanying instructions.Then, modify
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;), like above. For example, if you are
hooking up a WYSE-50 terminal to the fifth serial port,
use an entry like this:ttyd4 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wyse50 on secureThis example shows that the port on
/dev/ttyd4 has a wyse50 terminal
connected at 38400 bps with no parity
(std.38400 from
/etc/gettytab, see &man.gettytab.5;) and root logins are
allowed (secure).Why can't I run tip or
cu?On your system, the programs &man.tip.1;
and &man.cu.1;
are probably executable only by
uucp
and group dialer. You can use the group
dialer to control who has access to your
modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group
dialer.Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system
run &man.tip.1; and &man.cu.1; by
typing:&prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/cu
&prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tipMy stock Hayes modem is not supported---what
can I do?Actually, the man page for &man.tip.1; is
out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in.
Just use at=hayes in your
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;) file.The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of
the advanced features of newer modems---messages like
BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or
CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You
should turn those messages off when you use &man.tip.1;
(using ATX0&W).Also, the dial timeout for &man.tip.1; is 60
seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip
will think there is a communication problem. Try
ATS7=45&W.Actually, as shipped &man.tip.1; does not yet
support it fully. The solution is to edit the file
tipconf.h in the directory
/usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip. Obviously you
need the source distribution to do this.Edit the line #define HAYES 0
to #define HAYES 1. Then
make and make install.
Everything works nicely after that.How am I expected to enter these AT commands?Make what is called a direct entry in your
/etc/remote file (see &man.remote.5;). For example, if your modem is hooked
up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0,
then put in the following line:cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=noneUse the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br
capability. Then, type
tip cuaa0 (see &man.tip.1;)
and you will be connected to your modem.If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your
system, do this:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0Or use cu as root with the following command:&prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeedwith line being the serial port (e.g.
/dev/cuaa0) and speed being the speed
(e.g.57600). When you are done entering
the AT commands hit ~. to exit.How come the <@> sign for the pn
capability does not work?The <@> sign in the phone number
capability tells tip to look in
/etc/phones for a phone number. But the
<@> sign is also a special character
in capability files like /etc/remote.
Escape it with a backslash:pn=\@How can I dial a phone number on the command
line?Put what is called a generic entry in your
/etc/remote file (see &man.remote.5;). For example:tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:Then you can do something like tip -115200
5551234. If you prefer &man.cu.1;
over
&man.tip.1;, use a generic cu entry:cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:and type cu 5551234 -s 115200.Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do
that?Put in an entry for tip1200 or
cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps
rate is appropriate with the br capability.
&man.tip.1;
thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for
a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200
bps, though.How can I more easily access a number of hosts through a
terminal server?Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing
CONNECT host
each time, use tip's cm capability. For
example, these entries in
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;):pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:will let you type tip pain or
tip muffin to connect to the hosts
pain or muffin; and
tip deep13 to get to the terminal
server.Can tip try more than one line for each site?This is often a problem where a university has several
modem lines and several thousand students trying to use
them...Make an entry for your university in
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;) and use <\@> for
the pn capability:big-university:\
:pn=\@:tc=dialout
dialout:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:Then, list the phone numbers for the university in
/etc/phones (see &man.phones.5;):big-university 5551111
big-university 5551112
big-university 5551113
big-university 5551114&man.tip.1;
will try each one in the listed order, then give
up. If you want to keep retrying, run &man.tip.1;
in a while loop.Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P
once?CTRL+P is the default force character,
used to tell &man.tip.1;
that the next character is literal data. You can set the
force character to any other character with the
~s escape, which means set a
variable.Type ~sforce=single-char
followed by a newline.
single-char is any single character.
If you leave out single-char,
then the force character is the nul character, which you can
get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for
single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which
I have seen only used on some terminal servers.You can have the force character be whatever you want by
specifying the following in your
$HOME/.tiprc file:force=single-charWhy is everything I type suddenly in UPPER CASE?You must have pressed CTRL+A, &man.tip.1;
raise character, specially
designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use
~s as above and set the variable
raisechar to something reasonable. In fact,
you can set it to the same as the force character, if you
never expect to use either of these features.Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who
need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot:force=^^
raisechar=^^The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6.How can I do file transfers with
tip?If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send
and receive files with ~p (put) and
~t (take). These commands run
&man.cat.1; and
&man.echo.1; on the remote system to accept and send files.
The syntax is:~p <local-file> [<remote-file>]
~t <remote-file> [<local-file>]There is no error checking, so you probably should use
another protocol, like zmodem.How can I run zmodem with
tip?First, install one of the zmodem programs from the
ports collection (such as one of the two from the comms
category, lrzsz or
rzsz.To receive files, start the sending program on the
remote end. Then, press enter and type
~C rz (or ~C lrz if you
installed lrzsz) to begin
receiving them locally.To send files, start the receiving program on the remote
end. Then, press enter and type
~C sz files
(or ~C lsz files)
to send them to the remote system.How come FreeBSD cannot seem to find my serial ports, even
when the settings are correct?Motherboards and cards with Acer UARTs do not probe
properly under the FreeBSD sio probe. Obtain a patch from
www.lemis.com to fix your problem.Miscellaneous QuestionsFreeBSD uses far more swap space than Linux. Why?FreeBSD only appears to use more swap than Linux. In
actual fact, it does not. The main difference between FreeBSD
and Linux in this regard is that FreeBSD will proactively move
entirely idle, unused pages of main memory into swap in order
to make more main memory available for active use. Linux tends
to only move pages to swap as a last resort. The perceived
heavier use of swap is balanced by the more efficient use of
main memory.Note that while FreeBSD is proactive in this regard, it
does not arbitrarily decide to swap pages when the system is
truly idle. Thus you will not find your system all paged
out when you get up in the morning after leaving it idle
overnight.Why does top show very little free memory even
when I have very few programs running?The simple answer is that free memory is wasted
memory. Any memory that your programs do not actively
allocate is used within the FreeBSD kernel as disk
cache. The values shown by &man.top.1; labelled as
Inact, Cache, and
Buf are all cached data at different
aging levels. This cached data means the system does
not have to access a slow disk again for data it has
accessed recently, thus increasing overall performance.
In general, a low value shown for Free
memory in &man.top.1; is good, provided it is not
very low.Why use (what are) a.out and ELF executable
formats?To understand why FreeBSD uses the
ELF format, you must first know a little
about the 3 currently dominant executable
formats for Unix:Prior to FreeBSD 3.x, FreeBSD used the a.out
format.&man.a.out.5;The oldest and classic unix object
format. It uses a short and compact header with a magic
number at the beginning that is often used to
characterize the format (see
&man.a.out.5; for more details). It contains three
loaded segments: .text, .data, and .bss plus a symbol
table and a string table.COFFThe SVR3 object format. The header now comprises
a section table, so you can have more than just .text,
.data, and .bss sections.ELFThe successor to COFF, featuring
Multiple sections and 32-bit or 64-bit possible values.
One major drawback: ELF was also
designed with the assumption that there would be only
one ABI per system architecture. That assumption is
actually quite incorrect, and not even in the
commercial SYSV world (which has at least three ABIs:
SVR4, Solaris, SCO) does it hold true.FreeBSD tries to work around this problem somewhat
by providing a utility for branding
a known ELF executable with
information about the ABI it is compliant with. See the
man page for &man.brandelf.1;
for more information.FreeBSD comes from the classic camp and has
traditionally used the &man.a.out.5;
format, a technology tried and proven through
many generations of BSD releases. Though it has also been
possible for some time to build and run native
ELF binaries (and kernels) on a FreeBSD
system, FreeBSD initially resisted the push to
switch to ELF as the default format. Why?
Well, when the Linux camp made their painful transition to
ELF, it was not so much to flee the
a.out executable format as it was their
inflexible jump-table based shared library mechanism, which
made the construction of shared libraries very difficult for
vendors and developers alike. Since the ELF
tools available offered a solution to the shared library
problem and were generally seen as the way
forward anyway, the migration cost was accepted as
necessary and the transition made.In FreeBSD's case, our shared library mechanism is based
more closely on Sun's SunOS-style
shared library mechanism and, as such, is very easy to use.
However, starting with 3.0, FreeBSD officially supports
ELF binaries as the default format. Even
though the a.out executable format has
served us well, the GNU people, who author the compiler tools
we use, have dropped support for the a.out
format. This has forced us to maintain a divergent version of
the compiler and linker, and has kept us from reaping the
benefits of the latest GNU development efforts. Also the
demands of ISO-C++, notably constructors and destructors, has
also led to native ELF support in future
FreeBSD releases.Yes, but why are there so many different formats?Back in the dim, dark past, there was simple hardware.
This simple hardware supported a simple, small system. a.out
was completely adequate for the job of representing binaries on
this simple system (a PDP-11). As people ported Unix from this
simple system, they retained the a.out format because it was
sufficient for the early ports of Unix to architectures like
the Motorola 68k, VAXen, etc.Then some bright hardware engineer decided that if he
could force software to do some sleazy tricks, then he would be
able to shave a few gates off the design and allow his CPU core
to run faster. While it was made to work with this new kind of
hardware (known these days as RISC), a.out
was ill-suited for this hardware, so many formats were
developed to get to a better performance from this hardware
than the limited, simple a.out format
could offer. Things like COFF,
ECOFF, and a few obscure others were
invented and their limitations explored before things seemed to
settle on ELF.In addition, program sizes were getting huge and disks
(and physical memory) were still relatively small so the
concept of a shared library was born. The VM system also became
more sophisticated. While each one of these advancements was
done using the a.out format, its
usefulness was stretched more and more with each new feature.
In addition, people wanted to dynamically load things at run
time, or to junk parts of their program after the init code had
run to save in core memory and/or swap space. Languages became
more sophisticated and people wanted code called before main
automatically. Lots of hacks were done to the
a.out format to allow all of these things
to happen, and they basically worked for a time. In time,
a.out was not up to handling all these
problems without an ever increasing overhead in code and
complexity. While ELF solved many of these
problems, it would be painful to switch from the system that
basically worked. So ELF had to wait until
it was more painful to remain with a.out
than it was to migrate to ELF.However, as time passed, the build tools that FreeBSD
derived their build tools from (the assembler and loader
especially) evolved in two parallel trees. The FreeBSD tree
added shared libraries and fixed some bugs. The GNU folks that
originally write these programs rewrote them and added simpler
support for building cross compilers, plugging in different
formats at will, etc. Since many people wanted to build cross
compilers targeting FreeBSD, they were out of luck since the
older sources that FreeBSD had for as and ld were not up to the
task. The new gnu tools chain (binutils) does support cross
compiling, ELF, shared libraries, C++
extensions, etc. In addition, many vendors are releasing
ELF binaries, and it is a good thing for
FreeBSD to run them. And if it is running
ELF binaries, why bother having
a.out any more? It is a tired old horse
that has proven useful for a long time, but it is time to turn
him out to pasture for his long, faithful years of
service.ELF is more expressive than a.out and
will allow more extensibility in the base system. The
ELF tools are better maintained, and offer
cross compilation support, which is important to many people.
ELF may be a little slower than a.out, but
trying to measure it can be difficult. There are also numerous
details that are different between the two in how they map
pages, handle init code, etc. None of these are very important,
but they are differences. In time support for
a.out will be moved out of the GENERIC
kernel, and eventually removed from the kernel once the need to
run legacy a.out programs is past.Why won't chmod change the permissions on symlinks?Symlinks do not have permissions, and by default,
&man.chmod.1; will not follow symlinks to change the
permissions on the target file. So if you have a file,
foo, and a symlink to that file,
bar, then this command will always
succeed.&prompt.user; chmod g-w barHowever, the permissions on foo will
not have changed.You have to use either or
together with the
option to make this work. See the
&man.chmod.1; and &man.symlink.7;
man pages for more info.The option does a
RECURSIVE
&man.chmod.1;. Be careful about
specifying directories or symlinks to directories to
&man.chmod.1;. If you want to
change the permissions of a directory referenced by a
symlink, use &man.chmod.1;
without any options and follow the symlink
with a trailing slash (/). For
example, if foo is a symlink to
directory bar, and you want to change
the permissions of foo (actually
bar), you would do something
like:&prompt.user; chmod 555 foo/With the trailing slash, &man.chmod.1;
will follow the symlink,
foo, to change the permissions of the
directory, bar.Why are login names still
restricted to 8 characters?You would think it would be easy enough to change
UT_NAMESIZE and rebuild the whole world,
and everything would just work. Unfortunately there are often
scads of applications and utilities (including system tools)
that have hard-coded small numbers (not always
8 or 9, but oddball ones
like 15 and 20) in
structures and buffers. Not only will this get you log files
which are trashed (due to variable-length records getting
written when fixed records were expected), but it can break
Suns NIS clients and potentially cause other problems in
interacting with other Unix systems.In FreeBSD 3.0 and later, the maximum name length has
been increased to 16 characters and those various utilities
with hard-coded name sizes have been found and fixed. The fact
that this touched so many areas of the system is why, in fact,
the change was not made until 3.0.If you are absolutely confident in your ability to find
and fix these sorts of problems for yourself when and if they
pop up, you can increase the login name length in earlier
releases by editing /usr/include/utmp.h and changing
UT_NAMESIZE accordingly. You must also update MAXLOGNAME in
/usr/include/sys/param.h to match the UT_NAMESIZE change.
Finally, if you build from sources, do not forget that
/usr/include is updated each time! Change the appropriate files
in /usr/src/.. instead.Can I run DOS binaries under FreeBSD?Yes, starting with version 3.0 you can using BSDI's
doscmd DOS emulation which has
been integrated and enhanced. Send mail to the &a.emulation;
if you are interested in joining this ongoing effort!For pre-3.0 systems, there is a neat utility called
pcemu in the ports collection which emulates an 8088
and enough BIOS services to run DOS text mode applications.
It requires the X Window System (provided as XFree86).What do I need to do to translate a FreeBSD document into
my native language?See the
Translation FAQ in the FreeBSD Documentation Project
Primer.Where can I find a free FreeBSD account?While FreeBSD does not provide open access to any of their
servers, others do provide open access Unix systems. The
charge varies and limited services may be available.Arbornet,
Inc, also known as M-Net, has been providing open
access to Unix systems since 1983. Starting on an Altos
running System III, the site switched to BSD/OS in 1991. In
June of 2000, the site switched again to FreeBSD. M-Net can be
accessed via telnet and SSH and provides basic access to the
entire FreeBSD software suite. However, network access is
limited to members and patrons who donate to the system, which
is run as a non-profit organization. M-Net also provides an
bulletin board system and interactive chat.Grex provides a
site very similar to M-Net including the same bulletin board
and interactive chat software. However, the machine is a Sun
4M and is running SunOSWhat is sup, and how do I use
it?
SUP stands for Software Update Protocol, and was
developed by CMU for keeping their development trees in sync.
We used it to keep remote sites in sync with our central
development sources.SUP is not bandwidth friendly, and has been retired.
The current recommended method to keep your sources up to
date is
Handbook entry on CVSupHow cool is FreeBSD?Q. Has anyone done any temperature testing while
running FreeBSD? I know Linux runs cooler than dos, but have
never seen a mention of FreeBSD. It seems to run really
hot.A. No, but we have done numerous taste tests on
blindfolded volunteers who have also had 250 micrograms of
LSD-25 administered beforehand. 35% of the volunteers said that
FreeBSD tasted sort of orange, whereas Linux tasted like purple
haze. Neither group mentioned any significant variances in
temperature. We eventually had to throw the
results of this survey out entirely anyway when we found that
too many volunteers were wandering out of the room during the
tests, thus skewing the results. We think most of the volunteers
are at Apple now, working on their new scratch and
sniff GUI. It's a funny old business we're in!Seriously, both FreeBSD and Linux use the
HLT (halt) instruction when the system is
idle thus lowering its energy consumption and therefore the
heat it generates. Also if you have APM (advanced power
management) configured, then FreeBSD can also put the CPU into
a low power mode.Who is scratching in my memory banks??Q. Is there anything odd that FreeBSD
does when compiling the kernel which would cause the memory to
make a scratchy sound? When compiling (and for a brief moment
after recognizing the floppy drive upon startup, as well), a
strange scratchy sound emanates from what appears to be the
memory banks.A. Yes! You will see frequent references to
daemons in the BSD documentation, and what most
people do not know is that this refers to genuine, non-corporeal
entities that now possess your computer. The scratchy sound
coming from your memory is actually high-pitched whispering
exchanged among the daemons as they best decide how to deal
with various system administration tasks.If the noise gets to you, a good
fdisk /mbr from DOS will get rid of them,
but do not be surprised if they react adversely and try to stop
you. In fact, if at any point during the exercise you hear the
satanic voice of Bill Gates coming from the built-in speaker,
take off running and don't ever look back! Freed from the
counterbalancing influence of the BSD daemons, the twin demons
of DOS and Windows are often able to re-assert total control
over your machine to the eternal damnation of your soul.
Now that you know, given a choice you would probably prefer to get
used to the scratchy noises, no?What does MFC mean?MFC is an acronym for Merged From -CURRENT.
It is used in the CVS logs to denote when a change was
migrated from the CURRENT to the STABLE branches.What does BSD mean?It stands for something in a secret language that only
members can know. It does not translate literally but its ok
to tell you that BSD's translation is something between,
Formula-1 Racing Team, Penguins are
tasty snacks, and We have a better sense of
humor than Linux. :-)Seriously, BSD is an acronym for Berkeley
Software Distribution, which is the name the
Berkeley CSRG (Computer Systems Research
Group) chose for their Unix distribution way back when.What is a repo-copy?A repo-copy (which is a short form of repository
copy) refers to the direct copying of files within
the CVS repository.Without a repo-copy, if a file needed to be copied or
moved to another place in the repository, the committer would
run cvs add to put the file in its new
location, and then cvs rm on the old file
if the old copy was being removed.The disadvantage of this method is that the history
(i.e. the entries in the CVS logs) of the file would not be
copied to the new location. As the FreeBSD Project considers
this history very useful, a repository copy is often used
instead. This is a process where one of the repository meisters
will copy the files directly within the repository, rather than
using the &man.cvs.1; program.Why should I care what color the bikeshed is?The really, really short answer is that you should not.
The somewhat longer answer is that just because you are
capable of building a bikeshed doesn't mean you should stop
others from building one just because you don't like the
color they plan to paint it. This is a metaphor indicating
that you need not argue about every little feature just
because you know enough to do so. Some people have
commented that the amount of noise generated by a change is
inversely proportional to the complexity of the
change.The longer and more complete answer is that after a very
long argument about whether &man.sleep.1; should take
fractional second arguments, &a.phk; posted a long
message entitled A bike
shed (any colour will do) on greener grass....
The appropriate portions of that message are quoted
below.
&a.phk; on freebsd-hackers, October
2, 1999What is it about this bike shed? Some
of you have asked me.It is a long story, or rather it is an old story, but
it is quite short actually. C. Northcote Parkinson wrote
a book in the early 1960'ies, called Parkinson's
Law, which contains a lot of insight into the
dynamics of management.[snip a bit of commentary on the book]In the specific example involving the bike shed, the
other vital component is an atomic power-plant, I guess
that illustrates the age of the book.Parkinson shows how you can go in to the board of
directors and get approval for building a multi-million or
even billion dollar atomic power plant, but if you want to
build a bike shed you will be tangled up in endless
discussions.Parkinson explains that this is because an atomic
plant is so vast, so expensive and so complicated that
people cannot grasp it, and rather than try, they fall
back on the assumption that somebody else checked all the
details before it got this far. Richard P. Feynmann
gives a couple of interesting, and very much to the point,
examples relating to Los Alamos in his books.A bike shed on the other hand. Anyone can build one
of those over a weekend, and still have time to watch the
game on TV. So no matter how well prepared, no matter how
reasonable you are with your proposal, somebody will seize
the chance to show that he is doing his job, that he is
paying attention, that he is
here.In Denmark we call it setting your
fingerprint. It is about personal pride and
prestige, it is about being able to point somewhere and
say There! I did that.
It is a strong trait in politicians, but present in most
people given the chance. Just think about footsteps in
wet cement.
How many FreeBSD hackers does it take to change a
lightbulb?One thousand, one hundred and seventy-two:Twenty-three to complain to -CURRENT about the lights
being out;Four to claim that it is a configuration problem, and
that such matters really belong on -questions;Three to submit PRs about it, one of which is misfiled
under doc and consists only of "it's dark";One to commit an untested lightbulb which breaks
buildworld, then back it out five minutes later;Eight to flame the PR originators for not including
patches in their PRs;Five to complain about buildworld being broken;Thirty-one to answer that it works for them, and they
must have cvsupped at a bad time;One to post a patch for a new lightbulb to -hackers;One to complain that he had patches for this three years
ago, but when he sent them to -CURRENT they were just ignored,
and he has had bad experiences with the PR system; besides,
the proposed new lightbulb is non-reflexive;Thirty-seven to scream that lightbulbs do not belong in
the base system, that committers have no right to do things
like this without consulting the Community, and WHAT IS
-CORE DOING ABOUT IT!?Two hundred to complain about the color of the bicycle
shed;Three to point out that the patch breaks &man.style.9;;Seventeen to complain that the proposed new lightbulb is
under GPL;Five hundred and eighty-six to engage in a flame war
about the comparative advantages of the GPL, the BSD
license, the MIT license, the NPL, and the personal hygiene
of unnamed FSF founders;Seven to move various portions of the thread to -chat
and -advocacy;One to commit the suggested lightbulb, even though it
shines dimmer than the old one;Two to back it out with a furious flame of a commit
message, arguing that FreeBSD is better off in the dark than
with a dim lightbulb;Forty-six to argue vociferously about the backing out
of the dim lightbulb and demanding a statement from
-core;Eleven to request a smaller lightbulb so it will fit
their Tamagotchi if we ever decide to port FreeBSD to that
platform;Seventy-three to complain about the SNR on -hackers and
-chat and unsubscribe in protest;Thirteen to post "unsubscribe", "How do I unsubscribe?",
or "Please remove me from the list", followed by the usual
footer;One to commit a working lightbulb while everybody is too
busy flaming everybody else to notice;Thirty-one to point out that the new lightbulb would shine
0.364% brighter if compiled with TenDRA (although it will have
to be reshaped into a cube), and that FreeBSD should therefore
switch to TenDRA instead of EGCS;One to complain that the new lightbulb lacks
fairings;Nine (including the PR originators) to ask
"what is MFC?";Fifty-seven to complain about the lights being out two
weeks after the bulb has been changed.&a.nik; adds:I was laughing quite hard at
this.And then I thought,
"Hang on, shouldn't there be '1 to document it.' in that list somewhere?"And then I was enlightened :-)This entry is Copyright (c) 1999 &a.des;.
Please do not reproduce without attribution.Advanced TopicsWhat are SNAPs and RELEASEs?There are currently three active/semi-active branches
in the FreeBSD
CVS Repository (the RELENG_2 branch is probably
only changed twice a year, which is why there are only three
active branches of development):RELENG_2_2 AKA
2.2-STABLERELENG_3 AKA
3.X-STABLERELENG_4 AKA
4-STABLEHEAD AKA
-CURRENT AKA
5.0-CURRENTHEAD is not an actual branch tag,
like the other two; it is simply a symbolic constant for
the current, non-branched development
stream which we simply refer to as
-CURRENT.Right now, -CURRENT is the 5.0 development
stream and the 4-STABLE branch,
RELENG_4, forked off from
-CURRENT in Mar 2000.The 2.2-STABLE branch,
RELENG_2_2, departed -CURRENT in November
1996, and has pretty much been retired.How do I make my own custom release?To make a release you need to do three things: First,
you need to be running a kernel with the
&man.vn.4;
driver configured in. Add this to your kernel config file
and build a new kernel:pseudo-device vn #Vnode driver (turns a file into a device)Second, you have to have the whole CVS repository at
hand. To get this you can use CVSUP but in
your supfile set the release name to cvs and remove any tag or
date fields:*default prefix=/home/ncvs
*default base=/a
*default host=cvsup.FreeBSD.org
*default release=cvs
*default delete compress use-rel-suffix
## Main Source Tree
src-all
src-eBones
src-secure
# Other stuff
ports-all
www
doc-allThen run cvsup -g supfile to suck all
the good bits onto your box...Finally, you need a chunk of empty space to build into.
Let's say it is in /some/big/filesystem,
and from the example above you have got the CVS repository in
/home/ncvs:&prompt.root; setenv CVSROOT /home/ncvs # or export CVSROOT=/home/ncvs
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
&prompt.root; make buildworld
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/release
&prompt.root; make release BUILDNAME=3.0-MY-SNAP CHROOTDIR=/some/big/filesystem/releasePlease note that you do not
need to build world if you already have a populated
/usr/obj.An entire release will be built in
/some/big/filesystem/release and you
will have a full FTP-type installation in
/some/big/filesystem/release/R/ftp when
you are done. If you want to build your SNAP along some other
branch than -CURRENT, you can also add
RELEASETAG=SOMETAG to the make release
command line above, e.g. RELEASETAG=RELENG_2_2
would build an up-to-the- minute 2.2-STABLE snapshot.How do I create customized installation disks?The entire process of creating installation disks and
source and binary archives is automated by various targets in
/usr/src/release/Makefile. The information
there should be enough to get you started. However, it should
be said that this involves doing a make
world and will therefore take up a lot of time and
disk space.Why does make world clobber my existing
installed binaries?Yes, this is the general idea; as its name might suggest,
make world rebuilds every system binary from
scratch, so you can be certain of having a clean and consistent
environment at the end (which is why it takes so long).If the environment variable DESTDIR
is defined while running make world or
make install, the newly-created binaries
will be deposited in a directory tree identical to the
installed one, rooted at ${DESTDIR}.
Some random combination of shared libraries modifications and
program rebuilds can cause this to fail in make
world however.How come when my system boots, it says (bus speed
defaulted)?The Adaptec 1542 SCSI host adapters allow the user to
configure their bus access speed in software. Previous versions
of the 1542 driver tried to determine the fastest usable speed
and set the adapter to that. We found that this breaks some
users' systems, so you now have to define the
TUNE_1542 kernel configuration option in order
to have this take place. Using it on those systems where it
works may make your disks run faster, but on those systems
where it does not, your data could be corrupted.Can I follow current with limited Internet access?Yes, you can do this without
downloading the whole source tree by using the CTM facility.How did you split the distribution into 240k files?Newer BSD based systems have a
option to split that allows them to split files on arbitrary
byte boundaries.Here is an example from
/usr/src/Makefile.bin-tarball:
(cd ${DISTDIR}; \
tar cf - . \
gzip --no-name -9 -c | \
split -b 240640 - \
${RELEASEDIR}/tarballs/bindist/bin_tgz.)I have written a kernel extension, who do I send it
to?Please take a look at The Handbook entry on how to
submit code.And thanks for the thought!How are Plug N Play ISA cards detected and
initialized?By: Frank Durda IV
uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.orgIn a nutshell, there a few I/O ports that all of the
PnP boards respond to when the host asks if anyone is out
there. So when the PnP probe routine starts, he asks if there
are any PnP boards present, and all the PnP boards respond with
their model # to a I/O read of the same port, so the probe
routine gets a wired-OR yes to that question. At
least one bit will be on in that reply. Then the probe code is
able to cause boards with board model IDs (assigned by
Microsoft/Intel) lower than X to go off-line. It
then looks to see if any boards are still responding to the
query. If the answer was 0, then there are
no boards with IDs above X. Now probe asks if there are any
boards below X. If so, probe knows there are
boards with a model numbers below X. Probe then asks for boards
greater than X-(limit/4) to go off-line. If repeats the query.
By repeating this semi-binary search of IDs-in-range enough
times, the probing code will eventually identify all PnP boards
present in a given machine with a number of iterations that is
much lower than what 2^64 would take.The IDs are two 32-bit fields (hence 2ˆ64) + 8 bit
checksum. The first 32 bits are a vendor identifier. They never
come out and say it, but it appears to be assumed that
different types of boards from the same vendor could have
different 32-bit vendor ids. The idea of needing 32 bits just
for unique manufacturers is a bit excessive.The lower 32 bits are a serial #, Ethernet address,
something that makes this one board unique. The vendor must
never produce a second board that has the same lower 32 bits
unless the upper 32 bits are also different. So you can have
multiple boards of the same type in the machine and the full 64
bits will still be unique.The 32 bit groups can never be all zero. This allows the
wired-OR to show non-zero bits during the initial binary
search.Once the system has identified all the board IDs present,
it will reactivate each board, one at a time (via the same I/O
ports), and find out what resources the given board needs, what
interrupt choices are available, etc. A scan is made over all
the boards to collect this information.This info is then combined with info from any ECU files
on the hard disk or wired into the MLB BIOS. The ECU and BIOS
PnP support for hardware on the MLB is usually synthetic, and
the peripherals do not really do genuine PnP. However by
examining the BIOS info plus the ECU info, the probe routines
can cause the devices that are PnP to avoid those devices the
probe code cannot relocate.Then the PnP devices are visited once more and given
their I/O, DMA, IRQ and Memory-map address assignments. The
devices will then appear at those locations and remain there
until the next reboot, although there is nothing that says you
cannot move them around whenever you want.There is a lot of oversimplification above, but you
should get the general idea.Microsoft took over some of the primary printer status
ports to do PnP, on the logic that no boards decoded those
addresses for the opposing I/O cycles. I found a genuine IBM
printer board that did decode writes of the status port during
the early PnP proposal review period, but MS said
tough. So they do a write to the printer status
port for setting addresses, plus that use that address +
0x800, and a third I/O port for reading that
can be located anywhere between 0x200 and
0x3ff.Can you assign a major number for a device driver I have
written?This depends on whether or not you plan on making the
driver publicly available. If you do, then please send us a
copy of the driver source code, plus the appropriate
modifications to files.i386, a
sample configuration file entry, and the appropriate
&man.MAKEDEV.8;
code to create any special files your device uses. If you do
not, or are unable to because of licensing restrictions, then
character major number 32 and block major number 8 have been
reserved specifically for this purpose; please use them. In any
case, we would appreciate hearing about your driver on
&a.hackers;.What about alternative layout policies for
directories?In answer to the question of alternative layout policies
for directories, the scheme that is currently in use is
unchanged from what I wrote in 1983. I wrote that policy for
the original fast filesystem, and never revisited it. It works
well at keeping cylinder groups from filling up. As several of
you have noted, it works poorly for find. Most filesystems are
created from archives that were created by a depth first search
(aka ftw). These directories end up being striped across the
cylinder groups thus creating a worst possible scenario for
future depth first searches. If one knew the total number of
directories to be created, the solution would be to create
(total / fs_ncg) per cylinder group before moving on.
Obviously, one would have to create some heuristic to guess at
this number. Even using a small fixed number like say 10 would
make an order of magnitude improvement. To differentiate
restores from normal operation (when the current algorithm is
probably more sensible), you could use the clustering of up to
10 if they were all done within a ten second window. Anyway, my
conclusion is that this is an area ripe for
experimentation.Kirk McKusick, September 1998How can I make the most of the data I see when my kernel
panics?[This section was extracted from a mail
written by &a.wpaul; on the freebsd-current
mailing list by &a.des;, who
fixed a few typos and added the bracketed comments]
From: Bill Paul <wpaul@skynet.ctr.columbia.edu>
Subject: Re: the fs fun never stops
To: ben@rosengart.com
Date: Sun, 20 Sep 1998 15:22:50 -0400 (EDT)
Cc: current@FreeBSD.org[<ben@rosengart.com> posted the following
panic message]> Fatal trap 12: page fault while in kernel mode
> fault virtual address = 0x40
> fault code = supervisor read, page not present
> instruction pointer = 0x8:0xf014a7e5
^^^^^^^^^^
> stack pointer = 0x10:0xf4ed6f24
> frame pointer = 0x10:0xf4ed6f28
> code segment = base 0x0, limit 0xfffff, type 0x1b
> = DPL 0, pres 1, def32 1, gran 1
> processor eflags = interrupt enabled, resume, IOPL = 0
> current process = 80 (mount)
> interrupt mask =
> trap number = 12
> panic: page fault[When] you see a message like this, it is not enough to just
reproduce it and send it in. The instruction pointer value that
I highlighted up there is important; unfortunately, it is also
configuration dependent. In other words, the value varies
depending on the exact kernel image that you are using. If
you are using a GENERIC kernel image from one of the snapshots,
then it is possible for somebody else to track down the
offending function, but if you are running a custom kernel then
only you can tell us where the fault
occurred.What you should do is this:Write down the instruction pointer value. Note that
the 0x8: part at the beginning is not
significant in this case: it is the
0xf0xxxxxx part that we want.When the system reboots, do the following:
&prompt.user; nm -n /kernel.that.caused.the.panic | grep f0xxxxxx
where f0xxxxxx is the instruction
pointer value. The odds are you will not get an exact
match since the symbols in the kernel symbol table are
for the entry points of functions and the instruction
pointer address will be somewhere inside a function, not
at the start. If you do not get an exact match, omit the
last digit from the instruction pointer value and try
again, i.e.:
&prompt.user; nm -n /kernel.that.caused.the.panic | grep f0xxxxx
If that does not yield any results, chop off another
digit. Repeat until you get some sort of output. The
result will be a possible list of functions which caused
the panic. This is a less than exact mechanism for
tracking down the point of failure, but it is better than
nothing.I see people constantly show panic messages like this
but rarely do I see someone take the time to match up the
instruction pointer with a function in the kernel symbol
table.The best way to track down the cause of a panic is by
capturing a crash dump, then using
&man.gdb.1; to generate a stack trace on the
crash dump.In any case, the method I normally use is this:Set up a kernel config file, optionally adding
options DDB if you think you need
the kernel debugger for something. (I use this mainly
for setting breakpoints if I suspect an infinite loop
condition of some kind.)Use config -g
KERNELCONFIG to set
up the build directory.cd /sys/compile/
KERNELCONFIG; make
Wait for kernel to finish compiling.make installrebootThe &man.make.1; process will have built two kernels.
kernel and
kernel.debug. kernel
was installed as /kernel, while
kernel.debug can be used as the source of
debugging symbols for &man.gdb.1;.To make sure you capture a crash dump, you need edit
/etc/rc.conf and set
dumpdev to point to your swap
partition. This will cause the &man.rc.8; scripts
to use the &man.dumpon.8; command to enable crash
dumps. You can also run &man.dumpon.8; manually.
After a panic, the crash dump can be recovered using
&man.savecore.8;; if
dumpdev is set in
/etc/rc.conf, the &man.rc.8;
scripts will run &man.savecore.8; automatically
and put the crash dump in
/var/crash.FreeBSD crash dumps are usually the same size as the
physical RAM size of your machine. That is, if you have
64MB of RAM, you will get a 64MB crash dump. Therefore you
must make sure there is enough space in
/var/crash to hold the dump.
Alternatively, you run &man.savecore.8;
manually and have it recover the crash dump to another
directory where you have more room. It is possible to limit
the size of the crash dump by using options
MAXMEM=(foo) to set the amount of memory the
kernel will use to something a little more sensible. For
example, if you have 128MB of RAM, you can limit the
kernel's memory usage to 16MB so that your crash dump size
will be 16MB instead of 128MB.Once you have recovered the crash dump, you can get a
stack trace with &man.gdb.1; as follows:&prompt.user; gdb -k /sys/compile/KERNELCONFIG/kernel.debug /var/crash/vmcore.0(gdb)whereNote that there may be several screens worth of
information; ideally you should use
&man.script.1; to capture all of them. Using the
unstripped kernel image with all the debug symbols should show
the exact line of kernel source code where the panic occurred.
Usually you have to read the stack trace from the bottom up in
order to trace the exact sequence of events that lead to the
crash. You can also use &man.gdb.1; to print out
the contents of various variables or structures in order to
examine the system state at the time of the crash.Now, if you are really insane and have a second computer,
you can also configure &man.gdb.1; to do remote
debugging such that you can use &man.gdb.1; on
one system to debug the kernel on another system, including
setting breakpoints, single-stepping through the kernel code,
just like you can do with a normal user-mode program. I have not
played with this yet as I do not often have the chance to set up
two machines side by side for debugging purposes.[Bill adds: "I forgot to mention one thing: if
you have DDB enabled and the kernel drops into the debugger,
you can force a panic (and a crash dump) just by typing 'panic'
at the ddb prompt. It may stop in the debugger again during the
panic phase. If it does, type 'continue' and it will finish the
crash dump." -ed]Why has dlsym() stopped working for ELF executables?The ELF toolchain does not, by default, make the symbols
defined in an executable visible to the dynamic linker.
Consequently dlsym() searches on handles
obtained from calls to dlopen(NULL,
flags) will fail to find such symbols.If you want to search, using dlsym(),
for symbols present in the main executable of a process, you
need to link the executable using the
option to the
ELF
linker (&man.ld.1;).How can I increase or reduce the kernel address space?By default, the kernel address space is 256 MB on
FreeBSD 3.x and 1 GB on FreeBSD 4.x. If you run a
network-intensive server (e.g. a large FTP or HTTP server),
you might find that 256 MB is not enough.So how do you increase the address space? There are two
aspects to this. First, you need to tell the kernel to reserve
a larger portion of the address space for itself. Second, since
the kernel is loaded at the top of the address space, you need
to lower the load address so it does not bump its head against
the ceiling.The first goal is achieved by increasing the value of
NKPDE in
src/sys/i386/include/pmap.h. Here is what
it looks like for a 1 GB address space:#ifndef NKPDE
#ifdef SMP
#define NKPDE 254 /* addressable number of page tables/pde's */
#else
#define NKPDE 255 /* addressable number of page tables/pde's */
#endif /* SMP */
#endifTo find the correct value of NKPDE,
divide the desired address space size (in megabytes) by four,
then subtract one for UP and two for SMP.To achieve the second goal, you need to compute the
correct load address: simply subtract the address space size
(in bytes) from 0x100100000; the result is 0xc0100000 for a 1
GB address space. Set LOAD_ADDRESS in
src/sys/i386/conf/Makefile.i386 to that
value; then set the location counter in the beginning of the
section listing in
src/sys/i386/conf/kernel.script to the
same value, as follows:OUTPUT_FORMAT("elf32-i386", "elf32-i386", "elf32-i386")
OUTPUT_ARCH(i386)
ENTRY(btext)
SEARCH_DIR(/usr/lib); SEARCH_DIR(/usr/obj/elf/home/src/tmp/usr/i386-unknown-freebsdelf/lib);
SECTIONS
{
/* Read-only sections, merged into text segment: */
. = 0xc0100000 + SIZEOF_HEADERS;
.interp : { *(.interp) }Then reconfig and rebuild your kernel. You will probably
have problems with &man.ps.1;
&man.top.1; and the like; make
world should take care of it (or a manual rebuild of
libkvm,
&man.ps.1; and &man.top.1;
after copying the patched pmap.h to
/usr/include/vm/.NOTE: the size of the kernel address space must be a
multiple of four megabytes.[&a.dg; adds: I think the kernel address space
needs to be a power of two, but I am not certain about that. The
old(er) boot code used to monkey with the high order address bits
and I think expected at least 256MB
granularity.]Acknowledgments
FreeBSD Core TeamIf you see a problem with this FAQ, or wish to submit an
entry, please mail the &a.faq;. We appreciate your feedback,
and cannot make this a better FAQ without your help!
&a.jkh;Occasional fits of FAQ-reshuffling and updating.&a.dwhite;Services above and beyond the call of duty on
freebsd-questions&a.joerg;Services above and beyond the call of duty on
Usenet&a.wollman;Networking and formattingJim LoweMulticast information&a.pds;FreeBSD FAQ typing machine slaveyThe FreeBSD TeamKvetching, moaning, submitting dataAnd to any others we have forgotten, apologies and heartfelt
thanks!Bibliography4.4BSD System Manager's ManualComputer Systems Research Group, University of
California, BerkeleyO'Reilly and Associates1st EditionJune 1994804 pagesISBN 1-56592-080-54.4BSD User's Reference ManualComputer Systems Research Group, University of
California, BerkeleyO'Reilly and Associates1st EditionJune 1994905 pagesISBN 1-56592-075-94.4BSD User's Supplementary DocumentsComputer Systems Research Group, University of
California, BerkeleyO'Reilly and Associates1st EditionJune 1994712 pagesISBN 1-56592-076-74.4BSD Programmer's Reference ManualComputer Systems Research Group, University of
California, BerkeleyO'Reilly and Associates1st EditionJune 1994866 pagesISBN 1-56592-078-34.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary DocumentsComputer Systems Research Group, University of
California, BerkeleyO'Reilly and Associates1st EditionJune 1994596 pagesISBN 1-56592-079-1The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating SystemM. K.McKusickKirkMarshallKeithBosticMichael JKarelsJohnQuartermanAddison-WesleyReadingMA1996ISBN 0-201-54979-4Unix System Administration HandbookEviNemethGarthSnyderScottSeebassTrent R.HeinJohnQuartermanPrentice-Hall3rd edition2000ISBN 0-13-020601-6The Complete FreeBSDGregLeheyWalnut Creek3rd editionJune 1999773 pagesISBN 1-57176-246-9The FreeBSD HandbookFreeBSD Documentation ProjectBSDi1st EditionNovember 1999489 pagesISBN 1-57176-241-8McKusick et al, 1994Berkeley Software Architecture Manual, 4.4BSD
EditionM. K.McKusickM. J.KarelsS. J.LefflerW. N.JoyR. S.Faber5:1-42
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml
index 3dcc928038..4240c523dc 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,5247 +1,5247 @@
Advanced NetworkingSynopsisThis chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network
services on Unix systems. We will cover how to define, setup, test and
maintain all of the network services that FreeBSD utilizes. In addition,
there have been example configuration files included throughout this
chapter for you to benefit from.After reading this chapter, you will know:The basics of gateways and routes.How to make FreeBSD act as a bridge.How to setup a network file system.How to setup network booting on a diskless machine.How to setup a network information server for sharing user
accounts.How to setup automatic network settings using DHCP.How to setup a domain name server.How to synchronize the time and date, and setup a
time server, with the NTP protocol.How to setup network address translation.How to manage the inetd daemon.Before reading this chapter, you should:Understand the basics of the /etc/rc scripts.Be familiar with basic network terminology.CoranthGryphonContributed by Gateways and RoutesroutinggatewaysubnetFor one machine to be able to find another over a network, there
must be a
mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is
called routing. A route is a defined pair of addresses: a
destination and a gateway. The pair
indicates that if you are trying to get to this
destination, communicate through this
gateway. There are three types of destinations:
individual hosts, subnets, and default. The
default route is used if none of the other routes apply.
We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are
also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called
links), and Ethernet hardware addresses (MAC addresses).
An ExampleTo illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the
following example from netstat:&prompt.user; netstat -r
Routing tables
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0
localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0
test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77
10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421
example.com link#1 UC 0 0
host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0
host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 =>
host2.example.com link#1 UC 0 0
224 link#1 UC 0 0default routeThe first two lines specify the default route (which we
will cover in the next
section) and the localhost route.loopback deviceThe interface (Netif column) that it specifies
to use for localhost is
lo0, also known as the loopback device. This
says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than
sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it
started.EthernetMAC addressThe next thing that stands out are the addresses beginning
with 0:e0:. These are Ethernet
hardware addresses, which are also known as MAC addresses.
FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts
(test0 in the example) on the local Ethernet and add
a route for that host, directly to it over the Ethernet interface,
ed0. There is also a timeout
(Expire column) associated with this type of route,
which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of
time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These
hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing
Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based
upon a shortest path determination.subnetFreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the
subnet 10.20.30, and example.com is the domain name associated
with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers
to the first Ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no
additional interface is specified for those.Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have
their routes automatically configured by a daemon called
routed. If this is not run, then only
routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will
exist.The host1 line refers to our host, which it
knows by Ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD
knows to use the loopback interface (lo0)
rather than sending it out over the Ethernet interface.The two host2 lines are an example of what
happens when we use an &man.ifconfig.8; alias (see the section of Ethernet for
reasons why we would do this). The => symbol
after the lo0 interface says that not only
are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the
local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show
up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local
network will simply have a link#1 line for
such.The final line (destination subnet 224) deals
with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section.The other column that we should talk about are the
Flags. Each route has different attributes that
are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these
flags and their meanings:UUp: The route is active.HHost: The route destination is a single host.GGateway: Send anything for this destination on to this
remote system, which will figure out from there where to send
it.SStatic: This route was configured manually, not
automatically generated by the system.CClone: Generates a new route based upon this route for
machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used
for local networks.WWasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured
based upon a local area network (Clone) route.LLink: Route involves references to Ethernet
hardware.Default Routesdefault routeWhen the local system needs to make a connection to remote host,
it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If
the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned
routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that
interface.If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the
default route. This route is a special type of gateway
route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always
marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a
local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a
direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link,
DSL, cable modem, T1, or another network interface).If you are configuring the default route for a machine which
itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the
default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service
Provider's (ISP) site.Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common
configuration:
[Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW]
The hosts Local1 and
Local2 are at your site.
Local1 is connected to an ISP via a dial up
PPP connection. This PPP server computer is connected through
a local area network to another gateway computer with an
external interface to the ISPs Internet feed.The default routes for each of your machines will be:HostDefault GatewayInterfaceLocal2Local1EthernetLocal1T1-GWPPPA common question is Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to
be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is
connected to?.Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's
local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other
machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated.
Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there
is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP
server.As a final note, it is common to use the address X.X.X.1 as the gateway address for your local
network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address
space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was
using 10.9.9 then the default routes
would be:HostDefault RouteLocal2 (10.20.3.2)Local1 (10.20.30.1)Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30)T1-GW (10.9.9.1)Dual Homed Hostsdual homed hostsThere is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and
that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any
machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP
connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only
used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area
networks.In one case, the machine has two Ethernet cards, each having an
address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only
have one Ethernet card, and be using &man.ifconfig.8; aliasing. The former is
used if two physically separate Ethernet networks are in use, the
latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically
separate subnets.Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows
that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other
subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge
between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement
packet filtering or firewall security in either or both
directions.Routing Propagationrouting propagationWe have already talked about how we define our routes to the
outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us.We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all
traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C
subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will
forward the packets inbound.When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service
provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your
subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites
across the country know to send to your ISP?There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that
keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of
connection to the Internet Backbone. The Backbone are
the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country,
and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master
set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a
specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service
providers until it reaches your network.It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the
backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the
path inward) for your site. This is known as route
propagation.TroubleshootingtracerouteSometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some
sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command
for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the
&man.traceroute.8; command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem
to make a connection to a remote machine (i.e. &man.ping.8;
fails).The &man.traceroute.8; command is run with the name of the remote
host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts
along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target
host, or terminating because of a lack of connection.For more information, see the manual page for
&man.traceroute.8;.StevePetersonWritten by BridgingIntroductionIP subnetbridgeIt is sometimes useful to divide one physical network (such as an
Ethernet segment) into two separate network segments without having
to create IP subnets and use a router to connect the segments
together. A device that connects two networks together in this
fashion is called a bridge. A FreeBSD system with two network
interface cards can act as a bridge.The bridge works by learning the MAC layer addresses
(Ethernet addresses) of the devices on each of its network interfaces.
It forwards traffic between two networks only when its source and
destination are on different networks.In many respects, a bridge is like an Ethernet switch with very
few ports.Situations Where Bridging Is AppropriateThere are two common situations in which a bridge is used
today.High Traffic on a SegmentSituation one is where your physical network segment is
overloaded with traffic, but you do not want for whatever reason to
subnet the network and interconnect the subnets with a
router.Let us consider an example of a newspaper where the Editorial and
Production departments are on the same subnetwork. The Editorial
users all use server A for file service, and the Production users
are on server B. An Ethernet is used to connect all users together,
and high loads on the network are slowing things down.If the Editorial users could be segregated on one network
segment and the Production users on another, the two network
segments could be connected with a bridge. Only the network traffic
destined for interfaces on the "other" side of the bridge would be
sent to the other network, reducing congestion on each network
segment.Filtering/Traffic Shaping FirewallfirewallIP MasqueradingThe second common situation is where firewall functionality is
needed without IP Masquerading (NAT).An example is a small company that is connected via DSL or ISDN
to their ISP. They have a 13 globally-accessible IP addresses
from their ISP and have 10 PCs on their network. In this situation, using a
router-based firewall is difficult because of subnetting
issues.routerDSLISDNA bridge-based firewall can be configured and dropped into the
path just downstream of their DSL/ISDN router without any IP
numbering issues.Configuring a BridgeNetwork Interface Card SelectionA bridge requires at least two network cards to function.
Unfortunately, not all network interface cards as of FreeBSD 4.0
support bridging. Read &man.bridge.4; for details on the cards that
are supported.Install and test the two network cards before continuing.Kernel Configuration Changeskernel configurationkernel configurationoptions BRIDGETo enable kernel support for bridging, add the:options BRIDGEstatement to your kernel configuration file, and rebuild your
kernel.Firewall SupportfirewallIf you are planning to use the bridge as a firewall, you will
need to add the IPFIREWALL option as well. Read for general information on configuring the
bridge as a firewall.If you need to allow non-IP packets (such as ARP) to flow
through the bridge, there is an undocumented firewall option that
must be set. This option is
IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT. Note that this
changes the default rule for the firewall to accept any packet.
Make sure you know how this changes the meaning of your ruleset
before you set it.Traffic Shaping SupportIf you want to use the bridge as a traffic shaper, you will need
to add the DUMMYNET option to your kernel
configuration. Read &man.dummynet.4; for further
information.Enabling the BridgeAdd the line:net.link.ether.bridge=1to /etc/sysctl.conf to enable the bridge at
runtime. If you want the bridged packets to be filtered by &man.ipfw.8;,
you should also add:net.link.ether.bridge_ipfw=1as well.PerformanceMy bridge/firewall is a Pentium 90 with one 3Com 3C900B and one
3C905B. The protected side of the network runs at 10mbps half duplex
and the connection between the bridge and my router (a Cisco 675) runs
at 100mbps full duplex. With no filtering enabled, I have found that
the bridge adds about 0.4 milliseconds of latency to pings from the
protected 10mbps network to the Cisco 675.Other InformationIf you want to be able to telnet into the bridge from the network,
it is OK to assign one of the network cards an IP address. The
consensus is that assigning both cards an address is a bad
idea.If you have multiple bridges on your network, there cannot be more
than one path between any two workstations. Technically, this means
that there is no support for spanning tree link management.BillSwingleWritten by NFSNFSAmong the many different file systems that FreeBSD supports is
the Network File System or NFS. NFS allows you
to share directories and files on one machine with others
via the network they are attached to. Using NFS, users and
programs can access files on remote systems as if they were local
files.NFS has several benefits:Local workstations do not need as much disk space because
commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still
remain accessible to everyone on the network.There is no need for users to have unique home directories
on every machine on your network. Once they have an established
directory that is available via NFS it can be accessed from
anywhere.Storage devices such as floppies and CDROM drives can be
used by other machines on the network eliminating the need for
extra hardware.How It WorksNFS is composed of two sides – a client side and a
server side. Think of it as a want/have relationship. The client
wants the data that the server side
has. The server shares its data with the
client. In order for this system to function properly a few
processes have to be configured and running.The server has to be running the following daemons:NFSserverportmapmountdnfsdDaemonDescriptionnfsdThe NFS Daemon which services requests from NFS
clients.mountdThe NFS Mount Daemon which actually carries out
requests that &man.nfsd.8; passes on to it.portmap The portmapper daemon which
allows NFS clients to find out which port the NFS server
is using.The client side only needs to run a single daemon:NFSclientnfsiodnfsiodThe NFS async I/O Daemon which services requests
from its NFS server.Configuring NFSNFSconfigurationLuckily for us, on a FreeBSD system this setup is a snap. The
processes that need to be running can all be run at boot time with
a few modifications to your /etc/rc.conf
file.On the NFS server make sure you have:portmap_enable="YES"
nfs_server_enable="YES"
nfs_server_flags="-u -t -n 4"
mountd_flags="-r"mountd is automatically run whenever the
NFS server is enabled. The and
flags to nfsd tell it to
serve UDP and TCP clients. The flag tells
nfsd to start 4 copies of itself.On the client, make sure you have:nfs_client_enable="YES"
nfs_client_flags="-n 4"Like nfsd, the tells
nfsiod to start 4 copies of itself.The last configuration step requires that you create a file
called /etc/exports. The exports file
specifies which file systems on your server will be shared
(a.k.a., exported) and with what clients they will
be shared. Each line in the file specifies a file system to be
shared. There are a handful of options that can be used in this
file but only a few will be mentioned here. You can find out
about the rest in the &man.exports.5; manual page.Here are a few example /etc/exports
entries:NFSexporting filesystemsThe following line exports /cdrom to
three silly machines that have the same domain name as the server
(hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your
/etc/hosts file. The
flag makes the shared file system read-only. With this flag, the
remote system will not be able to make any changes to the
shared file system./cdrom -ro moe larry curlyThe following line exports /home to three
hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a
private network but do not have DNS running. The
flag allows all the directories below
the specified file system to be exported as well./home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4The following line exports /a to two
machines that have different domain names than the server. The
flag allows
the root user on the remote system to write to the shared
file system as root. Without the -maproot=0 flag even if
someone has root access on the remote system they will not
be able to modify files on the shared file system./a -maproot=0 host.domain.com box.example.comIn order for a client to access- an exported file system it must
have permission to do so. Make sure your client is listed in your
/etc/exports file.It is important to remember that you must restart mountd
whenever you modify /etc/exports so that
your changes take effect. This can be accomplished by sending
the hangup signal to the mountd process :&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid`Now that you have made all these changes you can just reboot
and let FreeBSD start everything for you at boot time or you can
run the following commands as root:On the NFS server:&prompt.root; portmap
&prompt.root; nfsd -u -t -n 4
&prompt.root; mountd -rOn the NFS client:&prompt.root; nfsiod -n 4Now you should be ready to actually mount a remote file
system. This can be done one of two ways. In these examples the
server's name will be server and the client's
name will be client. If you just want to
temporarily mount a remote file system or just want to test out
your configuration you can run a command like this as root on the
client:NFSmounting filesystems&prompt.root; mount server:/home /mntThis will mount the /home directory on the
server at
/mnt on the client. If everything is setup
correctly you should be able to go into /mnt on the client and see
all the files that are on the server.If you want to permanently (each time you reboot) mount a
remote file system you need to add it to your
/etc/fstab file. Here is an example
line:server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0Read the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more options.Practical UsesThere are many very cool uses for NFS. Some of the more common
ones are listed below.NFSusesHave several machines on a network and share a CDROM or
floppy drive among them. This is cheaper and often more
convenient.With so many machines on a network, it gets old having your
personal files strewn all over the place. You can have a
central NFS server that houses all user home directories and
shares them with the rest of the machines on the LAN, so no
matter where you log in you will have the same home
directory.When you get to reinstalling FreeBSD on one of your
machines, NFS is the way to go! Just pop your distribution
CDROM into your file server and away you go!Have a common /usr/ports/distfiles
directory that all your machines share. That way, when you go
to install a port that you have already installed on a different
machine, you do not have to download the source all over
again!WylieStilwellContributed by ChernLeeRewritten by amdamdautomatic mounter daemon&man.amd.8;, which is also known as the automatic mounter
daemon, is a useful utility used for automatically mounting a
remote filesystem whenever a file or directory within that
filesystem is accessed. Filesystems that are inactive for a
period of time will also be automatically unmounted by
amd. Using
amd provides a simplistic alternative
to static mounts.amd operates by attaching
itself as an NFS server to the /host and
/net directories. When a file is accessed
within one of these directories, amd
looks up the corresponding remote mount and automatically mounts
it. /net is used to mount an exported
filesystem from an IP address, while /host
is used to mount an export from a remote hostname.An access to a file within
/host/foobar/usr would tell
amd to attempt to mount the
/usr export on the host
foobar.Mounting an Export with amd&prompt.user; showmount -e foobar
Exports list on foobar:
/usr 10.10.10.0
/a 10.10.10.0
&prompt.user; cd /host/foobar/usrAs seen in the example, the showmount shows
/usr as an export. When changing directories to
/host/foobar/usr, amd
attempts to resolve the hostname foobar and
automatically mount the desired export.amd can be started through the
rc.conf system by placing the following lines in
/etc/rc.conf:amd_enable="YES"Additionally, custom flags can be passed to
amd from the
amd_flags option. By default,
amd_flags is set to:amd_flags="-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map"The /etc/amd.map file defines the
default options that exports are mounted with. The
/etc/amd.conf file defines some of the more
advanced features of amd.Consult the &man.amd.8; and &man.amd.conf.5; man pages for more
information.JohnLindContributed by Problems Integrating with Other SystemsCertain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations
which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS.
This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems
are affected by it.The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are
networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made
by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS
mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but
suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the
client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to
be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the
client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems,
there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this
problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to
reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be
resolved.Though the correct solution is to get a higher
performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system,
there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory
operation. If the FreeBSD system is the
server, include the option
on the mount from the client. If the
FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the
NFS file system with the option . These
options may be specified using the fourth field of the
fstab entry on the client for automatic
mounts, or by using the parameter of the mount
command for manual mounts.It should be noted that there is a different problem,
sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients
are on different networks. If that is the case, make
certain that your routers are routing the
necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter
what else you are doing.In the following examples, fastws is the host
(interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and
freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD
system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also,
/sharedfs will be the exported NFS
filesystem (see &man.exports.5;), and
/project will be the mount point on the
client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that
additional options, such as or
and may be desirable in
your application.Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as
the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox:fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0As a manual mount command on freebox:&prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /projectExamples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in
/etc/fstab on fastws:freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0As a manual mount command on fastws:&prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /projectNearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation
without the above restrictions on the read or write size.For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure
occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS
typically works with a block size of 8k (though it
may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet
packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets
split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a
single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received,
assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The
high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which
comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close
together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity
cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same
unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a
whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the
workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again
with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad
infinitum.By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size
limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received
can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock
situation.Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations
is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards,
such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When
an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and
there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled,
and acknowledged.Jean-FrançoisDockèsUpdated by Diskless Operationdiskless workstationdiskless operationA FreeBSD machine can boot over the network and operate without a
local disk, using file systems mounted from an NFS server. No system
modification is necessary, beyond standard configuration files.
Such a system is easy to set up because all the necessary elements
are readily available:There are at least two possible methods to load the kernel over
the network:PXE: Intel's Preboot Execution
Environment system is a form of smart boot ROM built into some
networking cards or motherboards. See &man.pxeboot.8; for more
details.The etherboot
port (/usr/ports/net/etherboot)
produces ROM-able code to boot kernels over the network. The code
can be either burnt into a boot PROM on a network card, or loaded
from a local floppy (or hard) disk drive, or from a running
MS-DOS system. Many network cards are supported.A sample script
(/usr/local/share/examples/clone_root) eases
the creation and maintenance of the workstation's root filesystem
on the server. The script will probably require a little
customization but it will get you started very quicklyStandard system startup files exist in /etc
to detect and support a diskless system startup.Swapping, if needed, can be done either to an NFS file or to
a local diskThere are many ways to set up diskless workstations. Many
elements are involved, and most can be customized to suit local
taste. The following will describe the setup of a complete system,
emphasizing simplicity and compatibility with the
standard FreeBSD startup scripts. The system described has the
following characteristics:The diskless workstations use a shared
read-only root filesystem, and a shared
read-only /usr.The root file system is a copy of a
standard FreeBSD root (typically the server's), with some
configuration files overridden by ones specific to diskless
operation or, possibly, to the workstation they belong to.The parts of the root which have to be
writable are overlaid with &man.mfs.8; filesystems. Any changes
will be lost when the system reboots.The kernel is loaded by etherboot
, using DHCP (or BOOTP) and TFTP.As described, this system is insecure. It should
live in a protected area of a network, and be untrusted by
other hosts.Setup InstructionsConfiguring DHCP/BOOTPThere are two protocols that are commonly used to boot a
workstation that retrieves its configuration over the network: BOOTP
and DHCP. They are used at several points in the workstation
bootstrap:etherboot uses
DHCP (by default) or BOOTP (needs a configuration option) to
find the kernel. (PXE uses DHCP).The kernel uses BOOTP to locate the NFS
root.It is possible to configure a system to use only BOOTP.
The &man.bootpd.8; server program is included in the
base FreeBSD system.However, DHCP has a number of advantages over BOOTP (nicer
configuration files, possibility of using PXE, plus many others
not directly related to diskless operation), and we shall describe
both a pure BOOTP, and a BOOTP+DHCP configuration, with an
emphasis on the latter, which will use the ISC DHCP software
package.Configuration Using ISC DHCPThe isc-dhcp server can answer
both BOOTP and DHCP requests.As of release 4.4, isc-dhcp is not part of the base
system. You will first need to install the
/usr/ports/net/isc-dhcp3 port or the
corresponding package. Please refer to
for general information about ports and packages.Once isc-dhcp is installed, it
needs a configuration file to run, (normally named
/usr/local/etc/dhcpd.conf). Here follows
a commented example:
default-lease-time 600;
max-lease-time 7200;
authoritative;
- option domain-name "mydom.com";
+ option domain-name "example.com";
option domain-name-servers 192.168.4.1;
option routers 192.168.4.1;
subnet 192.168.4.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
use-host-decl-names on;
option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0;
option broadcast-address 192.168.4.255;
host margaux {
hardware ethernet 01:23:45:67:89:ab;
- fixed-address margaux.mydom.com;
+ fixed-address margaux.example.com;
next-server 192.168.4.4;
filename "/tftpboot/kernel.diskless";
option root-path "192.168.4.4:/data/misc/diskless";
}
}
This option tells
dhcpd to send the value in the
host declarations as the hostname for the
diskless host. An alternate way would be to add an
option host-name
margaux inside the
host declarations.The
next-server directive designates
the TFTP server (the default is to use the same host as the
DHCP server).The
filename directive defines the file that
etherboot will load as a
kernel.
PXE appears to prefer a relative file
name, and it loads pxeboot, not the
kernel (option filename
"pxeboot").The
root-path option defines the path to
the root filesystem, in usual NFS notationConfiguration Using BOOTPHere follows an equivalent bootpd
configuration. This would be found in
/etc/bootptab.Please note that etherboot must
be compiled with the non-default option
NO_DHCP_SUPPORT in order to use BOOTP, and that PXE
needs DHCP. The only obvious advantage of
bootpd is that it exists in the base system.
.def100:\
:hn:ht=1:sa=192.168.4.4:vm=rfc1048:\
:sm=255.255.255.0:\
:ds=192.168.4.1:\
:gw=192.168.4.1:\
:hd="/tftpboot":\
:bf="/kernel.diskless":\
:rp="192.168.4.4:/data/misc/diskless":
margaux:ha=0123456789ab:tc=.def100
Preparing a Boot Program with
EtherbootEtherboot's Web
site contains
extensive documentation mainly intended for Linux
systems, but nonetheless containing useful information. The following
will just outline how you would use
etherboot on a FreeBSD system.You must first install - and possibly compile - the
etherboot package. The
etherboot port can normally be found in
/usr/ports/net/etherboot. If the ports tree is
installed on your system, just typing make in
this directory should take care of everything. Else refer to
for information about ports and
packages.For our setup, we shall use a boot floppy. For other methods
(PROM, or dos program), please refer to the
etherboot documentation.To make a boot floppy, insert a floppy in the drive on the
machine where you installed etherboot,
then change your current directory to the src
directory in the etherboot tree and
type:
&prompt.root; gmake bin32/devicetype.fd0devicetype depends on the type of
the Ethernet card in the diskless workstation. Refer to the
NIC file in the same directory to determine the
right devicetype.Configuring the TFTP and NFS ServersYou need to enable tftpd on the TFTP
server:Create a directory from which tftpd
will serve the files, ie: /tftpbootAdd this line to your
/etc/inetd.conf:tftp dgram udp wait nobody /usr/libexec/tftpd tftpd /tftpbootIt appears that at least some PXE versions wants
the TCP version of TFTP. In this case, add a second line,
replacing dgram udp with stream
tcpTell inetd to reread its configuration
file:&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`You can place the tftpboot directory anywhere on the server, but,
of course, the actual location, the value in
inetd.conf, and the value in
dhcpd.conf must be consistent !You also need to enable NFS service and export the
appropriate filesystem on the NFS serverAdd this to /etc/rc.conf:nfs_server_enable="YES"Export the filesystem where the diskless root directory
is located by adding the following to
/etc/exports (adjust the volume mount
point and workstation name!):/data/misc -alldirs -ro margauxTell mountd to reread its configuration
file. If you actually needed to configure NFS service at step
1, you probably want to reboot instead.&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/mountd.pid`Building a Diskless KernelCreate a kernel configuration file for the diskless client
with the following options (in addition to the usual
ones):
options BOOTP # Use BOOTP to obtain IP address/hostname
options BOOTP_NFSROOT # NFS mount root filesystem using BOOTP info
options BOOTP_COMPAT # Workaround for broken bootp daemons.
You may also want to use BOOTP_NFSV3 and
BOOTP_WIRED_TO (refer to LINT).Build the kernel (See ),
and copy it to the tftp directory, under the name listed
in dhcpd.confPreparing the root FilesystemYou need to create a root filesystem for the diskless
workstations, in the location listed as
root-path in
dhcpd.conf.The easiest way to do this is to use the
/usr/share/examples/diskless/clone_root
shell script. This script needs customization, at least to adjust the
place where the filesystem will be created (the
DEST variable).
Refer to the comments at the top of the script for
instructions. They explain how the base filesystem is built,
and how files may be selectively overridden by versions specific
to diskless operation, to a subnetwork, or to an individual
workstation. They also give examples for the diskless
/etc/fstab and
/etc/rc.confThe README files in
/usr/share/examples/diskless contain a lot
of interesting background information, but, together with the
other examples in the diskless directory,
they actually document a configuration method which is distinct
from the one used by clone_root and
/etc/rc.diskless[12], which is a little
confusing. Use them for reference only, except if you prefer
the method that they describe, in which case you will need
customized rc scriptsAs of FreeBSD version 4.4-RELEASE, there is a small
incompatibility between the clone_root
script and the /etc/rc.diskless1
script. Please refer to PR
conf/31200 for the small adjustment needed in
clone_root.
Also see PR
conf/29870
about a small adjustment needed in
/etc/rc.diskless2.
Configuring SwapIf needed, it is possible to do swapping over NFS, to a file
on the server. The exact bootptab or
dhcpd.conf options are a little mysterious
and poorly documented. Anyway, here is what worked for me, using
isc-dhcp 3.0rc11.Add the following lines to
dhcpd.conf:
# Global section
option swap-path code 128 = string;
option swap-size code 129 = integer 32;
host margaux {
... # Standard lines, see above
option swap-path "192.168.4.4:/netswapvolume/netswap";
option swap-size 64000;
}
The idea is that, at least for a FreeBSD client,
DHCP/BOOTP option code 128 is the path to the NFS swap file,
and option code 129 is the swap size in kilobytes. Older
versions of dhcpd allowed a syntax of
option option-128 "..., which does not
seem to work any more./etc/bootptab would use the
following syntax instead:
T128="192.168.4.4:/netswapvolume/netswap":T129=64000
On the NFS swap file server, create the swap
file(s)
&prompt.root; mkdir /netswapvolume/netswap
&prompt.root; cd /netswapvolume/netswap
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero bs=1024 count=64000 of=swap.192.168.4.6
&prompt.root; chmod 0600 swap.192.168.4.6192.168.4.6 is the IP address
for the diskless clientOn the NFS swap file server, add the following line to
/etc/exports/netswapvolume -maproot=0:10 -alldirs margauxThen tell mountd to reread the
exports file, as above.Miscellaneous IssuesRunning with a read-only /usrIf the diskless workstation is configured to run X, you
will have to adjust the xdm configuration file, which puts
the error log on /usr by default.
Using a non-FreeBSD ServerWhen the server for the root filesystem is not running FreeBSD,
you will have to create the root file system on a
FreeBSD machine, then copy it to its destination, using
tar or cpio.In this situation, it seems that there are sometimes
problems with the special files in /dev,
because of differing minor/major number integer sizes. It seems
that a solution to this problem is to run MAKEDEV
on a FreeBSD
machine, in a directory mounted through NFS from the final
server.ISDNA good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is
Dan Kegel's ISDN
Page.A quick simple road map to ISDN follows:If you live in Europe you might want to investigate the ISDN card
section.If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the
Internet with an Internet Provider on a dial-up non-dedicated basis,
you might look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the
most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change
providers.If you are connecting two LANs together, or connecting to the
Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, you might consider
the stand alone router/bridge option.Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will
choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most
expensive.HellmuthMichaelisContributed by ISDN CardsISDNcardsFreeBSD's ISDN implementation supports only the DSS1/Q.931
(or Euro-ISDN) standard using passive cards. Starting with
FreeBSD 4.4, some active cards are supported where the firmware
also supports other signaling protocols; this also includes the
first supported Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN card.Isdn4bsd allows you to connect
to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using
synchronous PPP: either by using kernel PPP with isppp, a
modified sppp driver, or by using userland &man.ppp.8;. By using
userland &man.ppp.8;, channel bonding of two or more ISDN
B-channels is possible. A telephone answering machine
application is also available as well as many utilities such as
a software 300 Baud modem.Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under
FreeBSD and the reports show that it is successfully used all
over Europe and in many other parts of the world.The passive ISDN cards supported are mostly the ones with
the Infineon (formerly Siemens) ISAC/HSCX/IPAC ISDN chipsets,
but also ISDN cards with chips from Cologne Chip (ISA bus only),
PCI cards with Winbond W6692 chips, some cards with the
Tiger300/320/ISAC chipset combinations and some vendor specific
chipset based cards such as the AVM Fritz!Card PCI V.1.0 and the
AVM Fritz!Card PnP.Currently the active supported ISDN cards are the AVM B1
(ISA and PCI) BRI cards and the AVM T1 PCI PRI cards.For documentation on isdn4bsd,
have a look at /usr/share/examples/isdn/
directory on your FreeBSD system or at the homepage of
isdn4bsd which also has pointers to hints, erratas and
much more documentation such as the isdn4bsd
handbook.In case you are interested in adding support for a
different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or
otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please
get in touch with hm@freebsd.org.For questions regarding the installation, configuration
and troubleshooting isdn4bsd, a
majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join, send
mail to majordomo@FreeBSD.org and specify:subscribe freebsd-isdnin the body of your message.ISDN Terminal AdaptersTerminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular
phone lines.modemMost TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be
used as a drop in replacement for a modem.A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection
and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You
will need to configure PPP exactly the same
as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as
possible.PPPThe main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet
Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes
more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you
with a static IP anymore. Most stand-alone routers are not able to
accommodate dynamic IP allocation.TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for
their features and stability of connection. This allows you to
upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you
already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you
experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist.If you want maximum stability, use the kernel PPP option, not the user-land iijPPP.The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD.Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer ProAdtranMost other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make
sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command
set.The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good
serial card in your computer.You should read the FreeBSD Serial
Hardware tutorial for a detailed understanding of
serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and
synchronous serial ports.A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits
you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully
utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a
synchronous serial card.Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have
avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have
a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is
save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty
electrical socket.A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a stand-alone
router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more
flexible.The choice of sync/TA v.s. stand-alone router is largely a
religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in
the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for
the complete discussion.Stand-alone ISDN Bridges/RoutersISDNstand-alone bridges/routersISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD
or any other operating system. For a more complete
description of routing and bridging technology, please refer
to a Networking reference book.In the context of this page, the terms router and bridge will
be used interchangeably.As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it
will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN
router is a small box that plugs directly into your local
Ethernet network, and manages its own connection to the other
bridge/router. It has built in software to communicate via
PPP and other popular protocols.A router will allow you much faster throughput that a
standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN
connection.The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that
interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem.
If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, you
should discuss your needs with them.If you are planning to connect two LAN segments together,
such as your home LAN to the office LAN, this is the simplest
lowest
maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for
both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link
will work.For example to connect a home computer or branch office
network to a head office network the following setup could be
used.Branch Office or Home Network10 base 2Network uses a bus based topology with 10 base 2
Ethernet ("thinnet"). Connect router to network cable with
AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary.---Sun workstation
|
---FreeBSD box
|
---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it)
|
Stand-alone router
|
ISDN BRI line10 Base 2 EthernetIf your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a
twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the stand-alone router
directly.Head Office or Other LAN10 base TNetwork uses a star topology with 10 base T Ethernet
("Twisted Pair"). -------Novell Server
| H |
| ---Sun
| |
| U ---FreeBSD
| |
| ---Windows 95
| B |
|___---Stand-alone router
|
ISDN BRI lineISDN Network DiagramOne large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you
to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to
2 separate sites at the same time. This is not
supported on most TA's, except for specific (usually expensive) models
that
have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP,
etc.This can be very useful feature if, for example, you have an
dedicated ISDN connection at your office and would like to
tap into it, but do not want to get another ISDN line at work. A router
at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection
(64Kbps) to the Internet and use the other B channel for a
separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for
dial-in, dial-out or dynamically bonding (MPP, etc.) with the first
B channel for more bandwidth.IPX/SPXAn Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just
IP traffic. You can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you
use.BillSwingleWritten by EricOgrenEnhanced by UdoErdelhoffNIS/YPWhat Is It?NISSolarisHP-UXAIXLinuxNetBSDOpenBSDNIS, which stands for Network Information Services, was
developed by Sun Microsystems to centralize administration of Unix
(originally SunOS) systems. It has now essentially become an
industry standard; all major Unix systems (Solaris, HP-UX, AIX, Linux,
NetBSD, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, etc) support NIS.yellow pagesNISNIS was formerly known as Yellow Pages, but because of
trademark issues, Sun changed the name. The old term (and yp) is
still often seen and used.NISdomainsIt is a RPC-based client/server system that allows a group
of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of
configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set
up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and
add, remove or modify configuration data from a single
location.Windows NTIt is similar to Windows NT's domain system; although the
internal implementation of the two are not at all similar,
the basic functionality can be compared.Terms/Processes You Should KnowThere are several terms and several important user processes
that you will come across when
attempting to implement NIS on FreeBSD, whether you are trying to
create an NIS server or act an NIS client:portmapTermDescriptionNIS domainnameAn NIS master server and all of its clients
(including its slave servers) have a NIS
domainname. Similar to an NT domain name, the NIS
domainname does not have anything to do with DNS.portmapMust be running in order to enable RPC (Remote
Procedure Call, a network protocol used by NIS). If
portmap is not running, it will be
impossible to run an NIS server, or to act as an NIS
client.ypbindbinds an NIS client to its NIS
server. It will take the NIS domainname from the
system, and using RPC, connect to the
server. ypbind is the core of
client-server communication in an NIS environment; if
ypbind dies on a client machine, it
will not be able to access the NIS server.ypservShould only be running on NIS servers, is the NIS
server process itself. If &man.ypserv.8; dies, then the
server will no longer be able to respond to NIS requests
(hopefully, there is a slave server to take over for
it). There are some implementations of NIS (but not the
FreeBSD one), that do not try to reconnect to another
server if the server it used before dies. Often, the
only thing that helps in this case is to restart the
server process (or even the whole server) or the
ypbind process on the client.
rpc.yppasswddAnother process that should only be running on
NIS master servers, is a daemon that will allow NIS
clients to change their NIS passwords. If this daemon
is not running, users will have to login to the NIS
master server and change their passwords there.How Does It Work?There are three types of hosts in an NIS environment: master
servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central
repository for host configuration information. Master servers
hold the authoritative copy of this information, while slave
servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on
the servers to provide this information to them.Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The
master.passwd, group,
and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS.
Whenever a process on a client needs information that would
normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the
NIS server that it is bound to instead.Machine TypesNISmaster serverA NIS master server.
This server, analogous to a Windows
NT primary domain controller, maintains the files used by all
of the NIS clients. The passwd,
group, and other various files used by the
NIS clients live on the master server.It is possible for one machine to be an NIS
master server for more than one NIS domain. However, this will
not be covered in this introduction, which assumes a relatively
small-scale NIS environment.NISslave serverNIS slave servers.
Similar to NT's backup domain
controllers, NIS slave servers maintain copies of the NIS
master's data files. NIS slave servers provide the redundancy,
which is needed in important environments. They also help
to balance the load of the master server: NIS Clients always
attach to the NIS server whose response they get first, and
this includes slave-server-replies.NISclientNIS clients. NIS clients, like most
NT workstations, authenticate against the NIS server (or the NT
domain controller in the NT Workstation case) to log on.Using NIS/YPThis section will deal with setting up a sample NIS
environment.This section assumes that you are running FreeBSD 3.3
or later. The instructions given here will
probably work for any version of FreeBSD greater
than 3.0, but there are no guarantees that this is
true.PlanningLet us assume that you are the administrator of a small
university lab. This lab, which consists of 15 FreeBSD machines,
currently has no centralized point of administration; each machine
has its own /etc/passwd and
/etc/master.passwd. These files are kept in
sync with each other only through manual intervention;
currently, when you add a user to the lab, you must run
adduser on all 15 machines.
Clearly, this has to change, so you have decided to convert the
lab to use NIS, using two of the machines as servers.Therefore, the configuration of the lab now looks something
like:Machine nameIP addressMachine roleellington10.0.0.2NIS mastercoltrane10.0.0.3NIS slavebasie10.0.0.4Faculty workstationbird10.0.0.5Client machinecli[1-11]10.0.0.[6-17]Other client machinesIf you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it
is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No
matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions
that need to be made.Choosing a NIS Domain NameNISdomainnameThis might not be the domainname that you
are used to. It is more accurately called the
NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its
requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain
that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one
network can tell which server should answer which request.
Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts
that are related in some way.Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname
for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can
cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The
NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is
helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents.
For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the
"acme-art" NIS domain. For this example, assume you have
chosen the name test-domain.SunOSHowever, some operating systems (notably SunOS) use their
NIS domain name as their Internet domain name.
If one or more machines on your network have this restriction,
you must use the Internet domain name as
your NIS domain name.Physical Server RequirementsThere are several things to keep in mind when choosing a
machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things
about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the
server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS
domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of
user and group information causes most systems to temporarily
freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a
machine that will not be prone to being rebooted regularly, or
one that might be used for development. The NIS server should
ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is
to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very
heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a
machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the
NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect
all of your NIS clients adversely.NIS Servers The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on
a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases
used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD,
these maps are stored in
/var/yp/[domainname] where
[domainname] is the name of the NIS domain
being served. A single NIS server can support several domains
at once, therefore it is possible to have several such
directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will
have its own independent set of maps.NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with
the ypserv daemon. ypserv
is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients,
translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the
corresponding database file and transmitting data from the
database back to the client.Setting Up a NIS Master ServerNISserver configurationSetting up a master NIS server can be relatively straight
forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with support
for NIS out-of-the-box. All you need is to add the following
lines to /etc/rc.conf, and FreeBSD will
do the rest for you.nisdomainname="test-domain"
This line will set the NIS domainname to
test-domain
upon network setup (e.g. after reboot).nis_server_enable="YES"
This will tell FreeBSD to start up the NIS server processes
when the networking is next brought up.nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES"
This will enable the rpc.yppasswdd
daemon, which, as mentioned above, will allow users to
change their NIS password from a client machine.Depending on your NIS setup, you may need to add
further entries. See the section about NIS servers
that are also NIS clients, below, for
details.Now, all you have to do is to run the command
/etc/netstart as superuser. It will
setup everything for you, using the values you defined in
/etc/rc.conf.Initializing the NIS MapsNISmapsThe NIS maps are database files,
that are kept in the /var/yp directory.
They are generated from configuration files in the
/etc directory of the NIS master, with one
exception: the /etc/master.passwd file.
This is for a good reason; you do not want to propagate
passwords to your root and other administrative accounts to
all the servers in the NIS domain. Therefore, before we
initialize the NIS maps, you should:&prompt.root; cp /etc/master.passwd /var/yp/master.passwd
&prompt.root; cd /var/yp
&prompt.root; vi master.passwdYou should remove all entries regarding system accounts
(bin, tty, kmem,
games, etc), as well as any accounts that you
do not want to be propagated to the NIS clients (for example
root and any other UID 0 (superuser) accounts).Make sure the
/var/yp/master.passwd is neither group
nor world readable (mode 600)! Use the
chmod command, if appropriate.Tru64 UnixWhen you have finished, it is time to initialize the NIS
maps! FreeBSD includes a script named
ypinit to do this for you
(see its manual page for more information). Note that this
script is available on most Unix Operating Systems, but not on all.
On Digital Unix/Compaq Tru64 Unix it is called
ypsetup.
Because we are generating maps for an NIS master, we are
going to pass the option to
ypinit.
To generate the NIS maps, assuming you already performed
the steps above, run:ellington&prompt.root; ypinit -m test-domain
Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain
Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions.
Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure.
Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n
Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails.
If you don't, something might not work.
At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers.
rod.darktech.org is already known as master server.
Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are
done with the list, type a <control D>.
master server : ellington
next host to add: coltrane
next host to add: ^D
The current list of NIS servers looks like this:
ellington
coltrane
Is this correct? [y/n: y] y
[..output from map generation..]
NIS Map update completed.
ellington has been setup as an YP master server without any errors.ypinit should have created
/var/yp/Makefile from
/var/yp/Makefile.dist.
When created, this file assumes that you are operating
in a single server NIS environment with only FreeBSD
machines. Since test-domain has
a slave server as well, you must edit
/var/yp/Makefile:ellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/MakefileYou should comment out the line that says `NOPUSH =
"True"' (if it is not commented out already).Setting up a NIS Slave ServerNISconfiguring a slave serverSetting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than
setting up the master. Log on to the slave server and edit the
file /etc/rc.conf as you did before.
The only difference is that we now must use the
option when running ypinit.
The option requires the name of the NIS
master be passed to it as well, so our command line looks
like:coltrane&prompt.root; ypinit -s ellington test-domain
Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: ellington
Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions.
Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure.
Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n
Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails.
If you don't, something might not work.
There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure
should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from ellington.
Transferring netgroup...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring netgroup.byuser...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring netgroup.byhost...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring master.passwd.byuid...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring passwd.byuid...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring passwd.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring group.bygid...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring group.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring services.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring rpc.bynumber...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring rpc.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring protocols.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring master.passwd.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring networks.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring networks.byaddr...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring netid.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring hosts.byaddr...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring protocols.bynumber...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring ypservers...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
Transferring hosts.byname...
ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transferred
coltrane has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors.
Don't forget to update map ypservers on ellington.You should now have a directory called
/var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS
master server's maps should be in this directory. You will
need to make sure that these stay updated. The following
/etc/crontab entries on your slave
servers should do the job:20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname
21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuidThese two lines force the slave to sync its maps with
the maps on the master server. Although these entries are
not mandatory, since the master server attempts to ensure
any changes to its NIS maps are communicated to its slaves
and because password information is vital to systems
depending on the server, it is a good idea to force the
updates. This is more important on busy networks where map
updates might not always complete.Now, run the command /etc/netstart on the
slave server as well, which again starts the NIS server.NIS Clients An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a
particular NIS server using the
ypbind daemon.
ypbind checks the system's default
domain (as set by the domainname command),
and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network.
These requests specify the name of the domain for which
ypbind is attempting to establish a binding.
If a server that has been configured to serve the requested
domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to
ypbind, which will record the server's
address. If there are several servers available (a master and
several slaves, for example), ypbind will
use the address of the first one to respond. From that point
on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to
that server. ypbind will
occasionally ping the server to make sure it is
still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of
its pings within a reasonable amount of time,
ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and
begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another
server.Setting Up an NIS ClientNISclient configurationSetting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly
straightforward.Edit the file /etc/rc.conf and
add the following lines in order to set the NIS domainname
and start ypbind upon network
startup:nisdomainname="test-domain"
nis_client_enable="YES"To import all possible password entries from the NIS
server, remove all user accounts from your
/etc/master.passwd file and use
vipw to add the following line to
the end of the file:+:::::::::This line will afford anyone with a valid account in
the NIS server's password maps an account. There are
many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this
line. See the netgroups
section below for more information.
