diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/Makefile
index 252b5a8271..d999776b7f 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/Makefile
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/Makefile
@@ -1,8 +1,12 @@
# $FreeBSD$
SUBDIR =
SUBDIR+= contributing
SUBDIR+= cvs-freebsd
+SUBDIR+= hubs
+SUBDIR+= mailing-list-faq
+SUBDIR+= pr-guidelines
+SUBDIR+= problem-reports
DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../..
.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/hubs/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/hubs/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..cded48ba4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/hubs/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+# Article: Mirroring FreeBSD
+
+DOC?= article
+
+FORMATS?= html
+WITH_ARTICLE_TOC?= YES
+
+INSTALL_COMPRESSED?=gz
+INSTALL_ONLY_COMPRESSED?=
+
+SRCS= article.sgml
+
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../..
+.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/hubs/article.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/hubs/article.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..a2944f2994
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/hubs/article.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,1081 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%articles.ent;
+
+]>
+
+
+
+ Mirroring FreeBSD
+ $FreeBSD$
+
+
+ Jun
+ Kuriyama
+
+ kuriyama@FreeBSD.org
+
+
+
+ Valentino
+ Vaschetto
+
+ logo@FreeBSD.org
+
+
+
+ Daniel
+ Lang
+
+ dl@leo.org
+
+
+
+ Ken
+ Smith
+
+ kensmith@FreeBSD.org
+
+
+
+
+
+ &tm-attrib.freebsd;
+ &tm-attrib.cvsup;
+ &tm-attrib.general;
+
+
+
+ ³o¬O¥÷ÁÙ¦b¯ó½Z¤¤ªº¤å³¹¡A¥Dn¬O(¤×¨ä¬Oµ¹¦U°Ïºô¤¤¤ßºÞ²zªÌªº°Ñ¦Ò)¤¶²Ð¦p¦ó mirror FreeBSD¡C
+
+
+
+
+ Ápô¤è¦¡
+
+ Yn§ä¾ãÓ Mirror ¾÷¨îªº¨ó½ÕªÌ¡A¥i¥H email ¨ì mirror-admin@FreeBSD.org ¡C¦¹¥~¡A³o¸Ì¤]¦³¥÷
+ &a.hubs;¡C
+
+
+
+ ¦¨¬° FreeBSD mirrors ªº¥²³Æ±ø¥ó
+
+ µwºÐªÅ¶¡
+
+ µwºÐªÅ¶¡¬O³Ì«nªº¥²³Æ±ø¥ó¤§¤@¡C
+ Depending on the set of releases, architectures,
+ and degree of completeness you want to mirror, a huge
+ amount of disk space may be consumed. Also keep in mind
+ that official mirrors are probably required to be
+ complete. The CVS repository and the web pages should
+ always be mirrored completely. Also note that the
+ numbers stated here are reflecting the current
+ state (at &rel2.current;-RELEASE/&rel.current;-RELEASE). Further development and
+ releases will only increase the required amount.
+ Also make sure to keep some (ca. 10-20%) extra space
+ around just to be sure.
+ Here are some approximate figures:
+
+
+ §¹¾ã FTP Distribution: 126 GB
+ CVS repository: 2.7 GB
+ CTM deltas: 1.8 GB
+ Web pages: 300 MB
+
+
+
+ ºô¸ôÀW¼e
+
+ ·íµM¡A§A¤@©wn¯à³s¤W Internet¡C
+ ÀW¼e»Ý¨D¦h¤Ö¡A³on¬Ý§A©Ò·Qnªº mirror µ{«×¦Ó©w¡C
+ Y¥u·Qn mirror ¤@³¡¥÷ªº FreeBSD ÀÉ®×¥H§@¬°ºô¯¸©Î intranet ªº§½³¡¥Î³~¡A
+ ¨º»òÀW¼e»Ý¨D·|©úÅã¤ñ¦¨¬°¤½¦@ªA°È¥Î³~ªº¤p¤@¨Ç¡C
+ Y·Q¦¨¬° official mirror ¤§¤@ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»òÀW¼e´N¶Õ¥²±o¼W¥[¤~°÷¥Î¡C¥H¤U¡A§Ú̶ȦC¥X¤@¨Ç¦ôpÈ¥H°µ¬°°Ñ¦Ò¡G
+
+
+ Local site, no public access: basically no minimum,
+ but < 2 Mbps could make syncing too slow.
+ Unofficial public site: 34 Mbps is probably a good start.
+ Official site: > 100 Mbps is recommended, and your host
+ should be connected as close as possible to your border router.
+
+
+
+ ¨t²Î»Ý¨D¡BCPU¡BRAM
+
+ One thing this depends on the expected number of clients,
+ which is determined by the server's policy. It is
+ also affected by the types of services you want to offer.
+ Plain FTP or HTTP services may not require a huge
+ amount of resources. Watch out if you provide
+ CVSup, rsync or even AnonCVS. This can have a huge
+ impact on CPU and memory requirements. Especially
+ rsync is considered a memory hog, and CVSup does
+ indeed consume some CPU. For AnonCVS it might
+ be a nice idea to set up a memory resident file system (MFS) of at least
+ 300 MB, so you need to take this into account
+ for your memory requirements. The following
+ are just examples to give you a very rough hint.
+
+
+ For a moderately visited site that offers
+ Rsync , you might
+ consider a current CPU with around 800MHz - 1 GHz,
+ and at least 512MB RAM. This is probably the
+ minimum you want for an official
+ site.
+
+
+ For a frequently used site you definitely need
+ more RAM (consider 2GB as a good start)
+ and possibly more CPU, which could also mean
+ that you need to go for a SMP system.
+
+
+ You also want to consider a fast disk subsystem.
+ Operations on the CVS repository require a fast
+ disk subsystem (RAID is highly advised). A SCSI
+ controller that has a cache of its own can also
+ speed up things since most of these services incur a
+ large number of small modifications to the disk.
+
+
+
+ Services to offer
+
+ Every mirror site is required to have a set of core services
+ available. In addition to these required services, there are
+ a number of optional services that
+ server administrators may choose to offer. This section explains
+ which services you can provide and how to go about implementing them.
+
+
+ FTP (required for FTP fileset)
+
+ This is one of the most basic services, and
+ it is required for each mirror offering public
+ FTP distributions. FTP access must be
+ anonymous, and no upload/download ratios
+ are allowed (a ridiculous thing anyway).
+ Upload capability is not required (and must
+ never be allowed for the FreeBSD file space).
+ Also the FreeBSD archive should be available under
+ the path /pub/FreeBSD .
+
+
+ There is a lot of software available which
+ can be set up to allow anonymous FTP
+ (in alphabetical order).
+
+ /usr/libexec/ftpd : FreeBSD's own ftpd
+ can be used. Be sure to read &man.ftpd.8;.
+
+
+ ftp/ncftpd : A commercial package,
+ free for educational use.
+
+
+ ftp/oftpd : An ftpd designed with
+ security as a main focus.
+
+
+ ftp/proftpd : A modular and very flexible ftpd.
+
+
+ ftp/pure-ftpd : Another ftpd developed with
+ security in mind.
+
+ ftp/twoftpd : As above.
+ ftp/vsftpd : The very secure
ftpd.
+
+ ftp/wu-ftpd : The ftpd from Washington
+ University. It has become infamous, because of the huge
+ amount of security issues that have been found in it.
+ If you do choose to use this software be sure to
+ keep it up to date.
+
+
+
+ FreeBSD's ftpd , proftpd ,
+ wu-ftpd and maybe ncftpd
+ are among the most commonly used FTPds.
+ The others do not have a large userbase among mirror sites. One
+ thing to consider is that you may need flexibility in limiting
+ how many simultaneous connections are allowed, thus limiting how
+ much network bandwidth and system resources are consumed.
+
+
+
+ Rsync (optional for FTP fileset)
+
+ Rsync is often offered for access to the
+ contents of the FTP area of FreeBSD, so other mirror sites can use your system as their source. The
+ protocol is different from FTP in many ways.
+ It is much more
+ bandwidth friendly, as only differences between files
+ are transferred instead of whole files when they change.
+ Rsync does require a significant amount of memory for
+ each instance. The size depends on the size of
+ the synced module in terms of the number of directories and
+ files. Rsync can use rsh and
+ ssh (now default) as a transport,
+ or use its own protocol for stand-alone access
+ (this is the preferred method for public rsync servers).
+ Authentication, connection limits, and other restrictions
+ may be applied. There is just one software package
+ available:
+
+ net/rsync
+
+
+
+
+ HTTP (required for web pages, optional for FTP fileset)
+
+ If you want to offer the FreeBSD web pages, you will need
+ to install a web server.
+ You may optionally offer the FTP fileset via HTTP.
+ The choice of web server software is left up to the mirror administrator.
+ Some of the most popular choices are:
+
+
+
+ www/apache13 :
+ Apache is the most widely
+ deployed web server on the Internet. It is used
+ extensively by the FreeBSD Project. You may also wish to
+ use the next generation of the
+ Apache web server, available
+ in the ports collection as www/apache22 .
+
+
+
+ www/thttpd :
+ If you are going to be serving a large amount of static content
+ you may find that using an application such as thttpd is more
+ efficient than Apache . It is
+ optimized for excellent performance on FreeBSD.
+
+
+
+ www/boa :
+ Boa is another alternative to
+ thttpd and
+ Apache . It should provide
+ considerably better performance than
+ Apache for purely static
+ content. It does not, at the time of this writing,
+ contain the same set of optimizations for FreeBSD that
+ are found in thttpd .
+
+
+
+
+
+ CVSup (desired for CVS repository)
+
+ CVSup is a very efficient way of distributing files.
+ It works similar to rsync , but was specially designed for
+ use with CVS repositories. If you want to offer the
+ FreeBSD CVS repository, you really want to consider
+ offering it via CVSup . It is possible to offer
+ the CVS repository via AnonCVS , FTP,
+ rsync or HTTP, but
+ people would benefit much more from CVSup access.
+ CVSup was developed by &a.jdp;.
+ It is a bit tricky to install on non-FreeBSD platforms,
+ since it is written in Modula-3 and therefore requires
+ a Modula-3 environment. John Polstra has built a
+ stripped down version of M3 that is sufficient to
+ run CVSup , and can be installed much easier.
+ See Ezm3
+ for details. Related ports are:
+
+
+
+ net/cvsup : The native CVSup port (client and server)
+ which requires lang/ezm3 now.
+
+
+ net/cvsup-mirror : The CVSup mirror kit, which requires
+ net/cvsup-without-gui , and configures it mirror-ready. Some
+ site administrators may want a different setup though.
+
+
+
+
+ There are a few more like
+ net/cvsup-without-gui you might want to have
+ a look at. If you prefer a static binary package, take a look
+ here .
+ This page still refers to the S1G bug that was present
+ in CVSup . Maybe
+ John will set up a generic download-site to get
+ static binaries for various platforms.
+
+
+ It is possible to use CVSup to offer
+ any kind of fileset, not just CVS repositories,
+ but configuration can be complex.
+ CVSup is known to eat some CPU on both the server and the
+ client, since it needs to compare lots of files.
+
+
+
+ AnonCVS (optional for CVS repository)
+
+ If you have the CVS repository, you may want to offer
+ anonymous CVS access. A short warning first:
+ There is not much demand for it,
+ it requires some experience, and you need to know
+ what you are doing.
+
+
+ Generally there are two ways
+ to access a CVS repository remotely: via
+ pserver or via ssh
+ (we do not consider rsh ).
+ For anonymous access, pserver is
+ very well suited, but some still offer ssh
+ access as well. There is a custom crafted
+ wrapper
+ in the CVS repository, to be used as a login-shell for the
+ anonymous ssh account. It does a chroot, and therefore
+ requires the CVS repository to be available under the
+ anonymous user's home-directory. This may not be possible
+ for all sites. If you just offer pserver
+ this restriction does not apply, but you may run with
+ more security risks. You do not need to install any special
+ software, since &man.cvs.1; comes with
+ FreeBSD. You need to enable access via inetd ,
+ so add an entry into your /etc/inetd.conf
+ like this:
+
+cvspserver stream tcp nowait root /usr/bin/cvs cvs -f -l -R -T /anoncvstmp --allow-root=/home/ncvs pserver
+
+ See the manpage for details of the options. Also see the CVS info
+ page about additional ways to make sure access is read-only.
+ It is advised that you create an unprivileged account,
+ preferably called anoncvs .
+ Also you need to create a file passwd
+ in your /home/ncvs/CVSROOT and assign a
+ CVS password (empty or anoncvs ) to that user.
+ The directory /anoncvstmp is a special
+ purpose memory based file system. It is not required but
+ advised since &man.cvs.1; creates a shadow directory
+ structure in your /tmp which is
+ not used after the operation but slows things
+ dramatically if real disk operations are required.
+ Here is an excerpt from /etc/fstab ,
+ how to set up such a MFS:
+
+/dev/da0s1b /anoncvstmp mfs rw,-s=786432,-b=4096,-f=512,-i=560,-c=3,-m=0,nosuid,nodev 0 0
+
+ This is (of course) tuned a lot, and was suggested by &a.jdp;.
+
+
+
+
+
+ How to Mirror FreeBSD
+
+ Ok, now you know the requirements and how to offer
+ the services, but not how to get it. :-)
+ This section explains how to actually mirror
+ the various parts of FreeBSD, what tools to use,
+ and where to mirror from.
+
+
+ FTP
+
+ The FTP area is the largest amount of data that
+ needs to be mirrored. It includes the distribution
+ sets required for network installation, the
+ branches which are actually snapshots
+ of checked-out source trees, the ISO Images
+ to write CD-ROMs with the installation distribution,
+ a live file system, lots of packages, the ports tree,
+ distfiles, and a huge amount of packages. All of course
+ for various FreeBSD versions,
+ and various architectures.
+
+
+ With FTP mirror
+
+ You can use a FTP mirror
+ program to get the files. Some of the most commonly used are:
+
+ ftp/mirror
+ ftp/ftpmirror
+ ftp/emirror
+ ftp/spegla
+ ftp/omi
+ ftp/wget
+
+
+ ftp/mirror was very popular, but seemed
+ to have some drawbacks, as it is written in &man.perl.1;,
+ and had real problems with mirroring large
+ directories like a FreeBSD site. There are rumors that
+ the current version has fixed this by allowing
+ a different algorithm for comparing
+ the directory structure to be specified.
+
+
+ In general FTP is not really good for mirroring. It transfers
+ the whole file if it has changed, and does
+ not create a single data stream which would benefit from
+ a large TCP congestion window.
+
+
+
+ With rsync
+
+ A better way to mirror the FTP area is rsync .
+ You can install the port net/rsync and then use
+ rsync to sync with your upstream host.
+ rsync is already mentioned
+ in .
+ Since rsync access is not
+ required, your preferred upstream site may not allow it.
+ You may need to hunt around a little bit to find a site
+ that allows rsync access.
+
+
+ Since the number of rsync
+ clients will have a significant impact on the server
+ machine, most admins impose limitations on their
+ server. For a mirror, you should ask the site maintainer
+ you are syncing from about their policy, and maybe
+ an exception for your host (since you are a mirror).
+
+
+ A command line to mirror FreeBSD might look like:
+ &prompt.user; rsync -vaz --delete ftp4.de.FreeBSD.org::FreeBSD/ /pub/FreeBSD/
+
+ Consult the documentation for rsync ,
+ which is also available at
+ http://rsync.samba.org/ ,
+ about the various options to be used with rsync.
+ If you sync the whole module (unlike subdirectories),
+ be aware that the module-directory (here "FreeBSD")
+ will not be created, so you cannot omit the target directory.
+ Also you might
+ want to set up a script framework that calls such a command
+ via &man.cron.8;.
+
+
+
+ With CVSup
+
+ A few sites, including the one-and-only ftp-master.FreeBSD.org
+ even offer CVSup to mirror the contents of
+ the FTP space. You need to install a CVSup
+ client, preferably from the port net/cvsup .
+ (Also reread .)
+ A sample supfile suitable for ftp-master.FreeBSD.org
+ looks like this:
+
+ #
+ # FreeBSD archive supfile from master server
+ #
+ *default host=ftp-master.FreeBSD.org
+ *default base=/usr
+ *default prefix=/pub
+ #*default release=all
+ *default delete use-rel-suffix
+ *default umask=002
+
+ # If your network link is a T1 or faster, comment out the following line.
+ #*default compress
+
+ FreeBSD-archive release=all preserve
+
+
+ It seems CVSup would be the best
+ way to mirror the archive in terms of efficiency, but
+ it is only available from few sites.
+
+
+ Please have look at the CVSup documentation
+ like &man.cvsup.1; and consider using the -s
+ option. This reduces I/O operations by assuming the
+ recorded information about each file is correct.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mirroring the CVS repository
+ There are various ways to mirror the CVS repository.
+ CVSup is the most common method.
+
+
+ Using CVSup
+
+ CVSup is described in some
+ detail in and .
+
+ It is very easy to setup a
+ CVSup mirror. Installing
+ net/cvsup-mirror will
+ make sure all of the needed programs are installed and then
+ gather all the needed information to configure the mirror.
+
+
+ Please do not forget to consider the hint
+ mentioned in this note
+ above.
+
+
+
+
+ Using other methods
+
+ Using other methods than CVSup is
+ generally not recommended. We describe them in short here
+ anyway. Since most sites offer the CVS repository as
+ part of the FTP fileset under the path
+ /pub/FreeBSD/development/FreeBSD-CVS ,
+ the following methods could be used.
+
+ FTP
+ Rsync
+ HTTP
+
+
+
+ AnonCVS cannot be used to mirror the CVS repository
+ since CVS does not allow you to access the repository
+ itself, only checked out versions of the modules.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mirroring the WWW pages
+
+ The best way is to check out the www
+ distribution from CVS. If you have a local mirror of the
+ CVS repository, it is as easy as:
+ &prompt.user; cvs -d /home/ncvs co www
+ and a cronjob , that calls cvs up -d -P
+ on a regular basis, maybe just after your repository was updated.
+ Of course, the files need to remain in a directory available
+ for public WWW access. The installation and configuration of a
+ web server is not discussed here.
+
+
+
+ If you do not have a local repository, you can use
+ CVSup to maintain an up to date copy
+ of the www pages. A sample supfile can be found in
+ /usr/share/examples/cvsup/www-supfile and
+ could look like this:
+
+ #
+ # WWW module supfile for FreeBSD
+ #
+ *default host=cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.org
+ *default base=/usr
+ *default prefix=/usr/local
+ *default release=cvs tag=.
+ *default delete use-rel-suffix
+
+ # If your network link is a T1 or faster, comment out the following line.
+ *default compress
+
+ # This collection retrieves the www/ tree of the FreeBSD repository
+ www
+
+
+
+ Using ftp/wget or other web-mirror tools is
+ not recommended.
+
+
+ Mirroring the FreeBSD documentation
+
+ Since the documentation is referenced a lot from the
+ web pages, it is recommended that you mirror the
+ FreeBSD documentation as well. However, this is not
+ as trivial as the www-pages alone.
+
+
+ First of all, you should get the doc sources,
+ again preferably via CVSup .
+ Here is a corresponding sample supfile:
+
+ #
+ # FreeBSD documentation supfile
+ #
+ *default host=cvsup3.de.FreeBSD.org
+ *default base=/usr
+ *default prefix=/usr/share
+ *default release=cvs tag=.
+ *default delete use-rel-suffix
+
+ # If your network link is a T1 or faster, comment out the following line.
+ #*default compress
+
+ # This will retrieve the entire doc branch of the FreeBSD repository.
+ # This includes the handbook, FAQ, and translations thereof.
+ doc-all
+
+
+
+ Then you need to install a couple of ports.
+ You are lucky, there is a meta-port:
+ textproc/docproj to do the work
+ for you. You need to set up some
+ environment variables, like
+ SGML_CATALOG_FILES .
+ Also have a look at your /etc/make.conf
+ (copy /usr/share/examples/etc/make.conf if
+ you do not have one), and look at the
+ DOC_LANG variable.
+ Now you are probably ready to run make
+ in your doc directory (/usr/share/doc
+ by default) and build the documentation.
+ Again you need to make it accessible for your web server
+ and make sure the links point to the right location.
+
+
+ The building of the documentation, as well as lots
+ of side issues, is documented itself in the
+ &os; Documentation
+ Project Primer .
+ Please read this piece of documentation, especially if you
+ have problems building the documentation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ How often should I mirror?
+
+ Every mirror should be updated on a regular
+ basis. You will certainly need some script
+ framework for it that will be called by
+ &man.cron.8;. Since nearly every admin
+ does this his own way, we cannot give
+ specific instructions. It could work
+ like this:
+
+
+
+
+ Put the command to run your mirroring application
+ in a script. Use of a plain /bin/sh
+ script is recommended.
+
+
+
+
+ Add some output redirections so diagnostic
+ messages are logged to a file.
+
+
+
+
+ Test if your script works. Check the logs.
+
+
+
+
+ Use &man.crontab.1; to add the script to the
+ appropriate user's &man.crontab.5;. This should be a
+ different user than what your FTP daemon runs as so that
+ if file permissions inside your FTP area are not
+ world-readable those files can not be accessed by anonymous
+ FTP. This is used to stage
releases —
+ making sure all of the official mirror sites have all of the
+ necessary release files on release day.
+
+
+
+
+ Here are some recommended schedules:
+
+ FTP fileset: daily
+ CVS repository: hourly
+ WWW pages: daily
+
+
+
+
+
+ Where to mirror from
+
+ This is an important issue. So this section will
+ spend some effort to explain the backgrounds. We will say this
+ several times: under no circumstances should you mirror from
+ ftp.FreeBSD.org .
+
+
+ A few words about the organization
+
+ Mirrors are organized by country. All
+ official mirrors have a DNS entry of the form
+ ftpN.CC.FreeBSD.org .
+ CC (i.e. country code) is the
+ top level domain (TLD)
+ of the country where this mirror is located.
+ N is a number,
+ telling that the host would be the Nth
+ mirror in that country.
+ (Same applies to cvsupN.CC.FreeBSD.org ,
+ wwwN.CC.FreeBSD.org , etc.)
+ There are mirrors with no CC part.
+ These are the mirror sites that are very well connected and
+ allow a large number of concurrent users.
+ ftp.FreeBSD.org is actually two machines, one currently
+ located in Denmark and the other in the United States.
+ It is NOT a master site and should never be
+ used to mirror from. Lots of online documentation leads
+ interactive
users to
+ ftp.FreeBSD.org so automated mirroring
+ systems should find a different machine to mirror from.
+
+
+ Additionally there exists a hierarchy of mirrors, which
+ is described in terms of tiers .
+ The master sites are not referred to but can be
+ described as Tier-0 . Mirrors
+ that mirror from these sites can be considered
+ Tier-1 , mirrors of Tier-1 -mirrors,
+ are Tier-2 , etc.
+ Official sites are encouraged to be of a low tier ,
+ but the lower the tier the higher the requirements in
+ terms as described in .
+ Also access to low-tier-mirrors may be restricted, and
+ access to master sites is definitely restricted.
+ The tier -hierarchy is not reflected
+ by DNS and generally not documented anywhere except
+ for the master sites. However, official mirrors with low numbers
+ like 1-4, are usually Tier-1
+ (this is just a rough hint, and there is no rule).
+
+
+
+ Ok, but where should I get the stuff now?
+
+ Under no circumstances should you mirror from ftp.FreeBSD.org .
+ The short answer is: from the
+ site that is closest to you in Internet terms, or gives you
+ the fastest access.
+
+
+ I just want to mirror from somewhere!
+
+ If you have no special intentions or
+ requirements, the statement in
+ applies. This means:
+
+
+
+
+ Look at available mirrors in your country.
+ The FreeBSD
+ Mirror Database can help you with this.
+
+
+
+
+ Check for those which provide fastest access
+ (number of hops, round-trip-times)
+ and offer the services you intend to
+ use (like rsync
+ or CVSup ).
+
+
+
+
+ Contact the administrators of your chosen site stating your
+ request, and asking about their terms and
+ policies.
+
+
+
+
+ Set up your mirror as described above.
+
+
+
+
+
+ I am an official mirror, what is the right site for me?
+
+ In general the description in
+ still applies. Of course you may want to put some
+ weight on the fact that your upstream should be of
+ a low tier.
+ There are some other considerations about official
+ mirrors that are described in .
+
+
+
+ I want to access the master sites!
+
+ If you have good reasons and good prerequisites,
+ you may want and get access to one of the
+ master sites. Access to these sites is
+ generally restricted, and there are special policies
+ for access. If you are already an official
+ mirror, this certainly helps you getting access.
+ In any other case make sure your country really needs another mirror.
+ If it already has three or more, ask the zone administrator
(hostmaster@CC.FreeBSD.org ) or &a.hubs; first.
+
+
+ Whoever helped you become, an official
+ should have helped you gain access to an appropriate upstream
+ host, either one of the master sites or a suitable Tier-1
+ site. If not, you can send email to
+ mirror-admin@FreeBSD.org to request help with
+ that.
+
+
+ There are three master sites for the FTP fileset and
+ one for the CVS repository (the web pages and docs are
+ obtained from CVS, so there is no need for master).
+
+
+ ftp-master.FreeBSD.org
+
+ This is the master site for the FTP fileset.
+
+
+ ftp-master.FreeBSD.org provides
+ rsync and CVSup
+ access, in addition to FTP.
+ Refer to and
+ how to access
+ via these protocols.
+
+
+ Mirrors are also encouraged to allow rsync
+ access for the FTP contents, since they are
+ Tier-1 -mirrors.
+
+
+
+ cvsup-master.FreeBSD.org
+
+ This is the master site for the CVS repository.
+
+
+ cvsup-master.FreeBSD.org provides
+ CVSup access only.
+ See for details.
+
+
+ To get access, you need to contact the &a.cvsup-master;.
+ Make sure you read the
+ FreeBSD CVSup Access Policy
+ first!
+
+
+ Set up the required authentication by following
+ these
+ instructions . Make sure you specify the server as
+ freefall.FreeBSD.org on the cvpasswd
+ command line, as described in this document,
+ even when you are contacting
+ cvsup-master.FreeBSD.org
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Official Mirrors
+
+ Official mirrors are mirrors that
+
+
+
+ a) have a FreeBSD.org DNS entry
+ (usually a CNAME).
+
+
+
+
+ b) are listed as an official mirror in the FreeBSD
+ documentation (like handbook).
+
+
+
+
+ So far to distinguish official mirrors.
+ Official mirrors are not necessarily Tier-1 -mirrors.
+ However you probably will not find a Tier-1 -mirror,
+ that is not also official.
+
+
+ Special Requirements for official (tier-1) mirrors
+
+ It is not so easy to state requirements for all
+ official mirrors, since the project is sort of
+ tolerant here. It is more easy to say,
+ what official tier-1 mirrors
+ are required to. All other official mirrors
+ can consider this a big should .
+
+
+ The following applies mainly to the FTP fileset,
+ since a CVS repository should always be mirrored
+ completely, and the web pages are a case of
+ its own.
+
+
+
+
+ Tier-1 mirrors are required to:
+
+ carry the complete fileset
+ allow access to other mirror sites
+ provide FTP and
+ rsync access
+
+
+ Furthermore, admins should be subscribed to the &a.hubs;.
+ See this link for details, how to subscribe.
+
+
+ It is very important for a hub administrator, especially
+ Tier-1 hub admins, to check the
+ release schedule
+ for the next FreeBSD release. This is important because it will tell you when the
+ next release is scheduled
+ to come out, and thus giving you time to prepare for the big spike of traffic which follows it.
+
+
+ It is also important that hub administrators try to keep their mirrors as up-to-date as
+ possible (again, even more crucial for Tier-1 mirrors). If Mirror1 does not update for a
+ while, lower tier mirrors will begin to mirror old data from Mirror1 and thus begins
+ a downward spiral... Keep your mirrors up to date!
+
+
+
+
+ How to become official then?
+
+ An interesting question, especially, since the state
+ of being official comes with some benefits, like a much
+ higher bill from your ISP as more people will be using
+ your site. Also it may be a key requirement to get access
+ to a master site.
+
+
+ Before applying, please consider (again) if
+ another official mirror is really needed for
+ your region. Check first with your zone administrator (hostmaster@CC.FreeBSD.org ) or, if that fails, ask on the &a.hubs;.
+
+ Ok, here is how to do it:
+
+
+
+ Get the mirror running in first place (maybe not
+ using a master site, yet).
+
+
+
+
+ Subscribe to the &a.hubs;.
+
+
+
+
+ If everything works so far, contact the DNS administrator responsible
+ for your region/country, and ask for a DNS entry for your
+ site. The admin should able to be contacted via
+ hostmaster@CC.FreeBSD.org , where
+ CC is your country code/TLD.
+ Your DNS entry will be as described
+ in .
+
+
+ If there is no subdomain set up for your
+ country yet, you should contact
+ mirror-admin@FreeBSD.org ,
+ or you can try the &a.hubs; first.
+
+
+
+
+ Whoever helps you get an official name should send email
+ to mirror-admin@FreeBSD.org so your site will be
+ added to the mirror list in the
+ FreeBSD
+ Handbook .
+
+
+
+ That is it.
+
+
+
+ Some statistics from mirror sites
+
+ Here are links to the stat pages of your favorite mirrors
+ (a.k.a. the only ones who feel like providing stats).
+
+
+ FTP site statistics
+
+
+ ftp.is.FreeBSD.org - hostmaster@is.FreeBSD.org -
+
+ (Bandwidth) (FTP
+ processes) (HTTP processes)
+
+
+
+
+ ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org - cejkar@fit.vutbr.cz -
+ (Bandwidth)
+ (FTP processes)
+ (rsync processes)
+
+
+
+ ftp2.ru.FreeBSD.org - mirror@macomnet.ru -
+ (Bandwidth)
+ (HTTP and FTP users)
+
+
+
+
+
+ CVSup site stats
+
+
+ cvsup[23456].jp.FreeBSD.org - kuriyama@FreeBSD.org - (CVSup processes)
+
+
+ cvsup.cz.FreeBSD.org - cejkar@fit.vutbr.cz -
+ (CVSup processes)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/mailing-list-faq/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/mailing-list-faq/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..09f7ccb2f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/mailing-list-faq/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+# Article: Frequently Asked Questions About The FreeBSD Mailing Lists
+
+DOC?= article
+
+FORMATS?= html
+
+INSTALL_COMPRESSED?=gz
+INSTALL_ONLY_COMPRESSED?=
+
+WITH_ARTICLE_TOC?=YES
+
+#
+# SRCS lists the individual SGML files that make up the document. Changes
+# to any of these files will force a rebuild
+#
+
+# SGML content
+SRCS= article.sgml
+
+URL_RELPREFIX?= ../../../..
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../..
+
+.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/mailing-list-faq/article.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/mailing-list-faq/article.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..7315385d33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/mailing-list-faq/article.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,430 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%articles.ent;
+]>
+
+
+
+ &os; Mailing Lists ±`¨£°Ýµª¶°
+
+
+
+ The &os; Documentation Project
+
+
+
+ $FreeBSD$
+
+
+ 2004
+ 2005
+ 2006
+ &os; ¤å¥ópµe
+
+
+
+ ³o¬O¦³Ãö &os; mailing lists ªº FAQ¡C¦pªG±z¹ï¨ó§U¥»¤å¥ó/½Ķpµe
+ ªº¶i¦æ¦³¿³½ìªº¸Ü¡A½Ð±H e-mail ¨ì
+ &a.doc;¡C¦¹¥~¡AÀH®É¥i±q
+ FreeBSD ºô¯¸ ®³¨ì³o¥÷¤å¥óªº³Ì·sª©¥»¡C
+ ¤]¥i¥H§Q¥Î HTTP ¨Ó¤U¸ü HTML
+ ¤å¥ó¡A©Î¬O¸g¥Ñ
+ FreeBSD FTP ¯¸ ¤U¸ü¯Â¤å¦r¡B&postscript;¡B©Î PDF ª©¥»ªºÀɮסC
+ ±z¤]¥i¥H¦b³o¸Ì¨Ï¥Î
+ ·j´M FAQ ¸ê®Æ
+ ªº¥\¯à¡C
+
+
+
+
+ «e¨¥
+
+ ¦p¦P¨ä¥L FAQs ¤@¼Ë¡A¥»¤å¥Dn¥Øªº¬O§Æ±æ²[»\¦b &os; mailing
+ lists ¤W±ªº±`¨£°ÝÃD(·íµM¡A¥]¬Aµª®×)¡C
+ ÁöµM¡A쥻ºc·Q¬O§Æ±æ¯à°§C³o¨Ç«½Æ°ÝÃDªººô¸ô¬y¶q¡A¦ý¦p¤µ¤w³Q¤½»{ FAQs ¤]¬O¬Û·í¦n¥Îªº¸ê·½¤§¤@¡C
+
+ ¥»¤å¥Dn¬O´yzªÀ¸s¤§¶¡©Ò°ö¾iªº¤@¨Ç§»ö(©ÎÀq«´)¡A¦ý¥»¤å¥»¨¨Ã«D¡y¸t¦®¡z¯ëªºÅv«Â¡C
+ Yµo²{¥»¤å¤º¦³¥ô¦ó§Þ³N·å²«¡A©ÎªÌ¬O·Q«Øij¥i¥H¼W¥[þ¨Ç³¡¤Àªº¸Ü¡A½Ð°e PR¡A©Î¬O email ¨ì &a.doc;¡CÁÂÅo¡I
+
+
+
+
+ &os; mailing lists ªº¥Øªº¬°¦ó¡H
+
+
+
+ &os; mailing lists ¥Dn¬O´£¨Ñ &os; ªÀ¸s¶¡ªº·¾³qºÞ¹D¡A³o¸Ì¦³¦U¦¡±MÃD»â°ìªº±´°Q¡A¥H¤Î¿³½ì¥æ¬y¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ &os; mailing lists ªº°Ñ»PªÌ¦³þ¨Ç?