For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on
Managing NFS and NIS.You should keep at least one local account (i.e.
not imported via NIS) in your
/etc/master.passwd and this
account should also be a member of the group
wheel. If there is something
wrong with NIS, this account can be used to log in
remotely, become root, and fix things.To import all possible group entries from the NIS
server, add this line to your
/etc/group file:+:*::After completing these steps, you should be able to run
ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's
passwd map.NIS SecurityIn general, any remote user can issue an RPC to &man.ypserv.8; and
retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user
knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions,
&man.ypserv.8; supports a feature called securenets which can be used to
restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, &man.ypserv.8; will
attempt to load the securenets information from a file called
/var/yp/securenets.This path varies depending on the path specified with the
option. This file contains entries that
consist of a network specification and a network mask separated
by white space. Lines starting with # are
considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look
like this:# allow connections from local host -- mandatory
127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255
# allow connections from any host
# on the 192.168.128.0 network
192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0
# allow connections from any host
# between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255
# this includes the machines in the testlab
10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0If &man.ypserv.8; receives a request from an address that matches one
of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the
address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a
warning message will be logged. If the
/var/yp/securenets file does not exist,
ypserv will allow connections from any host.The ypserv program also has support for Wietse
Venema's
tcpwrapper package. This allows the
administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration
files for access control instead of
/var/yp/securenets.While both of these access control mechanisms provide some
security, they, like the privileged port test, are
vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. All
NIS-related traffic should be blocked at your firewall.Servers using /var/yp/securenets
may fail to serve legitimate NIS clients with archaic TCP/IP
implementations. Some of these implementations set all
host bits to zero when doing broadcasts and/or fail to
observe the subnet mask when calculating the broadcast
address. While some of these problems can be fixed by
changing the client configuration, other problems may force
the retirement of the client systems in question or the
abandonment of /var/yp/securenets.Using /var/yp/securenets on a
server with such an archaic implementation of TCP/IP is a
really bad idea and will lead to loss of NIS functionality
for large parts of your network.tcpwrapperThe use of the tcpwrapper
package increases the latency of your NIS server. The
additional delay may be long enough to cause timeouts in
client programs, especially in busy networks or with slow
NIS servers. If one or more of your client systems
suffers from these symptoms, you should convert the client
systems in question into NIS slave servers and force them
to bind to themselves.Barring Some Users from Logging OnIn our lab, there is a machine basie that is
supposed to be a faculty only workstation. We do not want to take this
machine out of the NIS domain, yet the passwd
file on the master NIS server contains accounts for both faculty and
students. What can we do?There is a way to bar specific users from logging on to a
machine, even if they are present in the NIS database. To do this,
all you must do is add
-username to the end of
the /etc/master.passwd file on the client
machine, where username is the username of
the user you wish to bar from logging in. This should preferably be
done using vipw, since vipw
will sanity check your changes to
/etc/master.passwd, as well as
automatically rebuild the password database when you
finish editing. For example, if we wanted to bar user
bill from logging on to basie
we would:basie&prompt.root; vipw[add -bill to the end, exit]
vipw: rebuilding the database...
vipw: done
basie&prompt.root; cat /etc/master.passwd
root:[password]:0:0::0:0:The super-user:/root:/bin/csh
toor:[password]:0:0::0:0:The other super-user:/root:/bin/sh
daemon:*:1:1::0:0:Owner of many system processes:/root:/sbin/nologin
operator:*:2:5::0:0:System &:/:/sbin/nologin
bin:*:3:7::0:0:Binaries Commands and Source,,,:/:/sbin/nologin
tty:*:4:65533::0:0:Tty Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
kmem:*:5:65533::0:0:KMem Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
games:*:7:13::0:0:Games pseudo-user:/usr/games:/sbin/nologin
news:*:8:8::0:0:News Subsystem:/:/sbin/nologin
man:*:9:9::0:0:Mister Man Pages:/usr/share/man:/sbin/nologin
bind:*:53:53::0:0:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
uucp:*:66:66::0:0:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico
xten:*:67:67::0:0:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/sbin/nologin
pop:*:68:6::0:0:Post Office Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
nobody:*:65534:65534::0:0:Unprivileged user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
+:::::::::
-bill
basie&prompt.root;UdoErdelhoffContributed by Using NetgroupsnetgroupsThe method shown in the previous section works reasonably
well if you need special rules for a very small number of
users and/or machines. On larger networks, you
will forget to bar some users from logging
onto sensitive machines, or you may even have to modify each
machine separately, thus losing the main benefit of NIS,
centralized administration.The NIS developers' solution for this problem is called
netgroups. Their purpose and semantics
can be compared to the normal groups used by Unix file
systems. The main differences are the lack of a numeric id
and the ability to define a netgroup by including both user
accounts and other netgroups.Netgroups were developed to handle large, complex networks
with hundreds of users and machines. On one hand, this is
a Good Thing if you are forced to deal with such a situation.
On the other hand, this complexity makes it almost impossible to
explain netgroups with really simple examples. The example
used in the remainder of this section demonstrates this
problem.Let us assume that your successful introduction of NIS in
your laboratory caught your superiors' interest. Your next
job is to extend your NIS domain to cover some of the other
machines on campus. The two tables contain the names of the
new users and new machines as well as brief descriptions of
them.User Name(s)Descriptionalpha, betaNormal employees of the IT departmentcharlie, deltaThe new apprentices of the IT departmentecho, foxtrott, golf, ...Ordinary employeesable, baker, ...The current internsMachine Name(s)Descriptionwar, death, famine, pollutionYour most important servers. Only the IT
employees are allowed to log onto these
machines.pride, greed, envy, wrath, lust, slothLess important servers. All members of the IT
department are allowed to login onto these machines.one, two, three, four, ...Ordinary workstations. Only the
real employees are allowed to use
these machines.trashcanA very old machine without any critical data.
Even the intern is allowed to use this box.If you tried to implement these restrictions by separately
blocking each user, you would have to add one
-user line to each system's
passwd
for each user who is not allowed to login onto that system.
If you forget just one entry, you could be in trouble. It may
be feasible to do this correctly during the initial setup,
however you will eventually forget to add
the lines for new users during day-to-day operations. After
all, Murphy was an optimist.Handling this situation with netgroups offers several
advantages. Each user need not be handled separately;
you assign a user to one or more netgroups and allow or forbid
logins for all members of the netgroup. If you add a new
machine, you will only have to define login restrictions for
netgroups. If a new user is added, you will only have to add
the user to one or more netgroups. Those changes are
independent of each other; no more for each combination
of user and machine do... If your NIS setup is planned
carefully, you will only have to modify exactly one central
configuration file to grant or deny access to machines.The first step is the initialization of the NIS map
netgroup. FreeBSD's &man.ypinit.8; does not create this map by
default, but its NIS implementation will support it once it has
been created. To create an empty map, simply typeellington&prompt.root; vi /var/yp/netgroupand start adding content. For our example, we need at
least four netgroups: IT employees, IT apprentices, normal
employees and interns.IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain)
IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain)
USERS (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain) \
(,golf,test-domain)
INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain)IT_EMP, IT_APP etc.
are the names of the netgroups. Each bracketed group adds
one or more user accounts to it. The three fields inside a
group are:The name of the host(s) where the following items are
valid. If you do not specify a hostname, the entry is
valid on all hosts. If you do specify a hostname, you
will enter a realm of darkness, horror and utter confusion.The name of the account that belongs to this
netgroup.The NIS domain for the account. You can import
accounts from other NIS domains into your netgroup if you
are one of unlucky fellows with more than one NIS
domain.Each of these fields can contain wildcards. See
&man.netgroup.5; for details.netgroupsNetgroup names longer than 8 characters should not be
used, especially if you have machines running other
operating systems within your NIS domain. The names are
case sensitive; using capital letters for your netgroup
names is an easy way to distinguish between user, machine
and netgroup names.Some NIS clients (other than FreeBSD) cannot handle
netgroups with a large number of entries. For example, some
older versions of SunOS start to cause trouble if a netgroup
contains more than 15 entries. You can
circumvent this limit by creating several sub-netgroups with
15 users or less and a real netgroup that consists of the
sub-netgroups:BIGGRP1 (,joe1,domain) (,joe2,domain) (,joe3,domain) [...]
BIGGRP2 (,joe16,domain) (,joe17,domain) [...]
BIGGRP3 (,joe31,domain) (,joe32,domain)
BIGGROUP BIGGRP1 BIGGRP2 BIGGRP3You can repeat this process if you need more than 225
users within a single netgroup.Activating and distributing your new NIS map is
easy:ellington&prompt.root; cd /var/yp
ellington&prompt.root; makeThis will generate the three NIS maps
netgroup,
netgroup.byhost and
netgroup.byuser. Use &man.ypcat.1; to
check if your new NIS maps are available:ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup
ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byhost
ellington&prompt.user; ypcat -k netgroup.byuserThe output of the first command should resemble the
contents of /var/yp/netgroup. The second
command will not produce output if you have not specified
host-specific netgroups. The third command can be used to
get the list of netgroups for a user.The client setup is quite simple. To configure the server
war, you only have to start
&man.vipw.8; and replace the line+:::::::::with+@IT_EMP:::::::::Now, only the data for the users defined in the netgroup
IT_EMP is imported into
war's password database and only
these users are allowed to login.Unfortunately, this limitation also applies to the ~
function of the shell and all routines converting between user
names and numerical user ids. In other words,
cd ~user will not work,
ls -l will show the numerical id instead of
the username and find . -user joe -print will
fail with No such user. To fix this, you will
have to import all user entries without allowing them
to login onto your servers.This can be achieved by adding another line to
/etc/master.passwd. This line should
contain +:::::::::/sbin/nologin, meaning
Import all entries but replace the shell with
/sbin/nologin in the imported
entries. You can replace any field
in the passwd entry by placing a default value in your
/etc/master.passwd.Make sure that the line
+:::::::::/sbin/nologin is placed after
+@IT_EMP:::::::::. Otherwise, all user
accounts imported from NIS will have /sbin/nologin as their
login shell.After this change, you will only have to change one NIS
map if a new employee joins the IT department. You could use
a similar approach for the less important servers by replacing
the old +::::::::: in their local version
of /etc/master.passwd with something like
this:+@IT_EMP:::::::::
+@IT_APP:::::::::
+:::::::::/sbin/nologinThe corresponding lines for the normal workstations
could be:+@IT_EMP:::::::::
+@USERS:::::::::
+:::::::::/sbin/nologinAnd everything would be fine until there is a policy
change a few weeks later: The IT department starts hiring
interns. The IT interns are allowed to use the normal
workstations and the less important servers; and the IT
apprentices are allowed to login onto the main servers. You
add a new netgroup IT_INTERN, add the new IT interns to this
netgroup and start to change the config on each and every
machine... As the old saying goes: Errors in
centralized planning lead to global mess.NIS' ability to create netgroups from other netgroups can
be used to prevent situations like these. One possibility
is the creation of role-based netgroups. For example, you
could create a netgroup called
BIGSRV to define the login
restrictions for the important servers, another netgroup
called SMALLSRV for the less
important servers and a third netgroup called
USERBOX for the normal
workstations. Each of these netgroups contains the netgroups
that are allowed to login onto these machines. The new
entries for your NIS map netgroup should look like this:BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP
SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN
USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERSThis method of defining login restrictions works
reasonably well if you can define groups of machines with
identical restrictions. Unfortunately, this is the exception
and not the rule. Most of the time, you will need the ability
to define login restrictions on a per-machine basis.Machine-specific netgroup definitions are the other
possibility to deal with the policy change outlined above. In
this scenario, the /etc/master.passwd of
each box contains two lines starting with ``+''. The first of
them adds a netgroup with the accounts allowed to login onto
this machine, the second one adds all other accounts with
/sbin/nologin as shell. It is a good
idea to use the ALL-CAPS version of the machine name as the
name of the netgroup. In other words, the lines should look
like this:+@BOXNAME:::::::::
+:::::::::/sbin/nologinOnce you have completed this task for all your machines,
you will not have to modify the local versions of
/etc/master.passwd ever again. All
further changes can be handled by modifying the NIS map. Here
is an example of a possible netgroup map for this
scenario with some additional goodies.# Define groups of users first
IT_EMP (,alpha,test-domain) (,beta,test-domain)
IT_APP (,charlie,test-domain) (,delta,test-domain)
DEPT1 (,echo,test-domain) (,foxtrott,test-domain)
DEPT2 (,golf,test-domain) (,hotel,test-domain)
DEPT3 (,india,test-domain) (,juliet,test-domain)
ITINTERN (,kilo,test-domain) (,lima,test-domain)
D_INTERNS (,able,test-domain) (,baker,test-domain)
#
# Now, define some groups based on roles
USERS DEPT1 DEPT2 DEPT3
BIGSRV IT_EMP IT_APP
SMALLSRV IT_EMP IT_APP ITINTERN
USERBOX IT_EMP ITINTERN USERS
#
# And a groups for a special tasks
# Allow echo and golf to access our anti-virus-machine
SECURITY IT_EMP (,echo,test-domain) (,golf,test-domain)
#
# machine-based netgroups
# Our main servers
WAR BIGSRV
FAMINE BIGSRV
# User india needs access to this server
POLLUTION BIGSRV (,india,test-domain)
#
# This one is really important and needs more access restrictions
DEATH IT_EMP
#
# The anti-virus-machine mentioned above
ONE SECURITY
#
# Restrict a machine to a single user
TWO (,hotel,test-domain)
# [...more groups to follow]If you are using some kind of database to manage your user
accounts, you should be able to create the first part of the
map with your database's report tools. This way, new users
will automatically have access to the boxes.One last word of caution: It may not always be advisable
to use machine-based netgroups. If you are deploying a couple
dozen or even hundreds of identical machines for student labs,
you should use role-based netgroups instead of machine-based
netgroups to keep the size of the NIS map within reasonable
limits.Important Things to RememberThere are still a couple of things that you will need to do
differently now that you are in an NIS environment.Every time you wish to add a user to the lab, you
must add it to the master NIS server only,
and you must remember to rebuild the NIS
maps. If you forget to do this, the new user will
not be able to login anywhere except on the NIS master.
For example, if we needed to add a new user
jsmith to the lab, we would:&prompt.root; pw useradd jsmith
&prompt.root; cd /var/yp
&prompt.root; make test-domainYou could also run adduser jsmith instead
of pw useradd jsmith.Keep the administration accounts out of the NIS
maps. You do not want to be propagating administrative
accounts and passwords to machines that will have users that
should not have access to those accounts.Keep the NIS master and slave
secure, and minimize their downtime.
If somebody either hacks or simply turns off
these machines, they have effectively rendered many people without
the ability to login to the lab.This is the chief weakness of any centralized administration
system, and it is probably the most important weakness. If you do
not protect your NIS servers, you will have a lot of angry
users!NIS v1 Compatibility FreeBSD's ypserv has some support
for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only
uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include
support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older
systems. The ypbind daemons supplied
with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1
server even though they may never actually need it (and they may
persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a
response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal
client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle
v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it cannot be used as a
master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only
support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any
such servers still in use today.NIS Servers that are also NIS Clients Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server
domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is
generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves
rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly
become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if
one server goes down and others are dependent upon on it.
Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to
other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the
failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each
other all over again.You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running
ypbind with the
flag. If you do not want to do this manually each time you
reboot your NIS server, you can add the following lines to
your /etc/rc.conf:nis_client_enable="YES" # run client stuff as well
nis_client_flags="-S NIS domain,server"See &man.ypbind.8; for further information.libscrypt v.s. libdescryptNIScrypto libraryOne of the most common issues that people run into when trying
to implement NIS is crypt library compatibility. If your NIS
server is using the DES crypt libraries, it will only support
clients that are using DES as well. To check which one your server
and clients are using look at the symlinks in
/usr/lib. If the machine is configured to
use the DES libraries, it will look something like this:&prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt*
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.a@ -> libdescrypt.a
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so.2@ -> libdescrypt.so.2
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt_p.a@ -> libdescrypt_p.a
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 13018 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.a
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 16 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so.2
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 12965 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt.so.2
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 14750 Nov 8 14:27 libdescrypt_p.aIf the machine is configured to use the standard FreeBSD MD5
crypt libraries they will look something like this:&prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt*
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.a@ -> libscrypt.a
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt.so.2@ -> libscrypt.so.2
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 libcrypt_p.a@ -> libscrypt_p.a
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6194 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.a
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 14 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so.2
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 7579 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt.so.2
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6684 Nov 8 14:27 libscrypt_p.aIf you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this
is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems.
If you want to deploy an NIS server for a heterogenous
network, you will probably have to use DES on all systems
because it is the lowest common standard.GregSutterWritten by DHCPWhat Is DHCP?Dynamic Host Configuration ProtocolDHCPInternet Software Consortium (ISC)DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes
the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the
necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD
uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so
all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC
distribution.What this Section CoversThis section attempts to describe only the parts
of the DHCP system that are integrated with FreeBSD;
consequently, the server portions are not described. The DHCP
manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful
resources.How It WorksUDPWhen dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on
the client
machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration
information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The
server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and
other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and
DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP
"lease" and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the
DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for
clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically
reclaimed.DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from
the server. An exhaustive list may be found in
&man.dhcp-options.5;.FreeBSD IntegrationFreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client,
dhclient. DHCP client support is provided
within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need
for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network
that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been
included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2.sysinstallDHCP is supported by sysinstall.
When configuring a network interface within sysinstall,
the first question asked is, "Do you want to try DHCP
configuration of this interface?" Answering affirmatively will
execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill
in the network configuration information automatically.There are two things you must do to have your system use
DHCP upon startup:DHCPrequirementsMake sure that the bpf
device is compiled into your kernel. To do this, add
pseudo-device bpf to your kernel
configuration file, and rebuild the kernel. For more
information about building kernels, see .The bpf device is already
part of the GENERIC kernel that is
supplied with FreeBSD, so if you do not have a custom
kernel, you should not need to create one in order to get
DHCP working.For those who are particularly security conscious,
you should be warned that bpf
is also the device that allows packet sniffers to work
correctly (although they still have to be run as
root). bpfis required to use DHCP, but if
you are very sensitive about security, you probably
should not add bpf to your
kernel in the expectation that at some point in the
future you will be using DHCP.Edit your /etc/rc.conf to
include the following:ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP"Be sure to replace fxp0 with the
designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically
configure.If you are using a different location for
dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional
flags to dhclient, also include the
following (editing as necessary):dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient"
dhcp_flags=""DHCPserverThe DHCP server, dhcpd, is included
as part of the isc-dhcp2 port in the ports
collection. This port contains the full ISC DHCP distribution,
consisting of client, server, relay agent and documentation.
FilesDHCPconfiguration files/etc/dhclient.confdhclient requires a configuration file,
/etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file
contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This
configuration file is described by the &man.dhclient.conf.5;
manual page./sbin/dhclientdhclient is statically linked and
resides in /sbin. The &man.dhclient.8;
manual page gives more information about
dhclient./sbin/dhclient-scriptdhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific
DHCP client configuration script. It is described in
&man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user
modification to function properly./var/db/dhclient.leasesThe DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this
file, which is written as a log. &man.dhclient.leases.5;
gives a slightly longer description.Further ReadingThe DHCP protocol is fully described in
RFC 2131.
An informational resource has also been set up at
dhcp.org.ChernLeeContributed by DNSOverviewBINDFreeBSD utilizes, by default, a version of BIND (Berkeley
Internet Name Domain), which is the most common implementation of the
DNS protocol. DNS is the protocol through which names are mapped to
IP addresses, and vice versa. For example, a query for
www.FreeBSD.org
will receive a reply with the IP address of The FreeBSD Project's
web server, whereas, a query for ftp.FreeBSD.org
will return the IP
address of the corresponding FTP machine. Likewise, the opposite can
happen. A query for an IP address can resolve its hostname. It is
not necessary to run a name server to perform DNS lookups on a system.
DNSDNS is coordinated across the Internet through a somewhat
complex system of authoritative root name servers, and other
smaller-scale name servers who host and cache individual domain
information.
This document refers to BIND 8.x, as it is the stable version
used in FreeBSD. BIND 9.x in FreeBSD can be installed through
the net/bind9 port.
RFC1034 and RFC1035 dictates the DNS protocol.
Currently, BIND is maintained by the
Internet Software Consortium (www.isc.org)TerminologyTo understand this document, some terms related to DNS must be
understood.TermDefinitionforward DNSmapping of hostnames to IP addressesoriginrefers to the domain covered for the particular zone
filenamed, bind, name servercommon names for the BIND name server package within
FreeBSDresolverresolvera system process through which a
machine queries a name server for zone informationreverse DNSreverse DNSthe opposite of forward DNS, mapping of IP addresses to
hostnamesroot zoneroot zoneliterally, a ., refers to the
root, or beginning zone. All zones fall under this, as
do all files in fall under the root directory. It is
the beginning of the Internet zone hierarchy.zoneEach individual domain, subdomain, or area dictated by
DNSzonesexamplesExamples of zones:
. is the root zoneorg. is a zone under the root zoneexample.org is a zone under the org. zonefoo.example.org. is a subdomain, a zone under the
example.org. zone
1.2.3.in-addr.arpa is a zone referencing all IP addresses
which fall under the 3.2.1.* IP space.
As one can see, the more specific part of a hostname appears to
its left. For example, example.org. is more
specific than org., as org. is
more specific than the root zone. The layout of each part of
a hostname is much like a filesystem: the /dev
directory falls within the root, and so on.Reasons to Run a Name ServerName servers usually come in two forms: an authoritative
name server, and a caching name server.An authoritative name server is needed when:one wants to serve DNS information to the
world, replying authoritatively to queries.a domain, such as example.org, is
registered and IP addresses need to be assigned to hostnames
under it.an IP address block requires reverse DNS entries (IP to
hostname).a backup name server, called a slave, must reply to queries
when the primary is down or inaccessible.A caching name server is needed when:a local DNS server may cache and respond more quickly
then querying an outside name server.a reduction in overall network traffic is desired. (DNS
traffic has been measured to account for 5% or more of total
Internet traffic)When one queries for www.FreeBSD.org, the
resolver usually queries the uplink ISP's name server, and retrieves
the reply. With a local, caching DNS server, the query only has to
be made once to the outside world by the caching DNS server. Every
additional query will not have to look to the outside of the local
network, since the information is cached locally.How It WorksIn FreeBSD, the BIND daemon is called
named for obvious reasons.FileDescriptionnamedthe BIND daemonndcname daemon control program/etc/namedbdirectory where BIND zone information resides/etc/namedb/named.confdaemon configuration file
Zone files are usually contained within the
/etc/namedb
directory, and contain the DNS zone information
served by the name server.
Starting BINDBINDstarting
Since BIND is installed by default, configuring it all is
relatively simple.
To ensure the named daemon is started at boot, put the following
modifications in /etc/rc.conf:
named_enable="YES"To start the daemon manually (after configuring it)&prompt.root; ndc startConfiguration FilesBINDconfiguration filesmake-localhostBe sure to:
&prompt.root; cd /etc/namedb
&prompt.root; sh make-localhostto properly create the local reverse DNS zone file in
/etc/namedb/localhost.rev.
/etc/namedb/named.conf// $FreeBSD$
//
// Refer to the named(8) manual page for details. If you are ever going
// to setup a primary server, make sure you've understood the hairy
// details of how DNS is working. Even with simple mistakes, you can
// break connectivity for affected parties, or cause huge amount of
// useless Internet traffic.
options {
directory "/etc/namedb";
// In addition to the "forwarders" clause, you can force your name
// server to never initiate queries of its own, but always ask its
// forwarders only, by enabling the following line:
//
// forward only;
// If you've got a DNS server around at your upstream provider, enter
// its IP address here, and enable the line below. This will make you
// benefit from its cache, thus reduce overall DNS traffic in the
Internet.
/*
forwarders {
127.0.0.1;
};
*/
Just as the comment says, to benefit from an uplink's cache,
forwarders can be enabled here. Under normal
circumstances, a name server will recursively query the Internet
looking at certain name servers until it finds the answer it is
looking for. Having this enabled will have it query the uplink's
name server (or name server provided) first, taking advantage of
its cache. If the uplink name server in question is a heavily
trafficked, fast name server, enabling this may be worthwhile.
127.0.0.1 will not work here.
Change this IP address to a name server at your uplink. /*
* If there is a firewall between you and name servers you want
* to talk to, you might need to uncomment the query-source
* directive below. Previous versions of BIND always asked
* questions using port 53, but BIND 8.1 uses an unprivileged
* port by default.
*/
// query-source address * port 53;
/*
* If running in a sandbox, you may have to specify a different
* location for the dumpfile.
*/
// dump-file "s/named_dump.db";
};
// Note: the following will be supported in a future release.
/*
host { any; } {
topology {
127.0.0.0/8;
};
};
*/
// Setting up secondaries is way easier and the rough picture for this
// is explained below.
//
// If you enable a local name server, don't forget to enter 127.0.0.1
// into your /etc/resolv.conf so this server will be queried first.
// Also, make sure to enable it in /etc/rc.conf.
zone "." {
type hint;
file "named.root";
};
zone "0.0.127.IN-ADDR.ARPA" {
type master;
file "localhost.rev";
};
zone
"0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.IP6.INT" {
type master;
file "localhost.rev";
};
// NB: Do not use the IP addresses below, they are faked, and only
// serve demonstration/documentation purposes!
//
// Example secondary config entries. It can be convenient to become
// a secondary at least for the zone where your own domain is in. Ask
// your network administrator for the IP address of the responsible
// primary.
//
// Never forget to include the reverse lookup (IN-ADDR.ARPA) zone!
// (This is the first bytes of the respective IP address, in reverse
// order, with ".IN-ADDR.ARPA" appended.)
//
// Before starting to setup a primary zone, better make sure you fully
// understand how DNS and BIND works, however. There are sometimes
// unobvious pitfalls. Setting up a secondary is comparably simpler.
//
// NB: Don't blindly enable the examples below. :-) Use actual names
// and addresses instead.
//
// NOTE!!! FreeBSD runs bind in a sandbox (see named_flags in rc.conf).
// The directory containing the secondary zones must be write accessible
// to bind. The following sequence is suggested:
//
// mkdir /etc/namedb/s
// chown bind:bind /etc/namedb/s
// chmod 750 /etc/namedb/sFor more information on running BIND in a sandbox, see
Running named in a sandbox.
/*
zone "domain.com" {
type slave;
file "s/domain.com.bak";
masters {
192.168.1.1;
};
};
zone "0.168.192.in-addr.arpa" {
type slave;
file "s/0.168.192.in-addr.arpa.bak";
masters {
192.168.1.1;
};
};
*/In named.conf, these are examples of slave
entries for a forward and reverse zone.For each new zone served, a new zone entry must be added to
named.confFor example, the simplest zone entry for example.org can
look like:zone "example.org" {
type master;
file "example.org";
};The zone is a master, as indicated by the
statement, holding its zone information in
/etc/namedb/example.org indicated by
the statement.zone "example.org" {
type slave;
file "example.org";
};In the slave case, the zone information is transferred from
the master name server for the particular zone, and saved in the
file specified. If and when the master server dies or is
unreachable, the slave name server will have the transferred
zone information and will be able to serve it.Zone Files
An example master zone file for example.org
(existing within /etc/namedb/example.org)
is as follows:
$TTL 3600
example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
5 ; Serial
10800 ; Refresh
3600 ; Retry
604800 ; Expire
86400 ) ; Minimum TTL
; DNS Servers
@ IN NS ns1.example.org.
@ IN NS ns2.example.org.
; Machine Names
localhost IN A 127.0.0.1
ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2
ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3
mail IN A 3.2.1.10
@ IN A 3.2.1.30
; Aliases
www IN CNAME @
; MX Record
@ IN MX 10 mail.example.org.
Note that every hostname ending in a . is an
exact hostname, whereas everything without a trailing
. is referenced to the origin. For example,
www is translated into www +
origin. In our fictitious zone file, our origin
is example.org., so
www would translate to
www.example.org.
The format of a zone file follows:
recordname IN recordtype valueDNSrecords
The most commonly used DNS records:
SOAstart of zone authorityNSan authoritative name serverAA host addressCNAMEthe canonical name for an aliasMXmail exchangePTRa domain name pointer (used in reverse DNS)
example.org. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
5 ; Serial
10800 ; Refresh after 3 hours
3600 ; Retry after 1 hour
604800 ; Expire after 1 week
86400 ) ; Minimum TTL of 1 dayexample.org.the domain name, also the origin for this
zone file.ns1.example.org.the primary/authoritative name server for this
zoneadmin.example.org.the responsible person for this zone,
email address with @
replaced. (admin@example.org becomes
admin.example.org)5the serial number of the file. this
must be incremented each time the zone file is modified.
Nowadays, many admins prefer a
yyyymmddrr format for the serial
number. 2001041002 would mean last modified 04/10/2001,
the latter 02 being the second time the zone file has
been modified this day. The serial number is important
as it alerts slave name servers for a zone when it is
updated.
@ IN NS ns1.example.org.
This is an NS entry. Every name server that is going to reply
authoritatively for the zone must have one of these entries.
The @ as seen here could have been
example.org.
The @ translates to the origin.
localhost IN A 127.0.0.1
ns1 IN A 3.2.1.2
ns2 IN A 3.2.1.3
mail IN A 3.2.1.10
@ IN A 3.2.1.30
The A record indicates machine names. As seen above,
ns1.example.org would resolve to
3.2.1.2. Again, the origin symbol, @, is
used here, thus meaning example.org
would resolve to 3.2.1.30.
www IN CNAME @
The canonical name record is usually used for giving aliases
to a machine. In the example, www is
aliased to the machine addressed to the origin, or
example.org (3.2.1.30).
CNAMEs can be used to provide alias
hostnames, or round robin one hostname among multiple
machines.
@ IN MX 10 mail.example.org.
The MX record indicates which mail servers are responsible
for handling incoming mail for the zone.
mail.example.org is the hostname of the mail server,
and 10 being the priority of that mail server.
One can have several mail servers, with priorities of 3, 2,
1. A mail server attempting to deliver to example.org
would first try the highest priority MX, then the second
highest, etc, until the mail can be properly delivered.
For in-addr.arpa zone files (reverse DNS), the same format is
used, except with PTR entries instead of
A or CNAME.
$TTL 3600
1.2.3.in-addr.arpa. IN SOA ns1.example.org. admin.example.org. (
5 ; Serial
10800 ; Refresh
3600 ; Retry
604800 ; Expire
3600 ) ; Minimum
@ IN NS ns1.example.org.
@ IN NS ns2.example.org.
2 IN PTR ns1.example.org.
3 IN PTR ns2.example.org.
10 IN PTR mail.example.org.
30 IN PTR example.org.
This file gives the proper IP address to hostname mappings of our above
fictitious domain.
Caching Name ServerBINDcaching name server
A caching name server is a name server that is not
authoritative for any zones. It simply asks queries of its own,
and remembers them for later use. To set one up, just configure
the name server as usual, omitting any inclusions of zones.
MikeMakonnenContributed by Running named in a SandboxBINDrunning in a sandboxchrootFor added security you may want to run &man.named.8; in a
sandbox. This will reduce the potential damage should it be
compromised. If you include a sandbox directory in its command
line, named will &man.chroot.8;
into that directory immediately upon finishing processing its
command line. It is also a good idea to have named run as a
non-privileged user in the sandbox. The default FreeBSD install
contains a user bind with group bind. If we wanted the sandbox in
the /etc/namedb/sandbox directory the command
line for named would look like this:
&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/named -u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb/sandbox <path_to_named.conf> The following steps should be taken in order to
successfully run named in a sandbox. Throughout the following
discussion we will assume the path to your sandbox is
/etc/namedb/sandboxCreate the sandbox directory:
/etc/namedb/sandboxCreate other necessary directories off of the sandbox
directory: etc and
var/runcopy /etc/localtime to
sandbox/etcmake bind:bind the owner of all files and directories in
the sandbox:
&prompt.root; chown -R bind:bind /etc/namedb/sandbox&prompt.root; chmod -R 750 /etc/namedb/sandboxThere are some issues you need to be aware of when running
named in a sandbox.Your &man.named.conf.5; file and all your zone files must
be in the sandbox
sandbox/etc/localtime is needed
in order to have the correct time for your time zone in
log messages. &man.named.8; will write its process id to a file in
sandbox/var/runThe Unix socket used for communication by the &man.ndc.8;
utility will be created in
sandbox/var/runWhen using the &man.ndc.8; utility you need to specify the
location of the Unix socket created in the sandbox, by
&man.named.8;, by using the -c switch:
&prompt.root; ndc -c /etc/namedb/sandbox/var/run/ndcIf you enable logging to file, the log files must be
in the sandbox&man.named.8; can be started in a sandbox properly, if the
following is in /etc/rc.conf:
named_flags="-u bind -g bind -t /etc/namedb/sandbox <path_to_named.conf>"How to Use the Name ServerIf setup properly, the name server should be accessible through
the network and locally. /etc/resolv.conf must
contain a name server entry with the local IP address so it will query the
local name server first.
To access it over the network, the machine must have the
name server's IP address set properly in its own name server
configuration options.
SecurityAlthough BIND is the most common implementation of DNS,
there is always the issue of security. Possible and
exploitable security holes are sometimes found.
It is a good idea to subscribe to CERT and
freebsd-announce
to stay up to date with the current Internet and FreeBSD security
issues.
If a problem arises, keeping sources up to date and having a
fresh build of named would not hurt.Further Reading
BIND/named manual pages: &man.ndc.8; &man.named.8; &man.named.conf.5;
Official ISC Bind
Page
BIND FAQO'Reilly
DNS and BIND 4th EditionRFC1034
- Domain Names - Concepts and FacilitiesRFC1035
- Domain Names - Implementation and SpecificationTomHukinsContributed by NTPNTPOverviewOver time, a computer's clock is prone to drift. As time
passes, the computer's clock becomes less accurate. NTP
(Network Time Protocol) is one way to ensure your clock is
right.Many Internet services rely on, or greatly benefit from,
computers' clocks being accurate. For example, a Web server
may receive requests to send a file if it has modified since a
certain time. Services such as &man.cron.8; run commands at a
given time. If the clock is inaccurate, these commands may
not run when expected.NTPntpdFreeBSD ships with the &man.ntpd.8; NTP server which can
be used to query other NTP servers to set the clock on your
machine or provide time services to others.Choosing Appropriate NTP ServersNTPchoosing serversIn order to synchronize your clock, you will need to find
one or more NTP servers to use. Your network administrator or
ISP may have setup an NTP server for this purpose—check
their documentation to see if this is the case. There is a
list of
publicly accessible NTP servers which you can use to
find an NTP server near to you. Make sure you are aware of
the policy for any servers you choose, and ask for permission
if required.Choosing several unconnected NTP servers is a good idea in
case one of the servers you are using becomes unreachable or
its clock is unreliable. &man.ntpd.8; uses the responses it
receives from other servers intelligently—it will favor
unreliable servers less than reliable ones.Configuring Your MachineNTPconfigurationBasic ConfigurationntpdateIf you only wish to synchronize your clock when the
machine boots up, you can use &man.ntpdate.8;. This may be
appropriate for some desktop machines which are frequently
rebooted and only require infrequent synchronization, but
most machines should run &man.ntpd.8;.Using &man.ntpdate.8; at boot time is also a good idea
for machines that run &man.ntpd.8;. &man.ntpd.8; changes the
clock gradually, whereas &man.ntpdate.8; sets the clock, no
matter how great the difference between a machine's current
clock setting and the correct time.To enable &man.ntpdate.8; at boot time, add
ntpdate_enable="YES" to
/etc/rc.conf. You will also need to
specify all servers you wish to synchronize with and any
flags to be passed to &man.ntpdate.8; in
ntpdate_flags.NTPntp.confGeneral ConfigurationNTP is configured by the
/etc/ntp.conf file in the format
described in &man.ntp.conf.5;. Here is a simple
example:server ntplocal.example.com prefer
server timeserver.example.org
server ntp2a.example.net
driftfile /var/db/ntp.driftThe server option specifies which
servers are to be used, with one server listed on each line.
If a server is specified with the prefer
argument, as with ntplocal.example.com, that server is
preferred over other servers. A response from a preferred
server will be discarded if it differs significantly from
other servers' responses, otherwise it will be used without
any consideration to other responses. The
prefer argument is normally used for NTP
servers that are known to be highly accurate, such as those
with special time monitoring hardware.The driftfile option specifies which
file is used to store the system clock's frequency offset.
&man.ntpd.8; uses this to automatically compensate for the
clock's natural drift, allowing it to maintain a reasonably
correct setting even if it is cut off from all external time
sources for a period of time.The driftfile option specifies which
file is used to store information about previous responses
from the NTP servers you are using. This file contains
internal information for NTP. It should not be modified by
any other process.Controlling Access to Your ServerBy default, your NTP server will be accessible to all
hosts on the Internet. The restrict
option in &man.ntp.conf.5; allows you to control which
machines can access your server.If you want to deny all machines from accessing your NTP
server, add the line restrict default ignore
to /etc/ntp.conf. If you only want to
allow machines within your own network to synchronize their
clocks with your server, but ensure they are not allowed to
configure the server or used as peers to synchronize
against, add restrict 192.168.1.0 mask 255.255.255.0 notrust nomodify notrap
instead, where 192.168.1.0 in
an IP address on your network and 255.255.255.0 is your network's
netmask./etc/ntp.conf can contain multiple
restrict options. For more details, see
the Access Control Support subsection of
&man.ntp.conf.5;.Running the NTP ServerTo ensure the NTP server is started at boot time, add the
line xntpd_enable="YES" to
/etc/rc.conf. If you wish to pass
additional flags to &man.ntpd.8; edit the
xntpd_flags parameter in
/etc/rc.conf.To start the server without rebooting your machine, run
ntpd being sure to specify any additional
parameters from xntpd_flags in
/etc/rc.conf. For example:&prompt.root; ntpd -p /var/run/ntpd.pidUsing &man.ntpd.8; with a temporary Internet
connectionntpd does not need a permanent
connection to the Internet to function properly. However, if
you have a temporary connection that is configured to dial out
on demand, it is a good idea to prevent NTP traffic from
triggering a dial out or keeping the connection alive. If you
are using user PPP, you can use filter
directives in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. For
example: set filter dial 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent NTP traffic from initiating dial out
set filter dial 1 permit 0 0
set filter alive 0 deny udp src eq 123 # Prevent incoming NTP traffic from keeping the connection open
set filter alive 1 deny udp dst eq 123 # Prevent outgoing NTP traffic from keeping the connection open
set filter alive 2 permit 0/0 0/0For more details see the PACKET
FILTERING section in &man.ppp.8; and the examples in
/usr/share/examples/ppp/.Some Internet access providers block low-numbered ports,
preventing NTP from from functioning since replies never
reach your machine.Further InformationDocumentation for the NTP server can be found in
/usr/share/doc/ntp/ in HTML
format.ChernLeeContributed by Network Address TranslationOverviewnatdFreeBSD's Network Address Translation daemon, commonly known as
&man.natd.8; is a daemon that accepts incoming raw IP packets,
changes the source to the local machine and re-injects these packets
back into the outgoing IP packet stream. natd does this by changing
the source IP address and port such that when data is received back, it is
able to determine the original location of the data and forward it
back to its original requester.Internet connection sharingIP masqueradingThe most common use of NAT is to perform what is commonly known as
Internet Connection Sharing.SetupDue to the diminishing IP space in IPv4, and the increased number
of users on high-speed consumer lines such as cable or DSL, people are
in more and more need of an Internet Connection Sharing solution. The
ability to connect several computers online through one connection and
IP address makes &man.natd.8; a reasonable choice.Most commonly, a user has a machine connected to a cable or DSL
line with one IP address and wishes to use this one connected computer to
provide Internet access to several more over a LAN.To do this, the FreeBSD machine on the Internet must act as a
gateway. This gateway machine must have two NICs--one for connecting
to the Internet router, the other connecting to a LAN. All the
machines on the LAN are connected through a hub or switch. _______ __________ ________
| | | | | |
| Hub |-----| Client B |-----| Router |----- Internet
|_______| |__________| |________|
|
____|_____
| |
| Client A |
|__________|Network LayoutWith this setup, the machine without Internet access can use
the machine with access as a gateway to access the outside
world.kernelconfigurationConfigurationThe following options must be in the kernel configuration
file:options IPFIREWALL
options IPDIVERTAdditionally, at choice, the following may also be suitable:options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT
options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSEThe following must be in /etc/rc.conf:gateway_enable="YES"
firewall_enable="YES"
firewall_type="OPEN"
natd_enable="YES"
natd_interface="fxp0"
natd_flags=""gateway_enable="YES"Sets up the machine to act as a gateway. Running
sysctl -w net.inet.ip.forwarding=1
would have the same effect.firewall_enable="YES"Enables the firewall rules in
/etc/rc.firewall at boot.firewall_type="OPEN"This specifies a predefined firewall ruleset that
allows anything in. See
/etc/rc.firewall for additional
types.natd_interface="fxp0"Indicates which interface to forward packets through.
(the interface connected to the Internet)natd_flags=""Any additional configuration options passed to
&man.natd.8; on boot.Having the previous options defined in
/etc/rc.conf would run
natd -interface fxp0 at boot. This can also
be run manually.Each machine and interface behind the LAN should be assigned IP address
numbers in the private network space as defined by
RFC 1918
and have a default gateway of the natd machine's internal IP address.For example, client a and b behind the LAN have IP addresses of 192.168.0.2
and 192.168.0.3, while the natd machine's LAN interface has an IP address of
192.168.0.1. Client a and b's default gateway must be set to that of
the natd machine, 192.168.0.1. The natd machine's external, or
Internet interface does not require any special modification for natd
to work.Port RedirectionThe drawback with natd is that the LAN clients are not accessible
from the Internet. Clients on the LAN can make outgoing connections to
the world but cannot receive incoming ones. This presents a problem
if trying to run Internet services on one of the LAN client machines.
A simple way around this is to redirect selected Internet ports on the
natd machine to a LAN client.
For example, an IRC server runs on Client A, and a web server runs
on Client B. For this to work properly, connections received on ports
6667 (irc) and 80 (web) must be redirected to the respective machines.
The -redirect_port must be passed to
&man.natd.8; with the proper options. The syntax is as follows: -redirect_port proto targetIP:targetPORT[-targetPORT]
[aliasIP:]aliasPORT[-aliasPORT]
[remoteIP[:remotePORT[-remotePORT]]]In the above example, the argument should be:
-redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.2:6667 6667
-redirect_port tcp 192.168.0.3:80 80
This will redirect the proper tcp ports to the
LAN client machines.
The -redirect_port argument can be used to indicate port
ranges over individual ports. For example, tcp
192.168.0.2:2000-3000 2000-3000 would redirect
all connections received on ports 2000 to 3000 to ports 2000
to 3000 on Client A.These options can be used when directly running
&man.natd.8; or placed within the
natd_flags="" option in
/etc/rc.conf.For further configuration options, consult &man.natd.8;Address Redirectionaddress redirectionAddress redirection is useful if several IP addresses are available, yet
they must be on one machine. With this, &man.natd.8; can assign each
LAN client its own external IP address. &man.natd.8; then rewrites outgoing
packets from the LAN clients with the proper external IP address and redirects
all traffic incoming on that particular IP address back to the specific LAN
client. This is also known as static NAT. For example, the IP addresses
128.1.1.1, 128.1.1.2, and 128.1.1.3 belong to the natd gateway
machine. 128.1.1.1 can be used as the natd gateway machine's external
IP address, while 128.1.1.2 and 128.1.1.3 are forwarded back to LAN
clients A and B.The -redirect_address syntax is as follows:localIPThe internal IP address of the LAN client.publicIPThe external IP address corresponding to the LAN client.In the example, this argument would read:Like -redirect_port, these arguments are also placed within
natd_flags of /etc/rc.conf. With address
redirection, there is no need for port redirection since all data
received on a particular IP address is redirected.The external IP addresses on the natd machine must be active and aliased
to the external interface. Look at &man.rc.conf.5; to do so.ChernLeeContributed by inetd Super-ServerOverview&man.inetd.8; is referred to as the Internet
Super-Server because it manages connections for several
daemons. Programs that provide network service are commonly
known as daemons. inetd serves as a
managing server for other daemons. When a connection is
received by inetd, it determines
which daemon the connection is destined for, spawns the
particular daemon and delegates the socket to it. Running one
instance of inetd reduces the overall
system load as compared to running each daemon individually in
stand-alone mode.Primarily, inetd is used to
spawn other daemons, but several trivial protocols are handled
directly, such as chargen,
auth, and
daytime.This section will cover the basics in configuring
inetd through its command-line
options and its configuration file,
/etc/inetd.conf.Settingsinetd is initialized through
the /etc/rc.conf system. The
inetd_enable option is set to
NO by default, but is often times turned on by
sysinstall with the medium security
profile. Placing:
inetd_enable="YES" or
inetd_enable="NO" into
/etc/rc.conf can enable or disable
inetd starting at boot time.Additionally, different command-line options can be passed
to inetd via the
inetd_flags option.Command-Line Optionsinetd sypnosis:-dTurn on debugging.-lTurn on logging of successful connections.-wTurn on TCP Wrapping for external services. (on by
default)-WTurn on TCP Wrapping for internal services which are
built in to inetd. (on by
default)-c maximumSpecify the default maximum number of simultaneous
invocations of each service; the default is unlimited.
May be overridden on a per-service basis with the
parameter.-C rateSpecify the default maximum number of times a
service can be invoked from a single IP address in one
minute; the default is unlimited. May be overridden on a
per-service basis with the
parameter.-R rateSpecify the maximum number of times a service can be
invoked in one minute; the default is 256. A rate of 0
allows an unlimited number of invocations.-aSpecify one specific IP address to bind to.
Alternatively, a hostname can be specified, in which case
the IPv4 or IPv6 address which corresponds to that
hostname is used. Usually a hostname is specified when
inetd is run inside a
&man.jail.8;, in which case the hostname corresponds to
the &man.jail.8; environment.When hostname specification is used and both IPv4
and IPv6 bindings are desired, one entry with the
appropriate protocol type for each binding is required for
each service in /etc/inetd.conf. For
example, a TCP-based service would need two entries, one
using ``tcp4'' for the protocol and the other using
``tcp6''.-pSpecify an alternate file in which to store the
process ID.These options can be passed to
inetd using the
inetd_flags option in
/etc/rc.conf. By default,
inetd_flags is set to -wW,
which turns on TCP wrapping for
inetd's internal and external
services. For novice users, these parameters usually do not need
to be modified or even entered in
/etc/rc.confAn external service is a daemon outside of
inetd, which is invoked when a
connection is received for it. On the other hand, an internal
service is one that inetd has the
facility of offering within itself.inetd.confConfiguration of inetd is
controlled through the /etc/inetd.conf
file.When a modification is made to
/etc/inetd.conf,
inetd can be forced to re-read its
configuration file by sending a HangUP signal to the
inetd process as shown:Sending inetd a HangUP Signal&prompt.root kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`Each line of the configuration file specifies an
individual daemon. Comments in the file are preceded by a
#. The format of
/etc/inetd.conf is as follows:service-name
socket-type
protocol
{wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]]
user[:group][/login-class]
server-program
server-program-argumentsAn example entry for the ftpd daemon
using IPv4:ftp stream tcp nowait root /usr/libexec/ftpd ftpd -lservice-nameThis is the service name of the particular daemon.
It must correspond to a service listed in
/etc/services. This determines which
port inetd must listen to. If
a new service is being created, it must be placed in
/etc/services
first.socket-typeEither stream,
dgram, raw, or
seqpacket. stream
must be used for connection-based, TCP daemons, while
dgram is used for daemons utilizing the
UDP transport protocol.protocolOne of the following:ProtocolExplanationtcp, tcp4TCP IPv4udp, udp4UDP IPv4tcp6TCP IPv6udp6UDP IPv6tcp46Both TCP IPv4 and v6udp46Both UDP IPv4 and v6{wait|nowait}[/max-child[/max-connections-per-ip-per-minute]] indicates whether the
daemon invoked from inetd is
able to handle its own socket or not.
socket types must use the wait
option, while stream socket daemons, which are usually
multi-threaded, should use .
usually hands off multiple sockets
to a single daemon, while spawns a
child daemon for each new socket.The maximum number of child daemons
inetd may spawn can be set using
the option. If a limit of ten
instances of a particular daemon is needed, a
/10 would be placed after
.In addition to another
option limiting the maximum connections from a single
place to a particular daemon can be enabled.
does
just this. A value of ten here would limit any particular
IP address connecting to a particular service to ten
attempts per minute. This is useful to prevent
intentional or unintentional resource consumption and
Denial of Service (DoS) attacks to a machine.In this field, or
is mandatory.
and
are
optional.A stream-type multi-threaded daemon without any
or
limits
would simply be: nowaitThe same daemon with a maximum limit of ten daemons
would read: nowait/10Additionally, the same setup with a limit of twenty
connections per IP address per minute and a maximum
total limit of ten child daemons would read:
nowait/10/20These options are all utilized by the default
settings of the fingerd daemon,
as seen here:finger stream tcp nowait/3/10 nobody /usr/libexec/fingerd fingerd -suserThe user is the username that the particular daemon
should run as. Most commonly, daemons run as the
root user. For security purposes, it is
common to find some servers running as the
daemon user, or the least privileged
nobody user.server-programThe full path of the daemon to be executed when a
connection is received. If the daemon is a service
provided by inetd internally,
then should be
used.server-program-argumentsThis works in conjunction with
by specifying the
arguments, starting with argv[0], passed to the daemon on
invocation. If mydaemon -d is
the command line, mydaemon -d would be
the value of .
Again, if the daemon is an internal service, use
here.SecurityDepending on the security profile chosen at install, many
of inetd's daemons may be enabled by
default. If there is no apparent need for a particular daemon,
disable it! Place a # in front of the daemon in
question, and send a hangup signal
to inetd.
Some daemons, such as fingerd, may
not be desired at all because they provide an attacker with too
much information.Some daemons are not security-conscious and have long, or
non-existent timeouts for connection attempts. This allows an
attacker to slowly send connections to a particular daemon, thus
saturating available resources. It may be a good idea to place
and
limitations on certain daemons.By default, TCP wrapping is turned on. Consult the
&man.hosts.access.5; manual page for more information on placing
TCP restrictions on various inetd
invoked daemons.Miscellaneousdaytime,
time,
echo,
discard,
chargen, and
auth are all internally provided
services of inetd.The auth service provides identity
(ident, identd) network services, and is configurable to a certain
degree.Consult the &man.inetd.8; manual page for more in-depth
information.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml
index 1e1e158f34..d992f7d9ee 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,970 +1,970 @@
ChernLeeWritten by MikeSmithBased on a tutorial written by MattDillonAlso based on tuning(7) written by Configuration and TuningSynopsissystem configuration/optimizationConfiguring a system correctly can substantially reduce the
amount of work involved in maintaining and upgrading it
in the future. This chapter describes some of the aspects of
administrative configuration of FreeBSD systems.This chapter will also describe some of the parameters that
can be set to tune a FreeBSD system for optimum
performance.After reading this chapter, you will know:Why and how to efficiently size, layout, and place
filesystems and swap partition on your hard drive.The basics of the rc.conf configuration and
/usr/local/etc/rc.d startup systems.How to configure virtual hosts on your network device.How to use the various configuration files in
/etc.How to tune FreeBSD using sysctl variables.How to tune disk performance and modify kernel
limitations.Before reading this chapter, you should:Understand the basics of Unix and FreeBSD ().Be familiar with keeping FreeBSD sources up to date
(), and
the basics of kernel configuration/compilation
().Initial ConfigurationPartition LayoutPartition layout/etc/var/usrBase PartitionsWhen laying out your filesystem with &man.disklabel.8;
or &man.sysinstall.8;, it is important to remember that hard
drives can transfer data at a faster rate from the outer
tracks than the inner. Knowing this, you should place your
smaller, heavily-accessed filesystems, such as root and swap,
closer to the outside of the drive, while placing larger
partitions, such as /usr, towards the
inner. To do so, it is
a good idea to create partitions in a similar order: root,
swap, /var,
/usr.The size of your /var partition
reflects the intended use of your machine.
/var is primarily used to hold:
mailboxes, print spool and log files. Mail boxes and log
files, in particular, can grow to unexpected sizes based upon
how many users are on your system and how long your log files
are kept. If you intend to run a mail server, a
/var partition of over a gigabyte can be
suitable. Additionally, /var/tmp must be
large enough to contain any packages you may wish to
add.The /usr partition holds the bulk
of the files required to support the system and a
subdirectory within it called
/usr/local holds the bulk of the files
installed from the &man.ports.7; hierarchy. If you do not
use ports all that much and do not intend to keep system
source (/usr/src) on the machine,
you can get away with a 1
gigabyte /usr partition. However,
if you install a lot of
ports (especially window managers and Linux binaries), we
recommend at least a two gigabyte /usr
and if you also
intend to keep system source on the machine, we recommend a
three gigabyte /usr. Do not
underestimate the amount of space you will need in this
partition, it can creep up and surprise you!When sizing your partitions, keep in mind the space
requirements for your system to grow. Running out of space in
one partition while having plenty in another can lead to much
frustration.Some users who have used &man.sysinstall.8;'s
Auto-defaults partition sizer have found
either their root or /var partitions too
small later on. Partition wisely and
generously.Swap Partitionswap sizingswap partitionAs a rule of thumb, your swap space should typically be
double the amount of main memory. For example, if the machine
has 128 megabytes of memory, the swap file should be 256
megabytes. Systems with lesser memory may perform better with
a lot more swap. It is not recommended that you configure any
less than 256 megabytes of swap on a system and you should
keep in mind future memory expansion when sizing the swap
partition. The kernel's VM paging algorithms are tuned to
perform best when the swap partition is at least two times the
size of main memory. Configuring too little swap can lead to
inefficiencies in the VM page scanning code as well as create
issues later on if you add more memory to your machine.Finally, on larger systems with multiple SCSI disks (or
multiple IDE disks operating on different controllers), it is
strongly recommend that you configure swap on each drive (up
to four drives). The swap partitions on the drives should be
approximately the same size. The kernel can handle arbitrary
sizes but internal data structures scale to 4 times the
largest swap partition. Keeping the swap partitions near the
same size will allow the kernel to optimally stripe swap space
across the disks. Do not worry about overdoing it a little,
swap space is the saving grace of Unix. Even if you do not
normally use much swap, it can give you more time to recover
from a runaway program before being forced to reboot.Why Partition? Why partition at all? Why not create one big root
partition and be done with it? Then I do not have to worry
about undersizing things!There are several reasons this is not a good idea.
First, each partition has different operational
characteristics and separating them allows the filesystem to
tune itself to those characteristics. For example, the root
and /usr partitions are read-mostly, with
very little writing, while a lot of reading and writing could
occur in /var and
/var/tmp.By properly partitioning your system, fragmentation
introduced in the smaller more heavily write-loaded partitions
will not bleed over into the mostly-read partitions.
Additionally, keeping the write-loaded partitions closer to
the edge of the disk, for example before the really big
partition instead of after in the partition table, will
increase I/O performance in the partitions where you need it
the most. Now it is true that you might also need I/O
performance in the larger partitions, but they are so large
that shifting them more towards the edge of the disk will not
lead to a significant performance improvement whereas moving
/var to the edge can have a huge impact.
Finally, there are safety concerns. Having a small neat root
partition that is essentially read-only gives it a greater
chance of surviving a bad crash intact.Core Configurationrc filesrc.confThe principal location for system configuration information
is within /etc/rc.conf. This file
contains a wide range of configuration information, principally
used at system startup to configure the system. Its name
directly implies this; it is configuration information for the
rc* files.An administrator should make entries in the
rc.conf file to
override the default settings from
/etc/defaults/rc.conf. The defaults file
should not be copied verbatim to /etc - it
contains default values, not examples. All system-specific
changes should be made in the rc.conf
file itself.A number of strategies may be applied in clustered
applications to separate site-wide configuration from
system-specific configuration in order to keep administration
overhead down. The recommended approach is to place site-wide
configuration into another file,
such as /etc/rc.conf.site, and then include
this file into /etc/rc.conf, which will
contain only system-specific information.As rc.conf is read by &man.sh.1; it is
trivial to achieve this. For example:rc.conf: . rc.conf.site
- hostname="node15.webcompany.com"
+ hostname="node15.example.com"
network_interfaces="fxp0 lo0"
ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1"rc.conf.site: defaultrouter="10.1.1.254"
saver="daemon"
blanktime="100"The rc.conf.site file can then be
distributed to every system using rsync or similar
program, whilst the rc.conf file remains
unique.Upgrading the system using &man.sysinstall.8;
or make world will not overwrite the
rc.conf
file, so system configuration information will not be lost.Application ConfigurationTypically, installed applications have their own
configuration files, with their own syntax, etc. It is
important that these files be kept separate from the base
system, so that they may be easily located and managed by the
package management tools./usr/local/etcTypically, these files are installed in
/usr/local/etc. In the case where an
application has a large number of configuration files, a
subdirectory will be created to hold them.Normally, when a port or package is installed, sample
configuration files are also installed. These are usually
identified with a .default suffix. If there
are no existing
configuration files for the application, they will be created by
copying the .default files.For example, here is
/usr/local/etc/apache:-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types.default
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7980 May 20 1998 srm.conf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7933 May 20 1998 srm.conf.defaultIt can be quickly seen that only the srm.conf
file has been changed. A later update of the apache port would not
overwrite this changed file.Starting ServicesservicesIt is common for a system to host a number of services.
These may be started in several different fashions, each having
different advantages./usr/local/etc/rc.dSoftware installed from a port or the packages collection
will often place a script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d which is invoked at
system startup with a argument, and at
system shutdown with a argument.
This is the recommended way for
starting system-wide services that are to be run as
root, or that
expect to be started as root.
These scripts are registered as
part of the installation of the package, and will be removed
when the package is removed.A generic startup script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d looks like:#!/bin/sh
echo -n ' FooBar'
case "$1" in
start)
/usr/local/bin/foobar
;;
stop)
kill -9 `cat /var/run/foobar.pid`
;;
*)
echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" >&2
exit 64
;;
esac
exit 0
This script is called with
at startup, and the at shutdown to allow
it to carry out its purpose.Some services expect to be invoked by &man.inetd.8; when a
connection is received on a suitable port. This is common for
mail reader servers (POP and IMAP, etc.). These services are
enabled by editing the file /etc/inetd.conf.
See &man.inetd.8; for details on editing this file.Some additional system services may not be covered by the
toggles in /etc/rc.conf. These are
traditionally enabled by placing the command(s) to invoke them
in /etc/rc.local. As of FreeBSD 3.1 there
is no default /etc/rc.local; if it is
created by the administrator it will however be honored in the
normal fashion. Note that rc.local is
generally regarded as the location of last resort; if there is a
better place to start a service, do it there.Do not place any commands in
/etc/rc.conf. To start daemons, or
run any commands at boot time, place a script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d instead.It is also possible to use the &man.cron.8; daemon to start
system services. This approach has a number of advantages, not
least being that because &man.cron.8; runs these processes as the
owner of the crontab, services may be started
and maintained by non-root users.This takes advantage of a feature of &man.cron.8;: the
time specification may be replaced by @reboot,
which will
cause the job to be run when &man.cron.8; is started shortly after
system boot.Virtual Hostsvirtual hostsip aliasesA very common use of FreeBSD is virtual site hosting, where
one server appears to the network as many servers. This is
achieved by assigning multiple network addresses to a single
interface.A given network interface has one real address,
and may have any number of alias addresses.
These aliases are
normally added by placing alias entries in
/etc/rc.conf.An alias entry for the interface fxp0
looks like:ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx"Note that alias entries must start with alias0 and proceed
upwards in order, (for example, _alias1, _alias2, and so on).
The configuration process will stop at the first missing number.
The calculation of alias netmasks is important, but
fortunately quite simple. For a given interface, there must be
one address which correctly represents the network's netmask.
Any other addresses which fall within this network must have a
netmask of all 1's.For example, consider the case where the
fxp0 interface is
connected to two networks, the 10.1.1.0 network with a netmask
of 255.255.255.0 and the 202.0.75.16 network with a netmask of
255.255.255.240. We want the system to appear at 10.1.1.1
through 10.1.1.5 and at 202.0.75.17 through 202.0.75.20.The following entries configure the adapter correctly for
this arrangement: ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255"
ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255"Configuration Files/etc LayoutThere are a number of directories in which configuration
information is kept. These include:/etcGeneric system configuration information; data here is
system-specific./etc/defaultsDefault versions of system configuration files./etc/mailExtra &man.sendmail.8; configuration, other
MTA configuration files.
/etc/pppConfiguration for both user- and kernel-ppp programs.
/etc/namedbDefault location for &man.named.8; data. Normally the
boot file is located here, and contains a directive to
refer to other data in /var/db./usr/local/etcConfiguration files for installed applications.
May contain per-application subdirectories./usr/local/etc/rc.dStart/stop scripts for installed applications./var/dbPersistent system-specific data files, such as
&man.named.8; zone files, database files, and so on.HostnameshostnameDNS/etc/resolv.confresolv.conf/etc/resolv.conf dictates how FreeBSD's
resolver accesses the Internet Domain Name System (DNS).The most common entries to resolv.conf are:
nameserverThe IP address of a name server the resolver
should query. The servers are queried in the order
listed with a maximum of three.searchSearch list for hostname lookup. This is normally
determined by the domain of the local hostname.domainThe local domain name.A typical resolv.conf:
- search foobar.com
+ search example.com
nameserver 147.11.1.11
nameserver 147.11.100.30If you are using DHCP, &man.dhclient.8; usually rewrites
resolv.conf with information received from the
DHCP server./etc/hostshosts/etc/hosts is a simple text database
reminiscent of the old Internet. It works in conjunction with DNS
and NIS providing name to IP address mappings. Local computers
connected via a LAN can be placed in here for simplistic naming
purposes instead of setting up a &man.named.8; server.
Additionally, /etc/hosts can be used to provide
a local record of Internet names, reducing the need to query
externally for commonly accessed names.# $FreeBSD$
#
# Host Database
# This file should contain the addresses and aliases
# for local hosts that share this file.
# In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may
# not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order.
#
#
::1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain
127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain
#
# Imaginary network.
#10.0.0.2 myname.my.domain myname
#10.0.0.3 myfriend.my.domain myfriend
#
# According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for
# private nets which will never be connected to the Internet:
#
# 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255
# 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
# 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
#
# In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need
# real official assigned numbers. PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE do not try
# to invent your own network numbers but instead get one from your
# network provider (if any) or from the Internet Registry (ftp to
# rs.internic.net, directory `/templates').
#/etc/hosts takes on the simple format
of:[Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ...For example:
- 10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.foobar.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2
+ 10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.example.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2Consult &man.hosts.5; for more information.Log File Configurationlog filessyslog.confsyslog.confsyslog.conf is the configuration file
for the &man.syslogd.8; program. It indicates which types
of syslog messages are logged to particular
log files.# $FreeBSD$
#
# Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However,
# other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field
# separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you
# may want to use only tabs as field separators here.
# Consult the syslog.conf(5) manual page.
*.err;kern.debug;auth.notice;mail.crit /dev/console
*.notice;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err /var/log/messages
security.* /var/log/security
mail.info /var/log/maillog
lpr.info /var/log/lpd-errs
cron.* /var/log/cron
*.err root
*.notice;news.err root
*.alert root
*.emerg *
# uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log
#console.info /var/log/console.log
# uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log
#*.* /var/log/all.log
# uncomment this to enable logging to a remote log host named loghost
#*.* @loghost
# uncomment these if you're running inn
# news.crit /var/log/news/news.crit
# news.err /var/log/news/news.err
# news.notice /var/log/news/news.notice
!startslip
*.* /var/log/slip.log
!ppp
*.* /var/log/ppp.logConsult the &man.syslog.conf.5; manual page for more
information.newsyslog.confnewsyslog.confnewsyslog.conf is the configuration
file for &man.newsyslog.8;, a program that is scheduled to run
normally by &man.cron.8;. &man.newsyslog.8; determines when log
files require archiving or rearranging.
logfile is moved to
logfile.0, logfile.0
is moved to logfile.1, and so on.
Additionally, the log files may be archived in &man.gzip.1; format
causing them to be named: logfile.0.gz,
logfile.1.gz, and so on.newsyslog.conf indicates which log
files are to be managed, how many are to be kept, and when
they are to be touched. Log files can be rearranged and/or
archived when they have either reached a certain size, or at a
certain periodic time/date.# configuration file for newsyslog
# $FreeBSD$
#
# filename [owner:group] mode count size when [ZB] [/pid_file] [sig_num]
/var/log/cron 600 3 100 * Z
/var/log/amd.log 644 7 100 * Z
/var/log/kerberos.log 644 7 100 * Z
/var/log/lpd-errs 644 7 100 * Z
/var/log/maillog 644 7 * @T00 Z
/var/log/sendmail.st 644 10 * 168 B
/var/log/messages 644 5 100 * Z
/var/log/all.log 600 7 * @T00 Z
/var/log/slip.log 600 3 100 * Z
/var/log/ppp.log 600 3 100 * Z
/var/log/security 600 10 100 * Z
/var/log/wtmp 644 3 * @01T05 B
/var/log/daily.log 640 7 * @T00 Z
/var/log/weekly.log 640 5 1 $W6D0 Z
/var/log/monthly.log 640 12 * $M1D0 Z
/var/log/console.log 640 5 100 * ZConsult the &man.newsyslog.8; manual page for more
information.sysctl.confsysctl.confsysctlsysctl.conf looks much like
rc.conf. Values are set in a
variable=value
form. The specified values are set after the system goes into
multi-user mode. Not all variables are settable in this mode.A sample sysctl.conf turning off logging
of fatal signal exits and letting Linux programs know they are really
running under FreeBSD.kern.logsigexit=0 # Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g. sig 11)
compat.linux.osname=FreeBSD
compat.linux.osrelease=4.3-STABLETuning with sysctlsysctlTuning with sysctl&man.sysctl.8; is an interface that allows you to make changes
to a running FreeBSD system. This includes many advanced
options of the TCP/IP stack and virtual memory system that can
dramatically improve performance for an experienced system
administrator. Over five hundred system variables can be read
and set using &man.sysctl.8;.At its core, &man.sysctl.8; serves to do two functions: read and
modify system settings.To view all readable variables:&prompt.user; sysctl -aTo read a particular variable, for example,
kern.maxproc:&prompt.user; sysctl kern.maxproc
kern.maxproc: 1044To set a particular variable, use the intuitive
variable=value
syntax:&prompt.root; sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000
kern.maxfiles: 2088 -> 5000Settings of sysctl variables are usually either strings,
numbers, or booleans. A boolean being 1 for yes
or a 0 for no.Tuning DisksSysctl Variablesvfs.vmiodirenablevfs.vmiodirenableThe vfs.vmiodirenable sysctl variable
defaults to 0 (off) (though soon it will default to 1) and may
be set to 0 (off) or 1 (on). This parameter controls how
directories are cached by the system. Most directories are
small and use but a single fragment (typically 1K) in the
filesystem and even less (typically 512 bytes) in the buffer
cache. However, when operating in the default mode the buffer
cache will only cache a fixed number of directories even if
you have a huge amount of memory. Turning on this sysctl
allows the buffer cache to use the VM Page Cache to cache the
directories. The advantage is that all of memory is now
available for caching directories. The disadvantage is that
the minimum in-core memory used to cache a directory is the
physical page size (typically 4K) rather than 512 bytes. We
recommend turning this option on if you are running any
services which manipulate large numbers of files. Such
services can include web caches, large mail systems, and news
systems. Turning on this option will generally not reduce
performance even with the wasted memory but you should
experiment to find out.hw.ata.wchw.ata.wcFreeBSD 4.3 flirted with turning off IDE write caching.
This reduced write bandwidth to IDE disks but was considered
necessary due to serious data consistency issues introduced
by hard drive vendors. Basically the problem is that IDE
drives lie about when a write completes. With IDE write
caching turned on, IDE hard drives will not only write data
to disk out of order, they will sometimes delay some of the
blocks indefinitely when under heavy disk loads. A crash or
power failure can result in serious filesystem corruption.
So our default was changed to be safe. Unfortunately, the
result was such a huge loss in performance that we caved in
and changed the default back to on after the release. You
should check the default on your system by observing the
hw.ata.wc sysctl variable. If IDE write
caching is turned off, you can turn it back on by setting
the kernel variable back to 1. This must be done from the
boot loader at boot time. Attempting to do it after the
kernel boots will have no effect.For more information, please see &man.ata.4;.Soft UpdatesSoft UpdatestunefsThe &man.tunefs.8; program can be used to fine-tune a
filesystem. This program has many different options, but for
now we are only concerned with toggling Soft Updates on and
off, which is done by :&prompt.root; tunefs -n enable /filesystem
&prompt.root; tunefs -n disable /filesystemA filesystem cannot be modified with &man.tunefs.8; while
it is mounted. A good time to enable Soft Updates is before any
partitions have been mounted, in single-user mode.Soft Updates drastically improves meta-data performance, mainly
file creation and deletion, through the use of a memory cache. We
recommend turning Soft Updates on on all of your filesystems. There
are two downsides to Soft Updates that you should be aware of: First,
Soft Updates guarantees filesystem consistency in the case of a crash
but could very easily be several
seconds (even a minute!) behind updating the physical disk. If you
crash you may lose more work than otherwise. Secondly, Soft Updates
delays the freeing of filesystem blocks. If you have a filesystem
(such as the root filesystem) which is close to full, doing a major
update of it, e.g. make installworld, can run it
out of space and cause the update to fail.Tuning Kernel LimitsTuning kernel limitsFile/Process Limitskern.maxfileskern.maxfileskern.maxfiles can be raised or
lowered based upon your system requirements. This variable
indicates the maximum number of file descriptors on your
system. When the file descriptor table is full,
file: table is full will show up repeatedly
in the system message buffer, which can be viewed with the
dmesg command.Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file
descriptor. A large-scale production server may easily
require many thousands of file descriptors, depending on the
kind and number of services running concurrently.kern.maxfile's default value is
dictated by the option in your
kernel configuration file. kern.maxfiles grows
proportionally to the value of .
When compiling a custom kernel, it is a good idea to
set this kernel configuration option according to
the uses of your system. From this number, the kernel
is given most of its pre-defined limits. Even though
a production machine may not actually have 256 users
connected as once, the resources needed may be similar to
a high-scale webserver.Network LimitsThe NMBCLUSTERS kernel configuration
option dictate the amount of network mbufs available to the
system. A heavily-trafficked server with a low number of MBUFs
will hinder FreeBSD's ability. Each cluster represents
approximately 2K of memory, so a value of 1024 represents 2
megabytes of kernel memory reserved for network buffers. A
simple calculation can be done to figure out how many are
needed. If you have a web server which maxes out at 1000
simultaneous connections, and each connection eats a 16K receive
and 16K send buffer, you need approximately 32MB worth of
network buffers to cover the webserver. A good rule of thumb is
to multiply by 2, so 32MBx2 = 64MB/2K = 32768.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml
index 4ac67612c4..8063337dc6 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1654 +1,1654 @@
Resources on the InternetThe rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media impractical as a
means of following the latest developments. Electronic resources are the
best, if not often the only, way stay informed of the latest advances.
Since FreeBSD is a volunteer effort, the user community itself also
generally serves as a technical support department of sorts,
with electronic mail and USENET news being the most effective way of
reaching that community.The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user community
are outlined below. If you are aware of other resources not mentioned
here, please send them to the &a.doc;so that they may also be
included.Mailing ListsThough many of the FreeBSD development members read USENET, we
cannot always guarantee that we will get to your questions in a timely
fashion (or at all) if you post them only to one of the
comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.* groups. By addressing your
questions to the appropriate mailing list you will reach both us and a
concentrated FreeBSD audience, invariably assuring a better (or at least
faster) response.The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom of this
document. Please read the charter before joining or sending
mail to any list. Most of our list subscribers now receive
many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages every day, and by setting down
charters and rules for proper use we are striving to keep the
signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high. To do less would see the
mailing lists ultimately fail as an effective communications medium for
the project.Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be searched
using the FreeBSD World
Wide Web server. The keyword searchable archive offers an
excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions and
should be consulted before posting a question.List SummaryGeneral lists: The following are general
lists which anyone is free (and encouraged) to join:ListPurposecvs-allChanges made to the FreeBSD source treefreebsd-advocacyFreeBSD Evangelismfreebsd-announceImportant events and project milestonesfreebsd-archArchitecture and design discussionsfreebsd-bugsBug reportsfreebsd-chatNon-technical items related to the FreeBSD
communityfreebsd-configDevelopment of FreeBSD installation and configuration toolsfreebsd-currentDiscussion concerning the use of
FreeBSD-currentfreebsd-ispIssues for Internet Service Providers using
FreeBSDfreebsd-jobsFreeBSD employment and consulting
opportunitiesfreebsd-newbiesNew FreeBSD users activities and discussionsfreebsd-policyFreeBSD Core team policy decisions. Low volume, and
read-onlyfreebsd-questionsUser questions and technical supportfreebsd-stableDiscussion concerning the use of
FreeBSD-stablefreebsd-testWhere to send your test messages instead of one of
the actual listsTechnical lists: The following lists are for
technical discussion. You should read the charter for each list
carefully before joining or sending mail to one as there are firm
guidelines for their use and content.ListPurposefreebsd-afsPorting AFS to FreeBSDfreebsd-alphaPorting FreeBSD to the Alphafreebsd-armPorting FreeBSD to ARM processorsfreebsd-atmUsing ATM networking with FreeBSDfreebsd-auditSource code audit projectfreebsd-binupDesign and development of the binary update systemfreebsd-clusterUsing FreeBSD in a clustered environmentfreebsd-databaseDiscussing database use and development under
FreeBSDfreebsd-docCreating FreeBSD related documentsfreebsd-emulationEmulation of other systems such as
Linux/DOS/Windowsfreebsd-fsFilesystemsfreebsd-hackersGeneral technical discussionfreebsd-hardwareGeneral discussion of hardware for running
FreeBSDfreebsd-i18nFreeBSD Internationalizationfreebsd-ia64Porting FreeBSD to Intel's upcoming IA64 systemsfreebsd-ipfwTechnical discussion concerning the redesign of the IP
firewall codefreebsd-isdnISDN developersfreebsd-javaJava developers and people porting JDKs to
FreeBSDfreebsd-libhThe second generation installation and package
systemfreebsd-mobileDiscussions about mobile computingfreebsd-mozillaPorting mozilla to FreeBSDfreebsd-multimediaMultimedia applicationsfreebsd-new-busTechnical discussions about bus architecturefreebsd-netNetworking discussion and TCP/IP source codefreebsd-platformsConcerning ports to non-Intel architecture
platformsfreebsd-portsDiscussion of the ports collectionfreebsd-ppcPorting FreeBSD to the PowerPCfreebsd-qaDiscussion of Quality Assurance, usually pending a releasefreebsd-realtimeDevelopment of realtime extensions to FreeBSDfreebsd-scsiThe SCSI subsystemfreebsd-securitySecurity issuesfreebsd-security-notificationsSecurity notificationsfreebsd-smallUsing FreeBSD in embedded applicationsfreebsd-smpDesign discussions for [A]Symmetric
MultiProcessingfreebsd-sparcPorting FreeBSD to Sparc systemsfreebsd-tokenringSupport Token Ring in FreeBSDLimited lists: The following lists are for
more specialized (and demanding) audiences and are probably not of
interest to the general public. It is also a good idea to establish a
presence in the technical lists before joining one of these limited
lists so that you will understand the communications etiquette involved.ListPurposefreebsd-coreFreeBSD core teamfreebsd-hubsPeople running mirror sites (infrastructural
support)freebsd-installInstallation developmentfreebsd-user-groupsUser group coordinationfreebsd-wwwMaintainers of www.freebsd.orgDigest lists: Many of the above lists are
also available as digests. New messages posted to the list are
collected and sent out as a single email when the sizes goes
over 100KB. The lists available in digest form are:Listfreebsd-afs-digestfreebsd-alpha-digestfreebsd-chat-digestfreebsd-current-digestfreebsd-cvs-all-digestfreebsd-database-digestfreebsd-hackers-digestfreebsd-ia64-digestfreebsd-isdn-digestfreebsd-java-digestfreebsd-questions-digestfreebsd-security-digestfreebsd-sparc-digestfreebsd-stable-digestfreebsd-test-digestCVS lists: The following lists are for people
interested in seeing the log messages for changes to various areas of
the source tree. They are Read-Only lists and
should not have mail sent to them.ListSource areaArea Description (source for)cvs-all/usr/srcAll changes to the tree (superset)How to SubscribeAll mailing lists live on FreeBSD.org, so to post to a given list you
simply mail to
<listname@FreeBSD.org>. It will then
be redistributed to mailing list members world-wide.To subscribe to a list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and include
subscribe <listname> [<optional address>]
in the body of your message. For example, to subscribe yourself to
freebsd-announce, you would do:&prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org
subscribe freebsd-announce
^DIf you want to subscribe yourself under a different name, or
submit a subscription request for a local mailing list (this is more
efficient if you have several interested parties at one site, and
highly appreciated by us!), you would do something like:&prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org
-subscribe freebsd-announce local-announce@somesite.com
+subscribe freebsd-announce local-announce@example.com
^DFinally, it is also possible to unsubscribe yourself from a list,
get a list of other list members or see the list of mailing lists
again by sending other types of control messages to majordomo. For a
complete list of available commands, do this:&prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org
help
^DAgain, we would like to request that you keep discussion in the
technical mailing lists on a technical track. If you are only
interested in important announcements then it is suggested that
you join freebsd-announce, which is intended only for infrequent
traffic.List ChartersAll FreeBSD mailing lists have certain basic
rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them. Failure to comply
with these guidelines will result in two (2) written warnings from the
FreeBSD Postmaster postmaster@FreeBSD.org, after which,
on a third offense, the poster will removed from all FreeBSD mailing
lists and filtered from further posting to them. We regret that such
rules and measures are necessary at all, but today's Internet is a
pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and many fail to appreciate
just how fragile some of its mechanisms are.Rules of the road:The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic charter of
the list it is posted to, e.g. if the list is about technical
issues then your posting should contain technical discussion.
Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming only detracts from the value
of the mailing list for everyone on it and will not be tolerated.
For free-form discussion on no particular topic, the freebsd-chat
freebsd-chat@FreeBSD.org mailing list is freely
available and should be used instead.No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing lists, and
only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post to both lists
exists. For most lists, there is already a great deal of
subscriber overlap and except for the most esoteric mixes (say
"-stable & -scsi"), there really is no reason to post to more
than one list at a time. If a message is sent to you in such a
way that multiple mailing lists appear on the
Cc line then the Cc
line should also be trimmed before sending it out again.
You are still responsible for your
own cross-postings, no matter who the originator might have
been.Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an argument)
are not allowed, and that includes users and developers alike.
Gross breaches of netiquette, like excerpting or reposting private
mail when permission to do so was not and would not be
forthcoming, are frowned upon but not specifically enforced.
However, there are also very few cases where
such content would fit within the charter of a list and it would
therefore probably rate a warning (or ban) on that basis
alone.Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services is
strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban if it is
clear that the offender is advertising by spam.Individual list charters:FREEBSD-AFSAndrew File SystemThis list is for discussion on porting and using AFS from
CMU/TransarcFREEBSD-ANNOUNCEImportant events / milestonesThis is the mailing list for people interested only in
occasional announcements of significant FreeBSD events. This
includes announcements about snapshots and other releases. It
contains announcements of new FreeBSD capabilities. It may
contain calls for volunteers etc. This is a low volume, strictly
moderated mailing list.FREEBSD-ARCHArchitecture and design
discussionsThis list is for discussion of the FreeBSD
architecture. Messages will mostly be kept strictly
technical in nature. Examples of suitable topics
are:How to re-vamp the build system to have several
customized builds running at the same time.What needs to be fixed with VFS to make Heidemann layers
work.How do we change the device driver interface to be able
to use the same drivers cleanly on many buses and
architectures.How to write a network driver.FREEBSD-AUDITSource code audit projectThis is the mailing list for the FreeBSD source code
audit project. Although this was originally intended for
security-related changes, its charter has been expanded to
review any code changes.This list is very heavy on patches, and is probably of no
interest to the average FreeBSD user. Security discussions
not related to a particular code change are held on
freebsd-security. Conversely, all developers are encouraged
to send their patches here for review, especially if they
touch a part of the system where a bug may adversely affect
the integrity of the system.FREEBSD-BINUPFreeBSD Binary Update ProjectThis list exists to provide discussion for the binary
update system, or binup.
Design issues, implementation details,
patches, bug reports, status reports, feature requests, commit
logs, and all other things related to
binup are fair game.FREEBSD-BUGSBug reportsThis is the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD
Whenever possible, bugs should be submitted using the
&man.send-pr.1;
command or the WEB
interface to it.FREEBSD-CHATNon technical items related to the FreeBSD
communityThis list contains the overflow from the other lists about
non-technical, social information. It includes discussion about
whether Jordan looks like a toon ferret or not, whether or not
to type in capitals, who is drinking too much coffee, where the
best beer is brewed, who is brewing beer in their basement, and
so on. Occasional announcements of important events (such as
upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can be made
to the technical lists, but the follow ups should be directed to
this -chat list.FREEBSD-COREFreeBSD core teamThis is an internal mailing list for use by the core
members. Messages can be sent to it when a serious
FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or high-level
scrutiny.FREEBSD-CURRENTDiscussions about the use of
FreeBSD-currentThis is the mailing list for users of freebsd-current. It
includes warnings about new features coming out in -current that
will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be
taken to remain -current. Anyone running current
must subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list
for which strictly technical content is expected.FREEBSD-CURRENT-DIGESTDiscussions about the use of
FreeBSD-currentThis is the digest version of the freebsd-current mailing
list. The digest consists of all messages sent to
freebsd-current bundled together and mailed out as a single
message. This list is Read-Only and
should not be posted to.FREEBSD-DOCDocumentation projectThis mailing list is for the discussion of issues and
projects related to the creation of documentation for FreeBSD.