+
+
+
+ ³oÓ°ÝÃD¡An¬Ý¦UÓ list ªº¡yª©³W(charter)¡z©w¦ì¦Ó¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡C¦³¨Ç lists ¥Dn¬O developers ¦b°Ñ»P°Q½×ªº¡F
+ ¦Ó¦³¨Ç«h¥Dn¬O´X¥G¾ãÅé &os; ªÀ¸s³£¥i¥HÀH·N°Ñ»P°Q½×ªº¡C½Ð¬Ý ³o¥÷²M³æ ¤W±¦³¥Ø«e©Ò¦³ list ªººKn»¡©ú¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ &os; mailing lists ¹ï¥ô¦ó¤H³£¬O¶}©ñ°Ñ»Pªº¶Ü¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦A«½Æ¤@¦¸¡A³on¬Ý¦UÓ list ªº¡yª©³W(charter)¡z©w¦ì¦Ó¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡C
+ ½Ð¦bµo¤å«e¡A¥ýª`·N¾\Ū¸Ó list ªº¡yª©³W(charter)¡z¡A¨Ã¿í¦u¬ÛÃöì«h¡C
+ ¦p¦¹¤@¨Ó¡A¤~·|Åý¤j®a³£¯à·¾³q§óµLê¡C
+
+ ¦pªG¬Ý¤F¤W¤@Ӱݵª¤ºªº²M³æ¤§«á¡AÁÙ¬O¤£²M·¡n¨ìþÓ list ¥hµo°Ýªº¸Ü¡A
+ ¨º»ò¥i¥H¸ÕµÛ§â°ÝÃD¥á¨ì freebsd-questions ¬Ý¬Ý(¦ý½Ð¥ý¬Ý¤U±Á¿ªº¸É¥R)¡C
+
+ ½Ðª`·N¡G²ßºD¤W©Ò¦³ mailing lists ³£¬O¶}©ñµoªí°Q½×ªº¡A¤]¤£¥²±o¥ý¦¨¬°q¾\·|û¤~¦æ¡C
+ ³o¬O¬Û·í¼f·Vªº¿ï¾Ü¡A¨ÓÅý°Ñ»P &os; ªÀ¸s§ó»´ÃP®e©ö¡A¨Ã¹ªÀy¤¬¬Û¤À¨É©¼¦¹ªº·Qªk¡C
+ µM¦Ó¡A¥Ñ©ó¹L¥h¦³¨Ç¤HªºÀݥΡA¦³¨Ç lists ²{¦b¶}©l¨î°Ñ»P°Q½×ªº³¡¤À¡A¥HÁקK¤£¥²nªº§xÂZ¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ n«ç»òq¾\©O¡H
+
+
+
+ ¥i¥H¥Î
+ Mailman ºô¶¤¶± ¨Óq¾\¥ô¦ó¤½¶}ªº lists¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ n«ç»ò°hq¡H
+
+
+
+ ¤@¼Ë½Ð¥Îè¤W±»¡ªººô¶¤¶±¡A©ÎªÌ mailing list ¤W±¨C«Ê«Hµ²§À³B³£·|¦³¬ÛÃö URL ³sµ²ªº«ü¥Ü»¡©ú¡C
+
+ ¤d¸U½Ð¤£nª½±µ¼g«H¨ì³o¨Ç¤½¶}ªº mailing lists »¡§An°hq¡C
+ º¥ý©O..¦]¬°¥»¨Ó´N¤£¬O³o¼Ë°hqªº¡A¨ä¦¸§A·|·S¨Ó²³«ã¦Ó©Û¨Ó³ò¶Ï¡Bµ§¾Ô¡C
+ ³o¬O«Ü¨å«¬ªº°hq¿ù»~¥Ü½d¡A½Ð¤£n³o¼Ë°µ¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¥i¥H§ä¨ì«Hªº¸ê®Æ®w¶Ü¡H
+
+
+
+ ¶â¡A¦³¡I¥i¥H¦b ³oÃä
+ §ä¨ì¬ÛÃöªºÂ«H¸ê®Æ®w(archive)¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ mailing lists ¥i¦³ºKnª©©O¡H
+
+
+
+ ·íµM¤]¦³¡A½Ð¬Ý
+ Mailman ºô¶¤¶± ¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mailing List ªº°Ñ»P§»ö
+
+ ¦b mailing lists ¤W°Ñ»P°Q½×¡A´N¹³¦b¨ä¥LªÀ¸s¤@¼Ë¡A§Ú̳£»Ýn¤@¨Ç·¾³q¤Wªº¦@ÃÑ¡C
+ µo¨¥½Ðª`«Â§»ö(©ÎÀq«´)¡A¤Á¤ÅµLªº©ñ¥Ú¡C
+
+
+
+
+ ¦bµo¤å¤§«e¡A¦³¤°»òª`·N¨Æ¶µ©O¡H
+
+
+
+ ³Ì«nªº¬O§A¤w¸g¬Ý¤F³o½g¤å³¹¡AµM¦Ó¡AY±z¹ï &os; ¤£¼ôªº¸Ü¡A
+ ¥i¯à»Ýn¥ý¼sªx¾\Ū
+ ¬ÛÃö®ÑÄy¤Î¤å³¹
+ ¨Ó¥ý¼ô±x³o®M§@·~¨t²Î©M¤@¨Ç¨å¬G¡A¤×¨ä¬O¨ä¤¤ªº
+ &os; ±`¨£°Ýµª¶° (FAQ) ¤å¥ó¡A
+
+ &os; ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U(Handbook) ¡A
+ ¥H¤Î¬ÛÃö¤å³¹¡G
+ How to get best results from the FreeBSD-questions mailing list ¡B
+
+ Explaining BSD ¡B¥H¤Î
+ &os; First Steps ¡C
+
+ ¦¹¥~¡A¹ï¤Wz¤å¥ó¤º¤w¦³¸Ñµªªº³¡¥÷¤S´£¥X¨Ó°Ýªº¸Ü¡A·|³Q»{¬°¬O¬Û·í¤£Â§»ªªº¡C
+ ³o¨Ã¤£¬O¦]¬°³o¸s§Ó¤u¬O¬Û·í§[©ó¦^µªªº¡A¦Ó¬O¤@¦A³Q¬Û¦Pªº°ÝÃD¤£Â_¯h³ÒÅF¬µ¤§«á¡A©Ò²£¥Íªº®À§é·P«Ü«¡C
+ ¤×¨ä¬O²{¦¨µª®×©ú©ú´N¦b²´«e¡A«o¤´¦P¼Ë°ÝÃDº¡¤Ñ¸¡A³o¹ê¦b¬O...¡C
+ ½Ðª`·N¡G³o¨Ç &os; ¬ÛÃö¤å¥ó´X¥G³£¬O¥Ñ¤@¸sµLÁ~§Ó¤uªº¦n¤ß¦¨ªG¡A¦Ó¥L̤]¬O¤H¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦óÁקK¤£·íµo¤å©O¡H
+
+
+
+
+
+ µo¤å®É¡A½Ð°È¥²¿í¦u¸Ó mailing list ªº¹CÀ¸³W«h¡C
+
+
+
+ ¤£n§@¤H¨§ðÀ»¡C¦nªººô¸ô¤½¥Á¡AÀ³¸Ón¦³§ó°ªªº¨¥¦æ¼Ð·Ç¡C
+
+
+
+ ½Ð¤£n¸Õ¹Ï§@ Spam ¦æ¬°(¼s§i¡BÂà¶K¦h³Bµ¥¤£½Ð¦Û¨Ó¦æ¬°)¡C
+ ©Ò¦³ mailing lists ³£·|¿n·¥¸T¤î³o¨Ç¹H³WªÌ¡A¤@¥¹¦³ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò«áªG½Ð¦Û¦æt³d¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ µo¤å®É¡A¦³¤°»ò¸Óª`·Nªº¶Ü¡H
+
+
+
+
+
+ µo¤å®É¡A½Ð«O«ù¤@¦æ¬ù 75 Ó¦r¤¸´N¦Û°ÊÂ_¦æ¡A¦]¬°¨Ã¤£¬O¨CӬݪº¤H³£¦³«Ü¬¯ªº¹Ï§Î¤¶±(GUI)¬Ý«H³nÅé¡C
+
+
+
+ ½Ðª`·N¡G¨Æ¹ê¤W¡Aºô¸ôÀW¼e¨Ã¤£¬OµLªº¡C
+ ¨Ã«D¨CÓŪªÌªºÀW¼e³£«Ü¤j¡A©Ò¥HY·Q¶K¤@¨Ç¹³¬O config.log
+ ¤§Ãþªº³]©wÀɤº®e¡A©Î¬O¤j¶qªº stack trace ¬ö¿ý¡A¨º»ò½Ð§â¥¦©ñ¦b¦Û¤vºô¯¸¤W¡AµM«á¶K¥X¸Óºô§} URL ´N¦æ¤F¡C
+ ÁÙ¦³¤@¥ó¨Æ¡A½Ð°O¦í¡A³o¨Ç«H¥ó³£·|³Q«H¸ê®Æ®w«O¦s¤U¨Ó¡A©Ò¥H³o¼Ë§@·|³y¦¨«O¦sªº¸ê®Æ®w·|«Ü§Ö³Q¶ë¨ì«Ü¤j¡A
+ ¬Æ¦Ü¥i¯à¶ëÃz Server ªºµwºÐªÅ¶¡¡C
+
+
+
+ ¤å³¹¬OnÅý¤H¬Ý±oÀ´¡A©Ò¥H½Ðª`·Nª©±½s±Æªº¥iŪ©Ê¡AÁÙ¦³..
+ ¤d¡@¸U¡@¤£¡@n¡@¤j¡@Án¡@ÄW¡@¥s!!!!! ³oÂI¥i¤£¥u &os; mailing lists ¤~»Ý¦p¦¹ª`·N¡A
+ ½Ð¤Å§C¦ô¤å³¹¡y°ò¥»½s±Æ¡zªº«n©Ê¡B³sÂê®ÄÀ³¡C
+ «H¤¤ªºªí¹F¤è¦¡³q±`´N¥NªíµÛ§O¤H²´¤¤ªº§A¡AY¤å³¹Åý¤H¬Ý¤F«Ü¦Y¤O(Ãú·Ù·Ù)¡B«÷¦r¿ù»~¦Ê¥X¡B
+ ¥Rº¡»y·N©ÎÅÞ¿è¿ù»~¡B©Î¬O¤å¤º¥Rº¡¤@°ïÅå¹Ä¸¹¡A³o·|Åý¤H¹ï§A¦L¶HÆ[·P·¥®t¡C
+
+
+
+ ¦b¤@¨Ç¯S©wªº list ³õ¦X¡A½Ð¥Î¾A·íªº»y¨¥¨Ó·¾³q¡C³\¦h«D^»y¨tªºmailing
+ lists ¥i¥H¨ì
+
+ ³oÃä ¬d¬Ý¬Ý¡C
+
+ ¹ï©ó³\¦h¥À»y¤£¬O^»yªº¤H¡A§Ú̳£¯à½Ì¸Ñ¥L̪ºW·¡¡A¨Ã¥B¸ÕµÛ¾¨¶q¦h¦h¥]²[¡C
+ ^¤å«D¥À»yªº¤H¡A§ÚÌ·|¾¨¶q¤£´c·N§åµû«÷¦r©Î¤åªk¿ù»~¤§³B¡C
+ &os; ¦b³o¤è±¡A¤@ª½¦³¬Û·íÀu¨qªº¬ö¿ý¡A½ÐÅý§ÚÌÄ~Äò«O«ù³o¶Ç²Î§a¡C
+
+
+
+ ¼g«H®É¡A½Ð¥Î¬Û®e¼Ð·Çªº Mail User Agent (MUA)µ{¦¡¡C
+ ¤£¨}ªº(©Î³]©w¿ù»~ªº)±H«Hµ{¦¡
+ ³o¸Ì¦C¦³³\¦h«H¥ó®æ¦¡ªº¿ù»~¥Ü½d¡C¥H¤U¬O¤@¨Ç¤wª¾ªº±H«Hµ{¦¡ªº¤£¨}¥Ü½d¡G
+
+
+
+ cc:Mail
+
+
+
+ (ª©ªº)&eudora;
+
+
+
+ exmh
+
+
+
+ µsoft; Exchange
+
+
+
+ µsoft; Internet Mail
+
+
+
+ µsoft; &outlook;
+
+
+
+ (ª©ªº)&netscape;
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦P¤Wz©Ò¨£¡AMicrosoft ¥Xªº¤@°ï±H«Hµ{¦¡³q±`³£¬O¤£¬Û®e¼Ð·Ç®æ¦¡ªº¡C
+ ½Ð¾¨¶q§ï¥Î &unix; ¤Wªº±H«Hµ{¦¡¡CY¥²¶·¦b Microsoft Àô¹Ò¤U¨Ï¥Î±H«Hµ{¦¡ªº¸Ü¡A
+ ½Ð°O±o½T»{³]©w¬O§_¥¿½T¡C½Ð¾¨¶q¤£n¥Î MIME ®æ¦¡¡G
+ ¦]¬°¦³¤@°ï¤H³£¦bÀݥΠMIME «H¥ó®æ¦¡¡C
+
+
+
+ ½Ð½T»{¡G®É¶¡»P®É°Ï³]©w¬O§_¥¿½T¡C
+ ³o°ÝÃD¬Ý°_¨Ó¦³ÂIÄø¡A¦]¬°§A±H¥Xªº«HÁÙ¬O·|¨ì¹F mailing list ¤W¡A
+ ¦ý¬O©O¡A¨C¦ì mailing lists ¤Wªºq¤á¨C¤Ñ³£·|¬Ý¼Æ¦Ê«Êªº«H¡A
+ ¥L̳q±`·|§â«H¥ó¥H¼ÐÃD¸ò®É¶¡§@¬°±Æ§Ç¨Ì¾Ú¡C
+ Y§Aªº«H¨S¦³¦b²Ä¤@½g¥¿¸Ñ¤§«e´N¥ý¥X²{ªº¸Ü¡A¥LÌ´N·|°²³]¥i¯à¬Oº|¦¬§A³o«Ê«H¡A
+ µM«á´N¨S¦A¥h¬Ý§A¨º«Ê«H¤F¡C
+
+
+
+ ½Ð´£¨Ñµ{¦¡¥X²{ªº¬ÛÃö°T®§¡A¹³¬O &man.dmesg.8; ©ÎªÌ console
+ messages ¤]´N¬O³q±`·|¥X²{¦b /var/log/messages ¥X²{ªº¡C
+ ½Ð¤£n¥Î¤â¥´¡A¦]¬°³o¤£¶È«ÜW¡A¦Ó¥B¤]¥i¯à¥´¿ù¦r©Î¶Ã±¼ì¦³®æ¦¡¡C½Ðª½±µ§â¬ÛÃöªº log ÀÉ¥á¥X¨Ó¡A
+ ©Î¬O¥Î½s¿è¾¹¨Ó°Åµô¡B©Î¬O¥Î·Æ¹«½Æ»s/¶K¤W¨Ó§¹¦¨¡CÁ|Ó¨Ò¤l¡A¦pªG¬On§â¹³¬O dmesg
+ ªºµ{¦¡°T®§Ë¤J¨ì¬YÓÀÉ®×¥hªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò§@ªk¦p¤U¡G
+
+ &prompt.user; dmesg > /tmp/dmesg.out
+
+ ³o¼Ë¤l·|§â°T®§°e¨ì /tmp/dmesg.out Àɤº¡C
+
+
+
+ ¦b¥Î·Æ¹«°Å¶K®É¡A½Ðª`·N¬O§_¦³¥Ç¤@¨Ç²Ó¸`ªº°Å¶KÃa²ßºD¡C
+ ¤×¨ä¬O¹³¶K Makefiles ¤§ÃþÀɮ׮ɡA¥Ñ©ó tab
+ Áä©Ò¥´¥X¨Óªº¤À®æ¡A¬OÄÝ©ó¯S®í¦r¤¸¡C¦]¦¹¡A¦b
+ GNATS PR ¸ê®Æ®w ¤W«Ü±`¬Ý¨ì³oÃþ«Ü±`¨£ªº´o¤H°ÝÃD¡G
+ Makefiles ¤ºªº tab ¸g¹L°Å¶K«á¡AÅܦ¨¡yªÅ¥Õ(white space)¡z
+ ©Î¬O§xÂZªº =3B escape sequence¡A³o¨Ç·|Åý committers ̤Q¤À¤£²n¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦b mailing lists ¤W¦^¤åªº¸Ü¡A¦³¤°»òn¯S§Oª`·Nªº¶Ü¡H
+
+
+
+
+
+ ½Ð¾A·í½Õ¾ã¤å³¹¤Þ¨¥ªø«×¡C¦^¤å®É¡A¤Þ¨¥³¡¥÷½Ð¤Þ¡y¦³½Í¨ìªº¡z³¡¤À¬°¥D¡A¦ý½Ð¤£n¹L»P¤£¤Î¡C
+ À³¸Ó«O¯d¯A¤Î°Q½×½d³òªºì¤å¡A³o¼Ë¤l¤~¯àÅý¨S¬Ý¹L«e±¤å³¹ªº¤Hª¾¹D¬O¦bÁ¿¤°»ò¡A¦Ó«D¤@ÀYÃú¤ô¡C
+
+ ÁÙ¦³¤@ÂI¤]«Ü«n¡Aì¤åY¬O´T«×¬Û·íªøªº¸Ü¡A°O±oµù©ú "yes, I see this too"¡C
+
+
+
+ µ½¥Î§Þ¥©¨Ó½T»{ì¤å»P¦Û¤v¼gªº³¡¥÷¡G
+ ³q±`·|¦bì¤åªº¨C¦æ«e±¥[¤W >
¥H§@°O¸¹¡C
+ ½Ð°O±o«O¯d >
²Å¸¹«á±ªºªÅ¥Õ¡A¨Ã¥B¦bì¤å¥H¤Î§A©Ò¼gªº¬q¸¨¤§¶¡¥[¤WªÅ¦æ¡A
+ ¥H«K¾\Ū¡C
+
+
+
+ ½Ð¤£nÂ_³¹¨ú¸q¡B¬ïÆwªþ·|¡G³q±`¹ïì©l¤å³¹¡yÂ_³¹¨ú¸q¡z¡B¡y¬ïÆwªþ·|¡z·|Åý¤j®a«Ü¤£²n¡A¦]¬°¥LÌì·N¨Ã«D¦p¦¹¡A«o³Q¦±¸Ñ¡C
+
+
+
+ ¦^¤å®É¡A¤£n¼g¦bì¤å¤W±(top post )¡C
+ ³oÓ·N«ä¬O¡GYn¦^¤å®É¡A½Ð¼g¦bì¤å¤U¤è¡A¤£n¼g¦bì¤å¤W±¡A¥H§KÅý¤H¦³®ÉªÅ¿ù¸mªº¿ù¶Ã²V²c¡C
+
+
+
+ 榭G Because it reverses the logical flow of
+ conversation.
+
+
+ °Ý¡G Why is top posting frowned upon?
+
+
+ (·PÁ Randy Bush ´£¨Ñ¯º¸Ü)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mailing Lists ¤Wªº«½Æ©Ê°ÝÃD
+
+ ¦b mailing lists ¤W°Ñ»P°Q½×¡A´N¹³¦b¨ä¥LªÀ¸s¤@¼Ë¡A§Ú̳£»Ýn¤@¨Ç·¾³q¤Wªº¦@ÃÑ¡C
+ ³\¦h mailing lists ³£·|°²³]°Ñ»P°Q½×ªÌ³£¤jPª¾¹D FreeBSD p¹ºªº¤@¨Ç¾ú¥v²W·½¡C
+ ¤×¨ä¬OªÀ¸sªº·s¤âÁ`¬O©w´Á·|¤£Â_«½Æ°ÝÃþ¦ü°ÝÃD¡C
+ ¨CÓµo¤åªº¤H¡A³£¦³³d¥ô¨ÓÁקK±¼¤J³o¼Ëªº´c©Ê´`Àô½ü°j¤º¡C
+ ¦]¦¹¡AÀ³¾¨¥i¯àÅý mailing list ¤W¯à¥¿±`°Q½×¡A¦ÓÁקKÅý¦Û¤v³´¤Jµ§¾Ôªdªh¡C
+
+ n«ç»òÁקK©O¡H³Ì¦nªº¤èªk´N¬Oµ½¥Î³o¨Ç
+ mailing list «H¸ê®Æ®w(archives) ¡A¨ÓÁA¸Ñ¬ÛÃöI´º¡C
+ ¥¿¥Ñ©ó³oì¦]¡A©Ò¥H
+ mailing list ·j´M¤¶± ´NÅã±o«D±`¦n¥Î¡C
+ (Y³o¤èªk¤´µLªk§ä¨ì¦³¥Îªºµª®×¡A¨º»ò½Ð§ï¥Î¦Û¤v·R¥Îªº·j´M¤ÞÀº§a)
+
+ ³z¹L³o¨Ç«H¸ê®Æ®w¡A¤£¥u¥iÁA¸Ñ¥ý«e°Q½×¹Lþ¨Ç¸ÜÃD¡A¤]¥i¥Hª¾¹D¡G¬O«ç»ò°Q½×ªº¡B
+ þ¨Ç¤H°Ñ»P°Q½×¹L¡B¥Dn¬Ýªº¤H¤S¬Oþ¨Ç¤H¡C
+ ¤J¹ÒÀH«U³o¨Çì«h¤£¥u¬O &os; mailing list ¤W¤~³o¼Ë¡A¤@¼Ë¥i¥H¾A¦X¨ä¥L¦a¤è¡C
+
+ archives ªº¤º®eµLºÃ¦a¬Û·í¼sªx¡A¦Ó¥B·|¦³¨Ç°ÝÃD¤£Â_¤ÏÂÐ¥X²{¡A
+ ¦³®É°Q½×¨ì«á±Á`·|Â÷ÃD¡CµL½×¦p¦ó¡A¦bµo°Ý«eªº¸q°È´N¬O¥ý°µ¦n¥\½Ò¡A
+ ¥HÁקK³oÃþªº¤ë¸g¤å´c©Ê´`Àô¡A¤×¨ä¬O¥O¤H¤Ï·Pªº bikeshed¡]¥´¼L¯¥) ¡C
+
+
+
+ ¤°»ò¬O "Bikeshed" §r¡H
+ ³æ´N¦r±¤W·N«ä¸ÑÄÀªº¸Ü¡Abikeshed ¬O«ü±Mªùµ¹¸}½ñ¨®¡B¾÷¨®¤§Ãþªº¨â½ü¥æ³q¤u¨ã¨Ï¥Îªº¾B«B´×¡A
+ µM¦Ó©O¡A¦b &os; ³oÃ䪺»¡ªk«o¦³¨ä¥L·N«ä(±a¦³¶S§í)«üªº¬O¡G
+ ¬Y¨Ç¯S©w¸ÜÃDªº«½Æ°Q½×¡A¤×¨ä¬O«ü¦b &os; ªÀ¸s¤ºµ´¤£·|¦³¦@ÃÑ¡A¥B¦³ª§Ä³ªº¸ÜÃD¡C
+ (³o¦r·Jªº°_·½¦b
+ ³o¥÷¤å¥ó ¤º¦³§ó¦h»¡©ú)¡C§A¥un¦bµo«H¨ì¥ô¤@ &os; mailing lists ¤§«e¡Aª¾¹D³oÓ°ò¥»·§©À´N¦æ¤F¡C
+
+ ¤@¯ë¨ÓÁ¿¡A¡ybikeshed¡z¬O«Ü®e©ö²£¥Í³\¦hªiªºµ§¾Ô»PÃB¥~°Q½×ªºª§Ä³¸ÜÃD¡A¦pªG¨Æ¥ý¤£ª¾¹D³o¨ÇI´ºªº¸Ü¡C
+
+ «ô°U¡A½ÐÀ°Ó¦£Åý°Q½×¦^Âk¥¿±`¡A¦Ó¤£n¥u¬O¨ì³B¥´¼L¯¥¦Ó¤w¡C·P®¦¡I
+
+
+
+ PÁÂ
+
+
+
+ &a.grog;
+
+
+ How to get best results from the FreeBSD-questions mailing list ¤@¤åªºì§@ªÌ¡A
+ §Ú̱q¥L³o¤å¤ºÀò±o³\¦h mailing list ¤WªºÂ§»ö(©ÎÀq«´)¼g§@ÃD§÷¡C
+
+
+
+
+ &a.linimon;
+
+ ¥» FAQ Âú§Îªºì§@
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/pr-guidelines/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/pr-guidelines/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..9aa329f736
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/pr-guidelines/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+# Article: Problem Report Handling Guidelines
+
+DOC?= article
+
+FORMATS?= html
+WITH_ARTICLE_TOC?= YES
+
+INSTALL_COMPRESSED?=gz
+INSTALL_ONLY_COMPRESSED?=
+
+SRCS= article.sgml
+
+URL_RELPREFIX?= ../../../..
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../..
+
+.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/pr-guidelines/article.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/pr-guidelines/article.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..8df326229e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/pr-guidelines/article.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,881 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%articles.ent;
+
+
+]>
+
+
+
+
+ °ÝÃD¦^³ø(PR)ªº³B²zì«h
+
+ $FreeBSD$
+
+
+ &tm-attrib.freebsd;
+ &tm-attrib.opengroup;
+ &tm-attrib.general;
+
+
+
+ ³o½g¤å³¹¥Dn¦bÁ¿¡G¥Ñ FreeBSD PR ºûÅ@¤p²Õ©Ò´£¥Xªº¤@¨Ç FreeBSD °ÝÃD¦^³ø(PR)
+ «Øij¡A§Æ±æ¤j®a¦b§Ë PR ®É³£¯à¿í¦u¡C
+
+
+
+
+ Dag-Erling
+ Smørgrav
+
+
+
+ Hiten
+ Pandya
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ «e¨¥
+
+ GNATS ¬O FReeBSD p¹º©Ò±Ä¥Îªº¤@®M±MªùºÞ²z¿ù»~(¦^³øbug) ¨t²Î¡C
+ ¥Ñ©ó¹ï FreeBSD «~½è«OÃÒ¦Ó¨¥¡A¬O§_¯à·Ç½T´x´¤¦U¶µ¿ù»~¦^³ø»P¶i«×¬O¤Q¤À«nªº¡A
+ ¦]¦¹¡A¦p¦ó¥¿½T¦³®Ä¨Ï¥Î GNATS ¤]´N¥²¶·ª`·N¡C
+
+ Access to GNATS is available to FreeBSD developers, as well as
+ to the wider community. ¬°¤FÅý GNATS ¸ê®Æ®w¨Ï¥Î¤W¾¨¶q¤@P¡A©ó¬O´N²£¥Í¤F«ç»ò³B²z¹³¬O¡Gfollowup(¦^¤å)¡BÃö³¬PRµ¥ªº°Ñ¦Òì«h¡C
+
+
+
+ °ÝÃD¦^³ø(PR)ªº¥Í©R¶g´Á
+
+
+
+ º¥ý¡A¦^³øªÌ(originator)¥H &man.send-pr.1; °e¥X PR¡AµM«á·|¦¬¨ì¤@«Ê½T»{«H¡C
+
+
+
+ µM«á¡Acommitter Ì´N·|¦³¤H(°²³]¥s°µ Joe)µo±¸¦³¿³½ìªº PR ¨Ã±N¸Ó PR «ü¬£µ¹¦Û¤v¨Ó³B²z¡C
+ ©ÎªÌ bugbuster ·|¦³¤H(°²³]¥s°µ Jane) ´N·|¤U¨M©w¡G¦oı±o Joe ¤ñ¸û¾A¦X³B²z¡A´N±N¸Ó PR «ü¬£(assign)µ¹¥L
+
+
+
+ Joe ·|¥ý»P¦³°ÝÃDªº¦^³øªÌ§@¨Ç·N¨£¥æ¬y(¥H½T©w³o°ÝÃD¦³¶i¤J audit °lÂܬyµ{¤º)
+ ¥H¤Î§PÂ_°ÝÃDÂI¡C
+ µM«á¦A½T©w°ÝÃDÂI¦³¼g¤J audit °lÂܬyµ{¤§«á¡AµM«á§â¸Ó PR ª¬ºA³]¬°
+ analyzed(¤w¤ÀªR)
¡C
+
+
+
+ Joe ¶}©l¹ý©]§ä¥X°ÝÃD¸Ñªk¡AµM«á±N patch °e¨ì follow-up(¦^¤å¥Î)¡A¨Ã½Ð¦^³øªÌ¨ó§U´ú¸Õ¬O§_¥¿±`¡C
+ µM«á¡A¥L´N·|±N PR ª¬ºA³]¬° feedback
Åo¡C
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦¹«½Æ analyzed¡Bfeedback ´X½ë¤§«á¡Aª½¨ì Joe »P¦^³øªÌÂù¤è³£¬Û·íº¡·N patch µ²ªG¡A
+ ©ó¬O´N·|±N patch µ¹ commits ¶i¤J -CURRENT (©ÎªÌY -CURRENT
+ ¤W±¨S³o°ÝÃDªº¸Ü¡A´Nª½±µ°e¨ì -STABLE )¡A¦b commit log ¤ºn§â¬ÛÃö PR ¼g¤W¥h
+ (¦P®É¦^³øªÌY¦³°e§¹¾ã©Î³¡¤À patch ªº¸Ü¡A´N¶¶«K°O¸ü)¡AµM«á¡AY¨S¤°»ò¨Æªº¸Ü¡A´N¶}©l·Ç³Æ MFC ù¡C
+ (Ķµù¡GMFC·N«ü Merged From CURRENT ¡A¤]´N¬O§â -CURRENT ¤WªºªF¦è¨Ö¤J -STABLE ¡C
+
+
+
+ Y¸Ó patch ¤£»Ýn MFC ªº¸Ü¡AJoe ´N·|Ãö±¼(close)¸Ó PR ¤F¡C
+
+
+
+ Y¸Ó patch »Ýn MFC ªº¸Ü¡AJoe ·|§â PR ª¬ºA§ï¬° patched(¤w×¥¿)
¡A
+ ª½¨ì¤w¸g MFC §¹²¦¡A¤~·| close(Ãö±¼)¡C
+
+
+
+
+ «Ü¦h°e¥X¨Óªº PR ³£«Ü¤Öªþ¤W°ÝÃDªº¬ÛÃö°T®§¡A¦Ó¦³¨Ç«h¬O¬Û·í½ÆÂøÃø·d¡A
+ ©Î¥u¬O´£¨ì³¡¤Àªí±°ÝÃD¦Ó¤w¡F
+ ¹J¨ì³oºØ±¡ªp®É¡A¬O«D±`»Ýn±o¨ì©Ò¦³¬ÛÃö°T®§¥H«K¸Ñ¨M°ÝÃD¡C
+ Y¹J¨ì³oºØµL¸Ñªº°ÝÃD©Î¦A¦¸µo¥Íªº¸Ü¡A´N¥²¶·n re-open(«·s¶}±Ò) ¸Ó PR¡A¥H«Ý¸Ñ¨M¡C
+
+
+ PR ¤W©Òªþªº email address
¥i¯à¦]¬Y¨Çì¦]¦ÓµLªk¦¬«H®É¡A¹J¨ì³oºØª¬ªp¡A³q±`´N¬O
+ followup ¸Ó PR ¡A¨Ã(¦b followup ®É)½Ð¦^³øªÌ«·s´£¨Ñ¥i¥¿±`¦¬«Hªº email address¡C
+ ·í¨t²Î¤Wªº mail ¨t²ÎÃö³¬©Î¨S¸Ëªº®ÉÔ¡A³o³q±`¬O¦b¨Ï¥Î &man.send-pr.1; ªº´À¥N¤è®×¡C
+
+
+
+
+ °ÝÃD¦^³ø(PR)ªºª¬ºA
+
+ Y PR ¦³¥ô¦óÅܤƪº¸Ü¡A½Ð°È¥²°O±o§ó·s PR ªº¡yª¬ºA(state)¡z¡C
+ ¡yª¬ºA¡zÀ³¸Ón¯à¥¿½T¤Ï¬M¸Ó PR ªº¥Ø«e¶i«×¤~¬O¡C
+
+
+ ¥H¤U¬O§ó§ï PR ª¬ºAªº¤p¨Ò¤l¡G
+
+ ·í¦³¥i¥H×¥¿°ÝÃDªº PR ¥X²{¡A¦Ó¬ÛÃöt³dªº developer(s)
+ ¤]ı±o³o¼Ëªº×¥¿¥i¥H±µ¨ü¡A¥LÌ·| followup ¸Ó PR¡A¨Ã±N¨äª¬ºA§ï¬°
+ feedback
¡C¦P®É¡A¦^³øªÌÀ³«·sµû¦ô³Ì²×ªº×¥¿µ²ªG¡A¨Ã¦^À³¡G©Ò¦^³øªº¿ù»~¬O§_¤w¦¨¥\×¥¿¡C
+
+
+ ¨C¥÷ PR ³q±`·|¦³¤U±³o´XºØª¬ºA¤§¤@¡G
+
+
+
+ open
+
+ PR ³Ìªìªºª¬ºA¡G³oÓ°ÝÃD³Q´£¥X¨Ó¡A¨Ã¦bµ¥«Ý³B²z¤¤¡C
+
+
+
+
+ analyzed
+
+ ¤w¸g¶}©l³B²z³o°ÝÃD¡A¨Ã¥B¦³§ä¨ìºÃ¦ü¸Ñ¨Mªº¤èªk¡C
+
+
+
+
+ feedback
+
+ »Ýn¦^³øªÌ´£¨Ñ§ó¸Ô²Óªº¬ÛÃö¸ê®Æ¡A¥¿¦p±Ð¾Çn¦]§÷¬I±Ð¡Aªv¯f¤]n¦]¤H¤UÃÄ¡A¶V¦h¬ÛÃö°T®§¡A¤~¯à¦³³Ì¨Î®ÄªG¡C
+
+
+
+
+ patched
+
+ ¤w¸g°e¬ÛÃö patch ¤F¡A¦ý¤´¦]¬Y¨Çì¦](MFC¡A©Î¨Ó¦Û¦^³øªÌªº½T»{µ²ªG²§±`)¦]¦¹©|¥¼§¹²¦¡C
+
+
+
+
+ suspended(¼È½w)
+
+ ¦]¬°¨Sªþ¤W¬ÛÃö°T®§©Î°Ñ¦Ò¸ê®Æ¡A©Ò¥HÁÙ¨S¿ìªk³B²z³o°ÝÃD¡C
+ This is a prime candidate for
+ somebody who is looking for a project to take on. If the
+ problem cannot be solved at all, it will be closed, rather
+ than suspended. The documentation project uses
+ suspended
for wish-list
+ items that entail a significant amount of work which no one
+ currently has time for.
+
+
+
+
+ closed
+
+ A problem report is closed when any changes have been
+ integrated, documented, and tested, or when fixing the
+ problem is abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+
+ The patched
state is directly related to
+ feedback, so you may go directly to closed
state if
+ the originator cannot test the patch, and it works in your own testing.