The members of this mailing list are collectively referred to as
The FreeBSD Documentation Project. It is an open
list; feel free to join and contribute!FREEBSD-FSFilesystemsDiscussions concerning FreeBSD filesystems. This is a
technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.FREEBSD-IPFWIP FirewallThis is the forum for technical discussions concerning the
redesign of the IP firewall code in FreeBSD. This is a
technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.FREEBSD-IA64Porting FreeBSD to IA64This is a technical mailing list for individuals
actively working on porting FreeBSD to the IA-64 platform
from Intel, to bring up problems or discuss alternative
solutions. Individuals interested in following the
technical discussion are also welcome.FREEBSD-ISDNISDN CommunicationsThis is the mailing list for people discussing the
development of ISDN support for FreeBSD.FREEBSD-JAVAJava DevelopmentThis is the mailing list for people discussing the
development of significant Java applications for FreeBSD and the
porting and maintenance of JDKs.FREEBSD-HACKERSTechnical discussionsThis is a forum for technical discussions related to
FreeBSD. This is the primary technical mailing list. It is for
individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring up problems or
discuss alternative solutions. Individuals interested in
following the technical discussion are also welcome. This is a
technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.FREEBSD-HACKERS-DIGESTTechnical discussionsThis is the digest version of the freebsd-hackers mailing
list. The digest consists of all messages sent to
freebsd-hackers bundled together and mailed out as a single
message. This list is Read-Only
and should not be posted to.FREEBSD-HARDWAREGeneral discussion of FreeBSD
hardwareGeneral discussion about the types of hardware that FreeBSD
runs on, various problems and suggestions concerning what to buy
or avoid.FREEBSD-HUBSMirror sitesAnnouncements and discussion for people who run FreeBSD
mirror sites.FREEBSD-INSTALLInstallation discussionThis mailing list is for discussing FreeBSD installation
development for the future releases.FREEBSD-ISPIssues for Internet Service
ProvidersThis mailing list is for discussing topics relevant to
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD. This is a
technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.FREEBSD-NEWBIESNewbies activities discussionWe cover any of the activities of newbies that are not
already dealt with elsewhere, including: independent learning
and problem solving techniques, finding and using resources and
asking for help elsewhere, how to use mailing lists and which
lists to use, general chat, making mistakes, boasting, sharing
ideas, stories, moral (but not technical) support, and taking an
active part in the FreeBSD community. We take our problems and
support questions to freebsd-questions, and use freebsd-newbies
to meet others who are doing the same things that we do as
newbies.FREEBSD-PLATFORMSPorting to Non-Intel platformsCross-platform FreeBSD issues, general discussion and
proposals for non-Intel FreeBSD ports. This is a technical
mailing list for which strictly technical content is
expected.FREEBSD-POLICYCore team policy decisionsThis is a low volume, read-only mailing list for FreeBSD
Core Team Policy decisions.FREEBSD-PORTSDiscussion of
portsDiscussions concerning FreeBSD's ports
collection (/usr/ports), proposed
ports, modifications to ports collection infrastructure and
general coordination efforts. This is a technical mailing list
for which strictly technical content is expected.FREEBSD-QUESTIONSUser questionsThis is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD. You
should not send how to questions to the technical
lists unless you consider the question to be pretty
technical.FREEBSD-QUESTIONS-DIGESTUser questionsThis is the digest version of the freebsd-questions mailing
list. The digest consists of all messages sent to
freebsd-questions bundled together and mailed out as a single
message.FREEBSD-SCSISCSI subsystemThis is the mailing list for people working on the scsi
subsystem for FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for
which strictly technical content is expected.FREEBSD-SECURITYSecurity issuesFreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known
security holes and fixes, etc). This is a technical mailing
list for which strictly technical content is expected.FREEBSD-SECURITY-NOTIFICATIONSSecurity NotificationsNotifications of FreeBSD security problems and
fixes. This is not a discussion list. The discussion
list is FreeBSD-security.FREEBSD-SMALLUsing FreeBSD in embedded
applicationsThis list discusses topics related to unusually small and
embedded FreeBSD installations. This is a technical mailing
list for which strictly technical content is expected.FREEBSD-STABLEDiscussions about the use of
FreeBSD-stableThis is the mailing list for users of freebsd-stable. It
includes warnings about new features coming out in -stable that
will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be
taken to remain -stable. Anyone running stable
should subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list
for which strictly technical content is expected.FREEBSD-USER-GROUPSUser Group Coordination ListThis is the mailing list for the coordinators from each of
the local area Users Groups to discuss matters with each other
and a designated individual from the Core Team. This mail list
should be limited to meeting synopsis and coordination of
projects that span User Groups.Usenet NewsgroupsIn addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are many
others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise relevant to
FreeBSD users. Keyword
searchable archives are available for some of these newsgroups
from courtesy of Warren Toomey wkt@cs.adfa.edu.au.BSD Specific Newsgroupscomp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announcecomp.unix.bsd.freebsd.miscOther Unix Newsgroups of Interestcomp.unixcomp.unix.questionscomp.unix.admincomp.unix.programmercomp.unix.shellcomp.unix.user-friendlycomp.security.unixcomp.sources.unixcomp.unix.advocacycomp.unix.misccomp.bugs.4bsdcomp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixescomp.unix.bsdX Window Systemcomp.windows.x.i386unixcomp.windows.xcomp.windows.x.appscomp.windows.x.announcecomp.windows.x.intrinsicscomp.windows.x.motifcomp.windows.x.pexcomp.emulators.ms-windows.wineWorld Wide Web Servershttp://www.FreeBSD.org/
— Central Server.http://www.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/1.http://www2.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/2.http://www3.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/3.http://freebsd.itworks.com.au/ — Australia/4.http://www.br.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Brazil/1.http://www2.br.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Brazil/2.http://www3.br.FreeBSD.org/ — Brazil/3.http://www.bg.FreeBSD.org/ — Bulgaria.http://www.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/1.http://www2.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/2.http://www3.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/3.http://www.cn.FreeBSD.org/ — China.http://www.cz.FreeBSD.org/ — Czech Republic.http://www.dk.FreeBSD.org/ — Denmark.http://www.ee.FreeBSD.org/ — Estonia.http://www.fi.FreeBSD.org/ — Finland.http://www.fr.FreeBSD.org/ — France.http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/1.http://www1.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/2.http://www2.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/3.http://www.gr.FreeBSD.org/ — Greece.http://www.hu.FreeBSD.org/ — Hungary.http://www.is.FreeBSD.org/ — Iceland.http://www.ie.FreeBSD.org/ — Ireland.http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/www.FreeBSD.org/ — Japan.http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/ — Korea/1.http://www2.kr.FreeBSD.org/ — Korea/2.http://www.lv.FreeBSD.org/ — Latvia.http://rama.asiapac.net/freebsd/ — Malaysia.http://www.nl.FreeBSD.org/ — Netherlands/1.http://www2.nl.FreeBSD.org/ — Netherlands/2.http://www.no.FreeBSD.org/ — Norway.http://www.nz.FreeBSD.org/ — New Zealand.http://www.pl.FreeBSD.org/ — Poland/1.http://www2.pl.FreeBSD.org/ — Poland/2.http://www.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/1.http://www2.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/2.http://www3.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/3.http://www.ro.FreeBSD.org/ — Romania.http://www.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/1.http://www2.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/2.http://www3.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/3.http://www4.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/4.http://freebsd.s1web.com/ — Singapore.http://www.sk.FreeBSD.org/ — Slovak Republic.http://www.si.FreeBSD.org/ — Slovenia.http://www.es.FreeBSD.org/ — Spain.http://www.za.FreeBSD.org/ — South Africa/1.http://www2.za.FreeBSD.org/ — South Africa/2.http://www.se.FreeBSD.org/ — Sweden.http://www.ch.FreeBSD.org/ — Switzerland.http://www.tw.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/data/ — Taiwan.http://www.tr.FreeBSD.org/ — Turkey.http://www.ua.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Ukraine/1.http://www2.ua.FreeBSD.org/ — Ukraine/2.http://www4.ua.FreeBSD.org/ — Ukraine/Crimea.http://www.uk.FreeBSD.org/ — United Kingdom/1.http://www2.uk.FreeBSD.org/ — United Kingdom/2.http://www3.uk.FreeBSD.org/ — United Kingdom/3.http://www6.FreeBSD.org/ — USA/Oregon.http://www2.FreeBSD.org/ — USA/Texas.Email AddressesThe following user groups provide FreeBSD related email addresses
for their members. The listed administrator reserves the right to
revoke the address if it is abused in any way.DomainFacilitiesUser GroupAdministratorukug.uk.FreeBSD.orgForwarding onlyfreebsd-users@uk.FreeBSD.orgLee Johnston
lee@uk.FreeBSD.orgShell AccountsThe following user groups provide shell accounts for people who are
actively supporting the FreeBSD project. The listed administrator
reserves the right to cancel the account if it is abused in any
way.HostAccessFacilitiesAdministratorstorm.uk.FreeBSD.orgSSH onlyRead-only cvs, personal web space, email&a.briandogma.freebsd-uk.eu.orgTelnet/FTP/SSHEmail, Web space, Anonymous FTPLee Johnston
lee@uk.FreeBSD.org
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
index 35bcd426a9..74ae596e06 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,5214 +1,5214 @@
JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and parts
rewritten by RandyPrattThe sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general
copy by Installing FreeBSDSynopsisinstallationFreeBSD is provided with a text-based, easy to use installation
program called Sysinstall. This is the
default installation program for FreeBSD, although vendors are free to
provide their own installation suite if they wish. This chapter
describes how to use Sysinstall to install
FreeBSD.After reading this chapter, you will know:How to create the FreeBSD installation disks.How FreeBSD refers to, and subdivides, your hard disks.How to start Sysinstall.The questions Sysinstall will ask
you, what they mean, and how to answer them.Before reading this chapter, you should:Read the supported hardware list that shipped with the version
of FreeBSD you are installing, and verify that your hardware is
supported.In general, these installation instructions are written
for i386 (PC compatible) architecture
computers. Where applicable, instructions specific to other
platforms (for example, Alpha) will be listed.Pre-installation TasksInventory Your ComputerBefore installing FreeBSD you should attempt to inventory the
components in your computer. The FreeBSD installation routines will
show you the components (hard disks, network cards, CDROM drives, and
so forth) with their model number and manufacturer. FreeBSD will also
attempt to determine the correct configuration for these devices,
which includes information about IRQ and IO port usage. Due to the
vagaries of PC hardware this process is not always completely
successful, and you may need to correct FreeBSD's determination of
your configuration.If you already have another operating system installed, such as
Windows or Linux, it is a good idea to use the facilities provided
by those operating systems to see how your hardware is already
configured. If you are really not sure what settings an expansion
card is using, you may find it printed on the card itself. Popular IRQ
numbers are 3, 5, and 7, and IO port addresses are normally written as
hexadecimal numbers, such as 0x330.We recommend you print or write down this information before
installing FreeBSD. It may help to use a table, like this:
Sample Device InventoryDevice NameIRQIO port(s)NotesFirst hard diskN/AN/A4GB, made by Seagate, first IDE masterCDROMN/AN/AFirst IDE slaveSecond hard diskN/AN/A2GB, made by IBM, second IDE masterFirst IDE controller140x1f0Network cardN/AN/AIntel 10/100ModemN/AN/A3Com 56K faxmodem, on COM1:…
Backup Your DataIf the computer you will be installing FreeBSD on contains
valuable data then ensure you have it backed up, and that you have
tested the backups before installing FreeBSD. The FreeBSD
installation routine will prompt you several times before writing any
data to your disk, but once that process has started it cannot be
undone.Decide Where to Install FreeBSDIf you want FreeBSD to use all your disk, then there is nothing
more to concern yourself with at this point — you can skip to the
next section.However, if you need FreeBSD to co-exist with other operating
systems then you need to have a rough understanding of how data is
laid out on the disk, and how this affects you.Disk Layouts for the i386A PC disk can be divided in to discrete chunks. These chunks are
called partitions. By design, the PC only
supports four partitions per disk. These partitions are called
primary partitions. To work around this
limitation and allow more than four partitions, a new partition type
was created, the extended partition. A disk
may contain only one extended partition. Special partitions, called
logical partitions, can be created inside this
extended partition.Each partition has a partition ID, which is
a number used to identify the type of data on the partition. FreeBSD
partitions have the partition ID 165.In general, each operating system that you use will identify
partitions in a particular way. For example, DOS, and its
descendants, like Windows, assign each primary and logical partition a
drive letter, starting with
C:.FreeBSD must be installed into a primary partition. FreeBSD can
keep all its data, including any files that you create, on this one
partition. However, if you have multiple disks, then you can create a
FreeBSD partition on all, or some, of them. When you install FreeBSD,
you must have one partition available. This might be a blank
partition that you have prepared, or it might be an existing partition
that contains data that you no longer care about.If you are already using all the partitions on all your disks, then
you will have to free one of them for FreeBSD using the tools
provided by the other operating systems you use (e.g.,
fdisk on DOS or Windows).If you have a spare partition then you can use that. However, you
may need to shrink one or more of your existing partitions
first.A minimal installation of FreeBSD takes as little as 100MB of disk
space. However, that is a very minimal install,
leaving almost no space for your own files. A more realistic minimum
is 250MB without a graphical environment, and 350MB or more if you
want a graphical user interface. If you intend to install a lot of
third party software as well, then you will need more space.You can use a commercial tool such as Partition
Magic to resize your partitions to make space for
FreeBSD. The tools directory on the CDROM
contains two free software tools which can carry out this task,
FIPS and
PResizer. Documentation for both of these
is in the same directory.Incorrect use of these tools can delete the data on your disk.
Be sure that you have recent, working backups before using
them.Using an existing partition unchangedSuppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk that
already has a version of Windows installed, and you have split the
disk in to two drive letters, C: and
D:, each of which is 2GB in size. You have
1GB of data on C:, and 0.5GB of data on
D:.This means that your disk has two partitions on it, one per
drive letter. You can copy all your existing data from
D: to C:, which
will free up the second partition, ready for FreeBSD.Shrinking an existing partitionSuppose that you have a computer with a single 4GB disk, that
already has a version of Windows installed. When you installed
Windows you created one large partition, giving you a
C: drive that is 4GB in size. You are
currently using 1.5GB of space, and want FreeBSD to have 2GB of
space.In order to install FreeBSD you will need to either:Backup your Windows data, and then reinstall Windows,
asking for a 2GB partition at install time.Use one of the tools such as Partition
Magic, described above, to shrink your Windows
partition.Disk Layouts for the AlphaAlphaYou will need a dedicated disk for FreeBSD on the
Alpha. It is not possible to share a disk with another
operating system at this time. Depending on the specific
Alpha machine you have, this disk can either be a SCSI disk
or an IDE disk, as long as your machine is capable of
booting from it.Following the conventions of the Digital / Compaq
manuals all SRM input is shown in uppercase. SRM is case
insensitive.To find the names and types of disks in your machine, use
the SHOW DEVICE command from the SRM
console prompt:>>>show device
dka0.0.0.4.0 DKA0 TOSHIBA CD-ROM XM-57 3476
dkc0.0.0.1009.0 DKC0 RZ1BB-BS 0658
dkc100.1.0.1009.0 DKC100 SEAGATE ST34501W 0015
dva0.0.0.0.1 DVA0
ewa0.0.0.3.0 EWA0 00-00-F8-75-6D-01
pkc0.7.0.1009.0 PKC0 SCSI Bus ID 7 5.27
pqa0.0.0.4.0 PQA0 PCI EIDE
pqb0.0.1.4.0 PQB0 PCI EIDEThis example is from a Digital Personal Workstation
433au and shows three disks attached to the machine. The
first is a CDROM drive called DKA0 and
the other two are disks and are called
DKC0 and
DKC100 respectively.Disks with names of the form DKx
are SCSI disks. For example DKA100
refers to a SCSI with SCSI target ID 1 on the first SCSI bus (A),
whereas DKC300 refers to a SCSI disk
with SCSI ID 3 on the third SCSI bus (C). Devicename
PKx refers to the SCSI host bus adapter. As
seen in the SHOW DEVICE output SCSI
CDROM drives are treated as any other SCSI hard disk drive.IDE disks have names similar to DQx,
while PQx is the associated IDE
controller.Collect Your Network Configuration DetailsIf you intend to connect to a network as part of your FreeBSD
installation (for example, if you will be installing from an FTP
site, or an
NFS server), then you need to know your network configuration. You
will be prompted for this information during the installation so that
FreeBSD can connect to the network to complete the install.Connecting to an Ethernet Network, or Cable/DSL ModemIf you connect to an Ethernet network, or you have an Internet
connection via cable or DSL, then you will need the following
information:IP address.IP address of the default gateway.Hostname.DNS server IP addresses.If you do not know this information, then ask your system
administrator or service provider. They may say that this
information is assigned automatically, using
DHCP. If so, make a note of this.Connecting Using a ModemIf you dial up to an ISP using a regular modem then you can
still install FreeBSD over the Internet, it will just take a very
long time.You will need to know:The phone number to dial for your ISP.The COM: port your modem is connected to.The username and password for your ISP account.Check for FreeBSD ErrataAlthough the FreeBSD project strives to ensure that each release
of FreeBSD is as stable as possible, bugs do occasionally creep in to
the process. On very rare occasions those bugs affect the
installation process. As these problems are discovered and fixed they
are noted in the FreeBSD Errata, posted on the FreeBSD web site. You
should check the errata before installing to make sure that there are
no late-breaking problems which you should be aware of.Information about all the releases, including the errata for each
release, can be found on the
release
information section of the
FreeBSD web site.Prepare the Boot DiscsFreeBSD can be installed from a number of different media; CDROM,
DVD, FTP (both anonymous and non-anonymous), NFS, tape, or an existing
MS-DOS partition.If you have FreeBSD on CDROM or DVD, and your computer allows
you to boot from the CDROM or DVD (typically a BIOS option called
Boot Order or similar) then you can skip this
section. The FreeBSD CDROM and DVD images are bootable and can be
used to install FreeBSD without any other special
preparation.The FreeBSD installation process is started by booting your
computer into the FreeBSD installer—it is not a program you run
within another operating system. To do this, you must create some
floppy disks that can be booted from, and then boot from them.If you are not installing directly from
CDROM, DVD, or FTP then you are probably preparing your own
installation media (e.g., an MS-DOS partition), which must be prepared
before you install FreeBSD. This is a slightly more advanced,
infrequent activity, and is documented in . This includes the scenario where you
want to create your own FTP site on your own network so that other
computers can use your site as a FreeBSD FTP installation site.In general, to create boot floppy images, follow these
steps:Acquire the Boot Floppy ImagesThe boot discs are available on your installation media
in the floppies directory, and
can also be downloaded from the
floppies directory.The floppy images have a .flp extension.
The floppies/ directory contains a number of
different images, and the ones you will need to use depends on the
version of FreeBSD you are installing, and in some cases, the
hardware you are installing to. In most cases you will need two
files, kern.flp and
mfsroot.flp, but check
README.TXT in the same directory to be
sure.Your FTP program must use binary mode
to download these disk images. Some web browsers have been
known to use text (or
ASCII) mode, which will be apparent if you
cannot boot from the disks.Prepare the Floppy DisksYou must prepare one floppy disk per image file you had to
download. It is imperative that these disks are free from
defects. The easiest way to test this is to format the disks
for yourself. Do not trust pre-formatted floppies.If you try to install FreeBSD and the installation
program crashes, freezes, or otherwise misbehaves, one of
the first things to suspect is the floppies. Try writing
the floppy image files to some other disks and try
again.Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks.The .flp files are
not regular files you copy to the disk.
Instead, they are images of the complete contents of the
disk. This means that you cannot use
commands like DOS' copy to write the
files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the
images directly to the disk.DOSIf you are creating the floppies on a computer running
DOS/Windows, then we provide a tool to do
this called fdimage.If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and your
CDROM is the E: drive, then you would
run this:E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Repeat this command for each .flp
file, replacing the floppy disk each time, being sure to label
the disks with the name of the file that you copied to them.
Adjust the command line as necessary, depending on where you have
placed the .flp files. If you do not have
the CDROM, then fdimage can be downloaded from
the tools directory on the FreeBSD FTP site.If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such as
another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1; command to
write the image files directly to disk. On FreeBSD, you would
run:&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0On FreeBSD, /dev/fd0 refers to the
first floppy disk (the A: drive).
/dev/fd1 would be the
B: drive, and so on. Other Unix
variants might have different names for the floppy disk
devices, and you will need to check the documentation for the
system as necessary.You are now ready to start installing FreeBSD.Starting the InstallationBy default, the installation will not make any changes to your
disk(s) until you see the following message.Last Chance: Are you SURE your want continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!The install can be exited at any time prior to the final
warning without changing the contents of the hard drive. If you are
concerned that you have configured something incorrectly you can just
turn the computer off before this point, and no damage will be
done.BootingBooting for the i386Start with your computer turned off.Turn on the computer. As it starts it should display an
option to enter the system set up menu, or BIOS, commonly reached
by keys like F2, F10,
Del, or
AltS. Use whichever keystroke is indicated on screen. In
some cases your computer may display a graphic while it starts.
Typically, pressing Esc will dismiss the graphic
and allow you to see the necessary messages.Find the setting that controls which devices the system boots
from. This is commonly shown as a list of devices, such as
Floppy, CDROM,
First Hard Disk, and so on.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, then make sure that the
floppy disk is selected. If you are booting from the CDROM then
make sure that that is selected instead. In case of doubt, you
should consult the manual that came with your computer, and/or its
motherboard.Make the change, then save and exit. The computer should now
restart.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in
then one of them will be the
first boot disc, probably the one containing
kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy
drive.If you are booting from CDROM, then you will need to turn on
the computer, and insert the CDROM at the first
opportunity.If your computer starts up as normal, and loads your existing
operating system then either:The disks were not inserted early enough in the boot
process. Leave them in, and try restarting your
computer.The BIOS changes earlier did not work correctly. You
should redo that step until you get the right option.FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from CDROM you
will see a display similar to this:Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM :
1. FD 2.88MB System Type-(00)
/boot.config: -P
Keyboard: yes
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive B: is disk1
BIOS drive C: is disk2
BIOS drive C: is disk3
BIOS 639kB/64512kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
(jkh@bento.freebsd.org, Mon Nov 20 11:41:23 GMT 2000)
|
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _If you are booting from floppy disc, you will see a display
similar to this:Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive C: is disk1
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
(jkh@narf.osd.bsdi.com, Sat Apr 21 08:46:19 GMT 2001)
/kernel text=0x24f1bb data=0x307ac+0x2062c |
Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:Follow these instructions by removing the
kern.flp disc, insert the
mfsroot.flp disc, and press
Enter.Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the
boot process will then get to this point.Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This
will then launch the kernel configuration menu.Booting for the AlphaAlphaStart with your computer turned off.Turn on the computer and wait for a boot monitor
prompt.If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in
then one of them will be the
first boot disc, probably the one containing
kern.flp. Put this disc in your floppy
drive and type the following command to boot the disk
(substituting the name of your floppy drive if
necessary):>>>BOOT DVA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''If you are booting from CDROM, insert the CDROM into
the drive and type the following command to start the
installation (substituting the name of the appropriate
CDROM drive if necessary):>>>BOOT DKA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from a
floppy disc, at some point you will see the message:Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:Follow these instructions by removing the
kern.flp disc, insert the
mfsroot.flp disc, and press
Enter.Irrespective of whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the
boot process will then get to this point.Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter. This
will then launch the kernel configuration menu.Kernel ConfigurationThe kernel is the core of the operating
system. It is responsible for many things, including access to all
the devices you may have on your system, such as hard disks, network
cards, sound cards, and so on. Each piece of hardware supported by
the FreeBSD kernel has a driver associated with it. Each driver has a
two or three letter name, such as sa for the
SCSI sequential access driver, or sio for the
Serial I/O driver (which manages COM ports).When the kernel starts, each driver checks the system to see
whether or not the hardware it supports exists on your system. If it
does, then the driver configures the hardware and makes it available
to the rest of the kernel.This checking is commonly referred to as device
probing. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to do
this in a safe way. Some hardware drivers do not co-exist well
together, and probing for one piece of hardware can sometimes leave
another in an inconsistent state. This is a basic
limitation of the design of the PC.Many older devices are called ISA devices—as opposed
to PCI devices. The ISA specification requires each device to have
some information hard coded into it, typically the Interrupt Request
Line number (IRQ) and IO port address that the driver uses. This
information is commonly set by using physical
jumpers on the card, or by using a DOS based
utility.This was often a source of problems, because it was not possible
to have two devices that shared the same IRQ or port address.Newer devices follow the PCI specification, which does not require
this, as the devices are supposed to cooperate with the BIOS, and be
told which IRQ and IO port addresses to use.If you have any ISA devices in your computer then FreeBSD's
driver for that device will need to be configured with the IRQ and
port address that you have set the card to. This is why carrying out
an inventory of your hardware (see ) can be useful.Unfortunately, the default IRQs and memory ports used by some
drivers clash. This is because some ISA devices are shipped with IRQs
or memory ports that clash. The defaults in FreeBSD's drivers are
deliberately set to mirror the manufacturer's defaults, so that, out
of the box, as many devices as possible will work.This is almost never an issue when running FreeBSD day-to-day.
Your computer will not normally contain two pieces of hardware that
clash, because tone of them would not work (irrespective of the
operating system you are using).It becomes an issue when you are installing FreeBSD for the first
time because the kernel used to carry out the install has to contain
as many drivers as possible, so that many different hardware
configurations can be supported. This means that some of
those drivers will have conflicting configurations. The devices are
probed in a strict order, and if you own a device that is probed late
in the process, but conflicted with an earlier probe, then your
hardware might not function or be probed correctly when you install
FreeBSD.Because of this, the first thing you have the opportunity to do
when installing FreeBSD is look at the list of drivers that are
configured in to the kernel, and either disable some of them, if you
do not own that device, or confirm (and alter) the driver's
configuration if you do own the device but the defaults are
wrong.This probably sounds much more complicated than it actually
is. shows the first kernel
configuration menu. We recommend that you choose the
Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual
mode option, as it presents the easiest interface for
the new user.Kernel Configuration MenuThe kernel configuration screen ()
is then divided into four sections.A collapsible list of all the drivers that are currently
marked as active, subdivided in to groups such as
Storage, and Network. Each
driver is shown as a description, its two three letter driver
name, and the IRQ and memory port used by that driver. In
addition, if an active driver conflicts with another active driver
then CONF is shown next to the driver name.
This section also shows the total number of conflicting drivers
that are currently active.Drivers that have been marked inactive. They remain in the
kernel, but they will not probe for their device when the kernel
starts. These are subdivided in to groups in the same way as the
active driver list.More detail about the currently selected driver, including its
IRQ and memory port address.Information about the keystrokes that are valid at this point
in time.The Kernel Device Configuration Visual InterfaceAt this point there will always be conflicts listed. Do not worry
about this, it is to be expected; all the drivers are enabled, and
as has already been explained, some of them will conflict with one
another.You now have to work through the list of drivers, resolving the
conflicts.Resolving Driver ConflictsPress X. This will completely expand the
list of drivers, so you can see all of them. You will need to use
the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through the active driver
list. shows the result of
pressing X. Expanded Driver ListDisable all the drivers for devices that you do not have. To
disable a driver, highlight it with the arrow keys and press
Del. The driver will be moved to the
Inactive Drivers list.If you inadvertently disable a device that you need then press
Tab to switch to the Inactive
Drivers list, select the driver that you disabled, and
press Enter to move it back to the active
list.Do not disable sc0. This controls
the screen, and you will need this unless you are installing
over a serial cable.Only disable atkbd0 if you are
using a USB keyboard. If you have a normal keyboard then you
must keep atkbd0.If there are no conflicts listed then you can skip this step.
Otherwise, the remaining conflicts need to be examined. If they
do not have the indication of an "allowed conflict" in the message
area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe will need to be
changed, or the IRQ/address on the hardware
will need to be changed.To change the driver's configuration for IRQ and IO port
address, select the device and press Enter. The
cursor will move to the third section of the screen, and you can
change the values. You should enter the values for IRQ and port
address that you discovered when you made your hardware inventory.
Press Q to finish editing the device's
configuration and return to the active driver list.If you are not sure what these figures should be then you can
try using -1. Some FreeBSD drivers can safely
probe the hardware to discover what the correct value should be,
and a value of -1 configures them to do
this.The procedure for changing the address on the hardware varies
from device to device. For some devices you may need to
physically remove the card from your computer and adjust jumper
settings or DIP switches. Other cards may have come with a DOS
floppy that contains the programs used to reconfigure the card.
In any case, you should refer to the documentation that came with
the device. This will obviously entail restarting your computer,
so you will need to boot back in to the FreeBSD installation
routine when you have reconfigured the card.When all the conflicts have been resolved the screen will look
similar to .Driver Configuration With No ConflictsAs you can see, the active driver list is now much smaller,
with only drivers for the hardware that actually exists being
listed.You can now save these changes, and move on to the next step
of the install. Press Q to quit the device
configuration interface. This message will appear.Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel)Answer Y to save the parameters and the
probing will start. After displaying the probe results in white
on black text Sysinstall will start
and display its main menu
().Sysinstall Main MenuReviewing the Device Probe ResultsThe last few hundred lines that have been displayed on screen are
stored and can be reviewed.To review the buffer, press Scroll Lock. This
turns on scrolling in the display. You can then use the arrow keys, or
PageUp and PageDown to view the
results. Press Scroll Lock again to stop
scrolling,Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when
the kernel was carrying out the device probes. You will see text
similar to , although the precise
text will differ depending on the devices that you have in your
computer.Typical Device Probe Resultsavail memory = 58880000 (57500K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc065d000.
md1: Malloc disk
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq6 drq2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x6f on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0c3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags-0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1: at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c
/stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0Check the probe results carefully to make sure that FreeBSD found
all the devices you expected. If a device was not found, then it will
not be listed. If the device's driver required configuring
with the IRQ and port address then you should check that you entered
them correctly.If you need to make changes to the UserConfig device probing,
its easy to exit the sysinstall program
and start over again. Its also a good way to become more familiar
with the process.Select Sysinstall ExitUse the arrow keys to select
Exit Install from the Main
Install Screen menu. The following message will display: User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot
(be sure to remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] NoThe install program will start again if the CDROM is left
in the drive and [Yes] is selected.If you are booting from floppies it will be necessary to remove
the mfs.root floppy and replace it with
kern.flp before rebooting.Introducing SysinstallSysinstall is the installation
application provided by the FreeBSD Project. It is console based and is
divided into a number of menus and screens that you can use to
configure and control the installation process.The Sysinstall menu system is controlled
by the arrow keys, Enter, Space. and
other keys. A detailed description of these keys, and what they do, is
contained in Sysinstall's usage
information.To review this information, ensure that the
Usage entry is highlighted and that the
[Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter.The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After
reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main
Menu.Selecting Usage From Sysinstall Main MenuSelecting The Documentation MenuFrom the Main Menu, select Doc with
the arrow keys and
press Enter.Selecting Documentation MenuThis will display the Documentation Menu.Sysinstall Documentation MenuIt is important to read the documents provided.To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and
press Enter. When finished reading a document,
pressing Enter will return to the Documentation
Menu.To return to the Main Installation Menu, select
Exit with the
arrow keys and press Enter.Selecting The Keymap MenuTo change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select
Keymap from the menu and press
EnterSysinstall Main MenuA different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the
menu item using up/down arrow keys and pressing Space.
Pressing Space again will unselect the item. When
finished, choose the [ OK ] using the
arrow keys and press
Enter.Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation.
Selecting [Cancel] will use the default
keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.Sysinstall Keymap MenuInstallation Options ScreenSelect Options and press
EnterSysinstall Main MenuSysinstall OptionsThe default values are usually fine for most users and do
not need to be changed.The description of the selected item will appear at the
bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the
options is Use Defaults to reset all
values to startup defaults.Press F1 to read the help screen about the
various options.Pressing Q will return to the Main Install
menu.Begin A Standard InstallationThe Standard installation is the
option recommended for those new to Unix or FreeBSD. Use the arrow
keys to select Standard and
then press Enter to start the installation.Begin Standard InstallationAllocating Disk SpaceYour first task is to allocate disk space for FreeBSD, and label
that space so that Sysinstall can prepare
it. In order to do this you need to know how FreeBSD expects to find
information on the disk.BIOS Drive NumberingBefore you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an
important subject that you should be aware of, especially if you have
multiple hard drives.DOSMicrosoft WindowsIn a PC running a BIOS-dependent operating system such as
MS-DOS or Microsoft Windows, the BIOS is able to abstract the
normal disk drive order, and
the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user
to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary
master. This is especially convenient for some users who have
found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to
buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the
first drive to the second drive using
Ghost or XCOPY
. Then, if the
first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an
operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS
to logically swap the drives. It is like switching the cables on the
drives, but without having to open the case.SCSIBIOSMore expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS
extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar
fashion for up to seven drives.A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may
become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected.
FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS
drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations,
especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have
also been made as data clones of one another.When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive
numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you
need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and
open the case and move the jumpers and cables.An Illustration from the Files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional
Adventures:Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another FreeBSD box
for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero and
installs FreeBSD on it.Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that
the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors and reports
this fact to Bill.After several more days, Bill decides it is time to address the
situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive
archive in the back room. An initial surface scan
indicates that
this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI
unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now
that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides
that it is a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the
SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from
SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine.Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred
decide that it is time for a new adventure -- time to upgrade to a
newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was
a bit flaky and replaces it with another identical disk drive from
the archive. Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the
new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP floppies. The
installation goes well.Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies
that it is good enough for use in the engineering department...it is
time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts
SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred
is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI
unit four.Where did the data go?When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto
SCSI unit four, unit four became the new clone,
When Bill
re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he
was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero.
Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and
Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the
FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be
ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering.
In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the
original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI
unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI
unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations.We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or
harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI
unit zero was retrieved from the bone pile, and all of Fred's work was
returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as
zero).Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts
apply equally to IDE drives.Disk OrganizationThe smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files
is the filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that
readme.txt and README.TXT
are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension
(.txt) of a file to determine whether the file is
program, or a document, or some other form of data.Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no
files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also
contain other directories, allowing you to build up a hierarchy of
directories within one another. This makes it much easier to organize
your data.Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or
directory name, followed by a forward slash, /,
followed by any other directory names that are necessary. If you have
directory foo, which contains directory
bar, which contains the file
readme.txt, then the full name, or
path to the file is
foo/bar/readme.txt.Directories and files are stored in a filesystem. Each filesystem
contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the
root directory for that filesystem. This root
directory can then contain other directories.So far this is probably similar to any other operating system you
may have used. There are a few differences; for example, DOS uses
\ to separate file and directory names, while MacOS
uses :.FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the
path. You would not write c:/foo/bar/readme.txt
on FreeBSD.Instead, one filesystem is designated the root
filesystem. The root filesystem's root directory is
referred to as /. Every other filesystem is then
mounted under the root filesystem. No matter
how many disks you have on your FreeBSD system, every directory
appears to be part of the same disk.Suppose you have three filesystems, called A,
B, and C. Each filesystem has
one root directory, which contains two other directories, called
A1, A2 (and likewise
B1, B2 and
C1, C2).Call A the root filesystem. If you used the
ls command to view the contents of this directory
you would see two subdirectories, A1 and
A2. The directory tree looks like this. /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2A filesystem must be mounted on to a directory in another
filesystem. So now suppose that you mount filesystem
B on to the directory A1. The
root directory of B replaces A1,
and the directories in B appear accordingly. /
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- B1
| |
| `--- B2
|
`--- A2Any files that are in the B1 or
B2 directories can be reached with the path
/A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as
necessary. Any files that were in /A1 have been
temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is
unmounted from A.If B had been mounted on A2
then the diagram would look like this; /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2and the paths would be /A2/B1 and
/A2/B2 respectively.Filesystems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the
last example, the C filesystem could be mounted on
top of the B1 directory in the B
filesystem, leading to this arrangement. /
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- B2Or C could be mounted directly on to the
A filesystem, under the A1
directory. /
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2If you are familiar with DOS, this is similar, although not
identical, to the join command.This is not normally something you need to concern yourself with.
Typically you create filesystems when installing FreeBSD and decide
where to mount them, and then never change them unless you add a new
disk.It is entirely possible to have one large root filesystem, and not
need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach,
and one advantage.Benefits of multiple filesystemsDifferent filesystems can have different mount
options. For example, with careful planning, the
root filesystem can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for
you to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file.FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a
filesystem, depending on how the filesystem is being used. So a
filesystem that contains many small files that are written
frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains
fewer, larger files. By having one big filesystem this
optimization breaks down.FreeBSD's filesystems are very robust should you lose power.
However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the
structure of the filesystem. By splitting your data over multiple
filesystems it is more likely that the system will still come up,
making it easier for you to restore from backup as
necessary.Benefit of a single filesystemFilesystems are a fixed size. If you create a filesystem when
you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later
discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not
easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the filesystems
with the size, and then restoring.FreeBSD 5.0 will feature a new command,
growfs, which will make it possible to
increase the size of a filesystem on the fly, removing this
limitation.Filesystems are contained in partitions. This does not have the
same meaning as the earlier usage of the term partition in this
chapter, because of FreeBSD's Unix heritage. Each partition is
identified by a letter, a through to
h. Each partition can only contain one filesystem,
which means that filesystems are often described by either their
typical mount point on the root filesystem, or the letter of the
partition they are contained in.FreeBSD also uses disk space for swap
space. Swap space provides FreeBSD with
virtual memory. This allows your computer to
behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When
FreeBSD runs out of memory it moves some of the data that is not
currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving
something else out) when it needs it.Some partitions have certain conventions associated with
them.PartitionConventionaNormally contains the root filesystembNormally contains swap spacecNormally the same size as the enclosing slice. This
allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice (for
example, a bad block scanner) to work on the
c partition. You would not normally create
a filesystem on this partition.dPartition d used to have a special
meaning associated with it, although that is now gone. To
this day, some tools may operate oddly if told to work on
partition d, so
Sysinstall will not normally create
partition d.Each partition-that-contains-a-filesystem is stored in what
FreeBSD calls a slice. Slice is FreeBSD's term
for what were earlier called partitions, and again, this is because of
FreeBSD's Unix background. Slices are numbered, starting at 1,
through to 4.slicespartitionsdangerously dedicatedSlice numbers follow
the device name, prefixed with an s,
starting at 1. So da0s1
is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be
four physical slices on a disk, but you can have logical
slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These
extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so
ad0s5 is the first
extended slice on a disk. These devices are used by file
systems that expect to occupy a slice.Slices, dangerously dedicated physical
drives, and other drives contain
partitions, which are represented as
letters from a to h.
This letter is appended to the device name, so
da0a is the a partition on
the first da drive, which is dangerously dedicated.
ad1s3e is the fifth partition
in the third slice of the second IDE disk drive.Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name
starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number,
indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at
0. Common codes that you will see are listed in
.When referring to a partition FreeBSD requires that you also name
the slice and disk that contains the partition, and when referring to
a slice you should also refer to the disk name. Do this by listing
the disk name, s, the slice number, and then the
partition letter. Examples are shown in
. shows a conceptual
model of the disk layout that should help make things clearer.In order to install FreeBSD you must first configure the disk
slices, then create partitions within the slice you will use for
FreeBSD, and then create a filesystem (or swap space) in each
partition, and decide where that filesystem will be mounted.
Disk Device CodesCodeMeaningadATAPI (IDE) diskdaSCSI direct access diskacdATAPI (IDE) CDROMcdSCSI CDROMfdFloppy disk
Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition NamesNameMeaningad0s1aThe first partition (a) on the first
slice (s1) on the first IDE disk
(ad0).da1s2eThe fifth partition (e) on the
second slice (s2) on the second SCSI disk
(da1).Conceptual Model of a DiskThis diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first IDE disk attached
to the system. Assume that the disk is 4GB in size, and contains
two 2GB slices (DOS partitions). The first slice contains a DOS
disk, C:, and the second slice contains a
FreeBSD installation. The FreeBSD installation has three
partitions, and a swap partition.The three partitions will each hold a filesystem. Partition
a will be used for the root filesystem,
e for the /var directory
hierarchy, and f for the
/usr directory hierarchy..-----------------. --.
| | |
| DOS / Windows | |
: : > First slice, ad0s1
: : |
| | |
:=================: ==: --.
| | | Partition a, mounted as / |
| | > referred to as ad0s2a |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | Partition b, used as swap |
| | > referred to as ad0s2b |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: | Partition c, no
| | | Partition e, used as /var > filesystem, all
| | > referred to as ad0s2e | of FreeBSD slice,
| | | | ad0s2c
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | |
: : | Partition f, used as /usr |
: : > referred to as ad0s2f |
: : | |
| | | |
| | --' |
`-----------------' --'Creating Slices using FDiskNo changes you make at this point will be written to the disk.
If you think you have made a mistake and want to start again you can
use the menus to exit Sysinstall and try
again. If you get confused and can not see how to exit you can
always turn your computer off.After choosing to begin a standard installation in
Sysinstall you will be shown this
message. Message
In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk")
partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote
all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on
the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default
partitioning scheme followed by a (Quit. If you wish to allocate only
free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the
(C)reate command.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter as instructed. You will then be
shown a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it
carried out the device probes.
shows an example from a
system with two IDE disks. They have been called
ad0 and ad2.Select Drive for FDiskYou might be wondering why ad1 is not
listed here. Why has it been missed?Consider what would happen if you had two IDE hard disks, one
as the master on the first IDE controller, and one as the master on
the second IDE controller. If FreeBSD numbered these as it found
them, as ad0 and
ad1 then everything would work.But if you then added a third disk, as the slave device on the
first IDE controller, it would now be ad1,
and the previous ad1 would become
ad2. Because device names (such as
ad1s1a) are used to find filesystems, you
may suddenly discover that some of your filesystems no longer
appear correctly, and you would need to change your FreeBSD
configuration.To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE
disks based on where they are, and not the order in which they were
found. With this scheme the master disk on the second IDE
controller will always be
ad2, even if there are no
ad0 or ad1
devices.This configuration is the default for the FreeBSD kernel, which
is why this display shows ad0 and
ad2. The machine on which this screenshot
was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE
controllers, and no disks on the slave channels.You should select the disk on which you want to install FreeBSD,
and then press OK.
FDisk will start, with a display similar to
that shown in .The FDisk display is broken in to three
sections.The first section, covering the first two lines of the display,
shows details about the currently selected disk, including its FreeBSD
name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk.The second section shows the slices that are currently on the
disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name FreeBSD
gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two
small unused slices, which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the
PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which almost certainly appears
as C: in DOS / Windows, and an extended
slice, which may contain other drive letters for DOS / Windows.The third section shows the commands that are available in
FDisk.Typical Fdisk Partitions Before EditingWhat you do now will depend on how you want to slice up your
disk.If you want to use FreeBSD for the entire disk (which will delete
all the other data on this disk when you confirm that you want
Sysinstall to continue later in the
installation process) then you can press A, which
corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option.
The existing slices will be removed, and replaced with a small area
flagged as unused (again, an artifact of PC disk
layout), and then one large slice for FreeBSD. If you do this then
you should then select the newly created FreeBSD slice using the arrow
keys, and press S to mark the slice as being
bootable. The screen will then look very similar to
. Note the
A in the Flags column, which
indicates that this slice is active, and will be
booted from.If you will be deleting an existing slice to make space for
FreeBSD then you should select the slice using the arrow keys, and
then press D. You can then press C,
and be prompted for size of slice you want to create. Enter the
appropriate figure and press Enter.If you have already made space for FreeBSD (perhaps by using a
tool such as Partition Magic) then you can
press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be
prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.Fdisk Partition Using Entire DiskWhen finished, press Q. Your changes will be
saved in Sysinstall, but will not yet be
written to disk.Install a Boot ManagerYou now have the option to install a boot manager. In general,
you should choose to install the FreeBSD boot manager if:You have more than one drive, and have installed FreeBSD onto
a drive other than the first one.You have installed FreeBSD alongside another operating system
on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start FreeBSD
or the other operating system when you start the computer.Make your choice and press Enter.Sysinstall Boot Manager MenuThe help screen, reached by pressing F1,
discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share
the hard disk between operating systems.Creating Slices on Another DriveIf there is more than one drive, it will return to the
Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. If you wish to
install FreeBSD on to more than one disk, then you can select another
disk here and repeat the slice process using
FDisk,Exit Select DriveThe Tab key toggles between the last drive
selected, [ OK ], and
[ Cancel ].Press the Tab once to toggle to the
[ OK ], then
press Enter
to continue with the installation.Creating Partitions using
DisklabelYou must now create some partitions inside each slice that you
have just created. Remember that each partition is lettered, from
a through to h, and that
partitions b, c, and
d have conventional meanings that you should adhere
to.Certain applications can benefit from particular partition
schemes, especially if you are laying out partitions across more than
one disk. However, for this, your first FreeBSD installation, you do
not need to give too much thought to how you partition the disk. It
is more important that you install FreeBSD and start learning how to
use it. You can always re-install FreeBSD to change your partition
scheme when you are more familiar with the operating system.This scheme features four partitions—one for swap space, and
three for filesystems.
Partition Layout for First DiskPartitionFilesystemSizeDescriptiona/64MBThis is the root file system. Every other filesystem
will be mounted somewhere under this one. 64MB is a
reasonable size for this filesystem. You will not be storing
too much data on it, as a regular FreeBSD install will put
about 40MB of data here. The remaining space is for temporary
data, and also leaves expansion space if future versions of
FreeBSD need more space in /bN/A2-3 x RAMThe system's swap space is kept on this partition.
Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an
art. A good rule of thumb is that you should have two or
three times the amount of RAM as swap space. So if you have
64MB of RAM then you should have between 128MB and 196MB of swap.
You should also have at least 64MB of swap, so if you have
less than 32MB of RAM in your computer then set the swap
amount to 64MB.If you have more than one disk then you can put swap
space on each disk. FreeBSD will then use each disk for
swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In
this case, calculate the total amount of swap you need
(e.g., 128MB), and then divide this by the number of disks
you have (e.g., two disks) to give the amount of swap you
should put on each disk, in this example, 64MB of swap per
disk.e/var50MBThe /var directory contains variable
length files; log files, and other administrative files. Many
of these files are read-from or written-to extensively during
FreeBSD's day-to-day running. Putting these files on another
filesystem allows FreeBSD to optimise the access of these
files without affecting other files in other directories that
do not have the same access pattern.f/usrRest of diskAll your other files will typically be stored in
/usr, and its subdirectories.
If you will be installing FreeBSD on to more than one disk then
you must also create partitions in the other slices that you
configured. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on
each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem.
Partition Layout for Subsequent DisksPartitionFilesystemSizeDescriptionbN/ASee descriptionAs already discussed, you can split swap space across
each disk. Even though the a partition is
free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the
b partition.e/disknRest of diskThe rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition.
This could easily be put on the a
partition, instead of the e partition.
However, convention says that the a
partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will
be the root (/) filesystem. You do not
have to follow this convention, but
Sysinstall does, so following it
yourself makes the installation slightly cleaner. You can
choose to mount this filesystem anywhere; this example
suggests that you mount them as directories
/diskn, where
n is a number that changes for each
disk. But you can use another scheme if you prefer.
Having chosen your partition layout you can now create it using
Sysinstall. You will see this
message. Message
Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk
partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk
space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply
use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have
more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by
(A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout.
[ OK ] Press Enter to start the FreeBSD partition
editor, called Disklabel. shows the display when you first
start Disklabel. The display is divided in
to three sections.The first few lines show the name of the disk you are currently
working on, and the slice that contains the partitions you are
creating (at this point Disklabel calls
this the Partition name rather than slice name).
This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice;
that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet
been assigned to a partition.The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been
created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains,
their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the
filesystem.The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid
in Disklabel.Sysinstall Disklabel EditorDisklabel can automatically create
partitions for you and assign them default sizes. Try this now, by
Pressing A. You will see a display similar to that
shown in . Depending on the size of
the disk you are using the defaults may or may not be appropriate.
This does not matter, as you do not have to accept the
defaults.Sysinstall Disklabel Editor With Auto DefaultsTo delete the suggested partitions, and replace them with your
own, use the arrow keys to select the first partition, and press
D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the
suggested partitions.To create the first partition (a, mounted as
/), make sure the disk information at the top of
the screen is selected, and press C. A dialog box
will appear prompting you for the size of the new partition (as shown
in ). You can enter the size as
the number of disk blocks you want to use, or, more usefully, as a
number followed by either M for megabytes,
G for gigabytes, or C for
cylinders.Free Space For Root PartitionThe default size shown will create a partition that takes up the
rest of the slice. If you are using the partition sizes described
earlier, then delete the existing figure using
Backspace, and then type in
64M, as shown in
. Then press
OK.Edit Root Partition SizeHaving chosen the partition's size you will then asked whether
this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog
box is shown in . This first
partition will contain a filesystem, so check that
FS is selected and then press
Enter.Choose The Root Partition TypeFinally, because you are creating a filesystem, you must tell
Disklabel where the filesystem is to be
mounted. The dialog box is shown in
. The root filesystem's mount
point is /, so type /, and
then press Enter.Choose The Root Mount PointThe display will then update to show you the newly created
partition. You should repeat this procedure for the other
partitions. When you create the swap partition you will not be
prompted for the filesystem mount point, as swap partitions are never
mounted. When you create the final partition,
/usr, you can leave the suggested size as is, to
use the rest of the slice.Your final FreeBSD DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to
, although your values chosen may
be different. Press Q to finish.Sysinstall Disklabel EditorChoosing What To InstallSelect The Distribution SetDeciding which distribution set to install will depend largely
on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space
available. The predefined options range from installing the
smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are
new to Unix and/or FreeBSD should almost certainly select one
of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is
typically for the more experienced user.Press F1 for more information on the
distribution set options and what they contain. When finished
reviewing the help, pressing Enter will return
to the Select Distributions Menu.If a graphical user interface is desired then a distribution
set that is preceded by an X should be
chosen. The configuration of XFree86 and selection of a default
desktop is part of the post-installation steps.The default XFree86 version installed is the 3.x branch. You
should check to see whether your video card is supported at the
XFree86 web site.