+
+
+
+
+ °ÝÃD¦^³ø(PR)ªººØÃþ
+
+ While handling problem reports, either as a developer who has
+ direct access to the GNATS database or as a contributor who
+ browses the database and submits followups with patches, comments,
+ suggestions or change requests, you will come across several
+ different types of PRs.
+
+
+
+ PRs not yet assigned to anyone.
+
+
+ PRs already assigned to someone.
+
+
+ «½Æªº PR
+
+
+ Stale PRs
+
+
+ Misfiled PRs
+
+
+
+ The following sections describe what each different type of
+ PRs is used for, when a PR belongs to one of these types, and what
+ treatment each different type receives.
+
+
+ Unassigned PRs
+
+ When PRs arrive, they are initially assigned to a generic
+ (placeholder) assignee. These are always prepended with
+ freebsd- . The exact value for this default
+ depends on the category; in most cases, it corresponds to a
+ specific &os; mailing list. Here is the current list, with
+ the most common ones listed first:
+
+
+ Default Assignees — most common
+
+
+
+ Type
+ Categories
+ Default Assignee
+
+
+
+
+
+ base system
+ bin, conf, gnu, kern, misc
+ freebsd-bugs
+
+
+
+ architecture-specific
+ alpha, i386, ia64, powerpc, sparc64
+ freebsd-arch
+
+
+
+ ports collection
+ ports
+ freebsd-ports-bugs
+
+
+
+ documentation shipped with the system
+ docs
+ freebsd-doc
+
+
+
+ &os; web pages (not including docs)
+ www
+ freebsd-www
+
+
+
+
+
+ Default Assignees — other
+
+
+
+ Type
+ Categories
+ Default Assignee
+
+
+
+
+
+ advocacy efforts
+ advocacy
+ freebsd-advocacy
+
+
+
+ &java.virtual.machine; problems
+ java
+ freebsd-java
+
+
+
+ standards compliance
+ standards
+ freebsd-standards
+
+
+
+ threading libraries
+ threads
+ freebsd-threads
+
+
+
+ &man.usb.4; subsystem
+ usb
+ freebsd-usb
+
+
+
+
+ Do not be surprised to find that the submitter of the
+ PR has assigned it to the wrong category. If you fix the
+ category, do not forget to fix the assignment as well.
+ (In particular, our submitters seem to have a hard time
+ understanding that just because their problem manifested
+ on an i386 system, that it might be generic to all of &os;,
+ and thus be more appropriate for kern .
+ The converse is also true, of course.)
+
+ Certain PRs may be reassigned away from these generic
+ assignees by anyone. For assignees which are mailing lists,
+ please use the long form when making the assignment (e.g.,
+ freebsd-foo instead of foo );
+ this will avoid duplicate emails sent to the mailing list.
+
+
+ Here is a sample list of such entities; it is probably
+ not complete. In some cases, entries that have the short form are
+ aliases , not mailing lists.
+
+
+
+ Common Assignees — base system
+
+
+
+ Type
+ Suggested Category
+ Suggested Assignee
+
+
+
+
+
+ problem specific to the &arm; architecture
+ kern
+ freebsd-arm
+
+
+
+ problem specific to the &mips; architecture
+ kern
+ freebsd-mips
+
+
+
+ problem specific to the &powerpc; architecture
+ kern
+ freebsd-ppc
+
+
+
+ problem with Advanced Configuration and Power
+ Management (&man.acpi.4;)
+ kern
+ freebsd-acpi
+
+
+
+ problem with Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
+ drivers
+ kern
+ freebsd-atm
+
+
+
+ problem with &firewire; drivers
+ kern
+ freebsd-firewire
+
+
+
+ problem with the filesystem code
+ kern
+ freebsd-fs
+
+
+
+ problem with the &man.geom.4; subsystem
+ kern
+ freebsd-geom
+
+
+
+ problem with the &man.ipfw.4; subsystem
+ kern
+ freebsd-ipfw
+
+
+
+ problem with Integrated Services Digital Network
+ (ISDN) drivers
+ kern
+ freebsd-isdn
+
+
+
+ problem with &linux; or SVR4 emulation
+ kern
+ freebsd-emulation
+
+
+
+ problem with the networking stack
+ kern
+ freebsd-net
+
+
+
+ problem with PicoBSD
+ kern
+ freebsd-small
+
+
+
+ problem with the &man.pf.4; subsystem
+ kern
+ freebsd-pf
+
+
+
+ problem with the &man.scsi.4; subsystem
+ kern
+ freebsd-scsi
+
+
+
+ problem with the &man.sound.4; subsystem
+ kern
+ freebsd-multimedia
+
+
+
+ problem with &man.sysinstall.8;
+ bin
+ freebsd-qa
+
+
+
+ problem with the system startup scripts
+ (&man.rc.8;)
+ kern
+ freebsd-rc
+
+
+
+
+
+ Common Assignees — Ports Collection
+
+
+
+ Type
+ Suggested Category
+ Suggested Assignee
+
+
+
+
+
+ problem with the ports framework
+ (not with an individual port!)
+ ports
+ portmgr
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by apache@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ apache
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by eclipse@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ freebsd-eclipse
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by gnome@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ gnome
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by haskell@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ haskell
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by java@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ freebsd-java
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by kde@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ kde
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by
+ openoffice@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ freebsd-openoffice
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by perl@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ perl
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by python@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ freebsd-python
+
+
+
+ port which is maintained by x11@FreeBSD.org
+ ports
+ freebsd-x11
+
+
+
+
+ Ports PRs which have a maintainer who is a ports committer
+ may be reassigned by anyone (but note that not every &os;
+ committer is necessarily a ports committer, so you cannot
+ simply go by the email address alone.)
+
+
+ For other PRs, please do not reassign them to individuals
+ (other than yourself) unless you are certain that the assignee
+ really wants to track the PR. This will help to avoid the
+ case where no one looks at fixing a particular problem
+ because everyone assumes that the assignee is already working
+ on it.
+
+
+
+
+ Assigned PRs
+
+ If a PR has the responsible field set
+ to the username of a FreeBSD developer, it means that the PR
+ has been handed over to that particular person for further
+ work.
+
+ Assigned PRs should not be touched by anyone but the
+ assignee. If you have comments, submit a followup. If for
+ some reason you think the PR should change state or be
+ reassigned, send a message to the assignee. If the assignee
+ does not respond within two weeks, unassign the PR and do as
+ you please.
+
+
+
+ «½Æªº PR
+
+ If you find more than one PR that describe the same issue,
+ choose the one that contains the largest amount of useful
+ information and close the others, stating clearly the number
+ of the superseding PR. If several PRs contain non-overlapping
+ useful information, submit all the missing information to one
+ in a followup, including references to the others; then close
+ the other PRs (which are now completely superseded).
+
+
+
+ Stale PRs
+
+ A PR is considered stale if it has not been modified in more
+ than six months. Apply the following procedure to deal with
+ stale PRs:
+
+
+
+ If the PR contains sufficient detail, try to reproduce
+ the problem in -CURRENT and
+ -STABLE . If you succeed, submit a
+ followup detailing your findings and try to find someone
+ to assign it to. Set the state to analyzed
+ if appropriate.
+
+
+
+ If the PR describes an issue which you know is the
+ result of a usage error (incorrect configuration or
+ otherwise), submit a followup explaining what the
+ originator did wrong, then close the PR with the reason
+ User error
or Configuration
+ error
.
+
+
+
+ If the PR describes an error which you know has been
+ corrected in both -CURRENT and
+ -STABLE , close it with a message
+ stating when it was fixed in each branch.
+
+
+
+ If the PR describes an error which you know has been
+ corrected in -CURRENT , but not in
+ -STABLE , try to find out when the person
+ who corrected it is planning to MFC it, or try to find
+ someone else (maybe yourself?) to do it. Set the state to
+ feedback
and assign it to whomever will do
+ the MFC.
+
+
+
+ In other cases, ask the originator to confirm if
+ the problem still exists in newer versions. If the
+ originator does not reply within a month, close the PR
+ with the notation Feedback timeout
.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Misfiled PRs
+
+ GNATS is picky about the format of a submitted bug report.
+ This is why a lot of PRs end up being misfiled
if
+ the submitter forgets to fill in a field or puts the wrong sort of
+ data in some of the PR fields. This section aims to provide most
+ of the necessary details for FreeBSD developers that can help them to
+ close or refile these PRs.
+
+ When GNATS cannot deduce what to do with a problem report
+ that reaches the database, it sets the responsible of the PR to
+ gnats-admin and files it under the
+ pending category. This is now a
+ misfiled
PR and will not appear in bug report
+ listings, unless someone explicitly asks for a list of all the
+ misfiled PRs. If you have access to the FreeBSD cluster
+ machines, you can use query-pr to view a
+ listing of PRs that have been misfiled:
+
+ &prompt.user; query-pr -x -q -r gnats-admin
+ 52458 gnats-ad open serious medium Re: declaration clash f
+ 52510 gnats-ad open serious medium Re: lots of sockets in
+ 52557 gnats-ad open serious medium
+ 52570 gnats-ad open serious medium Jigdo maintainer update
+
+ Commonly PRs like the ones shown above are misfiled for one
+ of the following reasons:
+
+
+
+ A followup to an existing PR, sent through email, has
+ the wrong format on its Subject:
+ header.
+
+
+
+ A submitter sent a Cc: to a mailing list and someone
+ followed up to that post instead of the email issued by
+ GNATS after processing. The email to the list will not
+ have the category/PRnumber tracking tag. (This is why we
+ discourage submitters from doing this exact thing.)
+
+
+
+ When completing the &man.send-pr.1; template, the submitter
+ forgot to set the category or class of the PR to a proper
+ value.
+
+
+
+ When completing the &man.send-pr.1; template, the submitter
+ set Confidential to yes . (Since we allow
+ anyone to mirror GNATS via cvsup ,
+ our PRs are public information. Security alerts should
+ therefore not be sent via GNATS but instead via email to
+ the Security Team.)
+
+
+
+ It is not a real PR, but some random message sent to
+ bug-followup@FreeBSD.org or
+ freebsd-gnats-submit@FreeBSD.org .
+
+
+
+
+ Followups misfiled as new PRs
+
+ The first category of misfiled PRs, the one with the wrong
+ subject header, is actually the one that requires the greatest
+ amount of work from developers. These are not real PRs,
+ describing separate problem reports. When a reply is received
+ for an existing PR at one of the addresses that GNATS
+ listens
to for incoming messages, the subject
+ of the reply should always be of the form:
+
+ Subject: Re: category/number: old synopsis text
+
+ Most mailers will add the
+ Re:
part when you
+ reply to the original mail message of a PR. The
+ category/number:
part
+ is a GNATS-specific convention that you have to manually
+ insert to the subject of your followup reports.
+
+ Any FreeBSD developer, who has direct access to the GNATS
+ database, can periodically check for PRs of this sort and move
+ interesting bits of the misfiled PR into the audit trail of
+ the original PR (by posting a proper followup to a bug report
+ to the address &a.bugfollowup;). Then
+ the misfiled PR can be closed with a message similar
+ to:
+
+ Your problem report was misfiled. Please use the format
+"Subject: category/number: original text" when following
+up to older, existing PRs. I've added the relevant bits
+from the body of this PR to kern/12345
+
+ Searching with query-pr for the
+ original PR, of which a misfiled followup is a reply, is as
+ easy as running:
+
+ &prompt.user; query-pr -q -y "some text"
+
+ After you locate the original PR and the misfiled
+ followups, use the -F option of
+ query-pr to save the full text of all the
+ relevant PRs in a &unix; mailbox file, i.e.:
+
+ &prompt.user; query-pr -F 52458 52474 > mbox
+
+ Now you can use any mail user agent to view all the PRs
+ you saved in mbox . Copy the text of all
+ the misfiled PRs in a followup to the original PR and make
+ sure you include the proper Subject:
+ header. Then close the misfiled PRs. When you close the misfiled
+ PRs remember that the submitter receives a mail notification that
+ his PR changed state to closed
. Make sure you
+ provide enough details in the log about the reason of this state
+ change. Typically something like the following is ok:
+
+ Followup to ports/45364 misfiled as a new PR.
+This was misfiled because the subject did not have the format:
+
+ Re: ports/45364: ...
+
+ This way the submitter of the misfiled PR will know what to
+ avoid the next time a followup to an existing PR is sent.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Misfiled PRs that are not really problem reports
+
+ Sometimes a user wants to submit a report for a problem
+ and sends a simple email message to GNATS. The GNATS scripts
+ will recognize bug reports that are formatted using the
+ &man.send-pr.1; template. They cannot parse any sort of email
+ though. This is why submissions of bug reports that are sent
+ to freebsd-gnats-submit@FreeBSD.org have to
+ follow the template of send-pr , but email
+ reports can be sent to &a.bugs;.
+
+ Developers that come across PRs that look like they should have
+ been posted to &a.bugs.name; or some other list should close the
+ PR, informing the submitter in their state-change log why this
+ is not really a PR and where the message should be posted.
+
+ The email addresses that GNATS listens to for incoming PRs
+ have been published as part of the FreeBSD documentation, have
+ been announced and listed on the web-site. This means that
+ spammers found them. Spam messages
+ that reach GNATS are promptly filed
+ under the pending
category until someone looks
+ at them. Closing one of these with &man.edit-pr.1; is very
+ annoying though, because GNATS replies to the submitter and
+ the sender's address of spam mail is never valid these days.
+ Bounces will come back for each PR that is closed.
+
+ Currently, with the installation of some antispam filters
+ that check all submissions to the GNATS database, the amount
+ of spam that reaches the pending
state is very
+ small.
+
+ All developers who have access to the FreeBSD.org cluster
+ machines are encouraged to check for misfiled PRs and immediately
+ close those that are spam mail. Whenever you close one of
+ these PRs, please do the following:
+
+
+
+ Set Category to junk .
+
+
+
+ Set Confidential to no .
+
+
+
+ Set Responsible to yourself (and not, e.g.,
+ freebsd-bugs , which merely
+ sends more mail).
+
+
+
+ Set State to closed .
+
+
+
+ Junk PRs are not
+ backed up, so filing spam mail under this category makes it
+ obvious that we do not care to keep it around or waste disk
+ space for it. If you merely close them without changing the
+ category, they remain both in the master database and in
+ any copies of the database mirrored through
+ cvsup .
+
+
+
+
+
+ ©µ¦ù¾\Ū
+
+ ¤U±³o¬O¦b¼g¡B³B²z PR ®É¡A¥i¥H°Ñ¦Òªº¸ê®Æ¡C·íµM«Ü©úÅã¡A³o¥÷²M³æ¤´¶·¸É¥R¡C
+
+
+
+ How to
+ Write FreeBSD Problem Reports —µ¹ PR ¦^³øªÌ¥Îªº°Ñ¦Òì«h¡C
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/problem-reports/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/problem-reports/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..081f20e0f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/problem-reports/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+# Article: Writing FreeBSD Problem Reports
+
+DOC?= article
+
+FORMATS?= html
+WITH_ARTICLE_TOC?= YES
+
+INSTALL_COMPRESSED?=gz
+INSTALL_ONLY_COMPRESSED?=
+
+SRCS= article.sgml
+
+URL_RELPREFIX?= ../../../..
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../..
+
+.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/articles/problem-reports/article.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/problem-reports/article.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..03affef18e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/articles/problem-reports/article.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,1113 @@
+
+%articles.ent;
+]>
+
+
+
+ Writing &os; Problem Reports
+
+ $FreeBSD$
+
+
+ &tm-attrib.freebsd;
+ &tm-attrib.cvsup;
+ &tm-attrib.ibm;
+ &tm-attrib.intel;
+ &tm-attrib.sparc;
+ &tm-attrib.sun;
+ &tm-attrib.general;
+
+
+
+ This article describes how to best formulate and submit a
+ problem report to the &os; Project.
+
+
+
+
+ Dag-Erling
+ Smørgrav
+ Contributed by
+
+
+
+ Mark
+ Linimon
+
+
+
+
+ problem reports
+
+
+ Introduction
+
+ One of the most frustrating experiences one can have as a
+ software user is to submit a problem report only to have it
+ summarily closed with a terse and unhelpful explanation like
+ not a bug
or bogus PR
. Similarly,
+ one of the most frustrating experiences as a software developer
+ is to be flooded with problem reports that are not really
+ problem reports but requests for support, or that contain little
+ or no information about what the problem is and how to reproduce
+ it.
+
+ This document attempts to describe how to write good problem
+ reports. What, you ask, is a good problem report? Well, to go
+ straight to the bottom line, a good problem report is one that
+ can be analyzed and dealt with swiftly, to the mutual
+ satisfaction of both user and developer.
+
+ Although the primary focus of this article is on &os;
+ problem reports, most of it should apply quite well to other
+ software projects.
+
+ Note that this article is organized thematically, not
+ chronologically, so you should read through the entire document
+ before submitting a problem report, rather than treat it as a
+ step-by-step tutorial.
+
+
+
+ When to submit a problem report
+
+ There are many types of problems, and not all of them should
+ engender a problem report. Of course, nobody is perfect, and
+ there will be times when you are convinced you have found a bug
+ in a program when in fact you have misunderstood the syntax for
+ a command or made a typographical error in a configuration file
+ (though that in
+ itself may sometimes be indicative of poor documentation or poor
+ error handling in the application). There are still many cases
+ where submitting a problem report is clearly
+ not the right
+ course of action, and will only serve to frustrate you and the
+ developers. Conversely, there are cases where it might be
+ appropriate to submit a problem report about something else than
+ a bug—an enhancement or a feature request, for
+ instance.
+
+ So how do you determine what is a bug and what is not? As a
+ simple rule of thumb your problem is not a
+ bug if it can be expressed as a question (usually of the form
+ How do I do X?
or Where can I find
+ Y?
). It is not always quite so black and white, but the
+ question rule covers a large majority of cases. If you are looking
+ for an answer, consider posing your question to the
+ &a.questions;.
+
+ Some cases where it may be appropriate to submit a problem
+ report about something that is not a bug are:
+
+
+
+ Requests for feature enhancements. It is generally a
+ good idea to air these on the mailing lists before
+ submitting a problem report.
+
+
+
+ Notification of updates to externally maintained
+ software (mainly ports, but also externally maintained base
+ system components such as BIND or various GNU
+ utilities).
+
+ For unmaintained ports (MAINTAINER contains
+ ports@FreeBSD.org ), such update notifications
+ might get picked up by an interested
+ committer, or you might be asked to provide a patch to update
+ the port; providing it upfront will greatly improve your chances
+ that the port will get updated in a timely manner.
+
+ If the port is maintained, PRs announcing new upstream releases
+ are usually not very useful since they generate supplementary work
+ for the committers, and the maintainer likely knows already there is
+ a new version, they have probably worked with the developers on it,
+ they are probably testing to see there is no regression, etc.
+
+ In either case, following the process described in Porter's
+ Handbook will yield the best results.
+
+
+
+ A bug that can not be reproduced can rarely be
+ fixed. If the bug only occurred once and you can not reproduce
+ it, and it does not seem to happen to anybody else, chances are
+ none of the developers will be able to reproduce it or figure
+ out what is wrong. That does not mean it did not happen, but it
+ does mean that the chances of your problem report ever leading
+ to a bug fix are very slim. To make matters worse, often
+ these kinds of bugs are actually caused by failing hard drives
+ or overheating processors — you should always try to rule
+ out these causes, whenever possible, before submitting a PR.
+
+ Next, to decide to whom you should file your problem
+ report, you need to understand that the software that makes
+ up &os; is composed of several different elements:
+
+
+
+ Code in the base system that is written and maintained
+ by &os; contributors, such as the kernel, the C library,
+ and the device drivers (categorized as kern );
+ the binary utilities (bin ); the manual
+ pages and documentation (docs ); and
+ the web pages (www ). All bugs in
+ these areas should be reported to the &os; developers.
+
+
+
+ Code in the base system that is written and maintained
+ by others, and imported into &os; and adapted. Examples
+ include bind , &man.gcc.1;, and
+ &man.sendmail.8;. Most bugs in these areas should be reported
+ to the &os; developers; but in some cases they may need to be
+ reported to the original authors instead if the problems are
+ not &os;-specific. Usually these bugs will fall under either
+ the bin or gnu
+ categories.
+
+
+
+ Individual applications that are not in the base system
+ but are instead part of the &os; Ports Collection (category
+ ports ). Most of these applications are
+ not written by &os; developers; what &os; provides is merely
+ a framework for installing the application. Therefore, you
+ should only report a problem to the &os; developers when you
+ believe the problem is &os;-specific; otherwise, you should
+ report it to the authors of the software.
+
+
+
+
+ Then you should ascertain whether or not the problem is
+ timely. There are few things
+ that will annoy a developer more than receiving a problem report
+ about a bug she has already fixed.
+
+ If the problem is in the base system, you should first read
+ the FAQ section on
+
+ &os; versions , if you are not already familiar with
+ the topic. It is not possible for &os; to fix problems in
+ anything other than certain recent branches of the base system,
+ so filing a bug report about an older version will probably
+ only result in a developer advising you to upgrade to a
+ supported version to see if the problem still recurs. The
+ Security Officer team maintains the
+ list of supported
+ versions .
+
+ If the problem is in a port, note that you must first
+ upgrade to the latest version of the Ports Collection and see
+ if the problem still applies. Due to the rapid pace of changes
+ in these applications, it is infeasible for &os; to support
+ anything other than the absolute latest versions, and problems
+ with older version of applications simply cannot be fixed.
+
+
+
+ Preparations
+
+ A good rule to follow is to always do a background search
+ before submitting a problem report. Maybe your problem has
+ already been reported; maybe it is being discussed on the
+ mailing lists, or recently was; it may even already be fixed in
+ a newer version than what you are running. You should therefore
+ check all the obvious places before submitting your problem
+ report. For &os;, this means:
+
+
+
+ The &os;
+ Frequently Asked
+ Questions (FAQ) list.
+ The FAQ attempts to provide answers for a wide range of questions,
+ such as those concerning
+ hardware
+ compatibility ,
+ user
+ applications ,
+ and kernel
+ configuration .
+
+
+
+ The
+ mailing
+ lists —if you are not subscribed, use
+ the
+ searchable archives on the &os; web site. If your
+ problem has not been discussed on the lists, you might try
+ posting a message about it and waiting a few days to see if
+ someone can spot something you have overlooked.
+
+
+
+ Optionally, the entire web—use your favorite
+ search engine to locate any references to your problem. You
+ may even get hits from archived mailing lists or newsgroups
+ you did not know of or had not thought to search
+ through.
+
+
+
+ Next, the searchable
+
+ &os; PR database (GNATS). Unless your problem
+ is recent or obscure, there is a fair chance it has already
+ been reported.
+
+
+
+ Most importantly, you should attempt to see if existing
+ documentation in the source base addresses your problem.
+
+ For the base &os; code, you should
+ carefully study the contents of the
+ /usr/src/UPDATING file on your system
+ or its latest version at
+ .
+ (This is vital information
+ if you are upgrading from one version to
+ another—especially if you are upgrading to the
+ &os.current; branch).
+
+ However, if the problem is in something that was installed
+ as a part of the &os; Ports Collection, you should refer to
+ /usr/ports/UPDATING (for individual ports)
+ or /usr/ports/CHANGES (for changes
+ that affect the entire Ports Collection).
+
+ and
+
+ are also available via CVSweb.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Writing the problem report
+
+ Now that you have decided that your issue merits a problem
+ report, and that it is a &os; problem, it is time to write
+ the actual problem report. Before we get into the mechanics
+ of the program used to generate and submit PRs, here are some
+ tips and tricks to help make sure that your PR will be most
+ effective.
+
+
+ Tips and tricks for writing a good problem report
+
+
+
+ Do not leave the Synopsis
+ line empty. The PRs go both onto a mailing list
+ that goes all over the world (where the Synopsis
+ is used
+ for the Subject: line), but also into a
+ database. Anyone who comes along later and browses the
+ database by synopsis, and finds a PR with a blank subject
+ line, tends just to skip over it. Remember that PRs stay
+ in this database until they are closed by someone; an
+ anonymous one will usually just disappear in the
+ noise.
+
+
+
+ Avoid using a weak Synopsis
+ line. You should not assume that anyone reading
+ your PR has any context for your submission, so the more
+ you provide, the better. For instance, what part of the
+ system does the problem apply to? Do you only see the
+ problem while installing, or while running? To
+ illustrate, instead of Synopsis: portupgrade is
+ broken , see how much more informative this
+ seems: Synopsis: port sysutils/portupgrade
+ coredumps on -current . (In the case of ports,
+ it is especially helpful to have both the category and
+ portname in the Synopsis
line.)
+
+
+
+ If you have a patch, say so.
+ A PR with a patch included is much more likely to be
+ looked at than one without. If you are including one,
+ put the string [patch] at the
+ beginning of the Synopsis
. (Although it is
+ not mandatory to use that exact string, by convention,
+ that is the one that is used.)
+
+
+
+ If you are a maintainer, say so.
+ If you are maintaining a part of the source code (for
+ instance, a port), you might consider adding the string
+ [maintainer update] at the beginning of
+ your synopsis line, and you definitely should set the
+ Class
of
+ your PR to maintainer-update . This way
+ any committer that handles your PR will not have to check.
+
+
+
+ Be specific.
+ The more information you supply about what problem you
+ are having, the better your chance of getting a response.
+
+
+
+ Include the version of &os; you are running (there
+ is a place to put that, see below) and on which architecture.
+ You should include whether you are running from a release
+ (e.g. from a CDROM or download), or from
+ a system maintained by &man.cvsup.1; (and, if so, how
+ recently you updated). If you are tracking the
+ &os.current; branch, that is the very first thing someone
+ will ask, because fixes (especially for high-profile
+ problems) tend to get committed very quickly, and
+ &os.current; users are expected to keep up.
+
+
+
+ Include which global options you have specified in
+ your make.conf . Note: specifying
+ -O2 and above to &man.gcc.1; is
+ known to be buggy in many situations. While the
+ &os; developers will accept patches, they are
+ generally unwilling to investigate such issues due
+ to simple lack of time and volunteers, and may
+ instead respond that this just is not supported.
+
+
+
+ If this is a kernel problem, then be prepared to
+ supply the following information. (You do not
+ have to include these by default, which only tends to
+ fill up the database, but you should include excerpts
+ that you think might be relevant):
+
+
+
+ your kernel configuration (including which
+ hardware devices you have installed)
+
+
+ whether or not you have debugging options enabled
+ (such as WITNESS ), and if so,
+ whether the problem persists when you change the
+ sense of that option
+
+
+ a backtrace, if one was generated
+
+
+ the fact that you have read
+ src/UPDATING and that your problem
+ is not listed there (someone is guaranteed to ask)
+
+
+ whether or not you can run any other kernel as
+ a fallback (this is to rule out hardware-related
+ issues such as failing disks and overheating CPUs,
+ which can masquerade as kernel problems)
+
+
+
+
+
+ If this is a ports problem, then be prepared to
+ supply the following information. (You do not
+ have to include these by default, which only tends to
+ fill up the database, but you should include excerpts
+ that you think might be relevant):
+
+
+
+ which ports you have installed
+
+
+ any environment variables that override the
+ defaults in bsd.port.mk , such
+ as PORTSDIR
+
+
+ the fact that you have read
+ ports/UPDATING and that your problem
+ is not listed there (someone is guaranteed to ask)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Avoid vague requests for features.
+ PRs of the form someone should really implement something
+ that does so-and-so
are less likely to get results than
+ very specific requests. Remember, the source is available
+ to everyone, so if you want a feature, the best way to
+ ensure it being included is to get to work! Also consider
+ the fact that many things like this would make a better
+ topic for discussion on freebsd-questions
+ than an entry in the PR database, as discussed above.
+
+
+
+ Make sure no one else has already submitted
+ a similar PR. Although this has already been
+ mentioned above, it bears repeating here. It only take a
+ minute or two to use the web-based search engine at
+ .
+ (Of course, everyone is guilty of forgetting to do this
+ now and then.)
+
+
+ Avoid controversial requests.
+ If your PR addresses an area that has been controversial
+ in the past, you should probably be prepared to not only
+ offer patches, but also justification for why the patches
+ are The Right Thing To Do
. As noted above,
+ a careful search of the mailing lists using the archives
+ at
+ is always good preparation.
+
+
+
+ Be polite.
+ Almost anyone who would potentially work on your PR is a
+ volunteer. No one likes to be told that they have to do
+ something when they are already doing it for some
+ motivation other than monetary gain. This is a good thing
+ to keep in mind at all times on Open Source
+ projects.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Before you begin
+
+ If you are using the &man.send-pr.1; program, make sure your
+ VISUAL (or EDITOR if
+ VISUAL is not set) environment variable is set
+ to something sensible.
+
+ You should also make sure that mail delivery works fine.
+ &man.send-pr.1; uses mail messages for the submission and
+ tracking of problem reports. If you cannot post mail messages
+ from the machine you are running &man.send-pr.1; on, your
+ problem report will not reach the GNATS database. For details
+ on the setup of mail on &os;, see the Electronic
+ Mail
chapter of the &os; Handbook at
+ .
+
+ Make sure that your mailer will not mangle the message on
+ its way to GNATS. In particular, if your mailer automatically
+ breaks lines, changes tabs to spaces, or escapes newline
+ characters, any patch that you submit will be rendered
+ unusable. For the text sections, however, we request that
+ you insert manual linebreaks somewhere around 70 characters,
+ so that the web display of the PR will be readable.
+
+ Similar considerations apply if you are using the web-based
+ PR submittal form instead of &man.send-pr.1;. Note that
+ cut-and-paste operations can have their own side-effects on
+ text formatting. In certain cases it may be necessary to use
+ &man.uuencode.1; to ensure that patches arrive unmodified.
+
+ Finally, if your submission will be lengthy, you should
+ to prepare your work offline so that nothing will be lost in
+ case there is a problem submitting it. This can be an especial
+ problem with the web form.
+
+
+
+ Attaching patches or files
+
+ The following applies to submitting PRs via email:
+
+ The &man.send-pr.1; program has provisions for attaching
+ files to a problem report. You can attach as many files as
+ you want provided that each has a unique base name (i.e. the
+ name of the file proper, without the path). Just use the
+ -a command-line option to specify the names
+ of the files you wish to attach:
+
+&prompt.user; send-pr -a /var/run/dmesg -a /tmp/errors
+
+ Do not worry about binary files, they will be automatically
+ encoded so as not to upset your mail agent.
+
+ If you attach a patch, make sure you use the
+ -c or -u option to
+ &man.diff.1; to create a context or unified diff (unified is
+ preferred), and make
+ sure to specify the exact CVS revision numbers of the files
+ you modified so the developers who read your report will be
+ able to apply them easily. For problems with the kernel or the
+ base utilities, a patch against &os.current; (the HEAD
+ CVS branch) is preferred since all new code should be applied
+ and tested there first. After appropriate or substantial testing
+ has been done, the code will be merged/migrated to the &os.stable;
+ branch.
+
+ If you attach a patch inline, instead of as an attachment,
+ note that the most common problem by far is the tendency of some
+ email programs to render tabs as spaces, which will completely
+ ruin anything intended to be part of a Makefile.
+
+ Do not send patches as attachments using
+ Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable .
+ These will perform character escaping and the entire patch
+ will be useless.
+
+ Also note that while including small patches in a PR is
+ generally all right—particularly when they fix the problem
+ described in the PR—large patches and especially new code
+ which may require substantial review before committing should
+ be placed on a web or ftp server, and the URL should be
+ included in the PR instead of the patch. Patches in email
+ tend to get mangled, especially when GNATS is involved, and
+ the larger the patch, the harder it will be for interested
+ parties to unmangle it. Also, posting a patch on the web
+ allows you to modify it without having to resubmit the entire
+ patch in a followup to the original PR. Finally, large
+ patches simply increase the size of the database, since
+ closed PRs are not actually deleted but instead kept and
+ simply marked as closed .
+
+ You should also take note that unless you explicitly
+ specify otherwise in your PR or in the patch itself, any
+ patches you submit will be assumed to be licensed under the
+ same terms as the original file you modified.
+
+
+
+ Filling out the template
+
+ The next section applies to the email method only:
+
+ When you run &man.send-pr.1;, you are presented with a
+ template. The template consists of a list of fields, some of
+ which are pre-filled, and some of which have comments explaining
+ their purpose or listing acceptable values. Do not worry
+ about the comments; they will be removed automatically if you
+ do not modify them or remove them yourself.
+
+ At the top of the template, below the
+ SEND-PR: lines, are the email headers. You
+ do not normally need to modify these, unless you are sending
+ the problem report from a machine or account that can send but
+ not receive mail, in which case you will want to set the
+ From: and Reply-To: to
+ your real email address. You may also want to send yourself
+ (or someone else) a carbon copy of the problem report by
+ adding one or more email addresses to the
+ Cc: header.
+
+ In the email template you will find the following two
+ single-line fields:
+
+
+
+ Submitter-Id: Do not change this.
+ The default value of current-users is
+ correct, even if you run &os.stable;.
+
+
+
+ Confidential: This is prefilled
+ to no . Changing it makes no sense as
+ there is no such thing as a confidential &os; problem
+ report—the PR database is distributed worldwide by
+ CVSup .
+
+
+
+
+ The next section describes fields that are common to both
+ the email interface and the web interface:
+
+
+
+
+ Originator:
+ Please specify your real name, optionally followed
+ by your email address in angle brackets.
+ In the email interface, this is normally
+ prefilled with the gecos field of the
+ currently logged-in
+ user.
+
+
+ The email address you use will become public information
+ and may become available to spammers. You should either
+ have spam handling procedures in place, or use a temporary
+ email account. However, please note that if you do not
+ use a valid email account at all, we will not be able to
+ ask you questions about your PR.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Organization: Whatever you feel
+ like. This field is not used for anything
+ significant.
+
+
+
+ Synopsis: Fill this out with a
+ short and accurate description of the problem. The
+ synopsis is used as the subject of the problem report
+ email, and is used in problem report listings and
+ summaries; problem reports with obscure synopses tend to
+ get ignored.
+
+ As noted above, if your problem report includes a patch,
+ please have the synopsis start with [patch] ;
+ if this is a ports PR and you are the
+ maintainer, you may consider adding
+ [maintainer update] and set the
+ Class
of your PR to
+ maintainer-update .
+
+
+
+ Severity: One of
+ non-critical ,
+ serious or
+ critical . Do not overreact; refrain
+ from labeling your problem critical
+ unless it really is (e.g. data corruption issues, serious
+ regression from previous functionality in -CURRENT)
+ or serious unless
+ it is something that will affect many users (kernel
+ panics or freezes; problems with
+ particular device drivers or system utilities). &os;
+ developers will not necessarily work on your problem faster
+ if you inflate its importance since there are so many other
+ people who have done exactly that — in fact, some
+ developers pay little attention to this field
+ because of this.
+
+
+ Major security problems should not
+ be filed in GNATS, because all GNATS information is public
+ knowledge. Please send such problems in private email to
+ &a.security-officer;.
+
+
+
+
+ Priority: One of
+ low , medium or
+ high . high should
+ be reserved for problems that will affect practically
+ every user of &os; and medium for
+ something that will affect many users.
+
+
+ This field has become so widely abused that it is
+ almost completely meaningless.
+
+
+
+
+ Category: Choose an appropriate
+ category.
+
+
+ There are a number of "platform" categories into which
+ bugs in the base system that are specific to one particular
+ hardware architecture should be filed. Problems that are
+ generic all across versions of &os; should probably be
+ filed as kern or bin ;
+ see discussion of those categories below.
+
+ Example: you have a common PC-based machine, and think
+ you have encountered a problem specific to a particular
+ chipset or a particular motherboard: i386
+ is the right category.
+
+ Example: You are having a problem with an add-in
+ peripheral card on a commonly seen bus, or a problem with
+ a particular type of hard disk drive: in this case, it
+ probably applies to more than one architecture, and
+ kern is the right category.
+
+
+ Here is the current list of categories (taken from
+ ):
+
+
+
+ advocacy: problems relating to
+ &os;'s public image. Rarely used.
+
+
+
+ alpha: problems specific to the
+ Alpha platform.
+
+
+
+ amd64: problems specific to the
+ AMD64 platform.
+
+
+
+ bin: problems with userland
+ programs in the base system. If running &man.whereis.1;
+ shows /bin , /usr/sbin ,
+ or something similar, then this is probably the right
+ category. (A few contributed programs might instead
+ need to be in gnu ; see below.)
+
+
+
+ conf: problems with
+ configuration files, default values, and so forth.
+ Things that affect /usr/share
+ or /etc/rc* belong here.
+
+
+
+ docs: problems with manual pages
+ or on-line documentation.
+
+
+
+ gnu: problems with imported GNU software
+ such as &man.gcc.1; or &man.grep.1;.
+
+
+
+ i386: problems specific to the
+ &i386; platform.
+
+
+
+ ia64: problems specific to the
+ ia64 platform.
+
+
+
+ java: problems related to the &java;
+ Virtual Machine. (Ports that merely depend on &java; to
+ run should be filed under ports .)
+
+
+
+
+ kern: problems with
+ the kernel, (non-platform-specific) device drivers,
+ or the base libraries.
+
+
+
+ misc: anything that does not fit
+ in any of the other categories. (Note that there is
+ almost nothing that truly belongs in this category,
+ except for problems with the release and build
+ infrastructure. Temporary build failures on
+ HEAD do not belong here. Also note
+ that it is
+ easy for things to get lost in this category).
+
+
+
+ ports: problems relating to the
+ ports tree.
+
+
+
+ powerpc: problems specific to the
+ &powerpc; platform.
+
+
+
+ sparc64: problems specific to the
+ &sparc64; platform.
+
+
+
+ standards: Standards conformance
+ issues.
+
+
+
+ threads: problems related to the
+ &os; threads implementation (especially on &os.current;).
+
+
+
+ usb: problems related to the
+ &os; USB implementation.
+
+
+
+ www: Changes or enhancements to
+ the &os; website.
+ Problems with code found in /usr/ports/www
+ do not belong here, they belong in
+ ports instead.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Class: Choose one of the
+ following:
+
+
+
+ sw-bug: software bugs.
+
+
+
+ doc-bug: errors in
+ documentation.
+
+
+
+ change-request: requests for
+ additional features or changes in existing
+ features.
+
+
+
+ update: updates to ports or
+ other contributed software.
+
+
+
+ maintainer-update: updates to
+ ports for which you are the maintainer.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Release: The version of &os;
+ that you are running. This is filled out automatically if
+ you are using
+ &man.send-pr.1; and need only be changed if you are
+ sending a problem report from a different system than the
+ one that exhibits the problem.
+
+
+
+ Finally, there is a series of multi-line fields:
+
+
+
+ Environment: This should
+ describe, as accurately as possible, the environment in
+ which the problem has been observed. This includes the
+ operating system version, the version of the specific
+ program or file that contains the problem, and any other
+ relevant items such as system configuration, other
+ installed software that influences the problem,
+ etc.—quite simply everything a developer needs to
+ know to reconstruct the environment in which the problem
+ occurs.
+
+
+
+ Description: A complete and
+ accurate description of the problem you are experiencing.
+ Try to avoid speculating about the causes of the problem
+ unless you are certain that you are on the right track, as
+ it may mislead a developer into making incorrect
+ assumptions about the problem.
+
+
+
+ How-To-Repeat: A summary of the
+ actions you need to take to reproduce the problem.
+
+
+
+ Fix: Preferably a patch, or at
+ least a workaround (which not only helps other people with
+ the same problem work around it, but may also help a
+ developer understand the cause for the problem), but if
+ you do not have any firm ideas for either, it is better to
+ leave this field blank than to speculate.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Sending off the problem report
+
+ If you are using &man.send-pr.1;:
+
+ Once you are done filling out the template, have saved it,
+ and exit your editor, &man.send-pr.1; will prompt you with
+ s)end, e)dit or a)bort? . You can then hit
+ s to go ahead and submit the problem report,
+ e to restart the editor and make
+ further modifications, or a to abort.
+ If you choose the latter, your problem report will remain on
+ disk (&man.send-pr.1; will tell you the filename before it
+ terminates), so you can edit it at your leisure, or maybe
+ transfer it to a system with better net connectivity, before
+ sending it with the -f to
+ &man.send-pr.1;:
+
+&prompt.user; send-pr -f ~/my-problem-report
+
+ This will read the specified file, validate the contents,
+ strip comments and send it off.
+
+ If you are using the web form:
+
+ Before you hit submit , you will need to
+ fill in a field containing text that is represented in image
+ form on the page. This unfortunate measure has had to be
+ adopted due to misuse by automated systems and a few misguided
+ individuals. It is a necessary evil that no one likes; please
+ do not ask us to remove it.
+
+ Note that you are strongly advised to
+ save your work somewhere before hitting submit .
+ A common problem for users is to have their web browser displaying
+ a stale image from its cache. If this happens to you, your
+ submission will be rejected and you may lose your work.
+
+ If you are unable to view images for any reason, and are also
+ unable to use &man.send-pr.1;, please accept our apologies for
+ the inconvenience and email your problem report to the bugbuster
+ team at freebsd-bugbusters@FreeBSD.org .
+
+
+
+
+
+ Follow-up
+
+ Once your problem report has been filed, you will receive a
+ confirmation by email which will include the tracking number
+ that was assigned to your problem report and a URL you can use
+ to check its status. With a little luck, someone will take an
+ interest in your problem and try to address it, or, as the case
+ may be, explain why it is not a problem. You will be
+ automatically notified of any change of status, and you will
+ receive copies of any comments or patches someone may attach to
+ your problem report's audit trail.
+
+ If someone requests additional information from you, or you
+ remember or discover something you did not mention in the
+ initial report, please use one of two methods to submit your
+ followup:
+
+
+
+ The easiest way is to use the followup link on
+ the individual PR's web page, which you can reach from the
+
+ PR search page . Clicking on this link will bring up an
+ an email window with the correct To: and Subject: lines filled in
+ (if your browser is configured to do this).
+
+
+
+ Alternatively, you can just mail it to
+ &a.bugfollowup;, making sure that the
+ tracking number is included in the subject so the bug tracking
+ system will know what problem report to attach it to.
+
+
+ If you do not include the tracking
+ number, GNATS will become confused and create an entirely
+ new PR which it then assigns to the GNATS administrator,
+ and then your followup will become lost until someone
+ comes in to clean up the mess, which could be days or
+ weeks afterwards.
+
+ Wrong way: Subject: that PR I sent
+ Right way: Subject: Re: ports/12345: compilation problem with foo/bar
+
+
+
+
+
+ If the problem report remains open after the problem has
+ gone away, just send a follow-up (in the manner prescribed
+ above) saying that the problem report can be closed, and, if
+ possible, explaining how or when the problem was fixed.
+
+
+
+ If you are having problems
+
+ Most PRs go through the system and are accepted quickly;
+ however, at times GNATS runs behind and you may not get your
+ email confirmation for 10 minutes or even longer. Please try to
+ be patient.
+
+ In addition, because GNATS receives all its input via email,
+ it is absolutely vital that &os; runs all its submissions through
+ spam filters. If you do not get a response within an hour or
+ two, you may have fallen afoul of them; if so, please contact
+ the GNATS administrators at bugmeister@FreeBSD.org
+ and ask for help.
+
+
+ Among the anti-spam measures is one that weighs against
+ many common abuses seen HTML-based email (although not necessarily
+ the mere inclusion of HTML in a PR). We strongly recommend
+ against the use of HTML-based email when sending PRs: not
+ only is it more likely to fall afoul of the filters, it also
+ tends to merely clutter up the database. Plain old email is
+ strongly preferred.
+
+
+ On rare occasions you will encounter a GNATS bug where a
+ PR is accepted and assigned a tracking number but it does not
+ show up on the list of PRs on any of the web query pages. What
+ may have happened is that the database index has gotten out of
+ synchronization with the database itself. The way that you
+ can test whether this has happened is to pull up the
+
+ view a single PR page and see whether the PR shows up.
+ If it does, please notify the GNATS administrators at
+ bugmeister@FreeBSD.org . Note that there is a
+ cron job that periodically rebuilds the database,
+ so unless you are in a hurry, no action needs to be taken.
+
+
+
+ Further Reading
+
+ This is a list of resources relevant to the proper writing
+ and processing of problem reports. It is by no means complete.
+
+
+
+
+ How to Report Bugs Effectively —an excellent
+ essay by Simon G. Tatham on composing useful (non-&os;-specific)
+ problem reports.
+
+
+ Problem
+ Report Handling Guidelines —valuable insight
+ into how problem reports are handled by the &os;
+ developers.
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/books/Makefile
index 3918e85f5f..45eb550a9a 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/Makefile
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/Makefile
@@ -1,12 +1,13 @@
# $FreeBSD$
-SUBDIR = faq
+SUBDIR = developers-handbook
+SUBDIR+= faq
SUBDIR+= fdp-primer
SUBDIR+= handbook
SUBDIR+= porters-handbook
#SUBDIR+= zh-tut
-ROOT_SYMLINKS = faq
+ROOT_SYMLINKS = faq fdp-primer handbook porters-handbook
DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../..
.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..38b6465e31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+# Build the FreeBSD Developers' Handbook.
+#
+
+MAINTAINER=doc@FreeBSD.org
+
+DOC?= book
+
+FORMATS?= html-split
+
+HAS_INDEX= true
+
+INSTALL_COMPRESSED?= gz
+INSTALL_ONLY_COMPRESSED?=
+
+# Images
+IMAGES_EN= sockets/layers.eps sockets/sain.eps sockets/sainfill.eps sockets/sainlsb.eps sockets/sainmsb.eps sockets/sainserv.eps sockets/serv.eps sockets/serv2.eps sockets/slayers.eps
+
+#
+# SRCS lists the individual SGML files that make up the document. Changes
+# to any of these files will force a rebuild
+#
+
+# SGML content
+SRCS= book.sgml
+SRCS+= dma/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= introduction/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= ipv6/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= kerneldebug/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= l10n/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= policies/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= secure/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= sockets/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= testing/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= tools/chapter.sgml
+SRCS+= x86/chapter.sgml
+
+# Entities
+
+URL_RELPREFIX?= ../../../..
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../..
+
+.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/book.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/book.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..bac45423bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/book.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+
+
+
+%books.ent;
+ %chapters;
+
+]>
+
+
+
+ FreeBSD Developers' Handbook
+
+ The FreeBSD Documentation Project
+
+ August 2000
+
+
+ 2000
+ 2001
+ 2002
+ 2003
+ 2004
+ 2005
+ 2006
+ The FreeBSD Documentation Project
+
+
+ &bookinfo.legalnotice;
+
+
+ &tm-attrib.freebsd;
+ &tm-attrib.apple;
+ &tm-attrib.ibm;
+ &tm-attrib.ieee;
+ &tm-attrib.intel;
+ &tm-attrib.linux;
+ &tm-attrib.microsoft;
+ &tm-attrib.opengroup;
+ &tm-attrib.sun;
+ &tm-attrib.general;
+
+
+
+ Welcome to the Developers' Handbook. This manual is a
+ work in progress and is the work of many
+ individuals. Many sections do not yet exist and some of those
+ that do exist need to be updated. If you are interested in
+ helping with this project, send email to the &a.doc;.
+
+ The latest version of this document is always available
+ from the FreeBSD World
+ Wide Web server . It may also be downloaded in a
+ variety of formats and compression options from the FreeBSD FTP
+ server or one of the numerous mirror
+ sites .
+
+
+
+
+ Basics
+
+ &chap.introduction;
+ &chap.tools;
+ &chap.secure;
+ &chap.l10n;
+ &chap.policies;
+ &chap.testing;
+
+
+
+ Interprocess Communication
+
+ &chap.sockets;
+ &chap.ipv6;
+
+
+
+
+ Kernel
+
+ &chap.dma;
+ &chap.kerneldebug;
+
+
+
+
+ Architectures
+
+ &chap.x86;
+
+
+
+
+ Appendices
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Dave
+ A
+ Patterson
+
+
+ John
+ L
+ Hennessy
+
+
+ 1998 Morgan Kaufmann Publishers,
+ Inc.
+ 1-55860-428-6
+
+ Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc.
+
+ Computer Organization and Design
+ The Hardware / Software Interface
+ 1-2
+
+
+
+
+
+ W.
+ Richard
+ Stevens
+
+
+ 1993 Addison Wesley Longman,
+ Inc.
+ 0-201-56317-7
+
+ Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
+
+ Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment
+ 1-2
+
+
+
+
+
+ Marshall
+ Kirk
+ McKusick
+
+
+ Keith
+ Bostic
+
+
+ Michael
+ J
+ Karels
+
+
+ John
+ S
+ Quarterman
+
+
+ 1996 Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
+ Inc.
+ 0-201-54979-4
+
+ Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
+
+ The Design and Implementation of the 4.4 BSD Operating System
+ 1-2
+
+
+
+
+
+ Aleph
+ One
+
+
+ Phrack 49; "Smashing the Stack for Fun and Profit"
+
+
+
+
+
+ Chrispin
+ Cowan
+
+
+ Calton
+ Pu
+
+
+ Dave
+ Maier
+
+
+ StackGuard; Automatic Adaptive Detection and Prevention of
+ Buffer-Overflow Attacks
+
+
+
+
+
+ Todd
+ Miller
+
+
+ Theo
+ de Raadt
+
+
+ strlcpy and strlcat -- consistent, safe string copy and
+ concatenation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/dma/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/dma/chapter.sgml
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+
+
+
+ DMA
+
+
+ DMA: What it is and How it Works
+
+ Copyright © 1995,1997 &a.uhclem;, All Rights
+ Reserved. 10 December 1996. Last Update 8 October
+ 1997.
+
+ Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method of allowing data to be moved
+ from one location to another in a computer without intervention from the
+ central processor (CPU).
+
+ The way that the DMA function is implemented varies between computer
+ architectures, so this discussion will limit itself to the
+ implementation and workings of the DMA subsystem on the IBM Personal
+ Computer (PC), the IBM PC/AT and all of its successors and
+ clones.
+
+ The PC DMA subsystem is based on the &intel; 8237 DMA controller. The
+ 8237 contains four DMA channels that can be programmed independently and
+ any one of the channels may be active at any moment. These channels are
+ numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Starting with the PC/AT, IBM added a second
+ 8237 chip, and numbered those channels 4, 5, 6 and 7.
+
+ The original DMA controller (0, 1, 2 and 3) moves one byte in each
+ transfer. The second DMA controller (4, 5, 6, and 7) moves 16-bits from
+ two adjacent memory locations in each transfer, with the first byte
+ always coming from an even-numbered address. The two controllers are
+ identical components and the difference in transfer size is caused by
+ the way the second controller is wired into the system.
+
+ The 8237 has two electrical signals for each channel, named DRQ and
+ -DACK. There are additional signals with the names HRQ (Hold Request),
+ HLDA (Hold Acknowledge), -EOP (End of Process), and the bus control
+ signals -MEMR (Memory Read), -MEMW (Memory Write), -IOR (I/O Read), and
+ -IOW (I/O Write).
+
+ The 8237 DMA is known as a fly-by
DMA controller.
+ This means that the data being moved from one location to another does
+ not pass through the DMA chip and is not stored in the DMA chip.
+ Subsequently, the DMA can only transfer data between an I/O port and a
+ memory address, but not between two I/O ports or two memory
+ locations.
+
+
+ The 8237 does allow two channels to be connected together to allow
+ memory-to-memory DMA operations in a non-fly-by
mode,
+ but nobody in the PC industry uses this scarce resource this way since
+ it is faster to move data between memory locations using the
+ CPU.
+
+
+ In the PC architecture, each DMA channel is normally activated only
+ when the hardware that uses a given DMA channel requests a transfer by
+ asserting the DRQ line for that channel.
+
+
+ A Sample DMA transfer
+
+ Here is an example of the steps that occur to cause and perform a
+ DMA transfer. In this example, the floppy disk controller (FDC) has
+ just read a byte from a diskette and wants the DMA to place it in
+ memory at location 0x00123456. The process begins by the FDC
+ asserting the DRQ2 signal (the DRQ line for DMA channel 2) to alert
+ the DMA controller.
+
+ The DMA controller will note that the DRQ2 signal is asserted. The
+ DMA controller will then make sure that DMA channel 2 has been
+ programmed and is unmasked (enabled). The DMA controller also makes
+ sure that none of the other DMA channels are active or want to be
+ active and have a higher priority. Once these checks are complete,
+ the DMA asks the CPU to release the bus so that the DMA may use the
+ bus. The DMA requests the bus by asserting the HRQ signal which goes
+ to the CPU.
+
+ The CPU detects the HRQ signal, and will complete executing the
+ current instruction. Once the processor has reached a state where it
+ can release the bus, it will. Now all of the signals normally
+ generated by the CPU (-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and a few others) are
+ placed in a tri-stated condition (neither high or low) and then the
+ CPU asserts the HLDA signal which tells the DMA controller that it is
+ now in charge of the bus.
+
+ Depending on the processor, the CPU may be able to execute a few
+ additional instructions now that it no longer has the bus, but the CPU
+ will eventually have to wait when it reaches an instruction that must
+ read something from memory that is not in the internal processor cache
+ or pipeline.
+
+ Now that the DMA is in charge
, the DMA activates its
+ -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW output signals, and the address outputs from
+ the DMA are set to 0x3456, which will be used to direct the byte that
+ is about to transferred to a specific memory location.
+
+ The DMA will then let the device that requested the DMA transfer
+ know that the transfer is commencing. This is done by asserting the
+ -DACK signal, or in the case of the floppy disk controller, -DACK2 is
+ asserted.
+
+ The floppy disk controller is now responsible for placing the byte
+ to be transferred on the bus Data lines. Unless the floppy controller
+ needs more time to get the data byte on the bus (and if the peripheral
+ does need more time it alerts the DMA via the READY signal), the DMA
+ will wait one DMA clock, and then de-assert the -MEMW and -IOR signals
+ so that the memory will latch and store the byte that was on the bus,
+ and the FDC will know that the byte has been transferred.
+
+ Since the DMA cycle only transfers a single byte at a time, the
+ FDC now drops the DRQ2 signal, so the DMA knows that it is no longer
+ needed. The DMA will de-assert the -DACK2 signal, so that the FDC
+ knows it must stop placing data on the bus.
+
+ The DMA will now check to see if any of the other DMA channels
+ have any work to do. If none of the channels have their DRQ lines
+ asserted, the DMA controller has completed its work and will now
+ tri-state the -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address signals.
+
+ Finally, the DMA will de-assert the HRQ signal. The CPU sees
+ this, and de-asserts the HOLDA signal. Now the CPU activates its
+ -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address lines, and it resumes executing
+ instructions and accessing main memory and the peripherals.
+
+ For a typical floppy disk sector, the above process is repeated
+ 512 times, once for each byte. Each time a byte is transferred, the
+ address register in the DMA is incremented and the counter in the DMA
+ that shows how many bytes are to be transferred is decremented.
+
+ When the counter reaches zero, the DMA asserts the EOP signal,
+ which indicates that the counter has reached zero and no more data
+ will be transferred until the DMA controller is reprogrammed by the
+ CPU. This event is also called the Terminal Count (TC). There is only
+ one EOP signal, and since only one DMA channel can be active at any
+ instant, the DMA channel that is currently active must be the DMA
+ channel that just completed its task.
+
+ If a peripheral wants to generate an interrupt when the transfer
+ of a buffer is complete, it can test for its -DACKn signal and the EOP
+ signal both being asserted at the same time. When that happens, it
+ means the DMA will not transfer any more information for that
+ peripheral without intervention by the CPU. The peripheral can then
+ assert one of the interrupt signals to get the processors' attention.
+ In the PC architecture, the DMA chip itself is not capable of
+ generating an interrupt. The peripheral and its associated hardware
+ is responsible for generating any interrupt that occurs.
+ Subsequently, it is possible to have a peripheral that uses DMA but
+ does not use interrupts.
+
+ It is important to understand that although the CPU always
+ releases the bus to the DMA when the DMA makes the request, this
+ action is invisible to both applications and the operating system,
+ except for slight changes in the amount of time the processor takes to
+ execute instructions when the DMA is active. Subsequently, the
+ processor must poll the peripheral, poll the registers in the DMA
+ chip, or receive an interrupt from the peripheral to know for certain
+ when a DMA transfer has completed.
+
+
+
+ DMA Page Registers and 16Meg address space limitations
+
+ You may have noticed earlier that instead of the DMA setting the
+ address lines to 0x00123456 as we said earlier, the DMA only set
+ 0x3456. The reason for this takes a bit of explaining.
+
+ When the original IBM PC was designed, IBM elected to use both DMA
+ and interrupt controller chips that were designed for use with the
+ 8085, an 8-bit processor with an address space of 16 bits (64K).
+ Since the IBM PC supported more than 64K of memory, something had to
+ be done to allow the DMA to read or write memory locations above the
+ 64K mark. What IBM did to solve this problem was to add an external
+ data latch for each DMA channel that holds the upper bits of the
+ address to be read to or written from. Whenever a DMA channel is
+ active, the contents of that latch are written to the address bus and
+ kept there until the DMA operation for the channel ends. IBM called
+ these latches Page Registers
.
+
+ So for our example above, the DMA would put the 0x3456 part of the
+ address on the bus, and the Page Register for DMA channel 2 would put
+ 0x0012xxxx on the bus. Together, these two values form the complete
+ address in memory that is to be accessed.
+
+ Because the Page Register latch is independent of the DMA chip,
+ the area of memory to be read or written must not span a 64K physical
+ boundary. For example, if the DMA accesses memory location 0xffff,
+ after that transfer the DMA will then increment the address register
+ and the DMA will access the next byte at location 0x0000, not 0x10000.
+ The results of letting this happen are probably not intended.
+
+
+ Physical
64K boundaries should not be confused
+ with 8086-mode 64K Segments
, which are created by
+ mathematically adding a segment register with an offset register.
+ Page Registers have no address overlap and are mathematically OR-ed
+ together.
+
+
+ To further complicate matters, the external DMA address latches on
+ the PC/AT hold only eight bits, so that gives us 8+16=24 bits, which
+ means that the DMA can only point at memory locations between 0 and
+ 16Meg. For newer computers that allow more than 16Meg of memory, the
+ standard PC-compatible DMA cannot access memory locations above
+ 16Meg.
+
+ To get around this restriction, operating systems will reserve a
+ RAM buffer in an area below 16Meg that also does not span a physical
+ 64K boundary. Then the DMA will be programmed to transfer data from
+ the peripheral and into that buffer. Once the DMA has moved the data
+ into this buffer, the operating system will then copy the data from
+ the buffer to the address where the data is really supposed to be
+ stored.
+
+ When writing data from an address above 16Meg to a DMA-based
+ peripheral, the data must be first copied from where it resides into a
+ buffer located below 16Meg, and then the DMA can copy the data from
+ the buffer to the hardware. In FreeBSD, these reserved buffers are
+ called Bounce Buffers
. In the &ms-dos; world, they are
+ sometimes called Smart Buffers
.
+
+
+ A new implementation of the 8237, called the 82374, allows 16
+ bits of page register to be specified and enables access to the entire
+ 32 bit address space, without the use of bounce buffers.
+
+
+
+
+ DMA Operational Modes and Settings
+
+ The 8237 DMA can be operated in several modes. The main ones
+ are:
+
+
+
+ Single
+
+
+ A single byte (or word) is transferred. The DMA must
+ release and re-acquire the bus for each additional byte. This is
+ commonly-used by devices that cannot transfer the entire block
+ of data immediately. The peripheral will request the DMA each
+ time it is ready for another transfer.
+
+ The standard PC-compatible floppy disk controller (NEC 765)
+ only has a one-byte buffer, so it uses this mode.
+
+
+
+
+ Block/Demand
+
+
+ Once the DMA acquires the system bus, an entire block of
+ data is transferred, up to a maximum of 64K. If the peripheral
+ needs additional time, it can assert the READY signal to suspend
+ the transfer briefly. READY should not be used excessively, and
+ for slow peripheral transfers, the Single Transfer Mode should
+ be used instead.
+
+ The difference between Block and Demand is that once a Block
+ transfer is started, it runs until the transfer count reaches
+ zero. DRQ only needs to be asserted until -DACK is asserted.
+ Demand Mode will transfer one more bytes until DRQ is
+ de-asserted, at which point the DMA suspends the transfer and
+ releases the bus back to the CPU. When DRQ is asserted later,
+ the transfer resumes where it was suspended.
+
+ Older hard disk controllers used Demand Mode until CPU
+ speeds increased to the point that it was more efficient to
+ transfer the data using the CPU, particularly if the memory
+ locations used in the transfer were above the 16Meg mark.
+
+
+
+
+ Cascade
+
+
+ This mechanism allows a DMA channel to request the bus, but
+ then the attached peripheral device is responsible for placing
+ the addressing information on the bus instead of the DMA. This
+ is also used to implement a technique known as Bus
+ Mastering
.
+
+ When a DMA channel in Cascade Mode receives control of the
+ bus, the DMA does not place addresses and I/O control signals on
+ the bus like the DMA normally does when it is active. Instead,
+ the DMA only asserts the -DACK signal for the active DMA
+ channel.
+
+ At this point it is up to the peripheral connected to that
+ DMA channel to provide address and bus control signals. The
+ peripheral has complete control over the system bus, and can do
+ reads and/or writes to any address below 16Meg. When the
+ peripheral is finished with the bus, it de-asserts the DRQ line,
+ and the DMA controller can then return control to the CPU or to
+ some other DMA channel.
+
+ Cascade Mode can be used to chain multiple DMA controllers
+ together, and this is exactly what DMA Channel 4 is used for in
+ the PC architecture. When a peripheral requests the bus on DMA
+ channels 0, 1, 2 or 3, the slave DMA controller asserts HLDREQ,
+ but this wire is actually connected to DRQ4 on the primary DMA
+ controller instead of to the CPU. The primary DMA controller,
+ thinking it has work to do on Channel 4, requests the bus from
+ the CPU using HLDREQ signal. Once the CPU grants the bus to the
+ primary DMA controller, -DACK4 is asserted, and that wire is
+ actually connected to the HLDA signal on the slave DMA
+ controller. The slave DMA controller then transfers data for
+ the DMA channel that requested it (0, 1, 2 or 3), or the slave
+ DMA may grant the bus to a peripheral that wants to perform its
+ own bus-mastering, such as a SCSI controller.
+
+ Because of this wiring arrangement, only DMA channels 0, 1,
+ 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 are usable with peripherals on PC/AT
+ systems.
+
+
+ DMA channel 0 was reserved for refresh operations in early
+ IBM PC computers, but is generally available for use by
+ peripherals in modern systems.
+
+
+ When a peripheral is performing Bus Mastering, it is
+ important that the peripheral transmit data to or from memory
+ constantly while it holds the system bus. If the peripheral
+ cannot do this, it must release the bus frequently so that the
+ system can perform refresh operations on main memory.
+
+ The Dynamic RAM used in all PCs for main memory must be
+ accessed frequently to keep the bits stored in the components
+ charged
. Dynamic RAM essentially consists of
+ millions of capacitors with each one holding one bit of data.
+ These capacitors are charged with power to represent a
+ 1 or drained to represent a
+ 0 . Because all capacitors leak, power must
+ be added at regular intervals to keep the 1
+ values intact. The RAM chips actually handle the task of
+ pumping power back into all of the appropriate locations in RAM,
+ but they must be told when to do it by the rest of the computer
+ so that the refresh activity will not interfere with the computer
+ wanting to access RAM normally. If the computer is unable to
+ refresh memory, the contents of memory will become corrupted in
+ just a few milliseconds.
+
+ Since memory read and write cycles count
as
+ refresh cycles (a dynamic RAM refresh cycle is actually an
+ incomplete memory read cycle), as long as the peripheral
+ controller continues reading or writing data to sequential
+ memory locations, that action will refresh all of memory.
+
+ Bus-mastering is found in some SCSI host interfaces and
+ other high-performance peripheral controllers.
+
+
+
+
+ Autoinitialize
+
+
+ This mode causes the DMA to perform Byte, Block or Demand
+ transfers, but when the DMA transfer counter reaches zero, the
+ counter and address are set back to where they were when the DMA
+ channel was originally programmed. This means that as long as
+ the peripheral requests transfers, they will be granted. It is
+ up to the CPU to move new data into the fixed buffer ahead of
+ where the DMA is about to transfer it when doing output
+ operations, and to read new data out of the buffer behind where the
+ DMA is writing when doing input operations.
+
+ This technique is frequently used on audio devices that have
+ small or no hardware sample
buffers. There is
+ additional CPU overhead to manage this circular
+ buffer, but in some cases this may be the only way to eliminate
+ the latency that occurs when the DMA counter reaches zero and
+ the DMA stops transfers until it is reprogrammed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Programming the DMA
+
+ The DMA channel that is to be programmed should always be
+ masked
before loading any settings. This is because the
+ hardware might unexpectedly assert the DRQ for that channel, and the
+ DMA might respond, even though not all of the parameters have been
+ loaded or updated.
+
+ Once masked, the host must specify the direction of the transfer
+ (memory-to-I/O or I/O-to-memory), what mode of DMA operation is to be
+ used for the transfer (Single, Block, Demand, Cascade, etc), and
+ finally the address and length of the transfer are loaded. The length
+ that is loaded is one less than the amount you expect the DMA to
+ transfer. The LSB and MSB of the address and length are written to
+ the same 8-bit I/O port, so another port must be written to first to
+ guarantee that the DMA accepts the first byte as the LSB and the
+ second byte as the MSB of the length and address.
+
+ Then, be sure to update the Page Register, which is external to
+ the DMA and is accessed through a different set of I/O ports.
+
+ Once all the settings are ready, the DMA channel can be un-masked.
+ That DMA channel is now considered to be armed
, and will
+ respond when the DRQ line for that channel is asserted.
+
+ Refer to a hardware data book for precise programming details for
+ the 8237. You will also need to refer to the I/O port map for the PC
+ system, which describes where the DMA and Page Register ports are
+ located. A complete port map table is located below.
+
+
+
+ DMA Port Map
+
+ All systems based on the IBM-PC and PC/AT have the DMA hardware
+ located at the same I/O ports. The complete list is provided below.
+ Ports assigned to DMA Controller #2 are undefined on non-AT
+ designs.
+
+
+ 0x00–0x1f DMA Controller #1 (Channels 0, 1, 2 and
+ 3)
+
+ DMA Address and Count Registers
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x00
+ write
+ Channel 0 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0x00
+ read
+ Channel 0 current address
+
+
+
+ 0x01
+ write
+ Channel 0 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0x01
+ read
+ Channel 0 remaining word count
+
+
+
+ 0x02
+ write
+ Channel 1 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0x02
+ read
+ Channel 1 current address
+
+
+
+ 0x03
+ write
+ Channel 1 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0x03
+ read
+ Channel 1 remaining word count
+
+
+
+ 0x04
+ write
+ Channel 2 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0x04
+ read
+ Channel 2 current address
+
+
+
+ 0x05
+ write
+ Channel 2 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0x05
+ read
+ Channel 2 remaining word count
+
+
+
+ 0x06
+ write
+ Channel 3 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0x06
+ read
+ Channel 3 current address
+
+
+
+ 0x07
+ write
+ Channel 3 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0x07
+ read
+ Channel 3 remaining word count
+
+
+
+
+
+ DMA Command Registers
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x08
+ write
+ Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x08
+ read
+ Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x09
+ write
+ Request Register
+
+
+
+ 0x09
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0x0a
+ write
+ Single Mask Register Bit
+
+
+
+ 0x0a
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0x0b
+ write
+ Mode Register
+
+
+
+ 0x0b
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0x0c
+ write
+ Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop
+
+
+
+ 0x0c
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0x0d
+ write
+ Master Clear/Reset
+
+
+
+ 0x0d
+ read
+ Temporary Register (not available on newer
+ versions)
+
+
+ 0x0e
+ write
+ Clear Mask Register
+
+
+
+ 0x0e
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0x0f
+ write
+ Write All Mask Register Bits
+
+
+
+ 0x0f
+ read
+ Read All Mask Register Bits (only in &intel;
+ 82374)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0xc0–0xdf DMA Controller #2 (Channels 4, 5, 6 and
+ 7)
+
+ DMA Address and Count Registers
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0xc0
+ write
+ Channel 4 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0xc0
+ read
+ Channel 4 current address
+
+
+
+ 0xc2
+ write
+ Channel 4 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0xc2
+ read
+ Channel 4 remaining word count
+
+
+
+ 0xc4
+ write
+ Channel 5 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0xc4
+ read
+ Channel 5 current address
+
+
+
+ 0xc6
+ write
+ Channel 5 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0xc6
+ read
+ Channel 5 remaining word count
+
+
+
+ 0xc8
+ write
+ Channel 6 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0xc8
+ read
+ Channel 6 current address
+
+
+
+ 0xca
+ write
+ Channel 6 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0xca
+ read
+ Channel 6 remaining word count
+
+
+
+ 0xcc
+ write
+ Channel 7 starting address
+
+
+
+ 0xcc
+ read
+ Channel 7 current address
+
+
+
+ 0xce
+ write
+ Channel 7 starting word count
+
+
+
+ 0xce
+ read
+ Channel 7 remaining word count
+
+
+
+
+
+ DMA Command Registers
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0xd0
+ write
+ Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0xd0
+ read
+ Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0xd2
+ write
+ Request Register
+
+
+
+ 0xd2
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0xd4
+ write
+ Single Mask Register Bit
+
+
+
+ 0xd4
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0xd6
+ write
+ Mode Register
+
+
+
+ 0xd6
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0xd8
+ write
+ Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop
+
+
+
+ 0xd8
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0xda
+ write
+ Master Clear/Reset
+
+
+
+ 0xda
+ read
+ Temporary Register (not present in &intel;
+ 82374)
+
+
+
+ 0xdc
+ write
+ Clear Mask Register
+
+
+
+ 0xdc
+ read
+ -
+
+
+
+ 0xde
+ write
+ Write All Mask Register Bits
+
+
+
+ 0xdf
+ read
+ Read All Mask Register Bits (only in &intel;
+ 82374)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x80–0x9f DMA Page Registers
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x87
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x83
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x81
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x82
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x8b
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x89
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x8a
+ r/w
+ Channel 7 Low byte (23-16) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x8f
+ r/w
+ Low byte page Refresh
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x400–0x4ff 82374 Enhanced DMA Registers
+
+ The &intel; 82374 EISA System Component (ESC) was introduced in
+ early 1996 and includes a DMA controller that provides a superset of
+ 8237 functionality as well as other PC-compatible core peripheral
+ components in a single package. This chip is targeted at both EISA
+ and PCI platforms, and provides modern DMA features like
+ scatter-gather, ring buffers as well as direct access by the system
+ DMA to all 32 bits of address space.