If it is only supported under the 4.x branch, then you will need
to install and configure XFree86 4.x after installation. Select a
distribution without X and refer to for
more information.If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option
which includes the source code. For more information on why a
custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel see
.Obviously, the most versatile system is one that includes
everything. If there is adequate disk space, select
All as shown in
by using the arrow keys and
press Enter. If there is a concern about disk
space consider using an option that is more suitable for the
situation. Other distributions can be added after installation.Choose DistributionsInstalling The Ports CollectionAfter selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to
install the FreeBSD Ports Collection is presented. The ports
collection is an easy and convenient way to install software.
The ports collection does not contain the source code necessary
to compile the software. It is a collection of files which
automates the downloading, compiling and installation.
discusses how to use the ports
collection.The installation program does not check to see if you have
adequate space. Select this option only if you have
adequate hard disk space. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection?
This will give you ready access to over &os.numports; ported software packages,
at a cost of around 100MB of disk space when "clean" and possibly much
more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded
(unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution
available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less
of a problem).
The ports collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having
on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option.
For more information on the ports collection & the latest ports,
visit:
http://www.freebsd.org/ports
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] with the arrow keys to
install the ports collection or [ No ] to
skip this option. Press Enter to continue.
The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.Confirm DistributionsIf satisfied with the options, select
Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that
[ OK ] is highlighted, and press
Enter to continue.Choosing Your Installation MediaIf Installing from a CDROM, use the arrow keys to highlight
Install from a FreeBSD CD/DVD. Ensure
that [ OK ] is highlighted, then press
Enter to proceed with the installation.For other methods of installation, select the appropriate
option and follow the instructions.Press F1 to display the Online Help for
installation media. Press Enter to return
to the media selection menu.Choose Installation MediaFTP Installation ModesinstallationnetworkFTPThere are three FTP installation modes you can choose from:
active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy.FTP Active, Install from an FTP
serverThis option will make all FTP transfers
use Active
mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will
often work with older FTP servers that do not support
passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive
mode (the default), try active!FTP Passive, Install from an FTP server through a
firewallFTPPassive modeThis option instructs FreeBSD to use
Passive mode for all FTP operations.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow incoming connections on random port
addresses.FTP via a HTTP proxy, Install from an FTP server
through a http proxyFTPvia a HTTP proxyThis option instructs FreeBSD to use the HTTP
protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy
for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate
the requests and send them to the FTP server.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP
proxy.
In this case, you have to specify the proxy in
addition to the FTP server.For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the
server you really want as a part of the username, after an
@ sign. The proxy server then fakes
the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from
ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP
- server foo.bar.com, listening on port
+ server foo.example.com, listening on port
1024.In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username
to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your
email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or
passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL
- ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD.
+ ftp://foo.example.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD.
Since /pub/FreeBSD from
ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under
- foo.bar.com, you are able to install
+ foo.example.com, you are able to install
from that machine (which will fetch the files
from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your
installation requests them.Committing to the InstallationThe installation can now proceed if desired. This is also
the last chance for aborting the installation to prevent changes
to the hard drive. User Confirmation Requested
Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to proceed.The installation time will vary according to the distribution
chosen, installation media used, and the speed of the computer.
There will be a series of
messages displayed indicating the status.The installation is complete when the following message is
displayed: Message
Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system.
We will now move on to the final configuration questions.
For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No.
If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may
do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall .
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter to proceed with post-installation
configurations.Selecting [ No ] and pressing
Enter will abort
the installation so no changes will be made to your system. The
following message will appear : Message
Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll
through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature.
You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the
installation menus to try and retry whichever operations have failed.
[ OK ]This message is generated because nothing was installed.
Pressing Enter will return to the
Main Installation Menu to exit the installation.Post-installationConfiguration of various options follows the successful
installation. An option can be configured by re-entering the
configuration options before booting the new FreeBSD
system or after installation using
/stand/sysinstall and selecting
Configure.Network Device ConfigurationIf you previously configured PPP for an FTP install, this screen
will not display and can be configured later as described
above.For detailed information on Local Area Networks and
configuring FreeBSD as a gateway/router refer to the tutorial
PPP- Pendantic PPP Primer. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices?
[ Yes ] NoTo configure a network device, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
Otherwise, select [ No ] to continue.Selecting An Ethernet DeviceSelect the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press
Enter. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]In this private local area network the current Internet
type protocol (IPv4) was sufficient and [ No ]
was selected with the arrow keys and Enter
pressed.If you want to try the new Internet protocol (IPv6), choose
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
It will take several seconds to scan for RA servers. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]If DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is not required
select [ No ] with the arrow keys and press
Enter.Selecting [ Yes ] will execute
dhclient, and if successful, will fill
in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to
for more information.The following Network Configuration screen shows the
configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act
as the gateway for a Local Area Network.Set Network Configuration For ed0Use Tab to select the information fields and
fill in appropriate information:Host
- The fully-qualified hostname, e.g. k6-2.weeble.com in
+ The fully-qualified hostname, e.g. k6-2.example.com in
this case.DomainThe name of the domain that your machine is
- in, e.g. weeble.com for this case.
+ in, e.g. example.com for this case.
IPv4 GatewayIP address of host forwarding packets to non-local
destinations. Fill this in only if the machine is a node
on the network. Leave this field blank
if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the
network.Name serverIP address of your local DNS server. There is no local
DNS server on this private local area network so the IP
address of the provider's DNS server (208.163.10.2) was
used.IPv4 addressThe IP address to be used for this interface was
(192.168.0.1).NetmaskThe address block being used for this local area
network is a Class C block (192.168.0.0 -
192.168.255.255). The default netmask is for a Class C
network (255.255.255.0).Extra options to ifconfigAny interface-specific options to ifconfig
you would like to add. There were none in this case.Use Tab to select [ OK ]
when finished and press Enter. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now?
[ Yes ] NoChoosing [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will bring
the machine up on the network and be ready for use after leaving
leaving the installation.Configure Internet Services User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides?
Yes [ No ]If [ No ] is selected, various services
such telnetd will not be enabled. This
means that remote users will not be able to
telnet into this machine. Local users
will be still be able to access remote machines with
telnet.These services can be enabled after installation by editing
/etc/inetd.conf with your favorite text editor.
See for more information.Select [ Yes ] if you wish to
configure these services during install. An additional
confirmation will display. User Confirmation Requested
The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet
services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling
these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing
the exposure of your system.
With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] to continue. User Confirmation Requested
inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine
which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD
inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be
specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will
function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for
IPv6 must be seperately enabled from IPv4 services.
Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to
use the current settings.
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] will allow adding
services by deleting the # at the beginning
of a line.Editing inetd.confAfter adding the desired services, pressing Esc
will display a menu which will allow exiting and saving
the changes.Configure Gateway User Confirmation Requested
Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway?
[ Yes ] NoIf the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area
network and forwarding packets between other machines then select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
If the machine is a node on a network then
select [ No ] and press
Enter to continue.Anonymous FTP User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine?
Yes [ No ]Deny Anonymous FTPSelecting the default [ No ] and pressing
Enter will still allow users who have accounts
with passwords to use FTP to access the machine.Allow Anonymous FTPAnyone can access your machine if you elect to allow
anonymous FTP connections. The security implications should be
considered before enabling this option. For more information
about security see .To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.
The following screens (or similar) will display :Default Anonymous FTP ConfigurationPressing F1 will display the help :This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user.
The following configuration values are editable:
UID: The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user.
All files uploaded will be owned by this ID.
Group: Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in.
Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd
FTP Root Directory:
Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept.
Upload subdirectory:
Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go.The ftp root directory will be put in /var
by default. If you do not have enough room there for the
anticipated FTP needs, the /usr directory
could be used by setting the FTP Root Directory to
/usr/ftp.When you are satisfied with the values, press
Enter to continue. User Confirmation Requested
Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users?
[ Yes ] NoIf you select [ Yes ] and press
Enter, an editor will automatically start
allowing you to edit the message.Edit The FTP Welcome MessageThis is a text editor called ee. Use the
instructions to change the message or change the message later
using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location
at the bottom.Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default
to a) leave editor. Press
Enter to exit and continue.Configure Network File ServicesNetwork File Services (NFS) allows sharing of files across a
network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or
both. Refer to for a more information.NFS Server User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server?
Yes [ No ]If there is no need for a Network File System server or
client, select [ No ] and press
Enter.If [ Yes ] is chosen, a message will
pop-up indicating that the exports file must be created. Message
Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an
/etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of
access to your local file systems.
Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports
[ OK ]Press Enter to continue. A text editor will
start allowing the exports file to be created and edited.Editing the Exports FileUse the instructions to add the actual exported filesystems
now or later using a text editor of your choice. Note the
filename/location at the bottom of the editor screen.Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to
a) leave editor. Press
Enter to exit and continue.NFS Client User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client?
Yes [ No ]With the arrow keys, select [ Yes ]
or [ No ] as appropriate and
press Enter.Security ProfileA security profile is a set of configuration options that
attempts to achieve the desired ratio of security to convenience by
enabling and disabling certain programs and other settings.More information about security profiles can be found in the
FreeBSD FAQ. User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select
No for "medium" security)?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ No ] and pressing
Enter will set the security profile to medium.Selecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will allow selecting a different security
profile.Security Profile OptionsPress F1 to display the help. Press
Enter to return to selection menu.Use the arrow keys to choose Medium
unless your are sure that another level is required for your needs.
With [ OK ] highlighted, press
Enter.An appropriate confirmation message will display depending on
which security setting was chosen. Message
Moderate security settings have been selected.
Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are
disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK] Message
Extreme security settings have been selected.
Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and
securelevels have been enabled.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK]Press Enter to continue with the
post-installation configuration.System Console SettingsThere are several options available to customize the system
console. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to customize your system console settings?
[ Yes ] NoTo view and configure the options, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter.System Console Configuration OptionsA commonly used option is the screensaver. Use the arrow keys
to select Saver and then press
Enter.Screensaver OptionsSelect the desired screen saver using the arrow keys
and then press Enter. The System Console
Configuration menu will redisplay.The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time
interval, select Saver again. At the
Screensaver Options menu, select Timeout
using the arrow keys and press Enter. A pop-up
menu will appear :Screensaver TimeoutThe value can be changed, then select [ OK ]
and press Enter to return to the System Console
Configuration menu.System Console Configuration ExitSelecting Exit and pressing
Enter will continue with the post-installation
configurations.Setting The Time ZoneSetting the timezone for your machine will allow it to
automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform
other timezone related functions properly.The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern
time zone of the United States. Your selections will vary according
to your geographical location. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to set this machine's time zone now?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to set the time zone. User Confirmation Requested
Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time
or you don't know, please choose NO here!
Yes [ No ]Select [ Yes ]
or [ No ] according to how the machine's
clock is configured and press Enter.Select Your RegionThe appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys
and then press Enter.Select Your CountrySelect the appropriate country using the arrow keys
and press Enter.Select Your TimezoneThe appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow
keys and pressing Enter. Confirmation
Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable?
[ Yes ] NoConfirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct.
If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with
the post-installation configuration.Linux Compatibility User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will allow
running Linux software on FreeBSD. The install will proceed to add
the appropriate packages for Linux compatibility.If installing by FTP, the machine will need to be connected to
the Internet. Sometimes a remote ftp site will not have all the
distributions like the Linux binary compatibility. This can
be installed later if necessary.Mouse SettingsThis option will allow you to cut and paste text in the
console and user programs with a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button
mouse, refer to manual page, &man.moused.8;, after installation for
details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a
non-USB mouse. User Confirmation Requested
Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] for a non-USB mouse or
[ No ] for a USB mouse and press
Enter.Select Mouse Protocol TypeUse the arrow keys to select Type and
press EnterSet Mouse ProtocolThe mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default
Auto was
appropriate. To change protocol, use the arrow keys to select
another option. Ensure that [ OK ] is
highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.Configure Mouse PortUse the arrow keys to select Port and
press Enter.Setting The Mouse PortThis system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default
PS/2 was
appropriate. To change the port, use the arrow keys and then
press Enter.Enable The Mouse DaemonLast, the mouse daemon is enabled and tested.Test The Mouse DaemonThe cursor moved around the screen so the mouse daemon is
running:Select [ Yes ] to return to the previous
menu then select Exit
with the arrow keys and press Enter to return to
continue with the post-installation configuration.Configure X-ServerIn order to use a graphical user interface such as
KDE, GNOME,
or others, the X server will need to be configured.To see whether your video card is supported, check the
XFree86 web site.
If your video card is only supported under XFree86 4.x, refer to
for installation and configuration. User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure your X server at this time?
[ Yes ] NoIt is necessary to know your monitor specifications and
video card information. Equipment damage can occur if settings
are incorrect. If you do not have this information, select
[ No ] and perform the configuration
after installation when you have the information using
/stand/sysinstall, selecting
Configure and then
XFree86.
If you have graphics card and monitor information, select
[ Yes ] and press Enter
to proceed with configuring the X server.Select Configuration Method MenuThere are several ways to configure the X
server. XF86Setup is fully graphical and
probably the easiest. Use the arrow keys to select the
XF86Setup and press
Enter. Message
You have configured and been running the mouse daemon.
Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or
"MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]This indicates that the mouse daemon previously configured has been
detected. Press Enter to continue. Press [Enter] to switch to graphics mode.
This may take a while...
[ OK ]Press Enter to switch to the graphics mode and
continue. It will not try to switch to the
graphics mode until Enter is pressed. The screen
will go black and then shortly a screen with a large X in the
center will appear. Be patient and wait.After a few more moments, the XF86Setup
introduction will display. Read all instructions
carefully. Press Enter to
continue.XF86Setup OverviewThere are several areas of configuration to be completed.
The configuration choices you make will depend on the hardware
in the system so only a general overview can be given here.Along the top of the configuration tool there are buttons
indicating the areas to be configured. You should be able to use
the mouse if it was previously configured and select each item by
clicking on it. Review each area and make appropriate selections
for your system.MouseThe mouse is the first item to be configured. If you
previously configured your mouse, the mouse daemon will already
be running and should indicate SysMouse
automatically for the mouse protocol. If you are use a two
button mouse, you should also select
Emulate3Buttons. There are other
settings that can be tweaked if necessary.After completing your selections, click on the
Apply and check the mouse actions are
working properly. If further adjustment is needed, make them
and recheck the operation by clicking on
Apply again. When finished, move
on to the next item.KeyboardSelect the appropriate keyboard model. The default
keyboard is Generic 101-key PC.Select the language layout for your keyboard. The default
layout is U.S. English. If you are
not using a U.S. keyboard, you may need to additionally
select a variant.There are other options under Group Shift/Lock behavior and
Control Key Position that can be selected if desired. Generally
the default settings are fine.After completing the keyboard configuration, click on
Apply and move on to the next
item.CardClick on Read README file for
additional help in configuring your video card.Select the appropriate video card from the list using the
scrollbar. Clicking on your card will show as
Card selected: above the list box.Next, the Detailed Setup was
selected just to check details. Typically, if your video
card was in the list, no changes will be needed here.When finished, move on to the next item.MonitorThere are two ways to proceed. One method requires that you
enter the horizontal and vertical sweep capabilities of your
monitor in the text boxes.Choosing one of the monitor options listed that the monitor
is the other method. After selecting a listed option, the
horizontal and vertical sweep rates that will be used will
display. Compare those to your monitor specifications. The
monitor must be capable of using those ranges.Do not exceed the ratings of your monitor. Damage could
occur. If you have doubts select ABORT
and get the information. The remainder of the installation process
will be unaffected and configuring the X-Server can be done
later using /stand/sysinstall.When finished, move on to the next item.ModeSelect the video mode(s) that you want to use. You can select
more than one option. Typically, useful ranges are 640x480,
800x600, and 1024x768 but those are a function of video card
capability, monitor size, and eye comfort.Next, select the default color depth you want to use. Your
choices are 8bpp, 16bpp, 24bpp, and 32bpp. Select the highest
color depth that your video card will support.When finished, move on to the next item.OtherThe default settings are reasonable values, so you
probably will not need to change anything here.The default setting which allows the server to be killed
with the hotkey sequence CtrlAltBackspace should be left on. This
can be executed if something is wrong with the server settings and
prevent hardware damage.The default setting that allows video mode switching will
permit changing of the mode while running X with the hotkey
sequence
Alt+ or
Alt-.
Testing the ServerVerify all the settings once again and select
Done and the following message will
display :If you've finished configuring everything press the
Okay button to start the X server using the configuration
you've selected. If you still wish to configure some things,
press one of the buttons at the top and then press "Done" again,
when you've finished.After selecting Okay, some messages
will briefly appear advising to wait and attempting to start
the X-server. This process takes a few moments, so be
patient.The screen will go blank for a short period of time and
then a screen will appear with the message
Congratulations, you've got a running server!If nothing appears or the display is distorted,
kill the X-server using
CtrlAltBackspace
and adjust the settings or revisit them after installation.Running xvidtuneThe display can be adjusted for height, width, or centering
by using xvidtune.There are warnings that improper settings can
damage your equipment. Heed them. If in doubt, do not do
it. Instead, use the monitor controls to adjust the display for
x-windows. There may be some display differences when switching
back to text mode, but it is better than damaging equipment.
xvidtune can be ran later using
/stand/sysinstall.Read the &man.xvidtune.1; man page before making
any adjustments.Saving ConfigurationWhen you are satisfied, the configuration can now be saved.
Select Save the configuration and Exit
The configuration file will be saved to
/etc/XF86Config.Once the configuration is done, the installation program will
need to create a link to the server : Do you want to create an 'X' link to the SVGA server?
(the link will be created in the directory:
/usr/X11R6/bin) Okay?
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to create the link. Link created successfully.
[ OK ]Press Enter to continue configuration.Select Default X DesktopThere are a variety of window managers available. They range
from very basic environments to full desktop environments with a
large suite of software. Some require only minimal disk space and
low memory while others with more features require much more. The
best way to determine which is most suitable for you is to try a few
different ones. Those are available from the ports collection or as
packages and can be added after installation.You can select one of the popular desktops to be installed
and configured as the default desktop. This will allow you
to start it right after installation.Select Default DesktopUse the arrow keys to select a desktop and press
Enter. Installation of the selected desktop will
proceed.Install PackagesThe packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient
way to install software.Installation of one package is shown for purposes of
illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this
time if desired. After installation
/stand/sysinstall can be used to add additional
packages. User Confirmation Requested
The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of
ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers
and more. Would you like to browse the collection now?
[ Yes ] NoSelecting [ Yes ] and pressing
Enter will be
followed by the Package Selection screens:Select Package CategoryAll packages available will be displayed if
All is selected or you can select a
particular category. Highlight your selection with the arrow
keys and press Enter.A menu will display showing all the packages available for
the selection made.Select PackagesThe bash shell is shown selected.
Select as many as desired by highlighting the package and pressing
the Space.
A short description of each package will appear in the lower left
corner of the screen.Pressing the Tab key will toggle between the last
selected package, [ OK ], and
[ Cancel ].When you have finished marking the packages for installation,
press Tab once to toggle to the
[ OK ] and press
Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.The left and right arrow keys will also toggle between
[ OK ] and [ Cancel ].
This method can also be used to select [ OK ]
and press Enter to return to the Package
Selection menu.Install PackagesUse the arrow keys to select [ Install ]
and press Enter. You will then need to confirm
that you want to install the packages.Confirm Package InstallationSelecting [ OK ] and pressing
Enter will start
the package installation. Installing messages will appear until
completed. Make note if there are any error messages.The final configuration continues after packages are
installed.Add User/GroupsYou should add at least one user during the installation so
that you can use the system without being logged in as root. The
root partition is generally small and running applications as
root can quickly fill it. A bigger danger is noted below : User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding
at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since
working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which
adversely affect the entire system).
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and press
Enter to continue with adding a user.Select Add UserSelect Add User with the arrow keys
and press Enter.Add User InformationThe following descriptions will appear in the lower part of
the screen as the items are selected with Tab
to assist with entering the required information.Login IDThe login name of the new user (mandatory)UIDThe numerical ID for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice)GroupThe login group name for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice)PasswordThe password for this user (enter this field with
care!)Full nameThe user's full name (comment)Member groupsThe groups this user belongs to (i.e. gets access
rights for)Home directoryThe user's home directory (leave blank for
default)Login shellThe user's login shell (leave blank for
default). (/bin/sh)The login shell was changed from
/bin/sh to
/usr/local/bin/bash to use the
bash shell
that was previously installed as a package. Do not try to
use a shell that does not exist or you will not be able to
login.The user was also added to the group "wheel" to be able to
become a superuser with root privileges.When you are satisfied, press [ OK ] and
the User and Group Management menu will redisplay.Exit User and Group ManagementGroups could also be added at this time if specific needs
are known. Otherwise, this may be accessed through using
/stand/sysinstall after installation is
completed.When you are finished adding users, select
Exit with the arrow keys and press
Enter to continue the installation.Set root Password Message
Now you must set the system manager's password.
This is the password you'll use to log in as "root".
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]Press Enter to set the root password.The password will need to be typed in twice
correctly. Needless to say, make sure you have a way of finding
the password if you forget.Changing local password for root.
New password :
Retype new password :The installation will continue after the password is
successfully entered.Exiting InstallIf you need to configure additional network devices or to
do any other configurations, you can do it at this point or
after installation with /stand/sysinstall. User Confirmation Requested
Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last
options?
Yes [ No ]Selecting [ No ] with the arrow keys
and pressing Enter returns to the Main
Installation MenuExit InstallSelect [X Exit Install] with the arrow
keys and press Enter. You will be asked to
confirm exiting the installation : User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to
remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] NoSelect [ Yes ] and remove floppy if
booting from floppy. The CDROM drive is locked until the machine
starts to reboot. The CDROM drive is then unlocked and can
be removed from drive (quickly).The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that
may appear.FreeBSD BootupFreeBSD Bootup on the i386If everything went well, you will see messages scroll
off the screen and you will arrive at a login prompt. You can view
the content of the messages by pressing Scroll-Lock
and using PgUp and PgDn.
Pressing Scroll-Lock again will return
to the prompt.The entire message may not display (buffer limitation) but
it can be viewed from the command line after logging in by typing
dmesg at the prompt.Login using the username/password you set during installation
(rpratt, in this example). Avoid logging in as root except when
necessary.Typical boot messages :Copyright (c) 1992-2001 The FreeBSD Project.
Copyright (c) 1982, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD 4.3-RELEASE #0: Sat Apr 21 10:54:49 GMT 2001
jkh@narf.osd.bsdi.com:/usr/src/sys/compile/GENERIC
Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU)
Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0
Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX>
AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!>
real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes)
config> di sn0
config> di lnc0
config> di le0
config> di ie0
config> di fe0
config> di cs0
config> di bt0
config> di ata1
config> di aic0
config> di aha0
config> di adv0
config> q
avail memory = 256983040 (250960K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc044d000.
Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc044d09c.
md0: Malloc disk
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at
device 10.0 on pci0
ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x6f on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0
lpt0: Interrupt-driven port
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a
swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device
Automatic boot in progress...
/dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1a: clean, 70119 free (655 frags, 8683 blocks, 0.7% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1f: clean, 6976313 free (51774 frags, 829297 blocks, 0.7% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1e: clean, 97952 free (9 frags, 12381 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
Doing initial network setup: hostname.
lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384
inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8
inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128
inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
Additional routing options: tcp extensions=NO IP gateway=YES TCP
keepalive=YES
routing daemons:.
additional daemons: syslogd.
Doing additional network setup: portmap.
Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key
Generating RSA keys: Key generation complete.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
-2d:02:37:d2:0e:68:93:8f:9c:46:de:92:f4:be:60:0a root@k6-2.weeble.com
+2d:02:37:d2:0e:68:93:8f:9c:46:de:92:f4:be:60:0a root@k6-2.example.com
creating ssh DSA host key
Generating DSA parameter and key.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
-38:af:d2:1f:63:14:00:d8:83:fd:dd:4b:97:1c:43:6d root@k6-2.weeble.com.
+38:af:d2:1f:63:14:00:d8:83:fd:dd:4b:97:1c:43:6d root@k6-2.example.com.
setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib
/usr/local/lib
setting a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout
/usr/X11R6/lib/aout
starting standard daemons: inetd cron sendmail sshd usbd.
Initial rc.i386 initialization: linux.
rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused.
Additional ABI support: linux.
Local package initilization:.
Additional TCP options:.
-FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.weeble.com) (ttyv0)
+FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.example.com) (ttyv0)
login: rpratt
Password:Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower
machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new
installation. Subsequent boots will be faster.If the X server has been configured and a Default Desktop
chosen, it can be started by typing startx at
the command line.Bootup of FreeBSD on the AlphaAlphaOnce the install procedure has finished, you will be
able to start FreeBSD by typing something like this to the
SRM prompt:>>>BOOT DKC0This instructs the firmware to boot the specified
disk. To make FreeBSD boot automatically in the future, use
these commands:>>>SET BOOT_OSFLAGS A>>>SET BOOT_FILE ''>>>SET BOOTDEF_DEV DKC0>>>SET AUTO_ACTION BOOTThe boot messages will be similar (but not identical) to
those produced by FreeBSD booting on the i386.FreeBSD ShutdownIt is important to properly shutdown the operating
system. Do not just turn off power. First, become a superuser by
typing su at the command line and entering the
root password. This will work only if the user is a member of the
group wheel. Otherwise, login as root and use
shutdown -h now.The operating system has halted.
Please press any key to reboot.It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command
has been issued and the message "Please press any key to reboot"
appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power
switch, the system will reboot.Supported HardwarehardwareFreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and
PCI bus-based PCs with Intel, AMD, Cyrix, or NexGen
x86 processors, as well as a number of
machines based on the Compaq Alpha processor.
Support for generic IDE or
ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA
cards, USB devices, and network and
serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's
microchannel (MCA) bus.A list of supported hardware is provided with each FreeBSD
release in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes. This document can
usually be found in a file named
HARDWARE.TXT, in the top-level directory of
a CDROM or FTP distribution or in sysinstall's documentation
menu. It lists, for a given architecture, what hardware devices
are known to be supported by each release of FreeBSD.TroubleshootinginstallationtroubleshootingThe following section covers basic installation troubleshooting,
such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few
questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with
MS-DOS.What to Do If Something Goes Wrong...Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is
impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a
few things you can do if it fails.Check the Hardware Notes document for your version of
FreeBSD to make sure your hardware is
supported.If your hardware is supported and you still experience
lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the
visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will
allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the
system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured
assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default
configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If
your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to
use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find
things.It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will
cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In
that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be
disabled.Do not disable any drivers you will need during the
installation, such as your screen (sc0).
If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving
the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed
something you should not have. Reboot and try again.In configuration mode, you can:List the device drivers installed in the kernel.Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in
your system.Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device
driver.After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware
configuration, type Q to boot with the new
settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you
made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have
to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that
you will eventually want to build a custom kernel.MS-DOS User's Questions and AnswersDOSMany users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS.
Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on
such systems.Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything
first?If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little
or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all
hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS
utility, provided
in the tools directory on the FreeBSD
CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite
useful.FIPSFIPS allows you to split an
existing MS-DOS partition
into two pieces, preserving the original partition and
allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You
first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows
DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer,
right-click on the
hard drive, and choose to defrag your
hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run
FIPS. It
will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs.
Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new
free slice. See the Distributions menu
for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the
kind of installation you want.Partition MagicThere is also a very useful
product from PowerQuest
called Partition Magic. This
application has far more functionality than
FIPS, and is
highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove
operating systems (like me). However, it does cost
money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then
leave it there, FIPS will probably
be fine for you.Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from
FreeBSD?No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or
DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever
portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest
of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the
stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that
file or you will probably regret it
greatly!It is probably better to create another uncompressed
primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications
between MS-DOS and FreeBSD.Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition?partitionsslicesYes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end
of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your
D: drive might be
/dev/da0s5, your
E: drive,
/dev/da0s6, and so on. This example
assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI
drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad
for da appropriately if installing
4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute
wd for da if you
are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise
mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other
DOS drive, for example:&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_dAlpha User's Questions and AnswersAlphaThis section answers some commonly asked questions about
installing FreeBSD on Alpha systems.Can I boot from the ARC or Alpha BIOS Console?ARCAlpha BIOSSRMNo. &os;, like Compaq Tru64 and VMS, will only boot
from the SRM console.Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete
everything first?Unfortunately, yes.Can I mount my Compaq Tru64 or VMS filesystems?No, not at this time.ValentinoVaschettoContributed by Advanced Installation GuideThis section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional
cases.Installing FreeBSD on a System without a Monitor or
Keyboardinstallationheadless (serial console)serial consoleThis type of installation is called a "headless install",
because the machine that you are trying to install FreeBSD on
either does not have a monitor attached to it, or does not even
have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a
serial console. A serial console is basically using another
machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a
system. To do this, just follow these steps:Fetch the Right Boot Floppy ImagesFirst you will need to get the right disk images so
that you can boot into the install program. The secret
with using a serial console is that you tell the boot
loader to send I/O through a serial port instead of
displaying console output to the VGA device and trying to
read input from a local keyboard. Enough of that now,
let's get back to getting these disk images.You will need to get kern.flp and
mfsroot.flp from the
floppies directory.Write the Image Files to the Floppy Disks.The image files, such as
kern.flp, are
not regular files that you copy to
the disk. Instead, they are images of the complete
contents of the disk.This means that you can not use
commands like DOS' copy to write the
files. Instead, you must use specific tools to write the
images directly to the disk.fdimageIf you are creating the floppies on a computer running
DOS then we provide a tool to do this called
fdimage.If you are using the floppies from the CDROM, and
your CDROM is the E: drive then
you would run this:E:\>tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp A:Repeat this command for each .flp
file, replacing the floppy disk each time. Adjust the
command line as necessary, depending on where you have
placed the .flp files. If you do not
have the CDROM then fdimage can be
downloaded from the tools
directory on the FreeBSD FTP site.If you are writing the floppies on a Unix system (such
as another FreeBSD system) you can use the &man.dd.1;
command to write the image files directly to disk. On
FreeBSD you would run:&prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=/dev/fd0On FreeBSD /dev/fd0 refers to
the first floppy disk (the A:
drive). /dev/fd1 would be the
B: drive, and so on. Other Unix
variants might have different names for the floppy disk
devices, and you will need to check the documentation for
the system as necessary.Enabling the Boot Floppies to Boot into a Serial
ConsoleDo not try to mount the floppy if it is write-protectedmountIf you were to boot into the floppies that you just
made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We
want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our
install. To do this, you have to mount the
kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD
system using the &man.mount.8; command.&prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mntNow that you have the floppy mounted, you must
change into the floppy directory&prompt.root; cd /mntHere is where you must set the floppy to boot into a
serial console. You have to make a file called
boot.config containing "/boot/loader
-h". All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to
boot into a serial console.&prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.configNow that you have your floppy configured correctly,
you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8;
command&prompt.root; cd /
&prompt.root; umount /mntNow you can remove the floppy from the floppy
driveConnecting Your Null Modem Cablenull-modem cableYou now need to connect a null modem cable between
the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial
ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable
will not work here, you need a null modem
cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed
over.Booting Up for the InstallIt is now time to go ahead and start the install. Put
the kern.flp floppy in the floppy
drive of the machine you are doing the headless install
on, and power on the machine.Connecting to Your Headless MachinecuNow you have to connect to that machine with
&man.cu.1;:&prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0That's it! You should be able to control the headless
machine through your cu session now. It will ask
you to put
in the mfsroot.flp, and then it will come
up with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Just
select the FreeBSD color console and proceed with your
install!Preparing Your Own Installation MediaTo prevent repetition, FreeBSD disk in this context
means a FreeBSD CDROM or DVD that you have purchased, or produced
yourself.There may be some situations in which you need to create your own
FreeBSD installation media and/or source. This might be physical media,
such as a tape, or a source that Sysinstall
can use to retrieve the files, such as a local FTP site, or an MS-DOS
partition. For example;You have many machines connected to your local network, and one
FreeBSD disk. You want to create a local FTP site using the
contents of the FreeBSD disk, and then have your machines use this
local FTP site instead of needing to connect to the Internet.You have a FreeBSD disk, FreeBSD does not recognize your CD/DVD
drive, but DOS/Windows does. You want to copy the FreeBSD
installations files to a DOS partition on the same computer, and
then install FreeBSD using those files.The computer you want to install on does not have a CD/DVD
drive, or a network card, but you can connect a
Laplink-style serial or parallel cable to a computer
that does.You want to create a tape that can be used to install
FreeBSD.Creating a Local FTP Site with a FreeBSD DiskinstallationnetworkFTPFreeBSD disks are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This
makes it very easy for you to create a local FTP site that can be used
by other machines on your network when installing FreeBSD.On the FreeBSD computer that will host the FTP site, ensure
that the CDROM is in the drive, and mounted on
/cdrom.&prompt.root; mount /cdromCreate an account for anonymous FTP in
/etc/passwd. Do this by editing
/etc/passwd using &man.vipw.8; and adding
this line.ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistentEnsure that the FTP service is enabled in
/etc/inetd.conf.Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now
chose a media type of FTP and type in
ftp://your machine
after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during
the install.This approach is OK for a machine that is on your local network,
and that is protected by your firewall. Offering up FTP services to
other machines over the Internet (and not your local network)
exposes your computer to the attention of crackers and other
undesirables. We strongly recommend that you follow good security
practices if you do this.Creating Installation FloppiesinstallationfloppiesIf you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you
do not do), either due to unsupported
hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard
way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation.At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies
as it takes to hold all the files in the
bin (binary distribution) directory. If
you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they
MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS
FORMAT command. If you are using Windows,
use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the
A: drive, and select "Format".Do not trust factory pre-formatted
floppies. Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many
problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from
the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are
making a point of it now.If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine,
a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put
a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the
disklabel and newfs
commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the
following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy)
illustrates:&prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440
&prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3
&prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0Use fd0.1200 and
floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks.Then you can mount and write to them like any other
filesystem.After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy
the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks
conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional
1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many
files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the
distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each
distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.:
a:\bin\bin.aa,
a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on.Once you come to the Media screen during the install
process, select Floppy and you will be prompted
for the rest.Installing from an MS-DOS Partitioninstallationfrom MS-DOSTo prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition,
copy the files from the distribution into a directory on that
partition. For example, c:\freebsd. The directory
structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced
within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS
xcopy command if you are copying it from a
CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of
FreeBSD:C:\>md c:\freebsdC:\>xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /sC:\>xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /sAssuming that C: is where you have
free space and E: is where your CDROM
is mounted.If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the
distribution from
ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory;
for example, the bin distribution can be
found in the &rel.current;/bin directory.For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS
partition (and you have the free space for), install each one
under c:\freebsd — the
BIN distribution is the only one required for
a minimum installation.Creating an Installation Tapeinstallationfrom QIC/SCSI TapeInstalling from tape is probably the easiest method, short
of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation
program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape.
After getting all of the distribution files you are interested
in, simply tar them onto the tape;&prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir
&prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2When you go to do the installation, you should also make
sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory
(which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the
full contents of the tape you have created.
Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of
installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You
should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have
stuff written on tape.When starting the installation, the tape must be in the
drive before booting from the boot
floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find
it.Before Installing over a Networkinstallationnetworkserial (SLIP or PPP)installationnetworkparallel (PLIP)installationnetworkEthernetThere are three types of network installations you can do.
Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)),
or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some
PCMCIA)).The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily
to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a
laptop computer and another computer. The link should be
hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a
dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP
utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever
possible.If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly
your only choice. Make sure that you have your service
provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly
early in the installation process.If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other
words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without
using a script), then all you will need to do is type in
dial at the
ppp prompt. Otherwise,
you will need to know
how to dial your ISP using the AT commands
specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very
simple terminal emulator. Please refer
to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further
information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to
the screen using the command set log local
....If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or
later) machine is available, you might also consider installing
over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate
over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically
possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting
in a quicker installation.Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an
Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most
common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their
required settings) is provided in the Hardware Notes
for each release of FreeBSD. If you are
using one of the supported PCMCIA Ethernet cards, also be sure
that it is plugged in before the laptop is
powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support
hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation.You will also need to know your IP address on the network,
the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your
machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not
have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically
assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you
which values to use for your particular network setup. If you
will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address,
you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a
gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address)
to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a
HTTP proxy (see below), you will also need the proxy's address.
If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions,
then you should really probably talk to your system administrator
or ISP before trying this type of
installation.Before Installing via NFSinstallationnetworkNFSThe NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply
copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server
somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it.If this server supports only privileged port
(as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will
need to set this option in the Options menu before
installation can proceed.If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers
from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the
appropriate Options flag.In order for NFS installation to work, the server must
support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution
directory lives
on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then
ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting
of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just
/usr or
/usr/archive/stuff.In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this
is controlled by the . Other NFS
servers may have different conventions. If you are getting
permission denied messages from the server, then
it is likely that you do not have this enabled
properly.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml
index b248a422b0..8036c6840b 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,841 +1,841 @@
BillLloydOriginal work by JimMockRewritten by Electronic MailSynopsisemailelectronic mailElectronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most
widely used forms of communication today. This chapter provides
a basic introduction to running a mail server on FreeBSD.
However, it is not a complete reference and in fact many
important considerations are omitted. For more complete
coverage of the subject, the reader is referred to the many
excellent books listed in .After reading this chapter, you will know:What software components are involved in sending
and receiving electronic mail.Where basic sendmail
configuration files are located in FreeBSD.How to block spammers from illegally using your
mail server as a relay.How to troubleshoot common mail server
problems.Before reading this chapter, you should:Properly setup your network connection ().Properly setup the DNS information for your mail
host ().Know how to install additional third-party
software ().Using Electronic MailPOPIMAPDNSThere are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They
are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a POP or
IMAP daemon, and of course, the
mailhost itself.The User ProgramThis includes command line programs such as
mutt, pine,
elm, and
mail, and GUI programs such as
balsa,
xfmail to name a few, and something
more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These
programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local mailhost, either by
calling one of the server daemons
available or delivering it over TCP.Mailhost Server Daemonmail server daemonssendmailmail server daemonspostfixmail server daemonsqmailmail server daemonseximThis is usually sendmail (by
default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such
as qmail,
postfix, or
exim. There are others, but those are
the most widely used.The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks
after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does
not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail.
You need an additional daemon
for that.Be aware that some older versions of
sendmail have some serious security
problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you
should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to
stay up-to-date with any software you run.Email and DNSThe Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon
named play a large role in the delivery of
email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the
server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the
host that will receive mail for the destination.It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS
contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a
hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record.
The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will
receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your
hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host.Receiving MailemailreceivingReceiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It
will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup.
In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to
the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you
want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP
server is not needed.POPIMAPIf you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things
you need to do:Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the ports collection and install
it on your system.Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the
POP or IMAP server.The Mail Hostmail hostThe mail host is the name given to a server that is
responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and
possibly your network.ChristopherShumwayContributed by sendmail Configurationsendmail&man.sendmail.8; is the default Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) in
FreeBSD. sendmail's job is to accept
mail from Mail User Agents (MUA) and deliver it to the
appropriate mailer as defined by its configuration file.
sendmail can also accept network
connections and deliver mail to local mailboxes or deliver it to
another program.sendmail uses the following
configuration files:/etc/mail/access/etc/mail/aliases/etc/mail/local-host-names/etc/mail/mailer.conf/etc/mail/mailertable/etc/mail/sendmail.cf/etc/mail/virtusertableFilenameFunction/etc/mail/accesssendmail access database
file/etc/mail/aliasesMailbox aliases/etc/mail/local-host-namesLists of hosts sendmail
accepts mail for/etc/mail/mailer.confMailer program configuration/etc/mail/mailertableMailer delivery table/etc/mail/sendmail.cfsendmail master
configuration file/etc/mail/virtusertableVirtual users and domain tables/etc/mail/accessThe access database defines what host(s) or IP addresses
have access to the local mail server and what kind of access
they have. Hosts can be listed as ,
, or simply passed
to sendmail's error handling routine with a given mailer error.
Hosts that are listed as , which is the
default, are allowed to send mail to this host as long as the
mail's final destination is the local machine. Hosts that are
listed as are rejected for all mail
connections. Hosts that have the option
for their hostname are allowed to send mail for any destination
through this mail server.Configuring the sendmail
Access Databasecyberspammer.com 550 We don't accept mail from spammers
FREE.STEALTH.MAILER@ 550 We don't accept mail from spammers
another.source.of.spam REJECT
okay.cyberspammer.com OK
128.32 RELAYIn this example we have five entries. Mail senders that
match the left hand side of the table are affected by the action
on the right side of the table. The first two examples give an
error code to sendmail's error
handling routine. The message is printed to the remote host when
a mail matches the left hand side of the table. The next entry
rejects mail from a specific host on the Internet,
another.source.of.spam. The next entry accepts
mail connections from a host
okay.cyberspammer.com, which is more exact than
- the cyberspamer.com line above. More specific
+ the cyberspammer.com line above. More specific
matches override less exact matches. The last entry allows
relaying of electronic mail from hosts with an IP address that
begins with 128.32. These hosts would be able
to send mail through this mail server that are destined for other
mail servers.When this file is updated, you need to run
make in /etc/mail/ to
update the database./etc/mail/aliasesThe aliases database contains a list of virtual mailboxes
that are expanded to other user(s), files, programs or other
aliases. Here are a few examples that can be used in
/etc/mail/aliases:Mail Aliasesroot: localuser
ftp-bugs: joe,eric,paul
bit.bucket: /dev/null
procmail: "|/usr/local/bin/procmail"The aliases update matches the mailbox name on the left of
the colon, and will expand it to the target(s) on the right. The
first example simply expands the mailbox root
to the mailbox localuser , which is then
looked up again in the aliases database. If no match is found,
then the message is delivered to the local user
localuser. The next example shows a mail
list. Mail to the mailbox ftp-bugs is
expanded to the three local mailboxes joe,
eric, and paul. Note
that a remote mailbox could be specified as user@domain.com. The
next example shows writing mail to a file, in this case
/dev/null. The last example shows sending
mail to a program, in this case the mail message is written to the
standard input of /usr/local/bin/procmail
through a Unix pipe.When this file is updated, you need to run
make in /etc/mail/ to
update the database./etc/mail/local-host-namesThis is a list of hostnames &man.sendmail.8; is to accept as
the local host name. Place any domains or hosts that
sendmail is to be receiving mail for.