+
+ If these features are used, code should also be included to
+ provide similar functionality in the previous 16 years worth of
+ PC-compatible computers. For compatibility reasons, some of the
+ 82374 registers must be programmed after
+ programming the traditional 8237 registers for each transfer.
+ Writing to a traditional 8237 register forces the contents of some
+ of the 82374 enhanced registers to zero to provide backward software
+ compatibility.
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0x401
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x403
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x405
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x407
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x4c6
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x4ca
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x4ce
+ r/w
+ Channel 7 High byte (bits 23-16) word count
+
+
+
+ 0x487
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x483
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x481
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x482
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x48b
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x489
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x48a
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register
+
+
+
+ 0x48f
+ r/w
+ High byte page Refresh
+
+
+
+ 0x4e0
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e1
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e2
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e4
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e5
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e6
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e8
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4e9
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4ea
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x4ec
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4ed
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4ee
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x4f4
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4f5
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4f6
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x4f8
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4f9
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4fa
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x4fc
+ r/w
+ Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 7-2)
+
+
+
+ 0x4fd
+ r/w
+ Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 15-8)
+
+
+
+ 0x4fe
+ r/w
+ Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 23-16)
+
+
+
+ 0x40a
+ write
+ Channels 0-3 Chaining Mode Register
+
+
+
+ 0x40a
+ read
+ Channel Interrupt Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x4d4
+ write
+ Channels 4-7 Chaining Mode Register
+
+
+
+ 0x4d4
+ read
+ Chaining Mode Status
+
+
+
+ 0x40c
+ read
+ Chain Buffer Expiration Control Register
+
+
+
+ 0x410
+ write
+ Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x411
+ write
+ Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x412
+ write
+ Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x413
+ write
+ Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x415
+ write
+ Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x416
+ write
+ Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x417
+ write
+ Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Command Register
+
+
+
+ 0x418
+ read
+ Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x419
+ read
+ Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x41a
+ read
+ Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x41b
+ read
+ Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x41d
+ read
+ Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x41e
+ read
+ Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x41f
+ read
+ Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Status Register
+
+
+
+ 0x420-0x423
+ r/w
+ Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+ 0x424-0x427
+ r/w
+ Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+ 0x428-0x42b
+ r/w
+ Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+ 0x42c-0x42f
+ r/w
+ Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+ 0x434-0x437
+ r/w
+ Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+ 0x438-0x43b
+ r/w
+ Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+ 0x43c-0x43f
+ r/w
+ Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer
+ Register
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..200f52c858
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,225 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Murray
+ Stokely
+ Contributed by
+
+
+ Jeroen
+ Ruigrok van der Werven
+
+
+
+ Introduction
+
+
+ Developing on FreeBSD
+
+ So here we are. System all installed and you are ready to
+ start programming. But where to start? What does FreeBSD
+ provide? What can it do for me, as a programmer?
+
+ These are some questions which this chapter tries to answer.
+ Of course, programming has different levels of proficiency like
+ any other trade. For some it is a hobby, for others it is their
+ profession. The information in this chapter might be aimed
+ toward the beginning programmer; indeed, it could serve useful
+ for the programmer unfamiliar with the &os; platform.
+
+
+
+
+ The BSD Vision
+
+ To produce the best &unix; like operating system package
+ possible, with due respect to the original software tools
+ ideology as well as usability, performance and
+ stability.
+
+
+
+ Architectural Guidelines
+
+ Our ideology can be described by the following
+ guidelines
+
+
+
+ Do not add new functionality unless an
+ implementor cannot complete a real application without
+ it.
+
+ It is as important to decide what a system is
+ not as to decide what it is. Do not serve all the world's
+ needs; rather, make the system extensible so that additional
+ needs can be met in an upwardly compatible
+ fashion.
+
+ The only thing worse than generalizing from one
+ example is generalizing from no examples at
+ all.
+
+ If a problem is not completely understood, it is
+ probably best to provide no solution at all.
+
+ If you can get 90 percent of the desired effect
+ for 10 percent of the work, use the simpler
+ solution.
+
+ Isolate complexity as much as
+ possible.
+
+ Provide mechanism, rather than policy. In
+ particular, place user interface policy in the client's
+ hands.
+
+
+
+ From Scheifler & Gettys: "X Window System"
+
+
+
+
+ The Layout of
+ /usr/src
+
+ The complete source code to FreeBSD is available from our
+ public CVS repository. The source code is normally installed in
+ /usr/src which contains the
+ following subdirectories:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Directory
+ Description
+
+
+
+
+
+ bin/
+ Source for files in
+ /bin
+
+
+
+ contrib/
+ Source for files from contributed software.
+
+
+
+ crypto/
+ Cryptographical sources
+
+
+
+ etc/
+ Source for files in /etc
+
+
+
+ games/
+ Source for files in /usr/games
+
+
+
+ gnu/
+ Utilities covered by the GNU Public License
+
+
+
+ include/
+ Source for files in /usr/include
+
+
+
+ kerberos5/
+ Source for Kerberos version 5
+
+
+
+ lib/
+ Source for files in /usr/lib
+
+
+
+ libexec/
+ Source for files in /usr/libexec
+
+
+
+ release/
+ Files required to produce a FreeBSD release
+
+
+
+ rescue/
+ Build system for the
+ /rescue utilities
+
+
+
+ sbin/
+ Source for files in /sbin
+
+
+
+ secure/
+ FreeSec sources
+
+
+
+ share/
+ Source for files in /usr/share
+
+
+
+ sys/
+ Kernel source files
+
+
+
+ tools/
+ Tools used for maintenance and testing of
+ FreeBSD
+
+
+
+ usr.bin/
+ Source for files in /usr/bin
+
+
+
+ usr.sbin/
+ Source for files in /usr/sbin
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/ipv6/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/ipv6/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..71e76092df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/ipv6/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,1593 @@
+
+
+
+ IPv6 Internals
+
+
+
+
+
+ Yoshinobu
+ Inoue
+ Contributed by
+
+
+
+
+
+ IPv6/IPsec Implementation
+
+ This section should explain IPv6 and IPsec related implementation
+ internals. These functionalities are derived from KAME project
+
+
+ IPv6
+
+
+ Conformance
+
+ The IPv6 related functions conforms, or tries to conform to
+ the latest set of IPv6 specifications. For future reference we list
+ some of the relevant documents below (NOTE : this
+ is not a complete list - this is too hard to maintain...).
+
+ For details please refer to specific chapter in the document,
+ RFCs, manual pages, or comments in the source code.
+
+ Conformance tests have been performed on the KAME STABLE kit
+ at TAHI project. Results can be viewed at
+ .
+ We also attended Univ. of New Hampshire IOL tests
+ ( ) in the
+ past, with our past snapshots.
+
+
+
+ RFC1639: FTP Operation Over Big Address Records
+ (FOOBAR)
+
+
+ RFC2428 is preferred over RFC1639. FTP clients will
+ first try RFC2428, then RFC1639 if failed.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC1886: DNS Extensions to support IPv6
+
+
+
+ RFC1933: Transition Mechanisms for IPv6 Hosts and
+ Routers
+
+
+ IPv4 compatible address is not supported.
+
+
+ automatic tunneling (described in 4.3 of this RFC) is not
+ supported.
+
+
+ &man.gif.4; interface implements IPv[46]-over-IPv[46]
+ tunnel in a generic way, and it covers "configured tunnel"
+ described in the spec. See 23.5.1.5
+ in this document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC1981: Path MTU Discovery for IPv6
+
+
+
+ RFC2080: RIPng for IPv6
+
+
+ usr.sbin/route6d support this.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2292: Advanced Sockets API for IPv6
+
+
+ For supported library functions/kernel APIs, see
+ sys/netinet6/ADVAPI .
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2362: Protocol Independent Multicast-Sparse
+ Mode (PIM-SM)
+
+
+ RFC2362 defines packet formats for PIM-SM.
+ draft-ietf-pim-ipv6-01.txt is
+ written based on this.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2373: IPv6 Addressing Architecture
+
+
+ supports node required addresses, and conforms to
+ the scope requirement.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2374: An IPv6 Aggregatable Global Unicast Address
+ Format
+
+
+ supports 64-bit length of Interface ID.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2375: IPv6 Multicast Address Assignments
+
+
+ Userland applications use the well-known addresses
+ assigned in the RFC.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2428: FTP Extensions for IPv6 and NATs
+
+
+ RFC2428 is preferred over RFC1639. FTP clients will
+ first try RFC2428, then RFC1639 if failed.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2460: IPv6 specification
+
+
+
+ RFC2461: Neighbor discovery for IPv6
+
+
+ See 23.5.1.2
+ in this document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2462: IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration
+
+
+ See 23.5.1.4 in this
+ document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2463: ICMPv6 for IPv6 specification
+
+
+ See 23.5.1.9 in this
+ document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2464: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Ethernet
+ Networks
+
+
+
+ RFC2465: MIB for IPv6: Textual Conventions and General
+ Group
+
+
+ Necessary statistics are gathered by the kernel. Actual
+ IPv6 MIB support is provided as a patchkit for ucd-snmp.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2466: MIB for IPv6: ICMPv6 group
+
+
+ Necessary statistics are gathered by the kernel. Actual
+ IPv6 MIB support is provided as patchkit for ucd-snmp.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2467: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over FDDI
+ Networks
+
+
+
+ RFC2497: Transmission of IPv6 packet over ARCnet
+ Networks
+
+
+
+ RFC2553: Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6
+
+
+ IPv4 mapped address (3.7) and special behavior of IPv6
+ wildcard bind socket (3.8) are supported. See 23.5.1.12
+ in this document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2675: IPv6 Jumbograms
+
+
+ See 23.5.1.7 in
+ this document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ RFC2710: Multicast Listener Discovery for IPv6
+
+
+
+ RFC2711: IPv6 router alert option
+
+
+
+ draft-ietf-ipngwg-router-renum-08 : Router
+ renumbering for IPv6
+
+
+
+ draft-ietf-ipngwg-icmp-namelookups-02 :
+ IPv6 Name Lookups Through ICMP
+
+
+
+ draft-ietf-ipngwg-icmp-name-lookups-03 :
+ IPv6 Name Lookups Through ICMP
+
+
+
+ draft-ietf-pim-ipv6-01.txt :
+ PIM for IPv6
+
+
+ &man.pim6dd.8; implements dense mode. &man.pim6sd.8;
+ implements sparse mode.
+
+
+
+
+
+ draft-itojun-ipv6-tcp-to-anycast-00 :
+ Disconnecting TCP connection toward IPv6 anycast address
+
+
+
+ draft-yamamoto-wideipv6-comm-model-00
+
+
+
+ See 23.5.1.6 in this
+ document for details.
+
+
+
+
+
+ draft-ietf-ipngwg-scopedaddr-format-00.txt
+ : An Extension of Format for IPv6 Scoped
+ Addresses
+
+
+
+
+
+ Neighbor Discovery
+
+ Neighbor Discovery is fairly stable. Currently Address
+ Resolution, Duplicated Address Detection, and Neighbor Unreachability
+ Detection are supported. In the near future we will be adding Proxy
+ Neighbor Advertisement support in the kernel and Unsolicited Neighbor
+ Advertisement transmission command as admin tool.
+
+ If DAD fails, the address will be marked "duplicated" and
+ message will be generated to syslog (and usually to console). The
+ "duplicated" mark can be checked with &man.ifconfig.8;. It is
+ administrators' responsibility to check for and recover from DAD
+ failures. The behavior should be improved in the near future.
+
+ Some of the network driver loops multicast packets back to itself,
+ even if instructed not to do so (especially in promiscuous mode).
+ In such cases DAD may fail, because DAD engine sees inbound NS packet
+ (actually from the node itself) and considers it as a sign of duplicate.
+ You may want to look at #if condition marked "heuristics" in
+ sys/netinet6/nd6_nbr.c:nd6_dad_timer() as workaround (note that the code
+ fragment in "heuristics" section is not spec conformant).
+
+ Neighbor Discovery specification (RFC2461) does not talk about
+ neighbor cache handling in the following cases:
+
+
+
+ when there was no neighbor cache entry, node
+ received unsolicited RS/NS/NA/redirect packet without
+ link-layer address
+
+
+ neighbor cache handling on medium without link-layer
+ address (we need a neighbor cache entry for IsRouter bit)
+
+
+
+ For first case, we implemented workaround based on discussions
+ on IETF ipngwg mailing list. For more details, see the comments in
+ the source code and email thread started from (IPng 7155), dated
+ Feb 6 1999.
+
+ IPv6 on-link determination rule (RFC2461) is quite different
+ from assumptions in BSD network code. At this moment, no on-link
+ determination rule is supported where default router list is empty
+ (RFC2461, section 5.2, last sentence in 2nd paragraph - note that
+ the spec misuse the word "host" and "node" in several places in
+ the section).
+
+ To avoid possible DoS attacks and infinite loops, only 10
+ options on ND packet is accepted now. Therefore, if you have 20
+ prefix options attached to RA, only the first 10 prefixes will be
+ recognized. If this troubles you, please ask it on FREEBSD-CURRENT
+ mailing list and/or modify nd6_maxndopt in
+ sys/netinet6/nd6.c . If there are high demands
+ we may provide sysctl knob for the variable.
+
+
+
+ Scope Index
+
+ IPv6 uses scoped addresses. Therefore, it is very important to
+ specify scope index (interface index for link-local address, or
+ site index for site-local address) with an IPv6 address. Without
+ scope index, scoped IPv6 address is ambiguous to the kernel, and
+ kernel will not be able to determine the outbound interface for a
+ packet.
+
+ Ordinary userland applications should use advanced API
+ (RFC2292) to specify scope index, or interface index. For similar
+ purpose, sin6_scope_id member in sockaddr_in6 structure is defined
+ in RFC2553. However, the semantics for sin6_scope_id is rather vague.
+ If you care about portability of your application, we suggest you to
+ use advanced API rather than sin6_scope_id.
+
+ In the kernel, an interface index for link-local scoped address is
+ embedded into 2nd 16bit-word (3rd and 4th byte) in IPv6 address. For
+ example, you may see something like:
+
+
+ fe80:1::200:f8ff:fe01:6317
+
+
+ in the routing table and interface address structure (struct
+ in6_ifaddr). The address above is a link-local unicast address
+ which belongs to a network interface whose interface identifier is 1.
+ The embedded index enables us to identify IPv6 link local
+ addresses over multiple interfaces effectively and with only a
+ little code change.
+
+ Routing daemons and configuration programs, like &man.route6d.8;
+ and &man.ifconfig.8;, will need to manipulate the "embedded" scope
+ index. These programs use routing sockets and ioctls (like
+ SIOCGIFADDR_IN6) and the kernel API will return IPv6 addresses with
+ 2nd 16bit-word filled in. The APIs are for manipulating kernel
+ internal structure. Programs that use these APIs have to be prepared
+ about differences in kernels anyway.
+
+ When you specify scoped address to the command line, NEVER write
+ the embedded form (such as ff02:1::1 or fe80:2::fedc). This is not
+ supposed to work. Always use standard form, like ff02::1 or
+ fe80::fedc, with command line option for specifying interface (like
+ ping6 -I ne0 ff02::1 ). In general, if a command
+ does not have command line option to specify outgoing interface, that
+ command is not ready to accept scoped address. This may seem to be
+ opposite from IPv6's premise to support "dentist office" situation.
+ We believe that specifications need some improvements for this.
+
+ Some of the userland tools support extended numeric IPv6 syntax,
+ as documented in
+ draft-ietf-ipngwg-scopedaddr-format-00.txt . You
+ can specify outgoing link, by using name of the outgoing interface
+ like "fe80::1%ne0". This way you will be able to specify link-local
+ scoped address without much trouble.
+
+ To use this extension in your program, you will need to use
+ &man.getaddrinfo.3;, and &man.getnameinfo.3; with NI_WITHSCOPEID.
+ The implementation currently assumes 1-to-1 relationship between a
+ link and an interface, which is stronger than what specs say.
+
+
+
+ Plug and Play
+
+ Most of the IPv6 stateless address autoconfiguration is implemented
+ in the kernel. Neighbor Discovery functions are implemented in the
+ kernel as a whole. Router Advertisement (RA) input for hosts is
+ implemented in the kernel. Router Solicitation (RS) output for
+ endhosts, RS input for routers, and RA output for routers are
+ implemented in the userland.
+
+
+ Assignment of link-local, and special addresses
+
+ IPv6 link-local address is generated from IEEE802 address
+ (Ethernet MAC address). Each of interface is assigned an IPv6
+ link-local address automatically, when the interface becomes up
+ (IFF_UP). Also, direct route for the link-local address is added
+ to routing table.
+
+ Here is an output of netstat command:
+
+Internet6:
+Destination Gateway Flags Netif Expire
+fe80:1::%ed0/64 link#1 UC ed0
+fe80:2::%ep0/64 link#2 UC ep0
+
+ Interfaces that has no IEEE802 address (pseudo interfaces
+ like tunnel interfaces, or ppp interfaces) will borrow IEEE802
+ address from other interfaces, such as Ethernet interfaces,
+ whenever possible. If there is no IEEE802 hardware attached,
+ a last resort pseudo-random value, MD5(hostname), will
+ be used as source of link-local address. If it is not suitable
+ for your usage, you will need to configure the link-local address
+ manually.
+
+ If an interface is not capable of handling IPv6 (such as
+ lack of multicast support), link-local address will not be
+ assigned to that interface. See section 2 for details.
+
+ Each interface joins the solicited multicast address and the
+ link-local all-nodes multicast addresses (e.g. fe80::1:ff01:6317
+ and ff02::1, respectively, on the link the interface is attached).
+ In addition to a link-local address, the loopback address (::1)
+ will be assigned to the loopback interface. Also, ::1/128 and
+ ff01::/32 are automatically added to routing table, and loopback
+ interface joins node-local multicast group ff01::1.
+
+
+
+ Stateless address autoconfiguration on hosts
+
+ In IPv6 specification, nodes are separated into two categories:
+ routers and hosts . Routers
+ forward packets addressed to others, hosts does not forward the
+ packets. net.inet6.ip6.forwarding defines whether this node is
+ router or host (router if it is 1, host if it is 0).
+
+ When a host hears Router Advertisement from the router, a host
+ may autoconfigure itself by stateless address autoconfiguration.
+ This behavior can be controlled by net.inet6.ip6.accept_rtadv (host
+ autoconfigures itself if it is set to 1). By autoconfiguration,
+ network address prefix for the receiving interface (usually global
+ address prefix) is added. Default route is also configured.
+ Routers periodically generate Router Advertisement packets. To
+ request an adjacent router to generate RA packet, a host can
+ transmit Router Solicitation. To generate a RS packet at any time,
+ use the rtsol command. &man.rtsold.8; daemon is
+ also available. &man.rtsold.8; generates Router Solicitation whenever
+ necessary, and it works great for nomadic usage (notebooks/laptops).
+ If one wishes to ignore Router Advertisements, use sysctl to set
+ net.inet6.ip6.accept_rtadv to 0.
+
+ To generate Router Advertisement from a router, use the
+ &man.rtadvd.8; daemon.
+
+ Note that, IPv6 specification assumes the following items, and
+ nonconforming cases are left unspecified:
+
+
+
+ Only hosts will listen to router advertisements
+
+
+ Hosts have single network interface (except loopback)
+
+
+
+ Therefore, this is unwise to enable net.inet6.ip6.accept_rtadv
+ on routers, or multi-interface host. A misconfigured node can
+ behave strange (nonconforming configuration allowed for those who
+ would like to do some experiments).
+
+ To summarize the sysctl knob:
+
+ accept_rtadv forwarding role of the node
+ --- --- ---
+ 0 0 host (to be manually configured)
+ 0 1 router
+ 1 0 autoconfigured host
+ (spec assumes that host has single
+ interface only, autoconfigured host
+ with multiple interface is
+ out-of-scope)
+ 1 1 invalid, or experimental
+ (out-of-scope of spec)
+
+ RFC2462 has validation rule against incoming RA prefix
+ information option, in 5.5.3 (e). This is to protect hosts from
+ malicious (or misconfigured) routers that advertise very short
+ prefix lifetime. There was an update from Jim Bound to ipngwg
+ mailing list (look for "(ipng 6712)" in the archive) and it is
+ implemented Jim's update.
+
+ See 23.5.1.2 in
+ the document for relationship between DAD and
+ autoconfiguration.
+
+
+
+
+ Generic tunnel interface
+
+ GIF (Generic InterFace) is a pseudo interface for configured
+ tunnel. Details are described in &man.gif.4;. Currently
+
+
+
+ v6 in v6
+
+
+ v6 in v4
+
+
+ v4 in v6
+
+
+ v4 in v4
+
+
+
+ are available. Use &man.gifconfig.8; to assign physical (outer)
+ source and destination address to gif interfaces. Configuration that
+ uses same address family for inner and outer IP header (v4 in v4, or
+ v6 in v6) is dangerous. It is very easy to configure interfaces and
+ routing tables to perform infinite level of tunneling.
+ Please be warned .
+
+ gif can be configured to be ECN-friendly. See 23.5.4.5 for ECN-friendliness of
+ tunnels, and &man.gif.4; for how to configure.
+
+ If you would like to configure an IPv4-in-IPv6 tunnel with gif
+ interface, read &man.gif.4; carefully. You will need to
+ remove IPv6 link-local address automatically assigned to the gif
+ interface.
+
+
+
+ Source Address Selection
+
+ Current source selection rule is scope oriented (there are some
+ exceptions - see below). For a given destination, a source IPv6
+ address is selected by the following rule:
+
+
+
+ If the source address is explicitly specified by
+ the user (e.g. via the advanced API), the specified address
+ is used.
+
+
+
+ If there is an address assigned to the outgoing
+ interface (which is usually determined by looking up the
+ routing table) that has the same scope as the destination
+ address, the address is used.
+
+ This is the most typical case.
+
+
+
+ If there is no address that satisfies the above
+ condition, choose a global address assigned to one of
+ the interfaces on the sending node.
+
+
+
+ If there is no address that satisfies the above condition,
+ and destination address is site local scope, choose a site local
+ address assigned to one of the interfaces on the sending node.
+
+
+
+
+ If there is no address that satisfies the above condition,
+ choose the address associated with the routing table entry for the
+ destination. This is the last resort, which may cause scope
+ violation.
+
+
+
+ For instance, ::1 is selected for ff01::1,
+ fe80:1::200:f8ff:fe01:6317 for fe80:1::2a0:24ff:feab:839b (note
+ that embedded interface index - described in 23.5.1.3 - helps us
+ choose the right source address. Those embedded indices will not
+ be on the wire). If the outgoing interface has multiple address for
+ the scope, a source is selected longest match basis (rule 3). Suppose
+ 3ffe:501:808:1:200:f8ff:fe01:6317 and 3ffe:2001:9:124:200:f8ff:fe01:6317
+ are given to the outgoing interface. 3ffe:501:808:1:200:f8ff:fe01:6317
+ is chosen as the source for the destination 3ffe:501:800::1.
+
+ Note that the above rule is not documented in the IPv6 spec.
+ It is considered "up to implementation" item. There are some cases
+ where we do not use the above rule. One example is connected TCP
+ session, and we use the address kept in tcb as the source. Another
+ example is source address for Neighbor Advertisement. Under the spec
+ (RFC2461 7.2.2) NA's source should be the target address of the
+ corresponding NS's target. In this case we follow the spec rather
+ than the above longest-match rule.
+
+ For new connections (when rule 1 does not apply), deprecated
+ addresses (addresses with preferred lifetime = 0) will not be chosen
+ as source address if other choices are available. If no other choices
+ are available, deprecated address will be used as a last resort. If
+ there are multiple choice of deprecated addresses, the above scope
+ rule will be used to choose from those deprecated addresses. If you
+ would like to prohibit the use of deprecated address for some reason,
+ configure net.inet6.ip6.use_deprecated to 0. The issue related to
+ deprecated address is described in RFC2462 5.5.4 (NOTE: there is
+ some debate underway in IETF ipngwg on how to use "deprecated"
+ address).
+
+
+
+ Jumbo Payload
+
+ The Jumbo Payload hop-by-hop option is implemented and can
+ be used to send IPv6 packets with payloads longer than 65,535 octets.
+ But currently no physical interface whose MTU is more than 65,535 is
+ supported, so such payloads can be seen only on the loopback
+ interface (i.e. lo0).
+
+ If you want to try jumbo payloads, you first have to reconfigure
+ the kernel so that the MTU of the loopback interface is more than
+ 65,535 bytes; add the following to the kernel configuration file:
+
+
+ options "LARGE_LOMTU" #To test jumbo payload
+
+
+ and recompile the new kernel.
+
+ Then you can test jumbo payloads by the &man.ping6.8; command
+ with -b and -s options. The -b option must be specified to enlarge
+ the size of the socket buffer and the -s option specifies the length
+ of the packet, which should be more than 65,535. For example,
+ type as follows:
+
+ &prompt.user; ping6 -b 70000 -s 68000 ::1
+
+ The IPv6 specification requires that the Jumbo Payload option
+ must not be used in a packet that carries a fragment header. If
+ this condition is broken, an ICMPv6 Parameter Problem message must
+ be sent to the sender. specification is followed, but you cannot
+ usually see an ICMPv6 error caused by this requirement.
+
+ When an IPv6 packet is received, the frame length is checked and
+ compared to the length specified in the payload length field of the
+ IPv6 header or in the value of the Jumbo Payload option, if any. If
+ the former is shorter than the latter, the packet is discarded and
+ statistics are incremented. You can see the statistics as output of
+ &man.netstat.8; command with `-s -p ip6' option:
+
+ &prompt.user; netstat -s -p ip6
+ ip6:
+ (snip)
+ 1 with data size < data length
+
+ So, kernel does not send an ICMPv6 error unless the erroneous
+ packet is an actual Jumbo Payload, that is, its packet size is more
+ than 65,535 bytes. As described above, currently no physical interface
+ with such a huge MTU is supported, so it rarely returns an
+ ICMPv6 error.
+
+ TCP/UDP over jumbogram is not supported at this moment. This
+ is because we have no medium (other than loopback) to test this.
+ Contact us if you need this.
+
+ IPsec does not work on jumbograms. This is due to some
+ specification twists in supporting AH with jumbograms (AH header
+ size influences payload length, and this makes it real hard to
+ authenticate inbound packet with jumbo payload option as well as AH).
+
+
+ There are fundamental issues in *BSD support for jumbograms.
+ We would like to address those, but we need more time to finalize
+ these. To name a few:
+
+
+
+ mbuf pkthdr.len field is typed as "int" in 4.4BSD, so
+ it will not hold jumbogram with len > 2G on 32bit architecture
+ CPUs. If we would like to support jumbogram properly, the field
+ must be expanded to hold 4G + IPv6 header + link-layer header.
+ Therefore, it must be expanded to at least int64_t
+ (u_int32_t is NOT enough).
+
+
+
+ We mistakingly use "int" to hold packet length in many
+ places. We need to convert them into larger integral type.
+ It needs a great care, as we may experience overflow during
+ packet length computation.
+
+
+
+ We mistakingly check for ip6_plen field of IPv6 header
+ for packet payload length in various places. We should be
+ checking mbuf pkthdr.len instead. ip6_input() will perform
+ sanity check on jumbo payload option on input, and we can
+ safely use mbuf pkthdr.len afterwards.
+
+
+
+ TCP code needs a careful update in bunch of places, of
+ course.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Loop prevention in header processing
+
+ IPv6 specification allows arbitrary number of extension headers
+ to be placed onto packets. If we implement IPv6 packet processing
+ code in the way BSD IPv4 code is implemented, kernel stack may
+ overflow due to long function call chain. sys/netinet6 code
+ is carefully designed to avoid kernel stack overflow. Because of
+ this, sys/netinet6 code defines its own protocol switch
+ structure, as "struct ip6protosw" (see
+ netinet6/ip6protosw.h ). There is no such
+ update to IPv4 part (sys/netinet) for compatibility, but small
+ change is added to its pr_input() prototype. So "struct ipprotosw"
+ is also defined. Because of this, if you receive IPsec-over-IPv4
+ packet with massive number of IPsec headers, kernel stack may blow
+ up. IPsec-over-IPv6 is okay. (Off-course, for those all IPsec
+ headers to be processed, each such IPsec header must pass each
+ IPsec check. So an anonymous attacker will not be able to do such an
+ attack.)
+
+
+
+ ICMPv6
+
+ After RFC2463 was published, IETF ipngwg has decided to
+ disallow ICMPv6 error packet against ICMPv6 redirect, to prevent
+ ICMPv6 storm on a network medium. This is already implemented
+ into the kernel.
+
+
+
+ Applications
+
+ For userland programming, we support IPv6 socket API as
+ specified in RFC2553, RFC2292 and upcoming Internet drafts.
+
+ TCP/UDP over IPv6 is available and quite stable. You can
+ enjoy &man.telnet.1;, &man.ftp.1;, &man.rlogin.1;, &man.rsh.1;,
+ &man.ssh.1;, etc. These applications are protocol independent.
+ That is, they automatically chooses IPv4 or IPv6 according to DNS.
+
+
+
+
+ Kernel Internals
+
+ While ip_forward() calls ip_output(), ip6_forward() directly
+ calls if_output() since routers must not divide IPv6 packets into
+ fragments.
+
+ ICMPv6 should contain the original packet as long as possible
+ up to 1280. UDP6/IP6 port unreach, for instance, should contain
+ all extension headers and the *unchanged* UDP6 and IP6 headers.
+ So, all IP6 functions except TCP never convert network byte
+ order into host byte order, to save the original packet.
+
+ tcp_input(), udp6_input() and icmp6_input() can not assume that
+ IP6 header is preceding the transport headers due to extension
+ headers. So, in6_cksum() was implemented to handle packets whose IP6
+ header and transport header is not continuous. TCP/IP6 nor UDP6/IP6
+ header structures do not exist for checksum calculation.
+
+ To process IP6 header, extension headers and transport headers
+ easily, network drivers are now required to store packets in one
+ internal mbuf or one or more external mbufs. A typical old driver
+ prepares two internal mbufs for 96 - 204 bytes data, however, now
+ such packet data is stored in one external mbuf.
+
+ netstat -s -p ip6 tells you whether or not
+ your driver conforms such requirement. In the following example,
+ "cce0" violates the requirement. (For more information, refer to
+ Section 2.)
+
+ Mbuf statistics:
+ 317 one mbuf
+ two or more mbuf::
+ lo0 = 8
+ cce0 = 10
+ 3282 one ext mbuf
+ 0 two or more ext mbuf
+
+
+ Each input function calls IP6_EXTHDR_CHECK in the beginning to
+ check if the region between IP6 and its header is continuous.
+ IP6_EXTHDR_CHECK calls m_pullup() only if the mbuf has M_LOOP flag,
+ that is, the packet comes from the loopback interface. m_pullup()
+ is never called for packets coming from physical network interfaces.
+
+
+ Both IP and IP6 reassemble functions never call m_pullup().
+
+
+
+ IPv4 mapped address and IPv6 wildcard socket
+
+ RFC2553 describes IPv4 mapped address (3.7) and special behavior
+ of IPv6 wildcard bind socket (3.8). The spec allows you to:
+
+
+ Accept IPv4 connections by AF_INET6 wildcard bind
+ socket.
+
+
+ Transmit IPv4 packet over AF_INET6 socket by using
+ special form of the address like ::ffff:10.1.1.1.
+
+
+
+ but the spec itself is very complicated and does not specify
+ how the socket layer should behave. Here we call the former one
+ "listening side" and the latter one "initiating side", for
+ reference purposes.
+
+ You can perform wildcard bind on both of the address families,
+ on the same port.
+
+ The following table show the behavior of FreeBSD 4.x.
+
+ listening side initiating side
+ (AF_INET6 wildcard (connection to ::ffff:10.1.1.1)
+ socket gets IPv4 conn.)
+ --- ---
+FreeBSD 4.x configurable supported
+ default: enabled
+
+
+ The following sections will give you more details, and how you can
+ configure the behavior.
+
+ Comments on listening side:
+
+ It looks that RFC2553 talks too little on wildcard bind issue,
+ especially on the port space issue, failure mode and relationship
+ between AF_INET/INET6 wildcard bind. There can be several separate
+ interpretation for this RFC which conform to it but behaves differently.
+ So, to implement portable application you should assume nothing
+ about the behavior in the kernel. Using &man.getaddrinfo.3; is the
+ safest way. Port number space and wildcard bind issues were discussed
+ in detail on ipv6imp mailing list, in mid March 1999 and it looks
+ that there is no concrete consensus (means, up to implementers).
+ You may want to check the mailing list archives.
+
+ If a server application would like to accept IPv4 and IPv6
+ connections, there will be two alternatives.
+
+ One is using AF_INET and AF_INET6 socket (you will need two
+ sockets). Use &man.getaddrinfo.3; with AI_PASSIVE into ai_flags,
+ and &man.socket.2; and &man.bind.2; to all the addresses returned.
+ By opening multiple sockets, you can accept connections onto the
+ socket with proper address family. IPv4 connections will be
+ accepted by AF_INET socket, and IPv6 connections will be accepted
+ by AF_INET6 socket.
+
+ Another way is using one AF_INET6 wildcard bind socket. Use
+ &man.getaddrinfo.3; with AI_PASSIVE into ai_flags and with
+ AF_INET6 into ai_family, and set the 1st argument hostname to
+ NULL. And &man.socket.2; and &man.bind.2; to the address returned.
+ (should be IPv6 unspecified addr). You can accept either of IPv4
+ and IPv6 packet via this one socket.
+
+ To support only IPv6 traffic on AF_INET6 wildcard binded socket
+ portably, always check the peer address when a connection is made
+ toward AF_INET6 listening socket. If the address is IPv4 mapped
+ address, you may want to reject the connection. You can check the
+ condition by using IN6_IS_ADDR_V4MAPPED() macro.
+
+ To resolve this issue more easily, there is system dependent
+ &man.setsockopt.2; option, IPV6_BINDV6ONLY, used like below.
+
+ int on;
+
+ setsockopt(s, IPPROTO_IPV6, IPV6_BINDV6ONLY,
+ (char *)&on, sizeof (on)) < 0));
+
+
+ When this call succeed, then this socket only receive IPv6
+ packets.
+
+ Comments on initiating side:
+
+ Advise to application implementers: to implement a portable
+ IPv6 application (which works on multiple IPv6 kernels), we believe
+ that the following is the key to the success:
+
+
+
+ NEVER hardcode AF_INET nor AF_INET6.
+
+
+
+ Use &man.getaddrinfo.3; and &man.getnameinfo.3;
+ throughout the system. Never use gethostby*(), getaddrby*(),
+ inet_*() or getipnodeby*(). (To update existing applications
+ to be IPv6 aware easily, sometime getipnodeby*() will be
+ useful. But if possible, try to rewrite the code to use
+ &man.getaddrinfo.3; and &man.getnameinfo.3;.)
+
+
+
+ If you would like to connect to destination, use
+ &man.getaddrinfo.3; and try all the destination returned,
+ like &man.telnet.1; does.
+
+
+
+ Some of the IPv6 stack is shipped with buggy
+ &man.getaddrinfo.3;. Ship a minimal working version with
+ your application and use that as last resort.
+
+
+
+ If you would like to use AF_INET6 socket for both IPv4 and
+ IPv6 outgoing connection, you will need to use &man.getipnodebyname.3;.
+ When you would like to update your existing application to be IPv6
+ aware with minimal effort, this approach might be chosen. But please
+ note that it is a temporal solution, because &man.getipnodebyname.3;
+ itself is not recommended as it does not handle scoped IPv6 addresses
+ at all. For IPv6 name resolution, &man.getaddrinfo.3; is the
+ preferred API. So you should rewrite your application to use
+ &man.getaddrinfo.3;, when you get the time to do it.
+
+ When writing applications that make outgoing connections,
+ story goes much simpler if you treat AF_INET and AF_INET6 as totally
+ separate address family. {set,get}sockopt issue goes simpler,
+ DNS issue will be made simpler. We do not recommend you to rely
+ upon IPv4 mapped address.
+
+
+ unified tcp and inpcb code
+
+ FreeBSD 4.x uses shared tcp code between IPv4 and IPv6
+ (from sys/netinet/tcp*) and separate udp4/6 code. It uses
+ unified inpcb structure.
+
+ The platform can be configured to support IPv4 mapped address.
+ Kernel configuration is summarized as follows:
+
+
+
+ By default, AF_INET6 socket will grab IPv4
+ connections in certain condition, and can initiate
+ connection to IPv4 destination embedded in IPv4 mapped
+ IPv6 address.
+
+
+
+ You can disable it on entire system with sysctl like
+ below.
+
+
+ sysctl net.inet6.ip6.mapped_addr=0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ listening side
+
+ Each socket can be configured to support special AF_INET6
+ wildcard bind (enabled by default). You can disable it on
+ each socket basis with &man.setsockopt.2; like below.
+
+ int on;
+
+ setsockopt(s, IPPROTO_IPV6, IPV6_BINDV6ONLY,
+ (char *)&on, sizeof (on)) < 0));
+
+
+ Wildcard AF_INET6 socket grabs IPv4 connection if and only
+ if the following conditions are satisfied:
+
+
+
+ there is no AF_INET socket that matches the IPv4
+ connection
+
+
+
+ the AF_INET6 socket is configured to accept IPv4
+ traffic, i.e. getsockopt(IPV6_BINDV6ONLY) returns 0.
+
+
+
+ There is no problem with open/close ordering.
+
+
+
+ initiating side
+
+ FreeBSD 4.x supports outgoing connection to IPv4 mapped
+ address (::ffff:10.1.1.1), if the node is configured to support
+ IPv4 mapped address.
+
+
+
+
+
+ sockaddr_storage
+
+ When RFC2553 was about to be finalized, there was discussion on
+ how struct sockaddr_storage members are named. One proposal is to
+ prepend "__" to the members (like "__ss_len") as they should not be
+ touched. The other proposal was not to prepend it (like "ss_len")
+ as we need to touch those members directly. There was no clear
+ consensus on it.
+
+ As a result, RFC2553 defines struct sockaddr_storage as
+ follows:
+
+ struct sockaddr_storage {
+ u_char __ss_len; /* address length */
+ u_char __ss_family; /* address family */
+ /* and bunch of padding */
+ };
+
+
+ On the contrary, XNET draft defines as follows:
+
+ struct sockaddr_storage {
+ u_char ss_len; /* address length */
+ u_char ss_family; /* address family */
+ /* and bunch of padding */
+ };
+
+
+ In December 1999, it was agreed that RFC2553bis should pick
+ the latter (XNET) definition.
+
+ Current implementation conforms to XNET definition, based on
+ RFC2553bis discussion.
+
+ If you look at multiple IPv6 implementations, you will be able
+ to see both definitions. As an userland programmer, the most
+ portable way of dealing with it is to:
+
+
+
+ ensure ss_family and/or ss_len are available on the
+ platform, by using GNU autoconf,
+
+
+
+ have -Dss_family=__ss_family to unify all occurrences
+ (including header file) into __ss_family, or
+
+
+
+ never touch __ss_family. cast to sockaddr * and use sa_family
+ like:
+
+ struct sockaddr_storage ss;
+ family = ((struct sockaddr *)&ss)->sa_family
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Network Drivers
+
+ Now following two items are required to be supported by standard
+ drivers:
+
+
+
+ mbuf clustering requirement. In this stable release, we
+ changed MINCLSIZE into MHLEN+1 for all the operating systems
+ in order to make all the drivers behave as we expect.
+
+
+
+ multicast. If &man.ifmcstat.8; yields no multicast group for
+ a interface, that interface has to be patched.
+
+
+
+ If any of the drivers do not support the requirements, then
+ the drivers can not be used for IPv6 and/or IPsec communication. If
+ you find any problem with your card using IPv6/IPsec, then, please
+ report it to the &a.bugs;.
+
+ (NOTE: In the past we required all PCMCIA drivers to have a
+ call to in6_ifattach(). We have no such requirement any more)
+
+
+
+ Translator
+
+ We categorize IPv4/IPv6 translator into 4 types:
+
+
+
+ Translator A --- It is used in the early
+ stage of transition to make it possible to establish a
+ connection from an IPv6 host in an IPv6 island to an IPv4 host
+ in the IPv4 ocean.
+
+
+
+ Translator B --- It is used in the early
+ stage of transition to make it possible to establish a connection
+ from an IPv4 host in the IPv4 ocean to an IPv6 host in an
+ IPv6 island.
+
+
+
+ Translator C --- It is used in the late
+ stage of transition to make it possible to establish a
+ connection from an IPv4 host in an IPv4 island to an IPv6 host
+ in the IPv6 ocean.
+
+
+
+ Translator D --- It is used in the late
+ stage of transition to make it possible to establish a
+ connection from an IPv6 host in the IPv6 ocean to an IPv4 host
+ in an IPv4 island.
+
+
+
+ TCP relay translator for category A is supported. This is called
+ "FAITH". We also provide IP header translator for category A.
+ (The latter is not yet put into FreeBSD 4.x yet.)
+
+
+ FAITH TCP relay translator
+
+ FAITH system uses TCP relay daemon called &man.faithd.8; helped
+ by the kernel. FAITH will reserve an IPv6 address prefix, and relay
+ TCP connection toward that prefix to IPv4 destination.
+
+ For example, if the reserved IPv6 prefix is
+ 3ffe:0501:0200:ffff::, and the IPv6 destination for TCP connection
+ is 3ffe:0501:0200:ffff::163.221.202.12, the connection will be
+ relayed toward IPv4 destination 163.221.202.12.
+
+ destination IPv4 node (163.221.202.12)
+ ^
+ | IPv4 tcp toward 163.221.202.12
+ FAITH-relay dual stack node
+ ^
+ | IPv6 TCP toward 3ffe:0501:0200:ffff::163.221.202.12
+ source IPv6 node
+
+
+ &man.faithd.8; must be invoked on FAITH-relay dual stack
+ node.
+
+ For more details, consult
+ src/usr.sbin/faithd/README
+
+
+
+
+ IPsec
+
+ IPsec is mainly organized by three components.
+
+
+
+ Policy Management
+
+
+
+ Key Management
+
+
+
+ AH and ESP handling
+
+
+
+
+ Policy Management
+
+ The kernel implements experimental policy management code.
+ There are two way to manage security policy. One is to configure
+ per-socket policy using &man.setsockopt.2;. In this cases, policy
+ configuration is described in &man.ipsec.set.policy.3;. The other
+ is to configure kernel packet filter-based policy using PF_KEY
+ interface, via &man.setkey.8;.
+
+ The policy entry is not re-ordered with its
+ indexes, so the order of entry when you add is very significant.
+
+
+
+ Key Management
+
+ The key management code implemented in this kit (sys/netkey)
+ is a home-brew PFKEY v2 implementation. This conforms to RFC2367.
+
+
+ The home-brew IKE daemon, "racoon" is included in the
+ kit (kame/kame/racoon). Basically you will need to run racoon as
+ daemon, then set up a policy to require keys (like
+ ping -P 'out ipsec esp/transport//use' ).
+ The kernel will contact racoon daemon as necessary to exchange
+ keys.
+
+
+
+ AH and ESP handling
+
+ IPsec module is implemented as "hooks" to the standard IPv4/IPv6
+ processing. When sending a packet, ip{,6}_output() checks if ESP/AH
+ processing is required by checking if a matching SPD (Security
+ Policy Database) is found. If ESP/AH is needed,
+ {esp,ah}{4,6}_output() will be called and mbuf will be updated
+ accordingly. When a packet is received, {esp,ah}4_input() will be
+ called based on protocol number, i.e. (*inetsw[proto])().
+ {esp,ah}4_input() will decrypt/check authenticity of the packet,
+ and strips off daisy-chained header and padding for ESP/AH. It is
+ safe to strip off the ESP/AH header on packet reception, since we
+ will never use the received packet in "as is" form.
+
+ By using ESP/AH, TCP4/6 effective data segment size will be
+ affected by extra daisy-chained headers inserted by ESP/AH. Our
+ code takes care of the case.
+
+ Basic crypto functions can be found in directory "sys/crypto".
+ ESP/AH transform are listed in {esp,ah}_core.c with wrapper functions.
+ If you wish to add some algorithm, add wrapper function in
+ {esp,ah}_core.c, and add your crypto algorithm code into
+ sys/crypto.
+
+ Tunnel mode is partially supported in this release, with the
+ following restrictions:
+
+
+
+ IPsec tunnel is not combined with GIF generic tunneling
+ interface. It needs a great care because we may create an
+ infinite loop between ip_output() and tunnelifp->if_output().
+ Opinion varies if it is better to unify them, or not.
+
+
+
+ MTU and Don't Fragment bit (IPv4) considerations need more
+ checking, but basically works fine.
+
+
+
+ Authentication model for AH tunnel must be revisited.
+ We will need to improve the policy management engine,
+ eventually.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Conformance to RFCs and IDs
+
+ The IPsec code in the kernel conforms (or, tries to conform)
+ to the following standards:
+
+ "old IPsec" specification documented in
+ rfc182[5-9].txt
+
+ "new IPsec" specification documented in
+ rfc240[1-6].txt ,
+ rfc241[01].txt , rfc2451.txt
+ and draft-mcdonald-simple-ipsec-api-01.txt
+ (draft expired, but you can take from
+ ftp://ftp.kame.net/pub/internet-drafts/ ).
+ (NOTE: IKE specifications, rfc241[7-9].txt are
+ implemented in userland, as "racoon" IKE daemon)
+
+ Currently supported algorithms are:
+
+
+ old IPsec AH
+
+
+ null crypto checksum (no document, just for
+ debugging)
+
+
+ keyed MD5 with 128bit crypto checksum
+ (rfc1828.txt )
+
+
+ keyed SHA1 with 128bit crypto checksum
+ (no document)
+
+
+ HMAC MD5 with 128bit crypto checksum
+ (rfc2085.txt )
+
+
+ HMAC SHA1 with 128bit crypto checksum
+ (no document)
+
+
+
+
+
+ old IPsec ESP
+
+
+ null encryption (no document, similar to
+ rfc2410.txt )
+
+
+ DES-CBC mode (rfc1829.txt )
+
+
+
+
+
+ new IPsec AH
+
+
+ null crypto checksum (no document,
+ just for debugging)
+
+
+ keyed MD5 with 96bit crypto checksum
+ (no document)
+
+
+ keyed SHA1 with 96bit crypto checksum
+ (no document)
+
+
+ HMAC MD5 with 96bit crypto checksum
+ (rfc2403.txt )
+
+
+ HMAC SHA1 with 96bit crypto checksum
+ (rfc2404.txt )
+
+
+
+
+
+ new IPsec ESP
+
+
+ null encryption
+ (rfc2410.txt )
+
+
+ DES-CBC with derived IV
+ (draft-ietf-ipsec-ciph-des-derived-01.txt ,
+ draft expired)
+
+
+ DES-CBC with explicit IV
+ (rfc2405.txt )
+
+
+ 3DES-CBC with explicit IV
+ (rfc2451.txt )
+
+
+ BLOWFISH CBC
+ (rfc2451.txt )
+
+
+ CAST128 CBC
+ (rfc2451.txt )
+
+
+ RC5 CBC
+ (rfc2451.txt )
+
+
+ each of the above can be combined with:
+
+
+ ESP authentication with HMAC-MD5(96bit)
+
+
+ ESP authentication with HMAC-SHA1(96bit)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ The following algorithms are NOT supported:
+
+
+
+ old IPsec AH
+
+
+
+ HMAC MD5 with 128bit crypto checksum + 64bit
+ replay prevention (rfc2085.txt )
+
+
+ keyed SHA1 with 160bit crypto checksum + 32bit padding
+ (rfc1852.txt )
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ IPsec (in kernel) and IKE (in userland as "racoon") has been
+ tested at several interoperability test events, and it is known to
+ interoperate with many other implementations well. Also, current
+ IPsec implementation as quite wide coverage for IPsec crypto
+ algorithms documented in RFC (we cover algorithms without intellectual
+ property issues only).
+
+
+
+ ECN consideration on IPsec tunnels
+
+ ECN-friendly IPsec tunnel is supported as described in
+ draft-ipsec-ecn-00.txt .
+
+ Normal IPsec tunnel is described in RFC2401. On encapsulation,
+ IPv4 TOS field (or, IPv6 traffic class field) will be copied from inner
+ IP header to outer IP header. On decapsulation outer IP header
+ will be simply dropped. The decapsulation rule is not compatible
+ with ECN, since ECN bit on the outer IP TOS/traffic class field will be
+ lost.
+
+ To make IPsec tunnel ECN-friendly, we should modify encapsulation
+ and decapsulation procedure. This is described in
+ http://www.aciri.org/floyd/papers/draft-ipsec-ecn-00.txt ,
+ chapter 3.
+
+ IPsec tunnel implementation can give you three behaviors, by
+ setting net.inet.ipsec.ecn (or net.inet6.ipsec6.ecn) to some
+ value:
+
+
+
+ RFC2401: no consideration for ECN (sysctl value -1)
+
+
+ ECN forbidden (sysctl value 0)
+
+
+ ECN allowed (sysctl value 1)
+
+
+
+ Note that the behavior is configurable in per-node manner,
+ not per-SA manner (draft-ipsec-ecn-00 wants per-SA configuration,
+ but it looks too much for me).
+
+ The behavior is summarized as follows (see source code for
+ more detail):
+
+
+ encapsulate decapsulate
+ --- ---
+RFC2401 copy all TOS bits drop TOS bits on outer
+ from inner to outer. (use inner TOS bits as is)
+
+ECN forbidden copy TOS bits except for ECN drop TOS bits on outer
+ (masked with 0xfc) from inner (use inner TOS bits as is)
+ to outer. set ECN bits to 0.
+
+ECN allowed copy TOS bits except for ECN use inner TOS bits with some
+ CE (masked with 0xfe) from change. if outer ECN CE bit
+ inner to outer. is 1, enable ECN CE bit on
+ set ECN CE bit to 0. the inner.
+
+
+
+ General strategy for configuration is as follows:
+
+
+ if both IPsec tunnel endpoint are capable of ECN-friendly
+ behavior, you should better configure both end to ECN allowed
+ (sysctl value 1).
+
+
+ if the other end is very strict about TOS bit, use "RFC2401"
+ (sysctl value -1).
+
+
+ in other cases, use "ECN forbidden" (sysctl value 0).
+
+
+
+ The default behavior is "ECN forbidden" (sysctl value 0).
+
+ For more information, please refer to:
+
+
+ http://www.aciri.org/floyd/papers/draft-ipsec-ecn-00.txt ,
+ RFC2481 (Explicit Congestion Notification),
+ src/sys/netinet6/{ah,esp}_input.c
+
+ (Thanks goes to Kenjiro Cho kjc@csl.sony.co.jp
+ for detailed analysis)
+
+
+
+ Interoperability
+
+ Here are (some of) platforms that KAME code have tested
+ IPsec/IKE interoperability in the past. Note that both ends may
+ have modified their implementation, so use the following list just
+ for reference purposes.
+
+ Altiga, Ashley-laurent (vpcom.com), Data Fellows (F-Secure),
+ Ericsson ACC, FreeS/WAN, HITACHI, IBM &aix;, IIJ, Intel,
+ µsoft; &windowsnt;, NIST (linux IPsec + plutoplus), Netscreen, OpenBSD,
+ RedCreek, Routerware, SSH, Secure Computing, Soliton, Toshiba,
+ VPNet, Yamaha RT100i
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..a6d190e942
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+#
+# Build the Handbook with just the content from this chapter.
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+
+CHAPTERS= kerneldebug/chapter.sgml
+
+VPATH= ..
+
+MASTERDOC= ${.CURDIR}/../${DOC}.${DOCBOOKSUFFIX}
+
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../../..
+
+.include "../Makefile"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..80699108bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,868 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Paul
+ Richards
+ Contributed by
+
+
+ Jörg
+ Wunsch
+
+
+
+
+ Kernel Debugging
+
+
+ Obtaining a Kernel Crash Dump
+
+ When running a development kernel (eg: &os.current;), such as a
+ kernel under extreme conditions (eg: very high load averages,
+ tens of thousands of connections, exceedingly high number of
+ concurrent users, hundreds of &man.jail.8;s, etc.), or using a
+ new feature or device driver on &os.stable; (eg:
+ PAE ), sometimes a kernel will panic. In the
+ event that it does, this chapter will demonstrate how to extract
+ useful information out of a crash.
+
+ A system reboot is inevitable once a kernel panics. Once a
+ system is rebooted, the contents of a system's physical memory
+ (RAM ) is lost, as well as any bits that are
+ on the swap device before the panic. To preserve the bits in
+ physical memory, the kernel makes use of the swap device as a
+ temporary place to store the bits that are in RAM across a
+ reboot after a crash. In doing this, when &os; boots after a
+ crash, a kernel image can now be extracted and debugging can
+ take place.
+
+ A swap device that has been configured as a dump
+ device still acts as a swap device. Dumps to non-swap devices
+ (such as tapes or CDRWs, for example) are not supported at this time. A
+ swap device
is synonymous with a swap
+ partition.
+
+ To be able to extract a usable core, it is required that at
+ least one swap partition be large enough to hold all of the bits
+ in physical memory. When a kernel panics, before the system
+ reboots, the kernel is smart enough to check to see if a swap
+ device has been configured as a dump device. If there is a
+ valid dump device, the kernel dumps the contents of what is in
+ physical memory to the swap device.
+
+
+ Configuring the Dump Device
+
+ Before the kernel will dump the contents of its physical
+ memory to a dump device, a dump device must be configured. A
+ dump device is specified by using the &man.dumpon.8; command
+ to tell the kernel where to save kernel crash dumps. The
+ &man.dumpon.8; program must be called after the swap partition
+ has been configured with &man.swapon.8;. This is normally
+ handled by setting the dumpdev variable in
+ &man.rc.conf.5; to the path of the swap device (the
+ recommended way to extract a kernel dump).
+
+ Alternatively, the dump device can be hard-coded via the
+ dump clause in the &man.config.5; line of
+ a kernel configuration file. This approach is deprecated and should
+ be used only if a kernel is crashing before &man.dumpon.8; can be executed.
+
+ Check /etc/fstab or
+ &man.swapinfo.8; for a list of swap devices.
+
+ Make sure the dumpdir
+ specified in &man.rc.conf.5; exists before a kernel
+ crash!
+
+ &prompt.root; mkdir /var/crash
+&prompt.root; chmod 700 /var/crash
+
+ Also, remember that the contents of
+ /var/crash is sensitive and very likely
+ contains confidential information such as passwords.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Debugging a Kernel Crash Dump with kgdb
+
+
+ This section covers &man.kgdb.1; as found in &os; 5.3
+ and later. In previous versions, one must use
+ gdb -k to read a core dump file.
+
+
+ Once a dump has been obtained, getting useful information
+ out of the dump is relatively easy for simple problems. Before
+ launching into the internals of &man.kgdb.1; to debug
+ the crash dump, locate the debug version of your kernel
+ (normally called kernel.debug ) and the path
+ to the source files used to build your kernel (normally
+ /usr/obj/usr/src/sys/KERNCONF ,
+ where KERNCONF
+ is the ident specified in a kernel
+ &man.config.5;). With those two pieces of info, let the
+ debugging commence!
+
+ To enter into the debugger and begin getting information
+ from the dump, the following steps are required at a minimum:
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/obj/usr/src/sys/KERNCONF
+&prompt.root; kgdb kernel.debug /var/crash/vmcore.0
+
+ You can debug the crash dump using the kernel sources just like
+ you can for any other program.
+
+ This first dump is from a 5.2-BETA kernel and the crash
+ comes from deep within the kernel. The output below has been
+ modified to include line numbers on the left. This first trace
+ inspects the instruction pointer and obtains a back trace. The
+ address that is used on line 41 for the list
+ command is the instruction pointer and can be found on line
+ 17. Most developers will request having at least this
+ information sent to them if you are unable to debug the problem
+ yourself. If, however, you do solve the problem, make sure that
+ your patch winds its way into the source tree via a problem
+ report, mailing lists, or by being able to commit it!
+
+ 1:&prompt.root; cd /usr/obj/usr/src/sys/KERNCONF
+ 2:&prompt.root; kgdb kernel.debug /var/crash/vmcore.0
+ 3:GNU gdb 5.2.1 (FreeBSD)
+ 4:Copyright 2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+ 5:GDB is free software, covered by the GNU General Public License, and you are
+ 6:welcome to change it and/or distribute copies of it under certain conditions.
+ 7:Type "show copying" to see the conditions.
+ 8:There is absolutely no warranty for GDB. Type "show warranty" for details.
+ 9:This GDB was configured as "i386-undermydesk-freebsd"...
+10:panic: page fault
+11:panic messages:
+12:---
+13:Fatal trap 12: page fault while in kernel mode
+14:cpuid = 0; apic id = 00
+15:fault virtual address = 0x300
+16:fault code: = supervisor read, page not present
+17:instruction pointer = 0x8:0xc0713860
+18:stack pointer = 0x10:0xdc1d0b70
+19:frame pointer = 0x10:0xdc1d0b7c
+20:code segment = base 0x0, limit 0xfffff, type 0x1b
+21: = DPL 0, pres 1, def32 1, gran 1
+22:processor eflags = resume, IOPL = 0
+23:current process = 14394 (uname)
+24:trap number = 12
+25:panic: page fault
+26 cpuid = 0;
+27:Stack backtrace:
+28
+29:syncing disks, buffers remaining... 2199 2199 panic: mi_switch: switch in a critical section
+30:cpuid = 0;
+31:Uptime: 2h43m19s
+32:Dumping 255 MB
+33: 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240
+34:---
+35:Reading symbols from /boot/kernel/snd_maestro3.ko...done.
+36:Loaded symbols for /boot/kernel/snd_maestro3.ko
+37:Reading symbols from /boot/kernel/snd_pcm.ko...done.
+38:Loaded symbols for /boot/kernel/snd_pcm.ko
+39:#0 doadump () at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_shutdown.c:240
+40:240 dumping++;
+41:(kgdb) list *0xc0713860
+42:0xc0713860 is in lapic_ipi_wait (/usr/src/sys/i386/i386/local_apic.c:663).
+43:658 incr = 0;
+44:659 delay = 1;
+45:660 } else
+46:661 incr = 1;
+47:662 for (x = 0; x < delay; x += incr) {
+48:663 if ((lapic->icr_lo & APIC_DELSTAT_MASK) == APIC_DELSTAT_IDLE)
+49:664 return (1);
+50:665 ia32_pause();
+51:666 }
+52:667 return (0);
+53:(kgdb) backtrace
+54:#0 doadump () at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_shutdown.c:240
+55:#1 0xc055fd9b in boot (howto=260) at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_shutdown.c:372
+56:#2 0xc056019d in panic () at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_shutdown.c:550
+57:#3 0xc0567ef5 in mi_switch () at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_synch.c:470
+58:#4 0xc055fa87 in boot (howto=256) at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_shutdown.c:312
+59:#5 0xc056019d in panic () at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_shutdown.c:550
+60:#6 0xc0720c66 in trap_fatal (frame=0xdc1d0b30, eva=0)
+61: at /usr/src/sys/i386/i386/trap.c:821
+62:#7 0xc07202b3 in trap (frame=
+63: {tf_fs = -1065484264, tf_es = -1065484272, tf_ds = -1065484272, tf_edi = 1, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -602076292, tf_isp = -602076324, tf_ebx = 0, tf_edx = 0, tf_ecx = 1000000, tf_eax = 243, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = 0, tf_eip = -1066321824, tf_cs = 8, tf_eflags = 65671, tf_esp = 243, tf_ss = 0})
+64: at /usr/src/sys/i386/i386/trap.c:250
+65:#8 0xc070c9f8 in calltrap () at {standard input}:94
+66:#9 0xc07139f3 in lapic_ipi_vectored (vector=0, dest=0)
+67: at /usr/src/sys/i386/i386/local_apic.c:733
+68:#10 0xc0718b23 in ipi_selected (cpus=1, ipi=1)
+69: at /usr/src/sys/i386/i386/mp_machdep.c:1115
+70:#11 0xc057473e in kseq_notify (ke=0xcc05e360, cpu=0)
+71: at /usr/src/sys/kern/sched_ule.c:520
+72:#12 0xc0575cad in sched_add (td=0xcbcf5c80)
+73: at /usr/src/sys/kern/sched_ule.c:1366
+74:#13 0xc05666c6 in setrunqueue (td=0xcc05e360)
+75: at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_switch.c:422
+76:#14 0xc05752f4 in sched_wakeup (td=0xcbcf5c80)
+77: at /usr/src/sys/kern/sched_ule.c:999
+78:#15 0xc056816c in setrunnable (td=0xcbcf5c80)
+79: at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_synch.c:570
+80:#16 0xc0567d53 in wakeup (ident=0xcbcf5c80)
+81: at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_synch.c:411
+82:#17 0xc05490a8 in exit1 (td=0xcbcf5b40, rv=0)
+83: at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_exit.c:509
+84:#18 0xc0548011 in sys_exit () at /usr/src/sys/kern/kern_exit.c:102
+85:#19 0xc0720fd0 in syscall (frame=
+86: {tf_fs = 47, tf_es = 47, tf_ds = 47, tf_edi = 0, tf_esi = -1, tf_ebp = -1077940712, tf_isp = -602075788, tf_ebx = 672411944, tf_edx = 10, tf_ecx = 672411600, tf_eax = 1, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = 2, tf_eip = 671899563, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 642, tf_esp = -1077940740, tf_ss = 47})
+87: at /usr/src/sys/i386/i386/trap.c:1010
+88:#20 0xc070ca4d in Xint0x80_syscall () at {standard input}:136
+89:---Can't read userspace from dump, or kernel process---
+90:(kgdb) quit
+
+
+ This next trace is an older dump from the FreeBSD 2 time
+ frame, but is more involved and demonstrates more of the
+ features of gdb . Long lines have been folded
+ to improve readability, and the lines are numbered for
+ reference. Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken
+ during the development of the pcvt console driver.
+
+ 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994
+ 2:&prompt.root; cd /sys/compile/URIAH
+ 3:&prompt.root; gdb -k kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1
+ 4:Reading symbol data from /usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel
+...done.
+ 5:IdlePTD 1f3000
+ 6:panic: because you said to!
+ 7:current pcb at 1e3f70
+ 8:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done.
+ 9:(kgdb) backtrace
+10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767)
+11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic ()
+12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie () (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698)
+13:#3 0xf010185e in db_fncall ()
+14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132, -266509516, -267381073)
+15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop ()
+16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap ()
+17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap (12, 0, -272630436, -266743723)
+18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal (...)
+19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...)
+20:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (...)
+21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap ()
+22:#12 0xf0191503 in cnopen (...)
+23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open ()
+24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open ()
+25:#15 0xf012a183 in open ()
+26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...)
+27:(kgdb) up 10
+28:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done.
+29:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\
+30:edi = 3072, tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\
+31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx = -266427884, tf\
+32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = -272695296, tf_eip = -26\
+33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368, tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\
+34:ss = -266427884}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283)
+35:283 (void) trap_pfault(&frame, FALSE);
+36:(kgdb) frame frame->tf_ebp frame->tf_eip
+37:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done.
+38:#0 0xf01ae729 in pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\
+39:roc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403)
+40:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp));
+41:(kgdb) list
+42:398
+43:399 tp->t_state |= TS_CARR_ON;
+44:400 tp->t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /* cannot be a modem (:-) */
+45:401
+46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200)
+47:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp));
+48:404 #else
+49:405 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp, flag));
+50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) */
+51:407 }
+52:(kgdb) print tp
+53:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done.
+54:$1 = (struct tty *) 0x1bae
+55:(kgdb) print tp->t_line
+56:$2 = 1767990816
+57:(kgdb) up
+58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\
+59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126)
+60: return ((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p));
+61:(kgdb) up
+62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open ()
+63:(kgdb) up
+64:#3 0xf012d014 in vn_open ()
+65:(kgdb) up
+66:#4 0xf012a183 in open ()
+67:(kgdb) up
+68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39, tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\
+69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\
+70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1, tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \
+71:tf_err = 582, tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \
+72:= -272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673)
+73:673 error = (*callp->sy_call)(p, args, rval);
+74:(kgdb) up
+75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up.
+76:(kgdb) quit
+ Comments to the above script:
+
+
+
+ line 6:
+
+
+ This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence the
+ panic comment because you said to!
, and a rather
+ long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a
+ page fault trap though.
+
+
+
+
+ line 20:
+
+
+ This is the location of function trap()
+ in the stack trace.
+
+
+
+
+ line 36:
+
+
+ Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer necessary.
+ The stack frames are supposed to point to the right
+ locations now, even in case of a trap.
+ From looking at the code in source line 403, there is a
+ high probability that either the pointer access for
+ tp
was messed up, or the array access was out of
+ bounds.
+
+
+
+
+ line 52:
+
+
+ The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid
+ address.
+
+
+
+
+ line 56:
+
+
+ However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have found our
+ error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular piece of code:
+ tp->t_line refers to the line discipline of
+ the console device here, which must be a rather small integer
+ number.)
+
+
+
+
+ If your system is crashing regularly and you are running
+ out of disk space, deleting old vmcore
+ files in /var/crash could save a
+ considerable amount of disk space!
+
+
+
+ Debugging a Crash Dump with DDD
+
+ Examining a kernel crash dump with a graphical debugger like
+ ddd is also possible (you will need to install
+ the devel/ddd port in order to use the
+ ddd debugger). Add the -k
+ option to the ddd command line you would use
+ normally. For example;
+
+ &prompt.root; ddd -k /var/crash/kernel.0 /var/crash/vmcore.0
+
+ You should then be able to go about looking at the crash dump using
+ ddd 's graphical interface.
+
+
+
+ Post-Mortem Analysis of a Dump
+
+ What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect it,
+ and it is therefore not compiled using config -g ? Not
+ everything is lost here. Do not panic!
+
+ Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above for the
+ options you have to specify in order to do this.
+
+ Go to your kernel config directory
+ (/usr/src/sys/arch /conf )
+ and edit your configuration file. Uncomment (or add, if it does not
+ exist) the following line:
+
+ makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols
+
+ Rebuild the kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile,
+ some other object files will be rebuilt, for example
+ trap.o . With a bit of luck, the added
+ -g option will not change anything for the generated
+ code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar code to the
+ faulting one but with some debugging symbols. You should at least verify the
+ old and new sizes with the &man.size.1; command. If there is a
+ mismatch, you probably need to give up here.
+
+ Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging symbols
+ might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the stack trace
+ in the example above where some functions are displayed without line
+ numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging symbols, remove
+ the appropriate object files, recompile the kernel again and repeat the
+ gdb -k
+ session until you know enough.
+
+ All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in most
+ cases.
+
+
+
+ On-Line Kernel Debugging Using DDB
+
+ While gdb -k as an off-line debugger provides a very
+ high level of user interface, there are some things it cannot do. The
+ most important ones being breakpointing and single-stepping kernel
+ code.