For example, if this mail server was to accept mail for the
domain example.com and the host
mail.example.com, its
local-host-names might look something like
this:example.com
mail.example.comWhen this file is updated, &man.sendmail.8; needs to be
restarted for it to read the changes./etc/mail/mailer.confThe mailer.conf configuration file
holds a table containing the real mailer that is used for the
given action. Very old software programs would hard-code in the
name and path to the mailer,
/usr/sbin/sendmail, which meant they where
incompatible with other mailers such as postfix. Today,
/usr/sbin/sendmail is a wrapper that looks
at /etc/mail/mailer.conf and executes the
correct binary. When another mail transfer agent is installed
on the system, mailer.conf should be
updated to reflect the correct programs to execute./etc/mail/sendmail.cfsendmail's master configuration
file, sendmail.cf controls the overall
behavior of sendmail, including everything
from rewriting e-mail addresses to printing reject messages for
remote mail servers. Naturally, with such a diverse role, this
configuration file is quite complex and its details are a bit
out of the scope of this section. Fortunately, this file rarely
needs to be changed for standard mail servers.The master sendmail configuration
file can be built from &man.m4.1; macros that define features
and behavior of sendmail. Please see
/usr/src/contrib/sendmail/cf/README for
some of the details.When changes to this file are made,
sendmail needs to be restarted for
the changes to take effect./etc/mail/virtusertableThe virtualusertable maps mail for
virtual domains and
mailboxes to real mailboxes. These mailboxes can be local,
remote, an alias defined in
/etc/mail/aliases or a file.Example Virtual Domain Mail Maproot@example.com root
postmaster@example.com postmaster@noc.example.net
@example.com joeIn the above example, we have a mapping for a domain
example.com. This file is processed in a
first match order down the file. The first item maps
root@example.com to the local mailbox root. The next entry maps
postmaster@example.com to the mailbox postmaster on the host
noc.example.net. Finally, if nothing from example.com has
matched so far, it will match the last mapping, which matches
every other mail message addressed to someone at
example.com.
This will be mapped to the local mail box joe.TroubleshootingemailtroubleshootingWhy do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site?You will probably find that the host is actually in a
different domain; for example, if you are in
foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach
a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to
refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just
mumble.BINDTraditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers.
However the current version of BIND
that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations
for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you
are in. So an unqualified host mumble must
either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched
for in the root domain.This is different from the previous behavior, where the
search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535
for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security
hole.As a good workaround, you can place the line:
search foo.bar.edu bar.edu
instead of the previous:
domain foo.bar.edu
into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make
sure that the search order does not go beyond the
boundary between local and public administration,
as RFC 1535 calls it.sendmail says mail
loops back to myselfThis is answered in the
sendmail FAQ as follows:* I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as:
553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself
554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error
How can I solve this problem?
You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be
forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net)
by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize
itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw
(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net
to /etc/sendmail.cf.The sendmail FAQ is in
/usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is
recommended reading if you want to do any
tweaking of your mail setup.PPPHow can I run a mail server on a dial-up PPP host?You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a LAN to the
Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the LAN.
The PPP connection is non-dedicated.UUCPThere are at least two ways to do this, an alternative
being UUCP.The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX
service for your domain. For example:bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com.
MX 20 smalliap.com.Only one host should be specified as the final recipient
(add Cw bigco.com in
/etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com).When the senders' sendmail is trying to
deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem
link. It will most likely time out because you are not online.
sendmail will automatically deliver it to the
secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX
site will try every
(sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in
/etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to
your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site.You might want to use something like this as a login
script.#!/bin/sh
# Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco
( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) &
/usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigcoIf you are going to create a separate login script for a
user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com
instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your
queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately.A further refinement of the situation is as follows.Message stolen from the &a.isp;.> we provide the secondary MX for a customer. The customer connects to
> our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to
> his primary MX (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains
> arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the
> moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is
> gone to the primary MX.
>
> Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails
> now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course.
In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a
definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun
Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing.
You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our
customers like this, and we have defined:
# If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating
# local config error.
OwTrue
That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying
the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for
hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail
machine customer.com as well as
hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in
the DNS for customer.com.Advanced TopicsThe following section covers more involved topics such as mail
configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain.Basic ConfigurationemailconfigurationOut of the box, you should be able to send email to external
hosts as long as you have set up
/etc/resolv.conf or are running your own
name server. If you would like to have mail for your host
delivered to that specific host, there are two methods:Run your own name server and have your own domain. For
example, FreeBSD.orgGet mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by
delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your
machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org.SMTPRegardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have
mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent
(static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a
firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to
receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two
things:MX recordMake sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your
host's IP address.Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your
host.Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at
your host.Try this:&prompt.root; hostname
example.FreeBSD.org
&prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org
example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XXIf that is what you see, mail directly to
yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without
problems.If instead you see something like this:&prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org
example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX
example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.orgAll mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org) will end up being
collected on hub under the same username instead
of being sent directly to your host.The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS
record that carries mail routing information is the
Mail eXchange entry. If
no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by
way of its IP address.The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like
this:freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net
freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com
freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org
freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.comAs you can see, freefall had many MX entries.
The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in
the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if
freefall is busy or down.Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections
from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other
friendly site should have no problem providing this service for
you.Mail for Your DomainIn order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail
server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations
directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any
mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail
server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on
the server.DNSTo make life easiest, a user account with the same
username should exist on both machines. Use
adduser to do this.The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail
exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in
your DNS configuration like so:example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation
MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; MailhostThis will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no
matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX
host.You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS
server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk
to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you.If you are doing virtual email hosting, the following
information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we
will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this
case customer1.org and you want
all the mail for customer1.org
sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS
should look like this:customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.comYou do not need an A record if you only
want to handle email for the domain.Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless
an A record exists for it.The last thing that you must do is tell
sendmail on your mailhost what domains
and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few
different ways this can be done. Either of the following will
work:Add the hosts to your
/etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the
FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using
sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is
/etc/mail/local-host-names.Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your
/etc/sendmail.cf or
/etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using
sendmail 8.10 or higher.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
index 80fe1afb3b..32b55a425e 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,2868 +1,2868 @@
JimMockRestructured, reorganized, and updated by PPP and SLIPSynopsisPPPSLIPFreeBSD has a number of ways to link one computer to
another. To establish a network or Internet connection through a
dial-up modem, or to allow others to do so through you, requires
the use of PPP or SLIP. This chapter describes setting up
these modem-based communication services in detail.After reading this chapter, you will know:How to setup User PPP.How to setup Kernel PPP.How to setup PPPoE (PPP over
Ethernet).How to setup PPPoA (PPP over
ATM).How to configure and setup a SLIP client and
server.PPPuser PPPPPPkernel PPPPPPover EthernetBefore reading this chapter, you should:be familiar with basic network terminology.understand the basics and purpose of a dialup connection
and PPP and/or SLIP.You may be wondering what the main difference is between User
PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP processes the
inbound and outbound data in userland rather than in the kernel.
This is expensive in terms of copying the data between the kernel
and userland, but allows a far more feature-rich ppp implementation.
User PPP uses the tun device to communicate
with the outside world whereas kernel-ppp uses the
ppp device.Throughout in this chapter, user ppp will simply be
referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it
and any other PPP software such as pppd.
Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this
section should be executed as root.BrianSomersOriginally contributed by NikClaytonWith input from DirkFrömbergPeterChildsUsing User PPPUser PPPAssumptionsThis document assumes you have the following:ISPPPPAn account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which
you connect to using PPP.Further, you have a modem or
other device connected to your system and configured
correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP.The dial-up number(s) of your ISP.PAPCHAPUnixlogin namepasswordYour login name and password. (Either a
regular Unix-style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP
login and password pair.)nameserverThe IP address of one or more name servers.
Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to
use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then
you can use the enable dns command in
your ppp.conf file to tell
ppp to set the name servers for
you. This feature depends on your ISPs PPP implementation
supporting DNS negotiation.The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but
is not completely necessary:The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is
the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as
your default route. If you do not have
this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP
server will tell us the correct value when we connect.This IP number is referred to as
HISADDR by
ppp.The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not
provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.255.static IP addressIf your ISP provides you with a static IP address and
hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the
peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit.If you do not have any of the required information, contact
your ISP.Throughout this section, many of the examples showing
the contents of configuration files are numbered by line.
These numbers serve to aid in the presentation and
discussion only and are not meant to be placed in the actual
file. Proper indentation with tab and space characters is
also important.Preparing the KernelAs previously mentioned, ppp
uses the tun device. If this device
has not been compiled into your kernel,
ppp will load it on demand as a
module. The tunnel driver is dynamic, so any number of
devices may be created (you are not limited by any kernel
configuration values).It should be noted that the tunnel driver creates devices
on demand, so ifconfig -a will not necessarily
show any tun devices.Check the tun DeviceUnder normal circumstances, most users will only use one
tun device
(/dev/tun0). References to
tun0 below may be changed to
tunN where N
is any unit number corresponding to your system.For FreeBSD installations that do not have DEVFS enabled,
the existence of the tun0 device should
be verified (this is not necessary if DEVFS is enabled as device
nodes will be created on demand).The easiest way to make sure that the
tun0 device is configured correctly
is to remake the device. To remake the device, do the
following:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun0If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need
to create them. This can be done by executing the following
commands:&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV tun15Name Resolution ConfigurationresolverhostnamehostsThe resolver is the part of the system that looks up IP
addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured
to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of
two places. The first is a file called
/etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more
information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service
(DNS), a distributed data base. For more information on DNS
and DNS services, refer to .The resolver is a set of system calls that perform the name
mappings, but you have to tell it where to find the
information. For versions of FreeBSD prior to 5.0. This is done by
editing the file /etc/host.conf.
FreeBSD 5.0 uses the /etc/nsswitch.conf file.Edit /etc/host.confFor versions of FreeBSD prior to 5.0, this file should
contain the following two lines (in this order):hosts
bindThis instructs the resolver to first look in the file
/etc/hosts, and to then consult the DNS
if the name was not found.Edit /etc/nsswitch.confFor FreeBSD version 5.0 or above, this file should
contain at least the following line:hosts: files, dnsThis instructs the resolver to first look in the file
/etc/hosts, and to then consult DNS
if the name was not found.Edit /etc/hostsThis file may contain the IP addresses and names of
machines on your local network. At a bare minimum it should
contain
entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming
that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address foo.example.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1,
/etc/hosts should contain:
- 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost
-::1 localhost.bar.com localhost
-10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo
+ 127.0.0.1 localhost.example.com localhost
+::1 localhost.example.com localhost
+10.0.0.1 foo.example.com fooThe first two lines define the alias
localhost as a synonym for the current
machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP addresses
for these lines should always be 127.0.0.1 and ::1. The last line maps
- the name foo.bar.com (and the
+ the name foo.example.com (and the
shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1.127.0.0.1 and
localhost are known as loopback
addresses, which loopback to the local machine.If your provider allocates you a static IP address and
name, and you are not using that as your host name, add this
to the /etc/hosts too.Edit /etc/resolv.confThe /etc/resolv.conf file tells the
resolver how to behave. Normally, you will need to enter
the following line(s):
- domain bar.com
+ domain example.com
nameserver x.x.x.x
nameserver y.y.y.yThe x.x.x.x and
y.y.y.y
addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many
nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The
domain line is set to your hosts
domain name. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for
details of other possible entries in this file.If you are running a local name server, replace the
above nameserver lines with:nameserver 0.0.0.0PPPISPThe enable dns command (entered in the
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf file - see below) will
tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values.
If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no
nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP
will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values.PPP ConfigurationPPPconfigurationBoth ppp and pppd
(the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration
files located in the /etc/ppp directory.
Examples for user ppp can be found in
/usr/share/examples/ppp/.Configuring ppp requires that you edit a
number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put
in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP
addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and
always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address
changes each time you connect to your ISP).PPP and Static IP AddressesPPPwith static IP addressesYou will need to edit the
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf configuration file. It
should look similar to the example below.Lines that end in a : start in
the first column (beginning of the line)— all other
lines should be indented as shown using spaces or
tabs.1 default:
2 set log Phase Chat LCP IPCP CCP tun command
3 ident user-ppp VERSION (built COMPILATIONDATE)
4 set device /dev/cuaa0
5 set speed 115200
6 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \
7 \"\" AT OK-AT-OK ATE1Q0 OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT"
8 set timeout 180
9 enable dns
10
11 provider:
12 set phone "(123) 456 7890"
13 set authname foo
14 set authkey bar
15 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: \\U word: \\P col: ppp"
16 set timeout 300
17 set ifaddr x.x.x.xy.y.y.y 255.255.255.255 0.0.0.0
18 add default HISADDRLine 1:Identifies the default entry. Commands in this
entry are executed automatically when ppp is run.Line 2:Enables logging parameters. When the configuration
is working satisfactorily, this line should be reduced
to saying
set log phase tun
in order to avoid excessive log file sizes.Line 3:Tells PPP how to identify itself to the peer.
PPP identifies itself to the peer if it has any trouble
negotiating and setting up the link, providing information
that the peers administrator may find useful when
investigating such problems.Line 4:Identifies the device to which the modem is
connected. COM1 is
/dev/cuaa0 and
COM2 is
/dev/cuaa1.Line 5:Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200
does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem),
try 38400 instead.Line 6 & 7:PPPuser PPPThe dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send
syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to
the manual page for information on the features of this
language.Note that this command continues onto the next line
for readability. Any command in
ppp.conf may do this if the last
character on the line is a ``\'' character.Line 8:Sets the idle timeout for the link. 180 seconds
is the default, so this line is purely cosmetic.Line 9:Tells PPP to ask the peer to confirm the local
resolver settings. If you run a local name server, this
line should be commented out or removed.Line 10:A blank line for readability. Blank lines are ignored
by PPP.Line 11:Identifies an entry for a provider called
provider.Line 12:Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple
phone numbers may be specified using the colon
(:) or pipe character
(|)as a separator. The difference
between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;.
To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers,
use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the
first number first and only use the other numbers if the
first number fails, use the pipe character. Always
quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown.Line 13 & 14:Identifies the user name and password. When connecting
using a Unix-style login prompt, these values are referred
to by the set login command using the \U
and \P variables. When connecting using PAP or CHAP, these
values are used at authentication time.Line 15:PAPCHAPIf you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login
at this point, and this line should be commented out or
removed. See PAP and CHAP
authentication for further details.The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as
the dial string. In this example, the string works for
a service whose login session looks like this:J. Random Provider
login: foo
password: bar
protocol: pppYou will need to alter this script to suit your own
needs. When you write this script for the first time,
you should ensure that you have enabled chat
logging so you can determine if the conversation is going
as expected.Line 16:timeoutSets the default idle timeout (in seconds) for the
connection. Here, the connection will be closed
automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you
never want to timeout, set this value to zero or use
the command line switch.Line 17:ISPSets the interface addresses. The string
x.x.x.x should be replaced by
the IP address that your provider has allocated to you.
The string y.y.y.y should be
replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for
their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If
your ISP has not given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use
a guessed address, make sure that you
create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the
instructions for PPP
and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is
omitted, ppp cannot run in
mode.Line 18:Adds a default route to your ISP's gateway. The
special word HISADDR is replaced with
the gateway address specified on line 9. It is
important that this line appears after line 9,
otherwise HISADDR will not yet be
initialized.If you do not wish to run ppp in ,
this line should be moved to the
ppp.linkup file.It is not necessary to add an entry to
ppp.linkup when you have a static IP
address and are running ppp in mode as your
routing table entries are already correct before you connect.
You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after
connection. This is explained later with the sendmail
example.Example configuration files can be found in the
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ directory.PPP and Dynamic IP AddressesPPPwith dynamic IP addressesIPCPIf your service provider does not assign static IP
addresses, ppp can be configured to
negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by
guessing an IP address and allowing
ppp to set it up correctly using the IP
Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The
ppp.conf configuration is the same as
PPP and Static IP
Addresses, with the following change:17 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.255Again, do not include the line number, it is just for
reference. Indentation of at least one space is
required.Line 17:The number after the / character
is the number of bits of the address that ppp will
insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more
appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example
will always work.The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells
PPP to start negotiations using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1 and is necessary for some
ISPs. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first
argument to set ifaddr as it prevents
PPP from setting up an initial route in
mode.If you are not running in mode, you
will need to create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.
ppp.linkup is used after a connection has
been established. At this point, ppp will
have assigned the interface addresses and it will now be
possible to add the routing table entries:1 provider:
2 add default HISADDRLine 1:On establishing a connection, ppp
will look for an entry in ppp.linkup
according to the following rules: First, try to match
the same label as we used in
ppp.conf. If that fails, look for
an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry
is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not
found an entry, look for the MYADDR
entry.Line 2:This line tells ppp to add a
default route that points to HISADDR.
HISADDR will be replaced with the IP
number of the gateway as negotiated by the IPCP.See the pmdemand entry in the files
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a
detailed example.Receiving Incoming CallsPPPreceiving
incoming callsWhen you configure ppp to
receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you
must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you
do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's
subnet, and use the command enable proxy in
your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should
also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file
contains the following:gateway_enable="YES"Which getty?Configuring FreeBSD for Dial-up
Services provides a good description on enabling
dial-up services using &man.getty.8;.An alternative to getty is mgetty,
a smarter version of getty designed with
dial-up lines in mind.The advantages of using mgetty is
that it actively talks to modems,
meaning if port is turned off in
/etc/ttys then your modem will not answer
the phone.Later versions of mgetty (from
0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of
PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to
your server.Refer to Mgetty and
AutoPPP for more information on
mgetty.PPP PermissionsThe ppp command must normally be run
as the root user. If however, you wish
to allow
ppp to run in server mode as a normal
user by executing ppp as described below,
that user must be given permission to run
ppp by adding them to the
network group in
/etc/group.You will also need to give them access to one or more
sections of the configuration file using the
allow command:allow users fred maryIf this command is used in the default
section, it gives the specified users access to
everything.PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP UsersPPP shellsCreate a file called
/etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the
following:#!/bin/sh
IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'`
CALLEDAS="$IDENT"
TTY=`tty`
if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then
IDENT=`basename $TTY`
fi
echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY"
echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT"
exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENTThis script should be executable. Now make a symbolic
link called ppp-dialup to this script
using the following commands:&prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialupYou should use this script as the
shell for all of your dialup users.
This is an example from /etc/password
for a dialup PPP user with username
pchilds (remember do not directly edit
the password file, use vipw).pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialupCreate a /home/ppp directory that
is world readable containing the following 0 byte
files:-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin
-r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhostswhich prevents /etc/motd from being
displayed.PPP Shells for Static-IP UsersPPP shellsCreate the ppp-shell file as above,
and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a
symbolic link to ppp-shell.For example, if you have three dialup customers,
fred, sam, and
mary, that you route class C networks
for, you would type the following:&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred
&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam
&prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-maryEach of these users dialup accounts should have their
shell set to the symbolic link created above (for example,
mary's shell should be
/etc/ppp/ppp-mary).Setting up ppp.conf for Dynamic-IP UsersThe /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should
contain something along the lines of:default:
set debug phase lcp chat
set timeout 0
ttyd0:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255
enable proxy
ttyd1:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255
enable proxyThe indenting is important.The default: section is loaded for
each session. For each dialup line enabled in
/etc/ttys create an entry similar to
the one for ttyd0: above. Each line
should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP
addresses for dynamic users.Setting up ppp.conf for Static-IP
UsersAlong with the contents of the sample
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add
a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users.
We will continue with our fred,
sam, and mary
example.fred:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255
sam:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255
mary:
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should
also contain routing information for each static IP user if
required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the
client's ppp link.fred:
add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
sam:
add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR
mary:
add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDRMore on mgetty, AutoPPP, and MS
Extensionsmgetty and AutoPPPmgettyAutoPPPLCPConfiguring and compiling mgetty with
the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows
mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP
connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell.
However, since the default login/password sequence does not
occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP
or CHAP.This section assumes the user has successfully
configured, compiled, and installed a version of
mgetty with the
AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or
later).Make sure your
/usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config
file has the following in it:/AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialupThis will tell mgetty to run the
ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP
connections.Create a file called
/etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the
following (the file should be executable):#!/bin/sh
exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENTFor each dialup line enabled in
/etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry
in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will
happily co-exist with the definitions we created
above.pap:
enable pap
set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40
enable proxyEach user logging in with this method will need to have
a username/password in
/etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or
alternatively add the following option to authenticate users
via PAP from /etc/password file.enable passwdauthIf you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you
can specify the number as the third argument in
/etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See
/usr/share/examples/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for
examples.MS ExtensionsDNSNetBIOSPPPMicrosoft extensionsIt is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and
NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand.To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the
following lines might be added to the relevant section of
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf.enable msext
set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
set nbns 203.14.100.5And for PPP version 2 and above:accept dns
set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2
set nbns 203.14.100.5This will tell the clients the primary and secondary
name server addresses, and a NetBIOS nameserver host.In version 2 and above, if the
set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the
values found in /etc/resolv.conf.PAP and CHAP AuthenticationPAPCHAPSome ISPs set their system up so that the authentication
part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or
CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP
will not give a login: prompt when you
connect, but will start talking PPP immediately.PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally
an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text
with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only.
There's not much room for crackers to
eavesdrop.Referring back to the PPP
and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses
sections, the following alterations must be made:7 set login
…
12 set authname MyUserName
13 set authkey MyPasswordLine 7:Your ISP will not normally require that you log into
the server if you are using PAP or CHAP. You must
therefore disable your set login
string.Line 12:This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You
will need to insert the correct value for
MyUserName.Line 13:passwordThis line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You
will need to insert the correct value for
MyPassword. You may want to
add an additional line, such as:15 accept PAPor15 accept CHAPto make it obvious that this is the intention, but
PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default.Changing Your ppp Configuration on the
FlyIt is possible to talk to the ppp
program while it is running in the background, but only if a
suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the
following line to your configuration:set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177This will tell PPP to listen to the specified Unix-domain
socket, asking clients for the specified password before
allowing access. The %d in the name is
replaced with the tun device number
that is in use.Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program
may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running
program.Final System ConfigurationPPPconfigurationYou now have ppp configured, but there
are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They
all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf
file.Working from the top down in this file, make sure the
hostname= line is set, e.g.:
- hostname="foo.bar.com"
+ hostname="foo.example.com"If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and
name, it is probably best that you use this name as your host
name.Look for the network_interfaces variable.
If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand,
make sure the tun0 device is added to
the list, otherwise remove it.network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0=The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be
empty, and a file called
/etc/start_if.tun0 should be created.
This file should contain the line:ppp -auto mysystemThis script is executed at network configuration time,
starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN
for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use
the switch. Refer to the manual page
for further details.Set the router program to NO with
following line in your
/etc/rc.conf:router_enable="NO"routedIt is important that the routed daemon is
not started (it is started by default), as
routed tends to delete the default routing
table entries created by ppp.It is probably worth your while ensuring that the
sendmail_flags line does not include the
option, otherwise
sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup
every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out.
You may try:sendmail_flags="-bd"sendmailThe downside of this is that you must force
sendmail to re-examine the mail queue
whenever the ppp link is up by typing:&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -qYou may wish to use the !bg command in
ppp.linkup to do this automatically:1 provider:
2 delete ALL
3 add 0 0 HISADDR
4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30mSMTPIf you do not like this, it is possible to set up a
dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the
sample files for further details.Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine.All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting,
you can now either type:&prompt.root; pppand then dial provider to start the PPP
session, or, if you want ppp to establish
sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and
you have not created the start_if.tun0
script), type:&prompt.root; ppp -auto providerSummaryTo recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up
ppp for the first time:Client side:Ensure that the tun device is
built into your kernel.Ensure that the
tunX device
file is available in the /dev
directory.Create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The
pmdemand example should suffice for
most ISPs.If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.Update your /etc/rc.conf
file.Create a start_if.tun0 script if
you require demand dialing.Server side:Ensure that the tun device is
built into your kernel.Ensure that the
tunX device
file is available in the /dev
directory.Create an entry in /etc/passwd
(using the &man.vipw.8; program).Create a profile in this users home directory that runs
ppp -direct direct-server or
similar.Create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The
direct-server example should
suffice.Create an entry in
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.Update your /etc/rc.conf
file.Gennady B.SorokopudParts originally contributed by RobertHuffUsing Kernel PPPSetting up Kernel PPPPPPkernel PPPBefore you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure
that pppd is located in
/usr/sbin and the directory
/etc/ppp exists.pppd can work in two modes:As a client — you want to connect your
machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or
modem line.PPPserveras a server — your machine is located on
the network and used to connect other computers using
PPP.In both cases you will need to set up an options file
(/etc/ppp/options or
~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on
your machine that uses PPP).You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably
kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the
remote host.TrevRoydhouseBased on information provided by Using pppd as a ClientPPPclientCiscoThe following /etc/ppp/options might be
used to connect to a CISCO terminal server PPP line.crtscts # enable hardware flow control
modem # modem control line
noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address.
# if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP
# negotiation , remove this option
passive # wait for LCP packets
domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here
:<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here
# it will be used to route packets via PPP link
# if you didn't specified the noipdefault option
# change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip>
defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your
# default routerTo connect:kermitmodemDial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem
program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever
is needed to enable PPP on the remote host).Exit kermit (without hanging up the line).Enter the following:&prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty0119200Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name.Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection
fails, you can add the option to the
/etc/ppp/options file and check messages on
the console to track the problem.Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make
all 3 stages automatically:#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial
pppd /dev/tty01 19200kermit/etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script
that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote
host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this
document).Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script
to disconnect the PPP line:#!/bin/sh
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill -TERM ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
/sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down
/sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup
/etc/ppp/ppptestCheck to see if PPP is still running by executing
/usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like
this:#!/bin/sh
pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then
echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE}
else
echo 'No pppd running.'
fi
set -x
netstat -n -I ppp0
ifconfig ppp0To hang up the modem, execute
/etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should
contain:set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here
set speed 19200
set file type binary
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
pau 1
out +++
inp 5 OK
out ATH0\13
echo \13
exitHere is an alternate method using chat
instead of kermit.The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a
pppd connection./etc/ppp/options:/dev/cuaa1 115200
crtscts # enable hardware flow control
modem # modem control line
connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script"
noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address.
# if the remote host doesn't send your IP during
# IPCP negotiation, remove this option
passive # wait for LCP packets
domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here
: # put the IP of remote PPP host here
# it will be used to route packets via PPP link
# if you didn't specified the noipdefault option
# change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip>
defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be
# your default router/etc/ppp/login.chat.script:The following should go on a single line.ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number>
CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id>
TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password>Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need
to do is run pppd, like so:&prompt.root; pppdUsing pppd as a Server/etc/ppp/options should contain something
similar to the following:crtscts # Hardware flow control
netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required )
192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts
# local ip must be different from one
# you assigned to the ethernet ( or other )
# interface on your machine.
# remote IP is ip address that will be
# assigned to the remote machine
domain ppp.foo.com # your domain
passive # wait for LCP
modem # modem lineThe following /etc/ppp/pppserv script
will enable tell pppd to behave as a
server:#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
# reset ppp interface
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete
# enable autoanswer mode
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans
# run ppp
pppd /dev/tty01 19200Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to
stop the server:#!/bin/sh
ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid}
kill ${pid}
fi
ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep
pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'`
if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then
echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid}
kill -9 ${pid}
fi
ifconfig ppp0 down
ifconfig ppp0 delete
kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noansThe following kermit script
(/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable
autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this:set line /dev/tty01
set speed 19200
set file type binary
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
pau 1
out +++
inp 5 OK
out ATH0\13
inp 5 OK
echo \13
out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable
; autoanswer mod
inp 5 OK
echo \13
exitA script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is
used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will
need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password
in this script; you will also need to change the input statement
depending on responses from your modem and remote host.;
; put the com line attached to the modem here:
;
set line /dev/tty01
;
; put the modem speed here:
;
set speed 19200
set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer
set file names literal
set win 8
set rec pack 1024
set send pack 1024
set block 3
set term bytesize 8
set command bytesize 8
set flow none
set modem hayes
set dial hangup off
set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary,
set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary,
set input echo on
set input timeout proceed
set input case ignore
def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter
goto slhup
:slcmd ; put the modem in command mode
echo Put the modem in command mode.
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
pause 1
output +++ ; hayes escape sequence
input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK
if success goto slhup
output \13
pause 1
output at\13
input 1 OK\13\10
if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again
:slhup ; hang up the phone
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
pause 1
echo Hanging up the phone.
output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook
input 2 OK\13\10
if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode
:sldial ; dial the number
pause 1
echo Dialing.
output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here
assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter
:look
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
increment \%x ; Count the seconds
input 1 {CONNECT }
if success goto sllogin
reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10}
if success goto sldial
reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10}
if success goto slnodial
reinput 1 {\255}
if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127}
if success goto slhup
if < \%x 60 goto look
else goto slhup
:sllogin ; login
assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter
pause 1
echo Looking for login prompt.
:slloop
increment \%x ; Count the seconds
clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer
output \13
;
; put your expected login prompt here:
;
input 1 {Username: }
if success goto sluid
reinput 1 {\255}
if success goto slhup
reinput 1 {\127}
if success goto slhup
if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt
else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures
:sluid
;
; put your userid here:
;
output ppp-login\13
input 1 {Password: }
;
; put your password here:
;
output ppp-password\13
input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.}
echo
quit
:slnodial
echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7
exit 1
; local variables:
; mode: csh
; comment-start: "; "
; comment-start-skip: "; "
; end:JimMockContributed (from http://node.to/freebsd/how-tos/how-to-freebsd-pppoe.html) by Using PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE)PPPover EthernetPPPoEPPP, over EthernetThis section describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet
(PPPoE).Configuring the kernelNo kernel configuration is necessary for PPPoE any longer. If
the necessary netgraph support is not built into the kernel, it will
be dynamically loaded by ppp.Setting up ppp.confHere is an example of a working
ppp.conf:default:
set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish
set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0
name_of_service_provider:
set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device
set authname YOURLOGINNAME
set authkey YOURPASSWORD
set dial
set login
add default HISADDRRunning PPPAs root, you can run:&prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_providerStarting PPP at BootAdd the following to your /etc/rc.conf
file:ppp_enable="YES"
ppp_mode="ddial"
ppp_nat="YES" # if you want to enable nat for your local network, otherwise NO
ppp_profile="name_of_service_provider"Using a PPPoE Service tagSometimes it will be necessary to use a service tag to establish
your connection. Service tags are used to distinguish between
different PPPoE servers attached to a given network.You should have been given any required service tag information
in the documentation provided by your ISP. If you cannot locate
it there, ask your ISP's tech support personnel.As a last resort, you could try the method suggested by the
Roaring Penguin
PPPoE program which can be found in the ports collection. Bear in mind however,
this may de-program your modem and render it useless, so
think twice before doing it. Simply install the program shipped
with the modem by your provider. Then, access the
System menu from the program. The name of your
profile should be listed there. It is usually
ISP.The profile name (service tag) will be used in the PPPoE
configuration entry in ppp.conf as the provider
part of the set device command (see the &man.ppp.8;
manual page for full details). It should look like this:set device PPPoE:xl1:ISPDo not forget to change xl1
to the proper device for your Ethernet card.Do not forget to change ISP
to the profile you have just found above.For additional information, see:Cheaper Broadband with FreeBSD on
DSL by Renaud Waldura in Daemon
News.PPPoE with a 3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem Dual LinkThis modem does not follow RFC 2516
(A Method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet
(PPPoE), written by L. Mamakos, K. Lidl, J. Evarts,
D. Carrel, D. Simone, and R. Wheeler). Instead, different packet
type codes have been used for the Ethernet frames. Please complain
to 3Com if you think it
should comply with the PPPoE specification.In order to make FreeBSD capable of communicating with this
device, a sysctl must be set. This can be done automatically at
boot time by updating /etc/sysctl.conf:net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1or can be done for immediate effect with the command
sysctl -w net.graph.nonstandard_pppoe=1.Unfortunately, because this is a system-wide setting, it is
not possible to talk to a normal PPPoE client or server and a
3Com HomeConnect ADSL Modem at the same time.Using PPP over ATM (PPPoA)PPPover ATMPPPoAPPP, over ATMThe following describes how to set up PPP over ATM, a.k.a,
PPPoA. Currently, the only hardware supported is the Alcatel
Speedtouch USB ADSL modemInstalling PPPoAPPPoA is supplied as a port in FreeBSD because the firmware
is not distributable under
Alcatel's license agreement.To install the port, simply use the
ports collection to install the net/pppoa
port and follow
the instructions provided there.SatoshiAsamiOriginally contributed by GuyHelmerWith input from PieroSeriniUsing SLIPSLIPSetting up a SLIP ClientSLIPclientThe following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP
on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (your
address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to
have a more complex setup.First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to.
Many people setup a symbolic link, such as
/dev/modem, to point to the real device name,
/dev/cuaaN. This allows you to
abstract the actual device name should you ever need to move
the modem to a different port. It can become quite cumbersome when you
need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and
.kermrc files all over the system!/dev/cuaa0 is
COM1, cuaa1 is
COM2, etc.Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration
file:pseudo-device sl 1It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so
this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it.Things You Have to Do Only OnceAdd your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to
your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like
this:127.0.0.1 localhost loghost
136.152.64.181 water.CS.Example.EDU water.CS water
136.152.64.1 inr-3.CS.Example.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway
128.32.136.9 ns1.Example.EDU ns1
128.32.136.12 ns2.Example.EDU ns2Make sure you have before
in your
/etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny
things may happen.Edit the /etc/rc.conf file.Set your hostname by editing the line that
says:hostname=myname.my.domainYour machine's full Internet hostname should be
placed here.Add sl0 to the list of
network interfaces by changing the line that
says:network_interfaces="lo0"to:network_interfaces=lo0 sl0Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a
line:ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up"default routeDesignate the default router by changing the
line:defaultrouter=NOto:defaultrouter=slip-gatewayMake a file /etc/resolv.conf which
contains:domain CS.Example.EDU
nameserver 128.32.136.9
nameserver 128.32.136.12nameserverdomain nameAs you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of
course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your
environment.Set the password for root and
toor (and any other
accounts that do not have a password).Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the
correct hostname.Making a SLIP ConnectionSLIPconnecting withDial up, type slip at the prompt,
enter your machine name and password. What is required to
be entered depends on your environment. If you use
kermit, you can try a script like this:# kermit setup
set modem hayes
set line /dev/modem
set speed 115200
set parity none
set flow rts/cts
set terminal bytesize 8
set file type binary
# The next macro will dial up and login
define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, -
output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, -
output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, -
output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0aOf course, you have to change the hostname and password
to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type
slip from the kermit prompt to
connect.Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the
filesystem is generally a bad idea.
Do it at your own risk.Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by
Ctrlz) and as root, type:&prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modemIf you are able to ping hosts on the
other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not
work, you might want to try instead of
as an argument to
slattach.How to Shutdown the ConnectionDo the following:&prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid`to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be
root to do the above. Then go back to
kermit (by running fg if you suspended it) and
exit from
it (q).The slattach manual page says you have
to use ifconfig sl0 down
to mark the interface down, but this does not
seem to make any difference for me.
(ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.)Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier
(mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit
it again. It usually goes out on the second try.TroubleshootingIf it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that
people tripped over so far:Not using or in
slattach (This shouldn't be fatal,
but some users have reported that this solves their
problems.)Using instead of
(might be hard to see the difference on
some fonts).Try ifconfig sl0 to see your
interface status. For example, you might get:&prompt.root; ifconfig sl0
sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT>
inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00Also, netstat -r will give the
routing table, in case you get the no route to
host messages from ping. An example shown here:&prompt.root; netstat -r
Routing tables
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks:
(root node)
(root node)
Route Tree for Protocol Family inet:
(root node) =>
default inr-3.Example.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - -
localhost.Exampl localhost.Example. UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438
inr-3.Example.ED water.CS.Example.E UH 1 0 sl0 - -
water.CS.Example localhost.Example. UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438
(root node)This is after the link has been up for a while, the numbers
on your system will vary.Setting up a SLIP ServerSLIPserverThis document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server
services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring
your system to automatically startup connections upon login for
remote SLIP clients.PrerequisitesTCP/IP networkingThis section is very technical in nature, so background
knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with
the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node
addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and
routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a
dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if
you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either
Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration
published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number
0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP
protocol.modemIt is further assumed that you have already setup your
modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow
logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your
system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring
dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available,
browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/.
You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for
information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;,
&man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for
information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins
on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting
serial port parameters (such as clocal for
directly-connected serial interfaces).Quick OverviewIn its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server
works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server
system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses
/usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's
shell. The sliplogin program browses the
file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a
matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match,
connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then
runs the shell script
/etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the
SLIP interface.An Example of a SLIP Server LoginFor example, if a SLIP user ID were
Shelmerg, Shelmerg's
entry in /etc/master.passwd would look
something like this:Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliploginWhen Shelmerg logs in,
sliplogin will search
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that
had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that
reads:Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocompsliplogin will find that matching line,
hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface,
and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login
like this:/etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocompIf all goes well,
/etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an
ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which
sliplogin attached itself (slip interface
0, in the above example, which was the first parameter in the
list given to slip.login) to set the
local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address
(sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP
interface (0xfffffc00), and
any additional flags (autocomp). If
something goes wrong, sliplogin usually
logs good informational messages via the
daemon syslog facility, which usually logs
to /var/log/messages (see the manual
pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps
check /etc/syslog.conf to see to what
syslogd is logging and where it is
logging to.OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into
setting up the system.Kernel ConfigurationkernelconfigurationFreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP
interfaces defined (sl0 and
sl1); you can use netstat
-i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your
kernel.Sample output from netstat -i:Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll
ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133
ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133
lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0
lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0
sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0
sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0The sl0 and
sl1 interfaces shown from
netstat -i indicate that there are
two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after
the sl0 and sl1 indicate
that the interfaces are down.)However, FreeBSD's default kernel does not come configured
to forward packets (by default, your FreeBSD machine will not act
as a
router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see
RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122
[Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers],
and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]).
If you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you
will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and
change the setting of the gateway_enable variable to
.You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take
effect.You will notice that near the end of the default kernel
configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC)
is a line that reads:pseudo-device sl 2SLIPThis is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices
available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is
the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating
simultaneously.Please refer to on
Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in
reconfiguring your kernel.Sliplogin ConfigurationAs mentioned earlier, there are three files in the
/etc/sliphome directory that are part of
the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin
(see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for
sliplogin): slip.hosts,
which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP
addresses; slip.login, which usually just
configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally)
slip.logout, which undoes
slip.login's effects when the serial
connection is terminated.slip.hosts Configuration/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains
lines which have at least four items separated by
whitespace:SLIP user's login IDLocal address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP
linkRemote address of the SLIP linkNetwork maskThe local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved
to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the
domain name service, depending on your specifications in
/etc/host.conf), and the
network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup
into /etc/networks. On a sample system,
/etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like
this:#
# login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2
# (normal,compress,noicmp)
#
Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocompAt the end of the line is one or more of the
options. — no header
compression — compress
headers — compress headers if
the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets
(so any ping packets will be dropped instead
of using up your bandwidth)SLIPTCP/IP networkingYour choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP
links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP
subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on
your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but
that is the terminology used in this section to describe it).
If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP
addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in
the SLIP Prerequisites ()
and/or consult your IP network manager.gatedIf you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP
clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of
your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP
client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will
probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP
subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or
install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server
and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to
your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's
route to the SLIP subnet.EthernetOtherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP
method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP
addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you
will also need to adjust your
/etc/sliphome/slip.login and
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use
&man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP
server's ARP table.slip.login ConfigurationThe typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login
file looks like this:#!/bin/sh -
#
# @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90
#
# generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6This slip.login file merely runs
ifconfig for the appropriate SLIP interface
with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the
SLIP interface.If you have decided to use the proxy ARP
method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP
clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login
file will need to look something like this:#!/bin/sh -
#
# @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90
#
# generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6
# Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr
/usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pubThe additional line in this
slip.login, arp -s
$5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry
in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the
SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC
address whenever another IP node on the Ethernet asks to
speak to the SLIP client's IP address.EthernetMAC addressWhen using the example above, be sure to replace the
Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of
your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP
will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's
Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running
netstat -i; the second line of the output
should look something like:ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC
address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a
— the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by
netstat -i must be changed to colons and
leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal
number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8;
desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete
information on usage.When you create
/etc/sliphome/slip.login and
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the
execute bit (chmod 755
/etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout)
must be set, or sliplogin will be unable
to execute it.slip.logout Configuration/etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not
strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy
ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an
example of a basic
slip.logout script:#!/bin/sh -
#
# slip.logout
#
# logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 downIf you are using proxy ARP, you will want to
have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the
ARP entry for the SLIP client:#!/bin/sh -
#
# @(#)slip.logout
#
# logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with
# the parameters:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n
# slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args
#
/sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down
# Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client
/usr/sbin/arp -d $5The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry
that the proxy ARPslip.login added when the SLIP client
logged in.It bears repeating: make sure
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute
bit set after you create it (ie, chmod 755
/etc/sliphome/slip.logout).Routing ConsiderationsSLIProutingIf you are not using the proxy ARP method for
routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your
network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either
have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to
route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will
probably need to install and configure gated
on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers
via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet.Static Routesstatic routesAdding static routes to your nearest default routers can
be troublesome (or impossible if you do not have authority to
do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your
organization, some routers, such as those made by Cisco and Proteon, may
not only need to be configured with the static route to the
SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to
tell other routers about, so some expertise and
troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get
static-route-based routing to work.Running gatedgatedAn alternative to the headaches of static routes is to
install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server
and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols
(RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP
subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build
it yourself from the
GateD anonymous FTP site; the current version
as of this writing is
gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes
support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete
information and documentation on gated is
available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD
Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a
/etc/gated.conf file to configure your
gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a
FreeBSD SLIP server:#
# gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5
# Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface
#
#
# tracing options
#
traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ;
rip yes {
interface sl noripout noripin ;
interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ;
traceoptions route ;
} ;
#
# Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel:
kernel {
traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ;
} ;
#
# Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP
#
export proto rip interface ed {
proto direct {
xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections
} ;
} ;
#
# Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces
import proto rip interface ed {
all ;
} ;RIPThe above sample gated.conf file
broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet
xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the
Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than
the ed driver, you will need to
change the references to the ed
interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up
tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for
debugging gated's activity; you can
certainly turn off the tracing options if
gated works OK for you. You will need to
change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the
network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the
net mask in the proto direct clause as
well).Once you have installed and configured
gated on your system, you will need to
tell the FreeBSD startup scripts to run
gated in place of
routed. The easiest way to accomplish
this is to set the router and
router_flags variables in
/etc/rc.conf. Please see the manual
page for gated for information on
command-line parameters.
diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml
index f014f38d48..ecd6672faf 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,3402 +1,3402 @@
MatthewDillonMuch of this chapter has been taken from the
security(7) manual page by SecuritysecuritySynopsisThis chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security
concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics
under FreeBSD. A lot of the topics covered here can be applied
to system and Internet security in general as well. The Internet
is no longer a friendly place in which everyone
wants to be your kind neighbor. Securing your system is imperative
to protect your data, intellectual property, time, and much more
from the hands of hackers and the like.FreeBSD provides an array of utilities and mechanisms to
ensure the integrity and security of your system and
network.After reading this chapter, you will know:Basic system security concepts, in respect to FreeBSD.About the various crypt mechanisms available in FreeBSD,
such as DES and MD5.How to setup S/Key, an alternative, one-time password
authentication system.How to setup Kereberos, another alternative
authentication system.How to create firewalls using IPFW.How to configure IPSec.How to configure and use OpenSSH, FreeBSD's SSH
implementation.Before reading this chapter, you should:Understand basic FreeBSD and Internet concepts.IntroductionSecurity is a function that begins and ends with the system
administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some
inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional
security mechanisms to keep those users honest is
probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin.
Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns
are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix
systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of
simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as
servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk
to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become
today's desktops, and as computers become networked and
internetworked, security becomes an even bigger issue.Security is best implemented through a layered
onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is
to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then
carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to
overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection
side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of
any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set
the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every
system binary because
while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an
attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change
that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker
at all.System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of
attack, including attacks that attempt to crash, or otherwise make a
system unusable, but do not attempt to break root. Security concerns
can be split up into several categories:Denial of service attacks.User account compromises.Root compromise through accessible servers.Root compromise via user accounts.Backdoor creation.DoS attacksDenial of Service (DoS)securityDoS attacksDenial of Service (DoS)Denial of Service (DoS)A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the
machine of needed resources. Typically, DoS attacks are
brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a
machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some
DoS attacks try to take advantage of bugs in the networking
stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only
be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers
can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load
the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions.
Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A
spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop,
short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be
able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your
Internet connection.securityaccount compromisesA user account compromise is even more common than a DoS
attack. Many sysadmins still run standard
telnetd, rlogind,
rshd,
and ftpd servers on their machines.
These servers, by default, do
not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you
have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging
into your system from a remote location (which is the most common
and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her
password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his
remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for
successful logins.One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a
user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is
that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user
account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The
distinction is important because without access to root the attacker
cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do
nothing more than mess with the user's files, or crash the machine.
User account compromises are very common because users tend not to
take the precautions that sysadmins take.securitybackdoorsSystem administrators must keep in mind that there are
potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker
may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a
root-run server and be able to break root over a network
connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in
a suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once
he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found
a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need
to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes
found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work
by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install
backdoors. A backdoor provides the attacker with a way to easily
regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart
system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion.
Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may
actually be detrimental to your security, because it will not
close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first
place.Security remedies should always be implemented with a
multi-layered onion peel approach and can be
categorized as follows:Securing root and staff accounts.Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid
binaries.Securing user accounts.Securing the password file.Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and
filesystems.Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the
system.Paranoia.The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet
items in greater depth.securitysecuringSecuring FreeBSDCommand vs. ProtocolThroughout this document, we will use
bold text to refer to a command or
application. This is used for instances such as ssh, since it's
a protocol as well as command.The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your
FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter.Securing the root Account and Staff AccountssuFirst off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have
not secured the root account. Most systems have a password
assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume
that the password is always compromised.
This does not mean that you should remove the password. The
password is almost always necessary for console access to the
machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it
possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly
even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that
your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the
/etc/ttys file so that direct root logins
via telnet or rlogin are
disallowed. If using other login services such as
sshd, make sure that direct root
logins are disabled there as well. You can do this by editing
your /etc/ssh/sshd_config file, and making
sure that PermitRootLogin is set to
NO. Consider every access method –
services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root
logins should only be allowed via the system console.wheelOf course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root,
so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require
additional password verification to operate. One way to make root
accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the
wheel group (in
/etc/group). The staff members placed in the
wheel group are allowed to
su to root. You should never give staff
members native wheel access by putting them in the
wheel group in their password entry. Staff
accounts should be placed in a staff group, and
then added to the wheel group via the
/etc/group file. Only those staff members
who actually need to have root access should be placed in the
wheel group. It is also possible, when using
an authentication method such as kerberos, to use kerberos'
.k5login file in the root account to allow a
&man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the
wheel group. This may be the better solution
since the wheel mechanism still allows an
intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your
password file and can break into a staff account. While having
the wheel mechanism is better than having
nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option.An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately
root access is to use an alternative login access method and
do what is known as starring out the crypted
password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8;
command, one can replace each instance of a crypted password
with a single * character. This command
will update the /etc/master.passwd file
and user/password database to disable password-authenticated
logins.A staff account entry such as:foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcshShould be changed to this :foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcshThis change will prevent normal logins from occurring,
since the encrypted password will never match
*. With this done, staff members must use
another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as
&man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key
pair. When using something like kerberos, one generally must
secure the machines which run the kerberos servers and your
desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair
with ssh, one must generally secure
the machine used to login from (typically
one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be
added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when
creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to
star out the passwords for staff accounts also
guarantees that staff members can only login through secure
access methods that you have setup. This forces all staff
members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their
sessions, which closes an important hole used by many
intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated,
less secure machine.The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are
logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive
server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of
servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for
your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few
servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and
you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course,
given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any
sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that
you should consider, but you should also consider the fact that the
vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from
people who do not have physical access to your workstation or
servers.KerberosUsing something like kerberos also gives you the ability to
disable or change the password for a staff account in one place,
and have it immediately effect all the machines on which the staff
member may have an account. If a staff member's account gets
compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all
machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords,
changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also
impose re-passwording restrictions with kerberos: not only can a
kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the kerberos
system can require that the user choose a new password after a
certain period of time (say, once a month).Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID BinariesntalkcomsatfingersandboxessshdtelnetdrshdrlogindThe prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no
more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the
most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of
imapd or
popper is like giving a universal
root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that
you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to
be run as root. For example, the
ntalk,
comsat, and
finger daemons can be run in special
user sandboxes. A sandbox is not perfect,
unless you go through a large amount of trouble, but the onion
approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break
in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to
break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must
break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root
holes have historically been found in virtually every server
ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are
running a machine through which people only login via
sshd and never login via
telnetd or
rshd or
rlogind, then turn off those
services!FreeBSD now defaults to running
ntalkd,
comsat, and
finger in a sandbox. Another program
which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;.
/etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments
necessary to run named in a sandbox in a
commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new
system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts
used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent
sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers
whenever possible.sendmailThere are a number of other servers that typically do not run
in sandboxes: sendmail,
popper,
imapd, ftpd,
and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but
installing them may require more work than you are willing to
perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to
run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect
break-ins that might occur through them.The other big potential root holes in a system are the
suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of
these binaries, such as rlogin, reside
in /bin, /sbin,
/usr/bin, or /usr/sbin.
While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid
binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are
occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in
Xlib in 1998 that made
xterm (which is typically suid)
vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent
sysadmin will restrict suid binaries, that only staff should run,
to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of
(chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses.
A server with no display generally does not need an
xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be
almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary,
the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem
and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising
any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks
group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through
pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure
methods. An intruder that breaks the tty
group can write to
almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or
emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can
potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal
to echo a command, which is then run as that user.Securing User AccountsUser accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While
you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and
star out their passwords, you may not be able to
do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do
have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure
the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more
vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of
ssh and kerberos for user accounts is
more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical
support required, but still a very good solution compared to a
crypted password file.Securing the Password FileThe only sure fire way is to * out as many
passwords as you can and use ssh or
kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted
password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read
by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access
to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write
access.Your security scripts should always check for and report
changes to the password file (see the Checking file integrity section
below).Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and
FilesystemsIf an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but
there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels
have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it
is called the bpf device. An intruder
will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised
machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and
most systems do not have the need for the
bpf device compiled in.sysctlBut even if you turn off the bpf
device, you still have
/dev/mem and
/dev/kmem
to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to
raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called
the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can
use a KLD module to install his own bpf
device, or other sniffing
device, on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to
run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1.
The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on
the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have
set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be
denied and special chflags flags,
such as schg,
will be enforced. You must also ensure that the
schg flag is set on critical startup binaries,
directories, and script files – everything that gets run up
to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing
it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you
operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the
system at a higher secure level but not set the
schg flag for every system file and directory
under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount
/ and /usr read-only.
It should be noted that being too Draconian in what you attempt to
protect may prevent the all-important detection of an
intrusion.Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files,
Etc.When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core
system configuration and control files so much before the
convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using
chflags to set the schg bit
on most of the files in / and
/usr is probably counterproductive, because
while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window.
The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most
important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty
much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of
safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job
of the onion is to slow down the attacker, rather than stop him, in
order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch
him in the act.The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified,
missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified
files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system.
Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access
system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this
is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally
have to give the limited-access box significant access to the
other machines in the business, usually either by doing a
read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access
box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to
allow the limited-access box to ssh to
the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the
least visible method – allowing you to monitor the
filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your
limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a
switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your
limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a
hub, or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be
too insecure (network-wise) and using
ssh may be the better choice even with
the audit-trail tracks that ssh
lays.Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the
client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts
to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write
scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and
&man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files
at least once a day, and to test control files such as those
found in /etc and
/usr/local/etc even more often. When
mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the
limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a
sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also
check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files
on system partitions such as / and
/usr.When using ssh rather than NFS,
writing the security script is much more difficult. You
essentially have to scp the scripts to the client
box in order to
run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to
scp the binaries (such as find) that those
scripts use. The ssh client on the
client box may already be compromised. All in all, using
ssh may be necessary when running over
unsecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with.A good security script will also check for changes to user and
staff members access configuration files:
.rhosts, .shosts,
.ssh/authorized_keys and so forth…
files that might fall outside the purview of the
MD5 check.If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too
long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case,
setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those
partitions is a good idea. The nodev and
nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you
want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least
once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in
whether or not the break-in is effective.Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively
low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help
as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially
useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into
a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in
occurs.Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the
logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as
possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder
tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the
sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial
break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is
to run the system console to a serial port and collect the
information on a continuing basis through a secure machine
monitoring the consoles.ParanoiaA little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add
any number of security features, as long as they do not effect
convenience, and can add security features that
do effect convenience with some added thought.
Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a
bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this
document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the
prospective attacker who also has access to this document.Denial of Service AttacksDenial of Service (DoS)This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack
is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do
about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network,
you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks
cannot take down your servers.Limiting server forks.Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping
broadcast, etc.).Kernel Route Cache.A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts
to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory,
until the machine dies. inetd
(see &man.inetd.8;) has several
options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that
while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is
not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted
by the attack. Read the inetd manual
page carefully and pay
specific attention to the , ,
and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks
will circumvent the option to
inetd, so
typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone
servers have self-fork-limitation parameters.Sendmail has its
option, which tends to work
much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options
due to the load lag. You should specify a
MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start
sendmail, high enough to handle your
expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that
number of sendmails without falling on
its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode
() and to run the daemon
(sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs
(sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time
delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as
, but be sure to specify a reasonable
MaxDaemonChildren option for
that sendmail to prevent cascade failures.
Syslogd can be attacked directly
and it is strongly recommended that you use the
option whenever possible, and the option
otherwise.You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services
such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd,
which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use
the reverse-ident feature of
tcpwrappers for this reason.It is a very good idea to protect internal services from
external access by firewalling them off at your border routers.
The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your
LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based
root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e.,
firewall everything except ports A, B,
C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your
low ports except for certain specific services such as
named (if you are primary for a zone),
ntalkd,
sendmail, and other Internet-accessible
services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way
– as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good
chance that you will forget to close a couple of
services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget
to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered
port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation,
without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD
allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic
binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrangesysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep
portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your
firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal
first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to
65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall
(except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of
course).ICMP_BANDLIMAnother common DoS attack is called a springboard attack
– to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to
generate responses which overloads the server, the local
network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this
nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack.
The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast
address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they
wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to
stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up
generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to
saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same
trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen
different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred
and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common
springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system.
By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an
attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the
server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This
type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of
mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses
it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel
compile option called
which limits the effectiveness
of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard
attacks is related to certain internal
inetd services such as the
udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the
source address being server A's echo port, and the destination
address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both
on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and
forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers
and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner.
Similar problems exist with the internal
chargen port. A
competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test
services.Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel
route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire,
rtminexpire, and rtmaxcachesysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack
that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a
temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with
netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes
typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects
that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically
reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it
to less than rtminexpire. There are two
problems:The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly
loaded server is suddenly attacked.The rtminexpire is not low enough for
the kernel to survive a sustained attack.If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or
better, it may be prudent to manually override both
rtexpire and rtminexpire
via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless
you want to crash the machine). Setting both
parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route
table from attack.Access Issues with Kerberos and SSHsshKerberosThere are a few issues with both kerberos and
ssh that need to be addressed if
you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent
authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized
telnet and
rlogin applications that make them
unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default
kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the
option. ssh
encrypts everything by default.ssh works quite well in every
respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What
this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys
that give you access to the rest of the system, and you
ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys
becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but
ssh installs a forwarding port for the
duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken root on the
unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain
access to any other machine that your keys unlock.We recommend that you use ssh in
combination with kerberos whenever possible for staff logins.
ssh can be compiled with kerberos
support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable
ssh keys while at the same time
protecting passwords via kerberos. ssh
keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines
(something that kerberos is unsuited to do). We also recommend that
you either turn off key-forwarding in the
ssh configuration, or that you make use
of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that
ssh allows in its
authorized_keys file to make the key only
usable to entities logging in from specific machines.BillSwingleParts rewritten and updated by DES, MD5, and CryptsecuritycryptcryptDESMD5Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with
their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be
known only to the user and the actual operating system. In
order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with
what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can
only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what
we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the
operating system itself does not really know
the password. It only knows the encrypted
form of the password. The only way to get the
plain-text password is by a brute force search of the
space of possible passwords.Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when
Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption
Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in
the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported
outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with
US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix
variants that still used DES.The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries
so that US users could install the DES libraries and use
DES but international users still had an encryption method
that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to
use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to
be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily
for compatibility reasons.Recognizing Your Crypt MechanismIt is pretty easy to identify which encryption method
FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in
the /etc/master.passwd file is one way.
Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those
encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters
$1$. DES password strings do not
have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are
shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character
alphabet which does not include the $
character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with
a dollar sign is very likely a DES password.The libraries can identify the passwords this way as well.
As a result, the DES libraries are able to identify MD5
passwords, and use MD5 to check passwords that were encrypted
that way, and DES for the rest. They are able to do this
because the DES libraries also contain MD5. Unfortunately, the
reverse is not true, so the MD5 libraries cannot authenticate
passwords that were encrypted with DES.Identifying which library is being used by the programs on
your system is easy as well. Any program that uses crypt is linked
against libcrypt, which for each type of library is a symbolic link
to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using
the DES versions:&prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt*
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 13 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 18 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0
lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 15 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.aOn a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will
be present, but the target will be libscrypt
rather than libdescrypt.If you have installed the DES-capable crypt library
libdescrypt (e.g. by installing the
"crypto" distribution), then which password format will be used
for new passwords is controlled by the
passwd_format login capability in
/etc/login.conf, which takes values of
either des or md5. See the
&man.login.conf.5; manual page for more information about login
capabilities.S/KeyS/KeysecurityS/KeyS/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash
function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other
systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the
FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a
growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered
trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc.From version 5.0 of FreeBSD, S/Key has been replaced with
the functionally equivalent OPIE (Onetime Passwords In
Everything). OPIE uses the MD5 hash by default.There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk
about in the discussion below. The first is your usual Unix-style or
Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password.
The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the
S/Key key program or the OPIE
opiekey program and accepted by the
keyinit or opiepasswd programs
and the login prompt; we will
call this a one-time password. The final sort of
password is the secret password which you give to the
key/opiekey programs (and
sometimes the
keyinit/opiepasswd programs)
which it uses to generate
one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password
or just unqualified password.The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix
password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key
and OPIE secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like Unix
passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or
seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the
S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the Unix
password system.Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that
are important to S/Key and OPIE. One is what is known as the
seed or key, consisting of two letters
and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration
count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the
one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password,
then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the
iteration count and turning the result into six short English words.
These six English words are your one-time password. The
authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps
track of the last one-time password used, and the user is
authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to
the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is
impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully
used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after
each successful login to keep the user and the login program in
sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be
reinitialized.There are three programs involved in each system
which we will discuss below. The key and
opiekey programs accept an iteration
count, a seed, and a secret password, and generate a one-time
password or or a consecutive list of one-time passwords. The
keyinit and opiepasswd
programs are used to initialize S/Key and OPIE respectively,
and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; they
take either a secret passphrase, or an iteration count,
seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo
and opieinfo programs examine the
relevant credentials files (/etc/skeykeys or
/etc/opiekeys) and print out the invoking user's
current iteration count and seed.There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The
first is using keyinit or
opiepasswd over a secure connection to set up
one-time-passwords for the first time, or to change your password
or seed. The second operation is using keyinit
or opiepasswd over an insecure connection, in
conjunction with key or opiekey
over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using
key/opiekey to log in over
an insecure connection. The fourth is using key
or opiekey to generate a number of keys which
can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to
some location without secure connections to anywhere.Secure Connection InitializationTo initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password,
or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection
(e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the
keyinit command without any parameters while
logged in as yourself:&prompt.user; keyinit
Adding unfurl:
Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected.
If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s.
Enter secret password:
Again secret password:
ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757
DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFTFor OPIE, opiepasswd is used instead:&prompt.user; opiepasswd -c
[grimreaper] ~ $ opiepasswd -f -c
Adding unfurl:
Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using
telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password.
Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter.
Using MD5 to compute responses.
Enter new secret pass phrase:
Again new secret pass phrase:
ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268
MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED
At the Enter new secret pass phrase: or
Enter secret password: prompts, you
should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the
password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate
your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the
parameters of your particular instance; your login name, the
iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system
will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you
do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular
one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your
secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this
one-time password is the one you would use.Insecure Connection InitializationTo initialize change your secret password over an
insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure
connection to some place where you can run key
or opiekey; this might be in the form of a
desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you
trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is
probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a
randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the
machine you are initializing), use the keyinit
-s command:&prompt.user; keyinit -s
Updating unfurl:
Old key: to17758
Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command.
Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100
Enter new key [default to17759]:
s/key 100 to 17759
s/key access password:
s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GOREFor OPIE, you need to use opiepasswd:&prompt.user; opiepasswd
Updating unfurl:
You need the response from an OTP generator.
Old secret pass phrase:
otp-md5 498 to4268 ext
Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT
New secret pass phrase:
otp-md5 499 to4269
Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY
ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269
LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY
To accept the default seed (which the
keyinit program confusingly calls a
key), press return. Then before entering an
access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk
accessory, and give it the same parameters:&prompt.user; key 100 to17759
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GOREOr for OPIE:&prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase:
GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT
Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the
one-time password generated over to the relevant program.Generating a Single one-time PasswordOnce you have initialized S/Key or OPIE, when you login you will be
presented with a prompt like this:&prompt.user; telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.
FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)
login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: Or for OPIE:&prompt.user; telnet example.com
Trying 10.0.0.1...
Connected to example.com
Escape character is '^]'.
FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa)
login: <username>
otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext
Password: As a side note, the S/Key and OPIE prompts have a useful feature
(not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the
prompter will turn echo on, so you can see what you are
typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to
type in a password by hand, such as from a printout.MS-DOSWindowsMacOSAt this point you need to generate your one-time password to
answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system
that you can run key or
opiekey on. (There are versions of these for DOS,
Windows and MacOS as well.) They need both the iteration count and
the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these
right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging
in to.On the trusted system:&prompt.user; key 97 fw13894
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password:
WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAGFor OPIE:&prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268
Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response.
Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions.
Enter secret pass phrase:
GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHATNow that you have your one-time password you can continue
logging in:login: <username>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password: <return to enable echo>
s/key 97 fw13894
Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG
Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... Generating Multiple one-time PasswordsSometimes you have to go places where you do not have
access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case,
it is possible to use the key command to
generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed
out and taken with you. For example:&prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999
Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin.
Enter secret password: <secret password>
26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT
27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT
28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT
29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG
30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILKThe requests five keys in sequence, the
specifies what the last iteration number
should be. Note that these are printed out in
reverse order of eventual use. If you are
really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand;
otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note
that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time
password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as
you use them.Restricting Use of Unix PasswordsRestrictions can be placed on the use of Unix passwords based
on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a
login session. These restrictions can be found in the
configuration file /etc/skey.access. The
&man.skey.access.5; manual page has more info on the complete
format of the file and also details some security cautions to be
aware of before depending on this file for security.If there is no /etc/skey.access file
(this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to
use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users
will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do
otherwise by configuration statements in the
skey.access file. In all cases, Unix
passwords are permitted on the console.Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the
three most common sorts of configuration statements:permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0
permit user fnord
permit port ttyd0The first line (permit internet) allows
users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing)
matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This
should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means
to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network
and need to use S/Key for authentication.The second line (permit user) allows the
specified username, in this case fnord, to use
Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only
be used for people who are either unable to use the
key program, like those with dumb terminals, or
those who are uneducable.The third line (permit port) allows all
users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix
passwords; this would be used for dial-ups.MarkMurrayContributed by MarkDapozBased on a contribution by KerberosKerberosKerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to
authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server.
Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file
copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more
controllable.The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up
Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the
relevant manual pages for a complete description.Installing KerberosMITKerberosinstallingKerberos is an optional component of FreeBSD. The easiest
way to install this software is by selecting the 'krb4' or
'krb5' distribution in sysinstall
during the initial installation of FreeBSD. This will install
the 'eBones' (KerberosIV) or 'Heimdal' (Kerberos5)
implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are
included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and
were thus available to system owners outside those countries
during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic
code from the USA.Alternatively, the MIT implementation of Kerberos is
available from the ports collection as
security/krb5.Creating the Initial DatabaseThis is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that
you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change
to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that
only the following files are present:&prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV
&prompt.root; ls
README krb.conf krb.realmsIf any additional files (such as principal.*
or master_key) exist, then use the
kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos
database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra
files.You should now edit the krb.conf and
krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm.
In this case the realm will be EXAMPLE.COM and the
server is grunt.example.com. We edit or create
the krb.conf file:&prompt.root; cat krb.conf
EXAMPLE.COM
EXAMPLE.COM grunt.example.com admin server
CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu
ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu
LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu
TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu
ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.govIn this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are
here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple
realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity.The first line names the realm in which this system works. The
other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a
realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a
key distribution center. The words admin
server following a host's name means that host also
provides an administrative database server. For further explanation
of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages.Now we have to add grunt.example.com
to the EXAMPLE.COM realm and also add an entry to
put all hosts in the .example.com
domain in the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The
krb.realms file would be updated as
follows:&prompt.root; cat krb.realms
grunt.example.com EXAMPLE.COM
.example.com EXAMPLE.COM
.berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU
.MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU
.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDUAgain, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as
an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You
may wish to remove them to simplify things.The first line puts the specific system into
the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of
a particular subdomain to a named realm.Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run
on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the
kdb_init command to do this:&prompt.root; kdb_initRealm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]:EXAMPLE.COM
You will be prompted for the database Master Password.
It is important that you NOT FORGET this password.
Enter Kerberos master key:Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine
can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do
this.&prompt.root; kstashEnter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!This saves the encrypted master password in
/etc/kerberosIV/master_key.Making It All RunTwo principals need to be added to the database for
each system that will be secured with Kerberos.
Their names are kpasswd and rcmd
These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being
the name of the individual system.These daemons, kpasswd and
rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos
passwords and run commands like rcp,
rlogin and rsh.Now let us add these entries:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:passwdInstance:grunt
<Not found>, Create [y] ?y
Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Random password [y] ?y
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name:rcmdInstance:grunt
<Not found>, Create [y] ?
Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here
Random password [y] ?
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitCreating the Server FileWe now have to extract all the instances which define the
services on each machine. For this we use the
ext_srvtab command. This will create a file
which must be copied or moved by secure
means to each Kerberos client's
/etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must
be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the
operation of Kerberos.&prompt.root; ext_srvtab gruntEnter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'....Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be
renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick
it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on
the original system:&prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtabIf the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed
safe, then copy the
client-new-srvtab to
removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to
rename it to srvtab in the client's
/etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is
mode 600:&prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab
&prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtabPopulating the DatabaseWe now have to add some user entries into the database. First
let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the
kdb_edit command to do this:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:janeInstance:
<Not found>, Create [y] ?y
Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter a secure password here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitTesting It All OutFirst we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you
have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this
will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on
the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what
they need from the /etc/kerberosIV
directory.&prompt.root; kerberos &
Kerberos server starting
Sleep forever on error
Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Current Kerberos master key version is 1
Local realm: EXAMPLE.COM
&prompt.root; kadmind -n &
KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing
Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a
regular kill instead
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!Now we can try using the kinit command to get a
ticket for the id jane that we created
above:&prompt.user; kinit jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane"
Password:Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we
really have them:&prompt.user; klist
Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245
Principal: jane@EXAMPLE.COM
Issued Expires Principal
Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COMNow try changing the password using passwd to
check if the kpasswd daemon can get
authorization to the Kerberos database:&prompt.user; passwd
realm EXAMPLE.COM
Old password for jane:New Password for jane:
Verifying password
New Password for jane:
Password changed.Adding su PrivilegesKerberos allows us to give each user
who needs root privileges their own
separatesu password.
We could now add an id which is authorized to
su to root. This is
controlled by having an instance of root
associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit
we can create the entry jane.root in the
Kerberos database:&prompt.root; kdb_edit
Opening database...
Enter Kerberos master key:
Current Kerberos master key version is 1.
Master key entered. BEWARE!
Previous or default values are in [brackets] ,
enter return to leave the same, or new value.
Principal name:janeInstance:root
<Not found>, Create [y] ? y
Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1
New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here
Verifying password
New Password: <---- re-enter the password here
Principal's new key version = 1
Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ?Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ?12 <--- Keep this short!
Attributes [ 0 ] ?
Edit O.K.
Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exitNow try getting tokens for it to make sure it works:&prompt.root; kinit jane.root
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root"
Password:Now we need to add the user to root's
.klogin file:&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@EXAMPLE.COMNow try doing the su:&prompt.user; suPassword:and take a look at what tokens we have:&prompt.root; klist
Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245
Principal: jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM
Issued Expires Principal
May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COMUsing Other CommandsIn an earlier example, we created a principal called
jane with an instance root.
This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this
is a Kerberos default; that a
<principal>.<instance> of the form
<username>.root will allow
that <username> to su to
root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin
file in root's home directory:&prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin
jane.root@EXAMPLE.COMLikewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the
form:&prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin
jane@EXAMPLE.COM
jack@EXAMPLE.COMThis allows anyone in the EXAMPLE.COM realm
who has authenticated themselves to jane or
jack (via kinit, see above)
access to rlogin to jane's
account or files on this system (grunt) via
rlogin, rsh or
rcp.For example, jane now logs into another system using
Kerberos:&prompt.user; kinit
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Password:
&prompt.user; rlogin grunt
Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (jane having
set up the .klogin file as above, and the person
in charge of Kerberos having set up principal
jack with a null instance:&prompt.user; kinit
&prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane
MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com)
Password:
Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble
Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995GaryPalmerContributed by AlexNashFirewallsfirewallsecurityfirewallsFirewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are
connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private
networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully
explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the
facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them.People often think that having a firewall between your
internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all
your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall
system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A
firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it
cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal
network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your
firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that
much easier.What Is a Firewall?There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use
on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a
packet filtering router, where the kernel on a
multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based
on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy
server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to
forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel
packet forwarding disabled.Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a
certain machine (known as a bastion host) is
allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an
internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which
are generally more secure than normal authentication
mechanisms.FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as
IPFW), which is what the rest of this
section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD
from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy
servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this
section.Packet Filtering RoutersA router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more
networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in
its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before
deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing
software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to
forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a
set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the
packet should be allowed to pass or not.To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks
through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of
this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is
obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the
packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator.
Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order.
Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule
chain.The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software
used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source
IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source
port number, the destination port number (for protocols which
support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP,
etc).Proxy ServersProxy servers are machines which have had the normal system
daemons (telnetd,
ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers.
These
servers are called proxy servers as they
normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you
to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host,
and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go
through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the
internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for
signals coming from the internal network and heading out).Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and
often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available,
including one-shot password systems so that even if
someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be
able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password
instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the
host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install
backdoors around your security system.Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so
that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often
they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to
which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available
depends largely on what proxy software you choose.What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do?ipfwIPFW, the software supplied with
FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in
the kernel, and has a user-land control utility,
&man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the
rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions.There are two related parts to IPFW.
The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is
also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your
router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows
you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from
a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is
forwarding.As a result of the way that IPFW is
designed, you can use IPFW on non-router
machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing
connections. This is a special case of the more general use of
IPFW, and the same commands and techniques
should be used in this situation.Enabling IPFW on FreeBSDipfwenablingAs the main part of the IPFW system
lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your
kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and
recompile your kernel. See "Reconfiguring your Kernel" ()
for more details on how to recompile your
kernel.There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to
IPFW:options IPFIREWALLCompiles into the kernel the code for packet
filtering.options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSEEnables code to allow logging of packets through
&man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify
that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will
happen.options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10Limits the number of packets logged through
&man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use
this option in hostile environments in which you want to log
firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of
service attack via syslog flooding.When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified,
logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume
logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the
&man.ipfw.8; utility:&prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue
logging.Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an
IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as
the firewall code automatically includes accounting
facilities.Configuring IPFWipfwconfiguringThe configuration of the IPFW software
is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this
command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you
understand its structure.There are currently four different command categories used by the
utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing.
Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets
are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the
contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet
counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from
the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting
entries.Altering the IPFW RulesThe syntax for this form of the command is:
ipfw-NcommandindexactionlogprotocoladdressesoptionsThere is one valid flag when using this form of the
command:-NResolve addresses and service names in output.The command given can be shortened to the
shortest unique form. The valid commands
are:addAdd an entry to the firewall/accounting rule listdeleteDelete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule
listPrevious versions of IPFW used
separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version
provides packet accounting with each firewall entry.If an index value is supplied, it is used to
place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the
entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than
the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule
65535, deny).The log option causes matching rules to be
output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with
IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE.Valid actions are:rejectDrop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable
(as appropriate) packet to the source.allowPass the packet on as normal. (aliases:
pass and
accept)denyDrop the packet. The source is not notified via an
ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never
arrived at the destination).countUpdate packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet
based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain
entry.Each action will be recognized by the
shortest unambiguous prefix.The protocols which can be specified
are:allMatches any IP packeticmpMatches ICMP packetstcpMatches TCP packetsudpMatches UDP packetsThe address specification is:fromaddress/maskporttoaddress/maskportvia interfaceYou can only specify port in
conjunction with protocols which support ports
(UDP and TCP).The is optional and may specify the IP
address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name
(e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming
through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified
with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp*
would match all kernel PPP interfaces.The syntax used to specify an
address/mask is:
address
or
address/mask-bits
or
address:mask-patternA valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address.
is a decimal
number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set.
e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a
mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case,
192.216.222) to be matched.
is an IP
address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The
keyword any may be used to specify any IP
address.The port numbers to be blocked are specified as:
port,port,port…
to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or
port-port
to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range
with a list, but the range must always be specified first.The options available are:fragMatches if the packet is not the first fragment of the
datagram.inMatches if the packet is on the way in.outMatches if the packet is on the way out.ipoptions specMatches if the IP header contains the comma separated list
of options specified in spec. The
supported list of IP options are: ssrr
(strict source route), lsrr (loose source
route), rr (record packet route), and
ts (time stamp). The absence of a
particular option may be denoted with a leading
!.establishedMatches if the packet is part of an already established
TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can
optimize the performance of the firewall by placing
established rules early in the
chain.setupMatches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP
connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is
not).tcpflags flagsMatches if the TCP header contains the comma separated
list of flags. The supported flags
are fin, syn,
rst, psh,
ack, and urg. The
absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading
!.icmptypes typesMatches if the ICMP type is present in the list
types. The list may be specified
as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated
by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0
echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination
unreachable, 5 redirect,
8 echo request (ping request), and
11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL
expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;).Listing the IPFW RulesThe syntax for this form of the command is:
ipfw-a-t-NlThere are three valid flags when using this form of the
command:-aWhile listing, show counter values. This option is the
only way to see accounting counters.-tDisplay the last match times for each chain entry. The
time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the
&man.ipfw.8; utility.-NAttempt to resolve given addresses and service
names.Flushing the IPFW RulesThe syntax for flushing the chain is:
ipfwflushThis causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed
except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index
65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy
will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries
are added to the chain.Clearing the IPFW Packet CountersThe syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is:
ipfwzeroindexWhen used without an index argument,
all packet counters are cleared. If an
index is supplied, the clearing operation
only affects a specific chain entry.Example Commands for ipfwThis command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the
host nice.people.org:&prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire
crackers.org network (a class C) to
the nice.people.org machine (any
port).&prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.orgIf you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal
network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the
necessary filtering:&prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setupTo see the accounting records:
&prompt.root; ipfw -a list
or in the short form
&prompt.root; ipfw -a lYou can also see the last time a chain entry was matched
with:&prompt.root; ipfw -at lBuilding a Packet Filtering FirewallThe following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The
requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you
how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements.When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test
bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled
environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the
commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to
quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much
disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I
recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of
possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your
requirements alter.If you use the logging versions of the accept
command, it can generate large amounts of log
data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes
through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really
slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those
packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the
packet can be passed on. syslogd will
also start using up a lot
more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it
could quite easily fill the partition /var/log
is located on.You should enable your firewall from
/etc/rc.conf.local or
/etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains
which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations.
If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list
will output the current ruleset into a file that you can
pass to rc.conf. If you do not use
/etc/rc.conf.local or
/etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall,
it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before
any IP interfaces are configured.
The next problem is what your firewall should actually
do! This is largely dependent on what access to
your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access
to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general
rules are:Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is
where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger,
SMTP (mail) and telnet.Block all incoming UDP traffic. There
are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful
traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and
NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a
connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks
the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for
people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers.
If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow
packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port
through the firewall. ntp is another
service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port
123.Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the
port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat
(especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost
+ on their workstations). X11 can actually use a
range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X
displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined
by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063.Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers,
etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they
normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above.Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from
CERT at http://www.cert.org/tech_tips/packet_filtering.htmlAs stated above, these are only guidelines.
You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your
firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone
breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given
above.OpenSSLsecurityOpenSSLOpenSSLAs of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base
system. OpenSSL
provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the
Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer
Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols.However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA)
included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and
elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use.
IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not
built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the
license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and
rebuild your sources using 'make world'.Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other
countries. In the past it was protected by a patent.OpenSSLinstallSource Code InstallationsOpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and
src-secure cvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more
information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source
code.YoshinobuInoueContributed by IPsecIPsecsecurityIPsecTerminating CharactersThroughout examples in this section, and other sections,
you will notice that there is a ^D at the end
of some examples. This means to hold down the Control
key and hit the D key. Another commonly used
character is ^C, which respectively means to hold
down Control and press C.For other HOWTOs detailing IPSec implementation in
FreeBSD, take a look at
and .The IPsec mechanism provides secure communication for IP
layer and socket layer communication. This section should
explain how to use them. For implementation details, please
refer to The
Developers' Handbook.The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode
and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions.
http://www.kame.net/newsletter/
has more comprehensive examples.Please be aware that in order to use this functionality, you
must have the following options compiled into your kernel:options IPSEC #IP security
options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/IPSEC)Transport Mode Example with IPv4Let us setup security association to deploy a secure channel
between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little
complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used.
From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined.Now we should choose an algorithm to be used corresponding to
"AH"/"new AH"/"ESP"/"new ESP". Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man
page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1
for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP.Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key
length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1,
and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose "MYSECRETMYSECRET",
"KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME", "PASSWORD", respectively.OK, let us assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol.
Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three
security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for
from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater
than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively.
(1)
HOST A ------> HOST B
(1)PROTO=AH
ALG=MD5(RFC1826)
KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET
SPI=1000
(2.1)
HOST A <------ HOST B
<------
(2.2)
(2.1)
PROTO=AH
ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH)
KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME
SPI=2000
(2.2)
PROTO=ESP
ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP)
IV length = 8
KEY=PASSWORD
SPI=3000
Now, let us setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8;
on both HOST A and B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ;
add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ;
add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ;
^D
Actually, IPsec communication does not process until security policy
entries are defined. In this case, you must setup each host.
At A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec
ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ;
^D
At B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c
spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec
esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ;
spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec
ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ;
^D
HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E
10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8
| |
========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========>
<========= new AH hmac-sha1 ===========
<========= new ESP des-cbc ============
Transport Mode Example with IPv6Another example using IPv6.ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between
Host-A and Host-B.
============ ESP ============
| |
Host-A Host-B
fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11
Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is "kamekame", and
authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is "this is the test
key". Configuration at Host-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ;
spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ;
add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001
-m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002
-m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
EOF
and at Host-B:&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ;
spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ;
add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport
-E blowfish-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
EOF
Note the direction of SP.Tunnel Mode Example with IPv4Tunnel mode between two security gatewaysSecurity protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by
RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is "this is the test" as
authentication algorithm.
======= AH =======
| |
Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B
10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24
Configuration at Gateway-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ;
spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ;
add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
If the port number field is omitted such as above then "[any]" is
employed. `-m' specifies the mode of SA to be used. "-m any" means
wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both
tunnel and transport mode.and at Gateway-B:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ;
spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec
ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ;
add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any
-A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
Making SA bundle between two security gatewaysAH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between
Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first,
and AH transport mode is next.
========== AH =========
| ======= ESP ===== |
| | | |
Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B
fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64
Tunnel Mode Example with IPv6Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm
for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5.
Configuration at Gateway-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require
ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ;
spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require
ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel
-E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel
-E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
Making SAs with the different endESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption
algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is
hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B.
Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is
hmac-md5.
================== ESP =================
| ======= ESP ======= |
| | | |
Host-A Gateway-A Host-B
fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2
Configuration at Host-A:
&prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF
spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec
esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ;
spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec
esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use
esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001
-m transport
-E cast128-cbc "12341234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002
-E rc5-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003
-m transport
-E cast128-cbc "12341234"
-A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ;
add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004
-E rc5-cbc "kamekame"
-A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ;
EOF
ChernLeeContributed by OpenSSHOpenSSHsecurityOpenSSHSecure shell is a set of network connectivity tools used to
access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct
replacement for rlogin,
rsh, rcp, and
telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP
connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through ssh.
ssh encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping,
connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks.OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based
upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It
is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been
in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0.Advantages of Using OpenSSHNormally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;,
data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form.
Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can
steal your user/password information or data transferred in
your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and
encryption methods to prevent this from happening.Enabling sshdOpenSSHenablingBe sure to make the following additions to your
rc.conf file:
sshd_enable="YES"This will load the ssh daemon the next time your system
initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run the
sshd daemon.SSH ClientOpenSSHclientThe &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to
&man.rlogin.1;.
&prompt.root ssh user@example.com
Host key not found from the list of known hosts.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Host 'example.com' added to the list of known hosts.
user@example.com's password: *******The login will continue just as it would have if a session was
created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a
key fingerprint
system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the
client connects. The user is prompted to enter 'yes' only when
connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all
verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client
will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the
received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints
are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or
~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2 fingerprints.
By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both
SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose
between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and
secure than its predecessor.ssh can be forced to use either protocol
by passing it the or argument
for v1 and v2, respectively.Secure CopyOpenSSHsecure copyscpThe scp command works similarly to rcp;
it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a
secure fashion.&prompt.root scp user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT
user@example.com's password:
COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735
00:00
&prompt.rootSince the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the
previous example, it is verified when using scp
here.
The arguments passed to scp are similar
to cp, with the file or files in the first
argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is
fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file
arguments takes on the form
.ConfigurationOpenSSHconfigurationThe system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH
daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh
directory.
ssh_config configures the client
settings, while sshd_config configures the
daemon.
Additionally, the
(/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and
rc.conf
options can provide more levels of configuration.ssh-keygenInstead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can
be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user.
&prompt.user ssh-keygen
Initializing random number generator...
Generating p: .++ (distance 66)
Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498)
Computing the keys...
Key generation complete.
Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity):
Enter passphrase:
Enter the same passphrase again:
Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity.
...&man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private
key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in
~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is
stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public
key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
of the remote machine in order for the setup to work.
This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon
RSA authentication instead of passwords.If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user
will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private
key.A SSH v2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using
the ssh-keygen -d command (or
ssh-keygen -t dsa for FreeBSD &os.current;).
This will
create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH v2 sessions only.
The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub,
while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.DSA public keys are placed in
~/.ssh/authorized_keys2 on the remote
machine.&man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are
utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys.
SSH TunnelingOpenSSHtunnelingOpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate
another protocol in an encrypted session.The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel
for telnet.
- &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.bar.com
+ &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com
&prompt.user;The ssh command is used with the
following options:Forces ssh to use version 2 of
the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older
ssh servers)Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted,
ssh would initiate a normal
session.Forces ssh to run in the
background.Indicates a local tunnel in
localport:remotehost:remoteport
fashion.
-
+ The remote SSH server.An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on localhost
on the specified port. It then forwards any connection received
on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified
remote host and port.In the example, port 5023 on
localhost is being forwarded to port
23 on localhost of the remote
machine. Since 23 is telnet, this
would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel.
This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols
such as smtp, pop3, ftp, etc.
A typical SSH Tunnel
- &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.foobar.com
-user@mailserver.foobar.com's password: *****
+ &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com
+user@mailserver.example.com's password: *****
&prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025
Trying 127.0.0.1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
-220 mailserver.foobar.com ESMTP
+220 mailserver.example.com ESMTPThis can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1;
and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free
SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing
a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user.
Practical SSH Tunneling ExamplesSecure Access of a POP3 serverAt work, there is an SSH server that accepts
connections from the outside. On the same office network
resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network,
or network path between your home and office may or may not
be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check
your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create
an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel
through to the mail server.
- &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.office-foobar.com user@ssh-server.office-foobar.com
-user@ssh-server.office-foobar.com's password: ******
+ &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.example.com user@ssh-server.example.com
+user@ssh-server.example.com's password: ******When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your
mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost
port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across
- the tunnel to mail.office-foobar.com.
+ the tunnel to mail.example.com.
Bypassing a Draconian FirewallSome network administrators impose extremely Draconian
firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections,
but outgoing connections. You may be only given access
to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH
and web surfing.You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work
related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream
music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other
port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it.The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine
outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to
the Ogg Vorbis server.
- &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.foobar.com:8000 user@unfirewalled.myserver.com
+ &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled.myserver.com
user@unfirewalled.myserver.com's password: *******Your streaming client can now be pointed to
localhost port 8888, which will be
- forwarded over to music.foobar.com port
+ forwarded over to music.example.com port
8000, successfully evading the firewall.Further ReadingOpenSSH&man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1;
&man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1;&man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8;