+
+ If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is an
+ on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows setting of
+ breakpoints, single-stepping kernel functions, examining and changing
+ kernel variables, etc. However, it cannot access kernel source files,
+ and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to the full
+ debug information like gdb does.
+
+ To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line
+
+ options DDB
+
+ to your config file, and rebuild. (See The FreeBSD Handbook for details on
+ configuring the FreeBSD kernel).
+
+
+ If you have an older version of the boot blocks, your
+ debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot blocks;
+ the recent ones load the DDB symbols automatically.
+
+
+ Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter
+ DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag
+ -d right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start up
+ in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device probing. Hence you can
+ even debug the device probe/attach functions.
+
+ The second scenario is to drop to the debugger once the
+ system has booted. There are two simple ways to accomplish
+ this. If you would like to break to the debugger from the
+ command prompt, simply type the command:
+
+ &prompt.root; sysctl debug.enter_debugger=ddb
+
+ Alternatively, if you are at the system console, you may use
+ a hot-key on the keyboard. The default break-to-debugger
+ sequence is Ctrl
+ Alt ESC . For
+ syscons, this sequence can be remapped and some of the
+ distributed maps out there do this, so check to make sure you
+ know the right sequence to use. There is an option available
+ for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on the
+ console line to enter DDB (options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER
+ in the kernel config file). It is not the default since there are a lot
+ of serial adapters around that gratuitously generate a BREAK
+ condition, for example when pulling the cable.
+
+ The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if the
+ kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not wise to
+ configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running unattended.
+
+ The DDB commands roughly resemble some gdb
+ commands. The first thing you probably need to do is to set a
+ breakpoint:
+
+ b function-name
+b address
+
+ Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them distinct
+ from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the letters
+ a-f need to be preceded with 0x
+ (this is optional for other numbers). Simple expressions are allowed,
+ for example: function-name + 0x103 .
+
+ To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply
+ type:
+
+ c
+
+ To get a stack trace, use:
+
+ trace
+
+
+ Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is currently
+ servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not of much use
+ to you.
+
+
+ If you want to remove a breakpoint, use
+
+
+ del
+del address-expression
+
+ The first form will be accepted immediately after a breakpoint hit,
+ and deletes the current breakpoint. The second form can remove any
+ breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact address; this can be
+ obtained from:
+
+ show b
+
+ To single-step the kernel, try:
+
+ s
+
+ This will step into functions, but you can make DDB trace them until
+ the matching return statement is reached by:
+
+ n
+
+
+ This is different from gdb 's
+ next statement; it is like gdb 's
+ finish .
+
+
+ To examine data from memory, use (for example):
+
+ x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40
+x/hd db_symtab_space
+x/bc termbuf,10
+x/s stringbuf
+
+ for word/halfword/byte access, and hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string
+ display. The number after the comma is the object count. To display
+ the next 0x10 items, simply use:
+
+ x ,10
+
+ Similarly, use
+
+ x/ia foofunc,10
+
+ to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of
+ foofunc , and display them along with their offset
+ from the beginning of foofunc .
+
+ To modify memory, use the write command:
+
+ w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0
+w/w 0xf0010030 0 0
+
+ The command modifier
+ (b /h /w )
+ specifies the size of the data to be written, the first following
+ expression is the address to write to and the remainder is interpreted
+ as data to write to successive memory locations.
+
+ If you need to know the current registers, use:
+
+ show reg
+
+ Alternatively, you can display a single register value by e.g.
+
+ p $eax
+
+ and modify it by:
+
+ set $eax new-value
+
+ Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply
+ say:
+
+ call func(arg1, arg2, ...)
+
+ The return value will be printed.
+
+ For a &man.ps.1; style summary of all running processes, use:
+
+ ps
+
+ Now you have examined why your kernel failed, and you wish to
+ reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous
+ malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working as
+ expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and reboot
+ your system:
+
+ panic
+
+ This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can
+ later analyze the core on a higher level with gdb . This command
+ usually must be followed by another continue
+ statement.
+
+ call boot(0)
+
+ Which might be a good way to cleanly shut down the running system,
+ sync() all disks, and finally reboot. As long as
+ the disk and filesystem interfaces of the kernel are not damaged, this
+ might be a good way for an almost clean shutdown.
+
+ call cpu_reset()
+
+ This is the final way out of disaster and almost the same as hitting the
+ Big Red Button.
+
+ If you need a short command summary, simply type:
+
+ help
+
+ However, it is highly recommended to have a printed copy of the
+ &man.ddb.4; manual page ready for a debugging
+ session. Remember that it is hard to read the on-line manual while
+ single-stepping the kernel.
+
+
+
+ On-Line Kernel Debugging Using Remote GDB
+
+ This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it is
+ actually a very neat one.
+
+ GDB has already supported remote debugging for
+ a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a serial
+ line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will need two
+ machines for doing this. One is the host providing the debugging
+ environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the kernel binary
+ with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the target machine that
+ simply runs a similar copy of the very same kernel (but stripped of the
+ debugging information).
+
+ You should configure the kernel in question with config
+ -g , include DDB into the configuration, and
+ compile it as usual. This gives a large binary, due to the
+ debugging information. Copy this kernel to the target machine, strip
+ the debugging symbols off with strip -x , and boot it
+ using the -d boot option. Connect the serial line
+ of the target machine that has "flags 080" set on its sio device
+ to any serial line of the debugging host.
+ Now, on the debugging machine, go to the compile directory of the target
+ kernel, and start gdb :
+
+ &prompt.user; gdb -k kernel
+GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it
+ under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions.
+There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details.
+GDB 4.16 (i386-unknown-freebsd),
+Copyright 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc...
+(kgdb)
+
+ Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first serial
+ port is being used) by:
+
+ (kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0
+
+ Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before even
+ starting the device probe), type:
+
+ Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger")
+Stopped at Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc
+db> gdb
+
+ DDB will respond with:
+
+ Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode
+
+ Every time you type gdb , the mode will be toggled
+ between remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap
+ immediately, simply type s (step). Your hosting GDB
+ will now gain control over the target kernel:
+
+ Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0
+Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383 "Boot flags requested debugger")
+ at ../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257
+(kgdb)
+
+ You can use this session almost as any other GDB session, including
+ full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside an Emacs window
+ (which gives you an automatic source code display in another Emacs
+ window), etc.
+
+
+
+ Debugging Loadable Modules Using GDB
+
+ When debugging a panic that occurred within a module, or
+ using remote GDB against a machine that uses dynamic modules,
+ you need to tell GDB how to obtain symbol information for those
+ modules.
+
+ First, you need to build the module(s) with debugging
+ information:
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /sys/modules/linux
+&prompt.root; make clean; make COPTS=-g
+
+ If you are using remote GDB, you can run
+ kldstat on the target machine to find out
+ where the module was loaded:
+
+ &prompt.root; kldstat
+Id Refs Address Size Name
+ 1 4 0xc0100000 1c1678 kernel
+ 2 1 0xc0a9e000 6000 linprocfs.ko
+ 3 1 0xc0ad7000 2000 warp_saver.ko
+ 4 1 0xc0adc000 11000 linux.ko
+
+ If you are debugging a crash dump, you will need to walk the
+ linker_files list, starting at
+ linker_files->tqh_first and following the
+ link.tqe_next pointers until you find the
+ entry with the filename you are looking for.
+ The address member of that entry is the load
+ address of the module.
+
+ Next, you need to find out the offset of the text section
+ within the module:
+
+ &prompt.root; objdump --section-headers /sys/modules/linux/linux.ko | grep text
+ 3 .rel.text 000016e0 000038e0 000038e0 000038e0 2**2
+ 10 .text 00007f34 000062d0 000062d0 000062d0 2**2
+
+ The one you want is the .text section,
+ section 10 in the above example. The fourth hexadecimal field
+ (sixth field overall) is the offset of the text section within
+ the file. Add this offset to the load address of the module to
+ obtain the relocation address for the module's code. In our
+ example, we get 0xc0adc000 + 0x62d0 = 0xc0ae22d0. Use the
+ add-symbol-file command in GDB to tell the
+ debugger about the module:
+
+ (kgdb) add-symbol-file /sys/modules/linux/linux.ko 0xc0ae22d0
+add symbol table from file "/sys/modules/linux/linux.ko" at text_addr = 0xc0ae22d0?
+(y or n) y
+Reading symbols from /sys/modules/linux/linux.ko...done.
+(kgdb)
+
+ You should now have access to all the symbols in the
+ module.
+
+
+
+ Debugging a Console Driver
+
+ Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more
+ complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might remember
+ the use of a serial console (either with modified boot blocks, or by
+ specifying -h at the Boot: prompt),
+ and hook up a standard terminal onto your first serial port. DDB works
+ on any configured console driver, including a serial
+ console.
+
+
+
+ Debugging the Deadlocks
+
+ You may experience so called deadlocks, the situation where
+ system stops doing useful work. To provide the helpful bug report
+ in this situation, you shall use ddb as described above. Please,
+ include the output of ps and
+ trace for suspected processes in the
+ report.
+
+ If possible, consider doing further investigation. Receipt
+ below is especially useful if you suspect deadlock occurs in the
+ VFS layer. Add the options
+ makeoptions DEBUG=-g
+ options INVARIANTS
+ options INVARIANT_SUPPORT
+ options WITNESS
+ options DEBUG_LOCKS
+ options DEBUG_VFS_LOCKS
+ options DIAGNOSTIC
+
+ to the kernel config. When deadlock occurs, in addition to the
+ output of the ps command, provide information
+ from the show allpcpu , show
+ alllocks , show lockedvnods and
+ show alltrace .
+
+ For threaded processes, to obtain meaningful backtraces, use
+ thread thread-id to switch to the thread
+ stack, and do backtrace with where .
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..d9f2b323ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,81 @@
+
+
+
+ Localization and Internationalization - L10N and I18N
+
+
+ Programming I18N Compliant Applications
+ Qt
+ GTK
+ To make your application more useful for speakers of other
+ languages, we hope that you will program I18N compliant. The GNU
+ gcc compiler and GUI libraries like QT and GTK support I18N through
+ special handling of strings. Making a program I18N compliant is
+ very easy. It allows contributors to port your application to
+ other languages quickly. Refer to the library specific I18N
+ documentation for more details.
+
+ In contrast with common perception, I18N compliant code is
+ easy to write. Usually, it only involves wrapping your strings
+ with library specific functions. In addition, please be sure to
+ allow for wide or multibyte character support.
+
+
+ A Call to Unify the I18N Effort
+
+ It has come to our attention that the individual I18N/L10N
+ efforts for each country has been repeating each others'
+ efforts. Many of us have been reinventing the wheel repeatedly
+ and inefficiently. We hope that the various major groups in
+ I18N could congregate into a group effort similar to the Core
+ Team's responsibility.
+
+ Currently, we hope that, when you write or port I18N
+ programs, you would send it out to each country's related
+ FreeBSD mailing list for testing. In the future, we hope to
+ create applications that work in all the languages
+ out-of-the-box without dirty hacks.
+
+ The &a.i18n; has been established. If you are an I18N/L10N
+ developer, please send your comments, ideas, questions, and
+ anything you deem related to it.
+
+ Michael C. Wu will be maintaining an I18N works in progress
+ homepage at .
+ Please also read the BSDCon2000 I18N paper and presentations
+ by Clive Lin, Chia-Liang Kao, and Michael C. Wu at
+
+
+
+ Perl and Python
+
+ Perl
+
+
+ Python
+
+
+ Perl and Python have I18N and wide character handling
+ libraries. Please use them for I18N compliance.
+
+ In older FreeBSD versions,
+ Perl may give warnings about not having a wide character locale
+ installed on your system. You can set the
+ environment variable LD_PRELOAD to
+ /usr/lib/libxpg4.so in your shell.
+
+ In sh -based shells:
+
+ LD_PRELOAD=/usr/lib/libxpg4.so
+
+ In C -based shells:
+
+ setenv LD_PRELOAD /usr/lib/libxpg4.so
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/policies/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/policies/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..0dd403f15f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/policies/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+#
+# Build the Handbook with just the content from this chapter.
+#
+# $FreeBSD$
+#
+
+CHAPTERS= policies/chapter.sgml
+
+VPATH= ..
+
+MASTERDOC= ${.CURDIR}/../${DOC}.${DOCBOOKSUFFIX}
+
+DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../../..
+
+.include "../Makefile"
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..aec9e1649d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,434 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Poul-Henning
+ Kamp
+ Contributed by
+
+
+
+
+
+ Source Tree Guidelines and Policies
+
+ This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force for
+ the FreeBSD source tree.
+
+
+ MAINTAINER on Makefiles
+ ports maintainer
+
+ If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being
+ maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate this
+ fact to the world by adding a
+
+ MAINTAINER= email-addresses
+
+ line to the Makefile s covering this portion of the
+ source tree.
+
+ The semantics of this are as follows:
+
+ The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This means
+ that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answering problem reports
+ pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of contributed
+ software, for tracking new versions, as appropriate.
+
+ Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be sent
+ to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if the
+ maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time, to
+ several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without review
+ by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try to have the
+ changes reviewed by someone else if at all possible.
+
+ It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as
+ maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand it
+ does not have to be a committer and it can easily be a group of
+ people.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Poul-Henning
+ Kamp
+ Contributed by
+
+
+ David
+ O'Brien
+
+
+
+
+
+ Contributed Software
+
+ contributed software
+
+ Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that is
+ actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For historical
+ reasons, we call this contributed software. Some
+ examples are sendmail , gcc and patch .
+
+ Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in
+ dealing with this type of software and all have some number of
+ advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged.
+
+ Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods has
+ been selected as the official
method and will be required
+ for future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is
+ strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on this
+ model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old method,
+ including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the
+ official
versions of the source by everyone (even without
+ cvs access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes
+ to the primary developers of the contributed software.
+
+ Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing the
+ work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the package being
+ dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted only with the
+ approval of the core team and with the general consensus of the other
+ developers. The ability to maintain the package in the future will be a
+ key issue in the decisions.
+
+
+ Because of some unfortunate design limitations with the RCS file
+ format and CVS's use of vendor branches, minor, trivial and/or
+ cosmetic changes are strongly discouraged on
+ files that are still tracking the vendor branch. Spelling
+ fixes
are explicitly included here under the
+ cosmetic
category and are to be avoided for files with
+ revision 1.1.x.x. The repository bloat impact from a single character
+ change can be rather dramatic.
+
+
+ The Tcl embedded programming
+ language will be used as example of how this model works:
+
+ src/contrib/tcl contains the source as
+ distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are entirely
+ not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of Tcl, the
+ mac , win and
+ compat subdirectories were eliminated before the
+ import.
+
+ src/lib/libtcl contains only a bmake style
+ Makefile that uses the standard
+ bsd.lib.mk makefile rules to produce the library
+ and install the documentation.
+
+ src/usr.bin/tclsh contains only a bmake style
+ Makefile which will produce and install the
+ tclsh program and its associated man-pages using the
+ standard bsd.prog.mk rules.
+
+ src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake contains a couple of
+ shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software needs updating.
+ These are not part of the built or installed software.
+
+ The important thing here is that the
+ src/contrib/tcl directory is created according to
+ the rules: it is supposed to contain the sources as distributed (on a
+ proper CVS vendor-branch and without RCS keyword expansion) with as few
+ FreeBSD-specific changes as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on
+ freefall will assist in doing the import, but if there are any doubts on
+ how to go about it, it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder
+ ahead and hope it works out
. CVS is not forgiving of
+ import accidents and a fair amount of effort is required to back out
+ major mistakes.
+
+ Because of the previously mentioned design limitations with CVS's
+ vendor branches, it is required that official
patches from
+ the vendor be applied to the original distributed sources and the result
+ re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should never
+ be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and committed
, as this
+ destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes importing future versions
+ rather difficult as there will be conflicts.
+
+ Since many packages contain files that are meant for compatibility
+ with other architectures and environments that FreeBSD, it is
+ permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree that are of no
+ interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files containing copyright
+ notices and release-note kind of information applicable to the remaining
+ files shall not be removed.
+
+ If it seems easier, the bmake
+ Makefile s can be produced from the dist tree
+ automatically by some utility, something which would hopefully make it
+ even easier to upgrade to a new version. If this is done, be sure to
+ check in such utilities (as necessary) in the
+ src/tools directory along with the port itself so
+ that it is available to future maintainers.
+
+ In the src/contrib/tcl level directory, a file
+ called FREEBSD-upgrade should be added and it
+ should state things like:
+
+
+
+ Which files have been left out.
+
+
+
+ Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or the
+ official master site.
+
+
+
+ Where to send patches back to the original authors.
+
+
+
+ Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that have
+ been made.
+
+
+
+ However, please do not import FREEBSD-upgrade
+ with the contributed source. Rather you should cvs add
+ FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci after the initial import. Example
+ wording from src/contrib/cpio is below:
+
+ This directory contains virgin sources of the original distribution files
+on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under any circumstances, attempt to upgrade
+the files in this directory via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or
+official-patch versions must be imported. Please remember to import with
+"-ko" to prevent CVS from corrupting any vendor RCS Ids.
+
+For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the following files were removed:
+
+ INSTALL cpio.info mkdir.c
+ Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs
+
+To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available:
+ 1. Unpack the new version into an empty directory.
+ [Do not make ANY changes to the files.]
+
+ 2. Remove the files listed above and any others that don't apply to
+ FreeBSD.
+
+ 3. Use the command:
+ cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v<version>' \
+ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_<version>
+
+ For example, to do the import of version 2.4.2, I typed:
+ cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \
+ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_2_4_2
+
+ 4. Follow the instructions printed out in step 3 to resolve any
+ conflicts between local FreeBSD changes and the newer version.
+
+Do not, under any circumstances, deviate from this procedure.
+
+To make local changes to cpio, simply patch and commit to the main
+branch (aka HEAD). Never make local changes on the GNU branch.
+
+All local changes should be submitted to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for
+inclusion in the next vendor release.
+
+obrien@FreeBSD.org - 30 March 1997
+
+
+
+ Encumbered Files
+
+ It might occasionally be necessary to include an encumbered file in
+ the FreeBSD source tree. For example, if a device requires a small
+ piece of binary code to be loaded to it before the device will operate,
+ and we do not have the source to that code, then the binary file is said
+ to be encumbered. The following policies apply to including encumbered
+ files in the FreeBSD source tree.
+
+
+
+ Any file which is interpreted or executed by the system CPU(s)
+ and not in source format is encumbered.
+
+
+
+ Any file with a license more restrictive than BSD or GNU is
+ encumbered.
+
+
+
+ A file which contains downloadable binary data for use by the
+ hardware is not encumbered, unless (1) or (2) apply to it. It must
+ be stored in an architecture neutral ASCII format (file2c or
+ uuencoding is recommended).
+
+
+
+ Any encumbered file requires specific approval from the
+ Core team before it is added to the
+ CVS repository.
+
+
+
+ Encumbered files go in src/contrib or
+ src/sys/contrib .
+
+
+
+ The entire module should be kept together. There is no point in
+ splitting it, unless there is code-sharing with non-encumbered
+ code.
+
+
+
+ Object files are named
+ arch /filename .o.uu> .
+
+
+
+ Kernel files:
+
+
+
+ Should always be referenced in
+ conf/files.* (for build simplicity).
+
+
+
+ Should always be in LINT , but the
+ Core team decides per case if it
+ should be commented out or not. The
+ Core team can, of course, change
+ their minds later on.
+
+
+
+ The Release Engineer
+ decides whether or not it goes into the release.
+
+
+
+
+
+ User-land files:
+
+
+
+ core team
+ The Core team decides if
+ the code should be part of make world .
+
+
+
+ release engineer
+ The Release Engineer
+ decides if it goes into the release.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Satoshi
+ Asami
+ Contributed by
+
+
+ Peter
+ Wemm
+
+
+ David
+ O'Brien
+
+
+
+
+
+ Shared Libraries
+
+ If you are adding shared library support to a port or other piece of
+ software that does not have one, the version numbers should follow these
+ rules. Generally, the resulting numbers will have nothing to do with
+ the release version of the software.
+
+ The three principles of shared library building are:
+
+
+
+ Start from 1.0
+
+
+
+ If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump minor
+ number (note that ELF systems ignore the minor number)
+
+
+
+ If there is an incompatible change, bump major number
+
+
+
+ For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor
+ version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed function
+ call syntax, etc. will force the major version number to change.
+
+ Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor
+ (x .y ). Our a.out
+ dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form
+ x .y .z
+ well. Any version number after the y
+ (i.e. the third digit) is totally ignored when comparing shared lib
+ version numbers to decide which library to link with. Given two shared
+ libraries that differ only in the micro
revision,
+ ld.so will link with the higher one. That is, if you link
+ with libfoo.so.3.3.3 , the linker only records
+ 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything
+ starting with
+ libfoo.so.3 .(anything >=
+ 3) .(highest
+ available) .
+
+
+ ld.so will always use the highest
+ minor
revision. For instance, it will use
+ libc.so.2.2 in preference to
+ libc.so.2.0 , even if the program was initially
+ linked with libc.so.2.0 .
+
+
+ In addition, our ELF dynamic linker does not handle minor version
+ numbers at all. However, one should still specify a major and minor
+ version number as our Makefile s do the right thing
+ based on the type of system.
+
+ For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the shared
+ library version number only once between releases. In addition, it is
+ our policy to change the major shared library version number only once
+ between major OS releases (i.e. from 3.0 to 4.0). When you make a
+ change to a system library that requires the version number to be
+ bumped, check the Makefile 's commit logs. It is the
+ responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first such change
+ since the release will result in the shared library version number in
+ the Makefile to be updated, and any subsequent
+ changes will not.
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/secure/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/secure/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..2a6fddb297
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/secure/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,525 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Murray
+ Stokely
+ Contributed by
+
+
+
+
+ Secure Programming
+
+ Synopsis
+
+ This chapter describes some of the security issues that
+ have plagued &unix; programmers for decades and some of the new
+ tools available to help programmers avoid writing exploitable
+ code.
+
+
+ Secure Design
+ Methodology
+
+ Writing secure applications takes a very scrutinous and
+ pessimistic outlook on life. Applications should be run with
+ the principle of least privilege
so that no
+ process is ever running with more than the bare minimum access
+ that it needs to accomplish its function. Previously tested
+ code should be reused whenever possible to avoid common
+ mistakes that others may have already fixed.
+
+ One of the pitfalls of the &unix; environment is how easy it
+ is to make assumptions about the sanity of the environment.
+ Applications should never trust user input (in all its forms),
+ system resources, inter-process communication, or the timing of
+ events. &unix; processes do not execute synchronously so logical
+ operations are rarely atomic.
+
+
+ Buffer Overflows
+
+ Buffer Overflows have been around since the very
+ beginnings of the Von-Neuman architecture.
+
+ buffer overflow
+ Von-Neuman
+
+ They first gained widespread notoriety in 1988 with the Morris
+ Internet worm. Unfortunately, the same basic attack remains
+
+ Morris Internet worm
+
+ effective today. Of the 17 CERT security advisories of 1999, 10
+
+
+ CERT security advisories
+
+
+ of them were directly caused by buffer-overflow software bugs.
+ By far the most common type of buffer overflow attack is based
+ on corrupting the stack.
+
+ stack
+ arguments
+
+ Most modern computer systems use a stack to pass arguments
+ to procedures and to store local variables. A stack is a last
+ in first out (LIFO) buffer in the high memory area of a process
+ image. When a program invokes a function a new "stack frame" is
+
+ LIFO
+
+ process image
+ stack pointer
+
+
+ created. This stack frame consists of the arguments passed to
+ the function as well as a dynamic amount of local variable
+ space. The "stack pointer" is a register that holds the current
+
+ stack frame
+ stack pointer
+
+ location of the top of the stack. Since this value is
+ constantly changing as new values are pushed onto the top of the
+ stack, many implementations also provide a "frame pointer" that
+ is located near the beginning of a stack frame so that local
+ variables can more easily be addressed relative to this
+ value. The return address for function
+
+ frame pointer
+
+ process image
+ frame pointer
+
+ return address
+ stack-overflow
+
+ calls is also stored on the stack, and this is the cause of
+ stack-overflow exploits since overflowing a local variable in a
+ function can overwrite the return address of that function,
+ potentially allowing a malicious user to execute any code he or
+ she wants.
+
+ Although stack-based attacks are by far the most common,
+ it would also be possible to overrun the stack with a heap-based
+ (malloc/free) attack.
+
+ The C programming language does not perform automatic
+ bounds checking on arrays or pointers as many other languages
+ do. In addition, the standard C library is filled with a
+ handful of very dangerous functions.
+
+
+
+
+ strcpy (char *dest, const char
+ *src)
+ May overflow the dest buffer
+
+
+ strcat (char *dest, const char
+ *src)
+ May overflow the dest buffer
+
+
+ getwd (char *buf)
+ May overflow the buf buffer
+
+
+ gets (char *s)
+ May overflow the s buffer
+
+
+ [vf]scanf (const char *format,
+ ...)
+ May overflow its arguments.
+
+
+ realpath (char *path, char
+ resolved_path[])
+ May overflow the path buffer
+
+
+ [v]sprintf (char *str, const char
+ *format, ...)
+ May overflow the str buffer.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Example Buffer Overflow
+
+ The following example code contains a buffer overflow
+ designed to overwrite the return address and skip the
+ instruction immediately following the function call. (Inspired
+ by )
+
+#include stdio.h
+
+void manipulate(char *buffer) {
+ char newbuffer[80];
+ strcpy(newbuffer,buffer);
+}
+
+int main() {
+ char ch,buffer[4096];
+ int i=0;
+
+ while ((buffer[i++] = getchar()) != '\n') {};
+
+ i=1;
+ manipulate(buffer);
+ i=2;
+ printf("The value of i is : %d\n",i);
+ return 0;
+}
+
+ Let us examine what the memory image of this process would
+ look like if we were to input 160 spaces into our little program
+ before hitting return.
+
+ [XXX figure here!]
+
+ Obviously more malicious input can be devised to execute
+ actual compiled instructions (such as exec(/bin/sh)).
+
+
+ Avoiding Buffer Overflows
+
+ The most straightforward solution to the problem of
+ stack-overflows is to always use length restricted memory and
+ string copy functions. strncpy and
+ strncat are part of the standard C library.
+
+
+ string copy functions
+ strncpy
+
+
+ string copy functions
+ strncat
+
+
+ These functions accept a length value as a parameter which
+ should be no larger than the size of the destination buffer.
+ These functions will then copy up to `length' bytes from the
+ source to the destination. However there are a number of
+ problems with these functions. Neither function guarantees NUL
+ termination if the size of the input buffer is as large as the
+
+ NUL termination
+
+ destination. The length parameter is also used inconsistently
+ between strncpy and strncat so it is easy for programmers to get
+ confused as to their proper usage. There is also a significant
+ performance loss compared to strcpy when
+ copying a short string into a large buffer since
+ strncpy NUL fills up the size
+ specified.
+
+ In OpenBSD, another memory copy implementation has been
+
+ OpenBSD
+
+ created to get around these problem. The
+ strlcpy and strlcat
+ functions guarantee that they will always null terminate the
+ destination string when given a non-zero length argument. For
+ more information about these functions see . The OpenBSD strlcpy and
+ strlcat instructions have been in FreeBSD
+ since 3.3.
+
+
+ string copy functions
+ strlcpy
+
+
+
+ string copy functions
+ strlcat
+
+
+ Compiler based run-time bounds checking
+
+ bounds checking
+ compiler-based
+
+ Unfortunately there is still a very large assortment of
+ code in public use which blindly copies memory around without
+ using any of the bounded copy routines we just discussed.
+ Fortunately, there is another solution. Several compiler
+ add-ons and libraries exist to do Run-time bounds checking in
+ C/C++.
+
+ StackGuard
+ gcc
+
+ StackGuard is one such add-on that is implemented as a
+ small patch to the gcc code generator. From the StackGuard
+ website :
+
+ "StackGuard detects and defeats stack
+ smashing attacks by protecting the return address on the stack
+ from being altered. StackGuard places a "canary" word next to
+ the return address when a function is called. If the canary
+ word has been altered when the function returns, then a stack
+ smashing attack has been attempted, and the program responds
+ by emitting an intruder alert into syslog, and then
+ halts."
+
+ "StackGuard is implemented as a small patch
+ to the gcc code generator, specifically the function_prolog()
+ and function_epilog() routines. function_prolog() has been
+ enhanced to lay down canaries on the stack when functions
+ start, and function_epilog() checks canary integrity when the
+ function exits. Any attempt at corrupting the return address
+ is thus detected before the function
+ returns."
+
+
+ buffer overflow
+
+ Recompiling your application with StackGuard is an
+ effective means of stopping most buffer-overflow attacks, but
+ it can still be compromised.
+
+
+
+ Library based run-time bounds checking
+
+
+ bounds checking
+ library-based
+
+
+ Compiler-based mechanisms are completely useless for
+ binary-only software for which you cannot recompile. For
+ these situations there are a number of libraries which
+ re-implement the unsafe functions of the C-library
+ (strcpy , fscanf ,
+ getwd , etc..) and ensure that these
+ functions can never write past the stack pointer.
+
+
+ libsafe
+ libverify
+ libparanoia
+
+
+ Unfortunately these library-based defenses have a number
+ of shortcomings. These libraries only protect against a very
+ small set of security related issues and they neglect to fix
+ the actual problem. These defenses may fail if the
+ application was compiled with -fomit-frame-pointer. Also, the
+ LD_PRELOAD and LD_LIBRARY_PATH environment variables can be
+ overwritten/unset by the user.
+
+
+
+
+
+ SetUID issues
+
+ seteuid
+
+ There are at least 6 different IDs associated with any
+ given process. Because of this you have to be very careful with
+ the access that your process has at any given time. In
+ particular, all seteuid applications should give up their
+ privileges as soon as it is no longer required.
+
+
+ user IDs
+ real user ID
+
+
+ user IDs
+ effective user ID
+
+
+ The real user ID can only be changed by a superuser
+ process. The login program sets this
+ when a user initially logs in and it is seldom changed.
+
+ The effective user ID is set by the
+ exec() functions if a program has its
+ seteuid bit set. An application can call
+ seteuid() at any time to set the effective
+ user ID to either the real user ID or the saved set-user-ID.
+ When the effective user ID is set by exec()
+ functions, the previous value is saved in the saved set-user-ID.
+
+
+
+ Limiting your program's environment
+
+ chroot()
+
+ The traditional method of restricting a process
+ is with the chroot() system call. This
+ system call changes the root directory from which all other
+ paths are referenced for a process and any child processes. For
+ this call to succeed the process must have execute (search)
+ permission on the directory being referenced. The new
+ environment does not actually take effect until you
+ chdir() into your new environment. It
+ should also be noted that a process can easily break out of a
+ chroot environment if it has root privilege. This could be
+ accomplished by creating device nodes to read kernel memory,
+ attaching a debugger to a process outside of the jail, or in
+ many other creative ways.
+
+ The behavior of the chroot() system
+ call can be controlled somewhat with the
+ kern.chroot_allow_open_directories sysctl
+ variable. When this value is set to 0,
+ chroot() will fail with EPERM if there are
+ any directories open. If set to the default value of 1, then
+ chroot() will fail with EPERM if there are
+ any directories open and the process is already subject to a
+ chroot() call. For any other value, the
+ check for open directories will be bypassed completely.
+
+ FreeBSD's jail functionality
+
+ jail
+
+ The concept of a Jail extends upon the
+ chroot() by limiting the powers of the
+ superuser to create a true `virtual server'. Once a prison is
+ set up all network communication must take place through the
+ specified IP address, and the power of "root privilege" in this
+ jail is severely constrained.
+
+ While in a prison, any tests of superuser power within the
+ kernel using the suser() call will fail.
+ However, some calls to suser() have been
+ changed to a new interface suser_xxx() .
+ This function is responsible for recognizing or denying access
+ to superuser power for imprisoned processes.
+
+ A superuser process within a jailed environment has the
+ power to:
+
+
+ Manipulate credential with
+ setuid , seteuid ,
+ setgid , setegid ,
+ setgroups , setreuid ,
+ setregid , setlogin
+ Set resource limits with setrlimit
+ Modify some sysctl nodes
+ (kern.hostname)
+ chroot()
+ Set flags on a vnode:
+ chflags ,
+ fchflags
+ Set attributes of a vnode such as file
+ permission, owner, group, size, access time, and modification
+ time.
+ Bind to privileged ports in the Internet
+ domain (ports < 1024)
+
+
+ Jail is a very useful tool for
+ running applications in a secure environment but it does have
+ some shortcomings. Currently, the IPC mechanisms have not been
+ converted to the suser_xxx so applications
+ such as MySQL cannot be run within a jail. Superuser access
+ may have a very limited meaning within a jail, but there is
+ no way to specify exactly what "very limited" means.
+
+
+ &posix;.1e Process Capabilities
+
+ POSIX.1e Process Capabilities
+ TrustedBSD
+
+ &posix; has released a working draft that adds event
+ auditing, access control lists, fine grained privileges,
+ information labeling, and mandatory access control.
+ This is a work in progress and is the focus of the TrustedBSD project. Some
+ of the initial work has been committed to &os.current;
+ (cap_set_proc(3)).
+
+
+
+
+
+ Trust
+
+ An application should never assume that anything about the
+ users environment is sane. This includes (but is certainly not
+ limited to): user input, signals, environment variables,
+ resources, IPC, mmaps, the filesystem working directory, file
+ descriptors, the # of open files, etc.
+
+ positive filtering
+ data validation
+
+ You should never assume that you can catch all forms of
+ invalid input that a user might supply. Instead, your
+ application should use positive filtering to only allow a
+ specific subset of inputs that you deem safe. Improper data
+ validation has been the cause of many exploits, especially with
+ CGI scripts on the world wide web. For filenames you need to be
+ extra careful about paths ("../", "/"), symbolic links, and
+ shell escape characters.
+
+ Perl Taint mode
+
+ Perl has a really cool feature called "Taint" mode which
+ can be used to prevent scripts from using data derived outside
+ the program in an unsafe way. This mode will check command line
+ arguments, environment variables, locale information, the
+ results of certain syscalls (readdir() ,
+ readlink() ,
+ getpwxxx() , and all file input.
+
+
+
+
+ Race Conditions
+
+ A race condition is anomalous behavior caused by the
+ unexpected dependence on the relative timing of events. In
+ other words, a programmer incorrectly assumed that a particular
+ event would always happen before another.
+
+ race conditions
+ signals
+
+ race conditions
+ access checks
+
+ race conditions
+ file opens
+
+ Some of the common causes of race conditions are signals,
+ access checks, and file opens. Signals are asynchronous events
+ by nature so special care must be taken in dealing with them.
+ Checking access with access(2) then
+ open(2) is clearly non-atomic. Users can
+ move files in between the two calls. Instead, privileged
+ applications should seteuid() and then call
+ open() directly. Along the same lines, an
+ application should always set a proper umask before
+ open() to obviate the need for spurious
+ chmod() calls.
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/sockets/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/sockets/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..d4d4d6556d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/sockets/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,1790 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ G. Adam
+ Stanislav
+ Contributed by
+
+
+
+
+ Sockets
+
+
+ Synopsis
+
+ BSD sockets take interprocess
+ communications to a new level. It is no longer necessary for the
+ communicating processes to run on the same machine. They still
+ can , but they do not have to.
+
+ Not only do these processes not have to run on the same
+ machine, they do not have to run under the same operating
+ system. Thanks to BSD sockets, your FreeBSD
+ software can smoothly cooperate with a program running on a
+ &macintosh;, another one running on a &sun; workstation, yet another
+ one running under &windows; 2000, all connected with an
+ Ethernet-based local area network.
+
+ But your software can equally well cooperate with processes
+ running in another building, or on another continent, inside a
+ submarine, or a space shuttle.
+
+ It can also cooperate with processes that are not part of a
+ computer (at least not in the strict sense of the word), but of
+ such devices as printers, digital cameras, medical equipment.
+ Just about anything capable of digital communications.
+
+
+
+
+ Networking and Diversity
+
+ We have already hinted on the diversity
+ of networking. Many different systems have to talk to each
+ other. And they have to speak the same language. They also have
+ to understand the same language the same
+ way.
+
+ People often think that body language
+ is universal. But it is not. Back in my early teens, my father
+ took me to Bulgaria. We were sitting at a table in a park in
+ Sofia, when a vendor approached us trying to sell us some
+ roasted almonds.
+
+ I had not learned much Bulgarian by then, so, instead of
+ saying no, I shook my head from side to side, the
+ universal
body language for
+ no . The vendor quickly started serving us
+ some almonds.
+
+ I then remembered I had been told that in Bulgaria shaking
+ your head sideways meant yes . Quickly, I
+ started nodding my head up and down. The vendor noticed, took
+ his almonds, and walked away. To an uninformed observer, I did
+ not change the body language: I continued using the language of
+ shaking and nodding my head. What changed was the
+ meaning of the body language. At first, the
+ vendor and I interpreted the same language as having completely
+ different meaning. I had to adjust my own interpretation of that
+ language so the vendor would understand.
+
+ It is the same with computers: The same symbols may have
+ different, even outright opposite meaning. Therefore, for
+ two computers to understand each other, they must not only
+ agree on the same language , but on the
+ same interpretation of the language.
+
+
+
+
+ Protocols
+
+ While various programming languages tend to have complex
+ syntax and use a number of multi-letter reserved words (which
+ makes them easy for the human programmer to understand), the
+ languages of data communications tend to be very terse. Instead
+ of multi-byte words, they often use individual
+ bits . There is a very convincing reason
+ for it: While data travels inside your
+ computer at speeds approaching the speed of light, it often
+ travels considerably slower between two computers.
+
+ Because the languages used in data communications are so
+ terse, we usually refer to them as
+ protocols rather than languages.
+
+ As data travels from one computer to another, it always uses
+ more than one protocol. These protocols are
+ layered . The data can be compared to the
+ inside of an onion: You have to peel off several layers of
+ skin
to get to the data. This is best
+ illustrated with a picture:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +----------------+
+| Ethernet |
+|+--------------+|
+|| IP ||
+||+------------+||
+||| TCP |||
+|||+----------+|||
+|||| HTTP ||||
+||||+--------+||||
+||||| PNG |||||
+|||||+------+|||||
+|||||| Data ||||||
+|||||+------+|||||
+||||+--------+||||
+|||+----------+|||
+||+------------+||
+|+--------------+|
++----------------+
+
+
+
+ Protocol Layers
+
+
+
+ In this example, we are trying to get an image from a web
+ page we are connected to via an Ethernet.
+
+ The image consists of raw data, which is simply a sequence
+ of RGB values that our software can process,
+ i.e., convert into an image and display on our monitor.
+
+ Alas, our software has no way of knowing how the raw data is
+ organized: Is it a sequence of RGB values, or
+ a sequence of grayscale intensities, or perhaps of
+ CMYK encoded colors? Is the data represented
+ by 8-bit quanta, or are they 16 bits in size, or perhaps 4 bits?
+ How many rows and columns does the image consist of? Should
+ certain pixels be transparent?
+
+ I think you get the picture...
+
+ To inform our software how to handle the raw data, it is
+ encoded as a PNG file. It could be a
+ GIF , or a JPEG , but it is
+ a PNG .
+
+ And PNG is a protocol.
+
+ At this point, I can hear some of you yelling,
+ No, it is not! It is a file
+ format!
+
+ Well, of course it is a file format. But from the
+ perspective of data communications, a file format is a protocol:
+ The file structure is a language , a terse
+ one at that, communicating to our process
+ how the data is organized. Ergo, it is a
+ protocol .
+
+ Alas, if all we received was the PNG
+ file, our software would be facing a serious problem: How is it
+ supposed to know the data is representing an image, as opposed
+ to some text, or perhaps a sound, or what not? Secondly, how is
+ it supposed to know the image is in the PNG
+ format as opposed to GIF , or
+ JPEG , or some other image format?
+
+ To obtain that information, we are using another protocol:
+ HTTP . This protocol can tell us exactly that
+ the data represents an image, and that it uses the
+ PNG protocol. It can also tell us some other
+ things, but let us stay focused on protocol layers here.
+
+
+ So, now we have some data wrapped in the PNG
+ protocol, wrapped in the HTTP protocol.
+ How did we get it from the server?
+
+ By using TCP/IP over Ethernet, that is
+ how. Indeed, that is three more protocols. Instead of
+ continuing inside out, I am now going to talk about Ethernet,
+ simply because it is easier to explain the rest that way.
+
+ Ethernet is an interesting system of connecting computers in
+ a local area network
+ (LAN ). Each computer has a network
+ interface card (NIC ), which has a
+ unique 48-bit ID called its
+ address . No two Ethernet
+ NIC s in the world have the same address.
+
+
+ These NIC s are all connected with each
+ other. Whenever one computer wants to communicate with another
+ in the same Ethernet LAN , it sends a message
+ over the network. Every NIC sees the
+ message. But as part of the Ethernet
+ protocol , the data contains the address of
+ the destination NIC (among other things). So,
+ only one of all the network interface cards will pay attention
+ to it, the rest will ignore it.
+
+ But not all computers are connected to the same
+ network. Just because we have received the data over our
+ Ethernet does not mean it originated in our own local area
+ network. It could have come to us from some other network (which
+ may not even be Ethernet based) connected with our own network
+ via the Internet.
+
+ All data is transferred over the Internet using
+ IP , which stands for Internet
+ Protocol . Its basic role is to let us know where in
+ the world the data has arrived from, and where it is supposed to
+ go to. It does not guarantee we will
+ receive the data, only that we will know where it came from
+ if we do receive it.
+
+ Even if we do receive the data, IP does
+ not guarantee we will receive various chunks of data in the same
+ order the other computer has sent it to us. So, we can receive
+ the center of our image before we receive the upper left corner
+ and after the lower right, for example.
+
+ It is TCP (Transmission Control
+ Protocol ) that asks the sender to resend any lost
+ data and that places it all into the proper order.
+
+ All in all, it took five different
+ protocols for one computer to communicate to another what an
+ image looks like. We received the data wrapped into the
+ PNG protocol, which was wrapped into the
+ HTTP protocol, which was wrapped into the
+ TCP protocol, which was wrapped into the
+ IP protocol, which was wrapped into the
+ Ethernet protocol.
+
+ Oh, and by the way, there probably were several other
+ protocols involved somewhere on the way. For example, if our
+ LAN was connected to the Internet through a
+ dial-up call, it used the PPP protocol over
+ the modem which used one (or several) of the various modem
+ protocols, et cetera, et cetera, et cetera...
+
+ As a developer you should be asking by now,
+ How am I supposed to handle it
+ all?
+
+ Luckily for you, you are not supposed
+ to handle it all. You are supposed to
+ handle some of it, but not all of it. Specifically, you need not
+ worry about the physical connection (in our case Ethernet and
+ possibly PPP , etc). Nor do you need to handle
+ the Internet Protocol, or the Transmission Control
+ Protocol.
+
+ In other words, you do not have to do anything to receive
+ the data from the other computer. Well, you do have to
+ ask for it, but that is almost as simple as
+ opening a file.
+
+ Once you have received the data, it is up to you to figure
+ out what to do with it. In our case, you would need to
+ understand the HTTP protocol and the
+ PNG file structure.
+
+ To use an analogy, all the internetworking protocols become
+ a gray area: Not so much because we do not understand how it
+ works, but because we are no longer concerned about it. The
+ sockets interface takes care of this gray area for us:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +----------------+
+|xxxxEthernetxxxx|
+|+--------------+|
+||xxxxxxIPxxxxxx||
+||+------------+||
+|||xxxxxTCPxxxx|||
+|||+----------+|||
+|||| HTTP ||||
+||||+--------+||||
+||||| PNG |||||
+|||||+------+|||||
+|||||| Data ||||||
+|||||+------+|||||
+||||+--------+||||
+|||+----------+|||
+||+------------+||
+|+--------------+|
++----------------+
+
+
+
+ Sockets Covered Protocol Layers
+
+
+
+ We only need to understand any protocols that tell us how to
+ interpret the data , not how to
+ receive it from another process, nor how to
+ send it to another process.
+
+
+
+
+ The Sockets Model
+
+ BSD sockets are built on the basic &unix;
+ model: Everything is a file. In our
+ example, then, sockets would let us receive an HTTP
+ file , so to speak. It would then be up to us to
+ extract the PNG file
+ from it.
+
+
+ Because of the complexity of internetworking, we cannot just
+ use the open system call, or
+ the open() C function. Instead, we need to
+ take several steps to opening
a socket.
+
+ Once we do, however, we can start treating the
+ socket the same way we treat any
+ file descriptor : We can
+ read from it, write to
+ it, pipe it, and, eventually,
+ close it.
+
+
+
+
+ Essential Socket Functions
+
+ While FreeBSD offers different functions to work with
+ sockets, we only need four to
+ open
a socket. And in some cases we only need
+ two.
+
+
+ The Client-Server Difference
+
+ Typically, one of the ends of a socket-based data
+ communication is a server , the other is a
+ client .
+
+
+ The Common Elements
+
+
+ socket
+
+ The one function used by both, clients and servers, is
+ &man.socket.2;. It is declared this way:
+
+
+int socket(int domain, int type, int protocol);
+
+
+ The return value is of the same type as that of
+ open , an integer. FreeBSD allocates
+ its value from the same pool as that of file handles.
+ That is what allows sockets to be treated the same way as
+ files.
+
+ The domain argument tells the
+ system what protocol family you want
+ it to use. Many of them exist, some are vendor specific,
+ others are very common. They are declared in
+ sys/socket.h .
+
+ Use PF_INET for
+ UDP , TCP and other
+ Internet protocols (IP v4).
+
+ Five values are defined for the
+ type argument, again, in
+ sys/socket.h . All of them start with
+ SOCK_
. The most
+ common one is SOCK_STREAM , which
+ tells the system you are asking for a reliable
+ stream delivery service (which is
+ TCP when used with
+ PF_INET ).
+
+ If you asked for SOCK_DGRAM , you
+ would be requesting a connectionless datagram
+ delivery service (in our case,
+ UDP ).
+
+ If you wanted to be in charge of the low-level
+ protocols (such as IP ), or even network
+ interfaces (e.g., the Ethernet), you would need to specify
+ SOCK_RAW .
+
+ Finally, the protocol argument
+ depends on the previous two arguments, and is not always
+ meaningful. In that case, use 0 for
+ its value.
+
+
+ The Unconnected Socket
+
+ Nowhere, in the socket function
+ have we specified to what other system we should be
+ connected. Our newly created socket remains
+ unconnected .
+
+ This is on purpose: To use a telephone analogy, we
+ have just attached a modem to the phone line. We have
+ neither told the modem to make a call, nor to answer if
+ the phone rings.
+
+
+
+
+
+ sockaddr
+
+ Various functions of the sockets family expect the
+ address of (or pointer to, to use C terminology) a small
+ area of the memory. The various C declarations in the
+ sys/socket.h refer to it as
+ struct sockaddr . This structure is
+ declared in the same file:
+
+
+/*
+ * Structure used by kernel to store most
+ * addresses.
+ */
+struct sockaddr {
+ unsigned char sa_len; /* total length */
+ sa_family_t sa_family; /* address family */
+ char sa_data[14]; /* actually longer; address value */
+};
+#define SOCK_MAXADDRLEN 255 /* longest possible addresses */
+
+
+ Please note the vagueness with
+ which the sa_data field is declared,
+ just as an array of 14 bytes, with
+ the comment hinting there can be more than
+ 14 of them.
+
+ This vagueness is quite deliberate. Sockets is a very
+ powerful interface. While most people perhaps think of it
+ as nothing more than the Internet interface—and most
+ applications probably use it for that
+ nowadays—sockets can be used for just about
+ any kind of interprocess
+ communications, of which the Internet (or, more precisely,
+ IP ) is only one.
+
+ The sys/socket.h refers to the
+ various types of protocols sockets will handle as
+ address families , and lists them
+ right before the definition of
+ sockaddr :
+
+
+/*
+ * Address families.
+ */
+#define AF_UNSPEC 0 /* unspecified */
+#define AF_LOCAL 1 /* local to host (pipes, portals) */
+#define AF_UNIX AF_LOCAL /* backward compatibility */
+#define AF_INET 2 /* internetwork: UDP, TCP, etc. */
+#define AF_IMPLINK 3 /* arpanet imp addresses */
+#define AF_PUP 4 /* pup protocols: e.g. BSP */
+#define AF_CHAOS 5 /* mit CHAOS protocols */
+#define AF_NS 6 /* XEROX NS protocols */
+#define AF_ISO 7 /* ISO protocols */
+#define AF_OSI AF_ISO
+#define AF_ECMA 8 /* European computer manufacturers */
+#define AF_DATAKIT 9 /* datakit protocols */
+#define AF_CCITT 10 /* CCITT protocols, X.25 etc */
+#define AF_SNA 11 /* IBM SNA */
+#define AF_DECnet 12 /* DECnet */
+#define AF_DLI 13 /* DEC Direct data link interface */
+#define AF_LAT 14 /* LAT */
+#define AF_HYLINK 15 /* NSC Hyperchannel */
+#define AF_APPLETALK 16 /* Apple Talk */
+#define AF_ROUTE 17 /* Internal Routing Protocol */
+#define AF_LINK 18 /* Link layer interface */
+#define pseudo_AF_XTP 19 /* eXpress Transfer Protocol (no AF) */
+#define AF_COIP 20 /* connection-oriented IP, aka ST II */
+#define AF_CNT 21 /* Computer Network Technology */
+#define pseudo_AF_RTIP 22 /* Help Identify RTIP packets */
+#define AF_IPX 23 /* Novell Internet Protocol */
+#define AF_SIP 24 /* Simple Internet Protocol */
+#define pseudo_AF_PIP 25 /* Help Identify PIP packets */
+#define AF_ISDN 26 /* Integrated Services Digital Network*/
+#define AF_E164 AF_ISDN /* CCITT E.164 recommendation */
+#define pseudo_AF_KEY 27 /* Internal key-management function */
+#define AF_INET6 28 /* IPv6 */
+#define AF_NATM 29 /* native ATM access */
+#define AF_ATM 30 /* ATM */
+#define pseudo_AF_HDRCMPLT 31 /* Used by BPF to not rewrite headers
+ * in interface output routine
+ */
+#define AF_NETGRAPH 32 /* Netgraph sockets */
+#define AF_SLOW 33 /* 802.3ad slow protocol */
+#define AF_SCLUSTER 34 /* Sitara cluster protocol */
+#define AF_ARP 35
+#define AF_BLUETOOTH 36 /* Bluetooth sockets */
+#define AF_MAX 37
+
+
+
+ The one used for IP is
+ AF_INET . It is a symbol for the constant
+ 2 .
+
+ It is the address family listed
+ in the sa_family field of
+ sockaddr that decides how exactly the
+ vaguely named bytes of sa_data will be
+ used.
+
+ Specifically, whenever the address
+ family is AF_INET , we can use
+ struct sockaddr_in found in
+ netinet/in.h , wherever
+ sockaddr is expected:
+
+
+/*
+ * Socket address, internet style.
+ */
+struct sockaddr_in {
+ uint8_t sin_len;
+ sa_family_t sin_family;
+ in_port_t sin_port;
+ struct in_addr sin_addr;
+ char sin_zero[8];
+};
+
+
+ We can visualize its organization this way:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+-----------------+
+ 0 | 0 | Family | Port |
+ +--------+--------+-----------------+
+ 4 | IP Address |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ sockaddr_in
+
+
+
+ The three important fields are
+ sin_family , which is byte 1 of the
+ structure, sin_port , a 16-bit value
+ found in bytes 2 and 3, and sin_addr , a
+ 32-bit integer representation of the IP
+ address, stored in bytes 4-7.
+
+ Now, let us try to fill it out. Let us assume we are
+ trying to write a client for the
+ daytime protocol, which simply states
+ that its server will write a text string representing the
+ current date and time to port 13. We want to use
+ TCP/IP , so we need to specify
+ AF_INET in the address family
+ field. AF_INET is defined as
+ 2 . Let us use the
+ IP address of 192.43.244.18 , which is the time
+ server of US federal government (time.nist.gov ).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+-----------------+
+ 0 | 0 | 2 | 13 |
+ +-----------------+-----------------+
+ 4 | 192.43.244.18 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ Specific example of sockaddr_in
+
+
+
+ By the way the sin_addr field is
+ declared as being of the struct in_addr
+ type, which is defined in
+ netinet/in.h :
+
+
+/*
+ * Internet address (a structure for historical reasons)
+ */
+struct in_addr {
+ in_addr_t s_addr;
+};
+
+
+ In addition, in_addr_t is a 32-bit
+ integer.
+
+ The 192.43.244.18 is
+ just a convenient notation of expressing a 32-bit integer
+ by listing all of its 8-bit bytes, starting with the
+ most significant one.
+
+ So far, we have viewed sockaddr as
+ an abstraction. Our computer does not store
+ short integers as a single 16-bit
+ entity, but as a sequence of 2 bytes. Similarly, it stores
+ 32-bit integers as a sequence of 4 bytes.
+
+ Suppose we coded something like this:
+
+
+ sa.sin_family = AF_INET;
+ sa.sin_port = 13;
+ sa.sin_addr.s_addr = (((((192 << 8) | 43) << 8) | 244) << 8) | 18;
+
+
+ What would the result look like?
+
+ Well, that depends, of course. On a &pentium;, or other
+ x86, based computer, it would look like this:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 0 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 0 |
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 4 | 18 | 244 | 43 | 192 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ sockaddr_in on an Intel system
+
+
+
+ On a different system, it might look like this:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 13 |
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 4 | 192 | 43 | 244 | 18 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ sockaddr_in on an MSB system
+
+
+
+ And on a PDP it might look different yet. But the
+ above two are the most common ways in use today.
+
+ Ordinarily, wanting to write portable code,
+ programmers pretend that these differences do not
+ exist. And they get away with it (except when they code in
+ assembly language). Alas, you cannot get away with it that
+ easily when coding for sockets.
+
+ Why?
+
+ Because when communicating with another computer, you
+ usually do not know whether it stores data most
+ significant byte (MSB ) or
+ least significant byte
+ (LSB ) first.
+
+ You might be wondering, So, will
+ sockets not handle it for me?
+
+ It will not.
+
+ While that answer may surprise you at first, remember
+ that the general sockets interface only understands the
+ sa_len and sa_family
+ fields of the sockaddr structure. You
+ do not have to worry about the byte order there (of
+ course, on FreeBSD sa_family is only 1
+ byte anyway, but many other &unix; systems do not have
+ sa_len and use 2 bytes for
+ sa_family , and expect the data in
+ whatever order is native to the computer).
+
+ But the rest of the data is just
+ sa_data[14] as far as sockets
+ goes. Depending on the address
+ family , sockets just forwards that data to its
+ destination.
+
+ Indeed, when we enter a port number, it is because we
+ want the other computer to know what service we are asking
+ for. And, when we are the server, we read the port number
+ so we know what service the other computer is expecting
+ from us. Either way, sockets only has to forward the port
+ number as data. It does not interpret it in any way.
+
+ Similarly, we enter the IP address
+ to tell everyone on the way where to send our data
+ to. Sockets, again, only forwards it as data.
+
+ That is why, we (the programmers ,
+ not the sockets ) have to distinguish
+ between the byte order used by our computer and a
+ conventional byte order to send the data in to the other
+ computer.
+
+ We will call the byte order our computer uses the
+ host byte order , or just the
+ host order .
+
+ There is a convention of sending the multi-byte data
+ over IP
+ MSB first . This,
+ we will refer to as the network byte
+ order , or simply the network
+ order .
+
+ Now, if we compiled the above code for an Intel based
+ computer, our host byte order would
+ produce:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 0 | 0 | 2 | 13 | 0 |
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 4 | 18 | 244 | 43 | 192 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ Host byte order on an Intel system
+
+
+
+ But the network byte order
+ requires that we store the data MSB
+ first:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 13 |
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 4 | 192 | 43 | 244 | 18 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ Network byte order
+
+
+
+ Unfortunately, our host order is
+ the exact opposite of the network
+ order .
+
+ We have several ways of dealing with it. One would be
+ to reverse the values in our code:
+
+
+
+ sa.sin_family = AF_INET;
+ sa.sin_port = 13 << 8;
+ sa.sin_addr.s_addr = (((((18 << 8) | 244) << 8) | 43) << 8) | 192;
+
+
+ This will trick our compiler
+ into storing the data in the network byte
+ order . In some cases, this is exactly the way
+ to do it (e.g., when programming in assembly
+ language). In most cases, however, it can cause a
+ problem.
+
+ Suppose, you wrote a sockets-based program in C. You
+ know it is going to run on a &pentium;, so you enter all
+ your constants in reverse and force them to the
+ network byte order . It works
+ well.
+
+ Then, some day, your trusted old &pentium; becomes a
+ rusty old &pentium;. You replace it with a system whose
+ host order is the same as the
+ network order . You need to recompile
+ all your software. All of your software continues to
+ perform well, except the one program you wrote.
+
+ You have since forgotten that you had forced all of
+ your constants to the opposite of the host
+ order . You spend some quality time tearing out
+ your hair, calling the names of all gods you ever heard
+ of (and some you made up), hitting your monitor with a
+ nerf bat, and performing all the other traditional
+ ceremonies of trying to figure out why something that has
+ worked so well is suddenly not working at all.
+
+ Eventually, you figure it out, say a couple of swear
+ words, and start rewriting your code.
+
+ Luckily, you are not the first one to face the
+ problem. Someone else has created the &man.htons.3; and
+ &man.htonl.3; C functions to convert a
+ short and long
+ respectively from the host byte
+ order to the network byte
+ order , and the &man.ntohs.3; and &man.ntohl.3;
+ C functions to go the other way.
+
+ On MSB -first
+ systems these functions do nothing. On
+ LSB -first systems
+ they convert values to the proper order.
+
+ So, regardless of what system your software is
+ compiled on, your data will end up in the correct order
+ if you use these functions.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Client Functions
+
+ Typically, the client initiates the connection to the
+ server. The client knows which server it is about to call:
+ It knows its IP address, and it knows the
+ port the server resides at. It is akin
+ to you picking up the phone and dialing the number (the
+ address ), then, after someone answers,
+ asking for the person in charge of wingdings (the
+ port ).
+
+
+ connect
+
+ Once a client has created a socket, it needs to
+ connect it to a specific port on a remote system. It uses
+ &man.connect.2;:
+
+
+int connect(int s, const struct sockaddr *name, socklen_t namelen);
+
+
+ The s argument is the socket, i.e.,
+ the value returned by the socket
+ function. The name is a pointer to
+ sockaddr , the structure we have talked
+ about extensively. Finally, namelen
+ informs the system how many bytes are in our
+ sockaddr structure.
+
+ If connect is successful, it
+ returns 0 . Otherwise it returns
+ -1 and stores the error code in
+ errno .
+
+ There are many reasons why
+ connect may fail. For example, with
+ an attempt to an Internet connection, the
+ IP address may not exist, or it may be
+ down, or just too busy, or it may not have a server
+ listening at the specified port. Or it may outright
+ refuse any request for specific
+ code.
+
+
+
+
+ Our First Client
+
+ We now know enough to write a very simple client, one
+ that will get current time from 192.43.244.18 and print it to
+ stdout .
+
+
+/*
+ * daytime.c
+ *
+ * Programmed by G. Adam Stanislav
+ */
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <sys/types.h>
+#include <sys/socket.h>
+#include <netinet/in.h>
+
+int main() {
+ register int s;
+ register int bytes;
+ struct sockaddr_in sa;
+ char buffer[BUFSIZ+1];
+
+ if ((s = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) < 0) {
+ perror("socket");
+ return 1;
+ }
+
+ bzero(&sa, sizeof sa);
+
+ sa.sin_family = AF_INET;
+ sa.sin_port = htons(13);
+ sa.sin_addr.s_addr = htonl((((((192 << 8) | 43) << 8) | 244) << 8) | 18);
+ if (connect(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sa, sizeof sa) < 0) {
+ perror("connect");
+ close(s);
+ return 2;
+ }
+
+ while ((bytes = read(s, buffer, BUFSIZ)) > 0)
+ write(1, buffer, bytes);
+
+ close(s);
+ return 0;
+}
+
+
+ Go ahead, enter it in your editor, save it as
+ daytime.c , then compile and run
+ it:
+
+&prompt.user; cc -O3 -o daytime daytime.c
+&prompt.user; ./daytime
+
+52079 01-06-19 02:29:25 50 0 1 543.9 UTC(NIST) *
+&prompt.user;
+
+ In this case, the date was June 19, 2001, the time was
+ 02:29:25 UTC . Naturally, your results
+ will vary.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Server Functions
+
+ The typical server does not initiate the
+ connection. Instead, it waits for a client to call it and
+ request services. It does not know when the client will
+ call, nor how many clients will call. It may be just sitting
+ there, waiting patiently, one moment, The next moment, it
+ can find itself swamped with requests from a number of
+ clients, all calling in at the same time.
+
+ The sockets interface offers three basic functions to
+ handle this.
+
+
+ bind
+
+ Ports are like extensions to a phone line: After you
+ dial a number, you dial the extension to get to a specific
+ person or department.
+
+ There are 65535 IP ports, but a
+ server usually processes requests that come in on only one
+ of them. It is like telling the phone room operator that
+ we are now at work and available to answer the phone at a
+ specific extension. We use &man.bind.2; to tell sockets
+ which port we want to serve.
+
+
+int bind(int s, const struct sockaddr *addr, socklen_t addrlen);
+
+
+ Beside specifying the port in addr ,
+ the server may include its IP
+ address. However, it can just use the symbolic constant
+ INADDR_ANY to indicate it will serve all
+ requests to the specified port regardless of what its
+ IP address is. This symbol, along with
+ several similar ones, is declared in
+ netinet/in.h
+
+
+#define INADDR_ANY (u_int32_t)0x00000000
+
+
+ Suppose we were writing a server for the
+ daytime protocol over
+ TCP /IP . Recall that
+ it uses port 13. Our sockaddr_in
+ structure would look like this:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ 0 1 2 3
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 13 |
+ +--------+--------+--------+--------+
+ 4 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+ 8 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+12 | 0 |
+ +-----------------------------------+
+
+
+
+ Example Server sockaddr_in
+
+
+
+
+
+ listen
+
+ To continue our office phone analogy, after you have
+ told the phone central operator what extension you will be
+ at, you now walk into your office, and make sure your own
+ phone is plugged in and the ringer is turned on. Plus, you
+ make sure your call waiting is activated, so you can hear
+ the phone ring even while you are talking to someone.
+
+ The server ensures all of that with the &man.listen.2;
+ function.
+
+
+int listen(int s, int backlog);
+
+
+ In here, the backlog variable tells
+ sockets how many incoming requests to accept while you are
+ busy processing the last request. In other words, it
+ determines the maximum size of the queue of pending
+ connections.
+
+
+
+
+ accept
+
+ After you hear the phone ringing, you accept the call
+ by answering the call. You have now established a
+ connection with your client. This connection remains
+ active until either you or your client hang up.
+
+ The server accepts the connection by using the
+ &man.accept.2; function.
+
+
+int accept(int s, struct sockaddr *addr, socklen_t *addrlen);
+
+
+ Note that this time addrlen is a
+ pointer. This is necessary because in this case it is the
+ socket that fills out addr , the
+ sockaddr_in structure.
+
+ The return value is an integer. Indeed, the
+ accept returns a new
+ socket . You will use this new socket to
+ communicate with the client.
+
+ What happens to the old socket? It continues to listen
+ for more requests (remember the backlog
+ variable we passed to listen ?) until
+ we close it.
+
+ Now, the new socket is meant only for
+ communications. It is fully connected. We cannot pass it
+ to listen again, trying to accept
+ additional connections.
+
+
+
+
+ Our First Server
+
+ Our first server will be somewhat more complex than
+ our first client was: Not only do we have more sockets
+ functions to use, but we need to write it as a
+ daemon.
+
+ This is best achieved by creating a child
+ process after binding the port. The main
+ process then exits and returns control to the
+ shell (or whatever program
+ invoked it).
+
+ The child calls listen , then
+ starts an endless loop, which accepts a connection, serves
+ it, and eventually closes its socket.
+
+
+/*
+ * daytimed - a port 13 server
+ *
+ * Programmed by G. Adam Stanislav
+ * June 19, 2001
+ */
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <time.h>
+#include <unistd.h>
+#include <sys/types.h>
+#include <sys/socket.h>
+#include <netinet/in.h>
+
+#define BACKLOG 4
+
+int main() {
+ register int s, c;
+ int b;
+ struct sockaddr_in sa;
+ time_t t;
+ struct tm *tm;
+ FILE *client;
+
+ if ((s = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) < 0) {
+ perror("socket");
+ return 1;
+ }
+
+ bzero(&sa, sizeof sa);
+
+ sa.sin_family = AF_INET;
+ sa.sin_port = htons(13);
+
+ if (INADDR_ANY)
+ sa.sin_addr.s_addr = htonl(INADDR_ANY);
+
+ if (bind(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sa, sizeof sa) < 0) {
+ perror("bind");
+ return 2;
+ }
+
+ switch (fork()) {
+ case -1:
+ perror("fork");
+ return 3;
+ break;
+ default:
+ close(s);
+ return 0;
+ break;
+ case 0:
+ break;
+ }
+
+ listen(s, BACKLOG);
+
+ for (;;) {
+ b = sizeof sa;
+
+ if ((c = accept(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sa, &b)) < 0) {
+ perror("daytimed accept");
+ return 4;
+ }
+
+ if ((client = fdopen(c, "w")) == NULL) {
+ perror("daytimed fdopen");
+ return 5;
+ }
+
+ if ((t = time(NULL)) < 0) {
+ perror("daytimed time");
+
+ return 6;
+ }
+
+ tm = gmtime(&t);
+ fprintf(client, "%.4i-%.2i-%.2iT%.2i:%.2i:%.2iZ\n",
+ tm->tm_year + 1900,
+ tm->tm_mon + 1,
+ tm->tm_mday,
+ tm->tm_hour,
+ tm->tm_min,
+ tm->tm_sec);
+
+ fclose(client);
+ }
+}
+
+
+ We start by creating a socket. Then we fill out the
+ sockaddr_in structure in
+ sa . Note the conditional use of
+ INADDR_ANY :
+
+
+ if (INADDR_ANY)
+ sa.sin_addr.s_addr = htonl(INADDR_ANY);
+
+
+ Its value is 0 . Since we have
+ just used bzero on the entire
+ structure, it would be redundant to set it to
+ 0 again. But if we port our code to
+ some other system where INADDR_ANY is
+ perhaps not a zero, we need to assign it to
+ sa.sin_addr.s_addr . Most modern C
+ compilers are clever enough to notice that
+ INADDR_ANY is a constant. As long as it
+ is a zero, they will optimize the entire conditional
+ statement out of the code.
+
+ After we have called bind
+ successfully, we are ready to become a
+ daemon : We use
+ fork to create a child process. In
+ both, the parent and the child, the s
+ variable is our socket. The parent process will not need
+ it, so it calls close , then it
+ returns 0 to inform its own parent it
+ had terminated successfully.
+
+ Meanwhile, the child process continues working in the
+ background. It calls listen and sets
+ its backlog to 4 . It does not need a
+ large value here because daytime is
+ not a protocol many clients request all the time, and
+ because it can process each request instantly anyway.
+
+ Finally, the daemon starts an endless loop, which
+ performs the following steps:
+
+
+ Call accept . It waits
+ here until a client contacts it. At that point, it
+ receives a new socket, c , which it
+ can use to communicate with this particular client.
+
+
+ It uses the C function
+ fdopen to turn the socket from a
+ low-level file descriptor to a
+ C-style FILE pointer. This will allow
+ the use of fprintf later on.
+
+
+ It checks the time, and prints it in the
+ ISO 8601 format
+ to the client file
. It
+ then uses fclose to close the
+ file. That will automatically close the socket as well.
+
+
+
+
+ We can generalize this, and use
+ it as a model for many other servers:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +-----------------+
+| Create Socket |
++-----------------+
+ |
++-----------------+
+| Bind Port | Daemon Process
++-----------------+
+ | +--------+
+ +-------------+-->| Init |
+ | | +--------+
++-----------------+ | |
+| Exit | | +--------+
++-----------------+ | | Listen |
+ | +--------+
+ | |
+ | +--------+
+ | | Accept |
+ | +--------+
+ | |
+ | +--------+
+ | | Serve |
+ | +--------+
+ | |
+ | +--------+
+ | | Close |
+ |<--------+
+
+
+
+ Sequential Server
+
+
+
+ This flowchart is good for sequential
+ servers , i.e., servers that can serve one
+ client at a time, just as we were able to with our
+ daytime server. This is only possible
+ whenever there is no real conversation
+ going on between the client and the server: As soon as the
+ server detects a connection to the client, it sends out
+ some data and closes the connection. The entire operation
+ may take nanoseconds, and it is finished.
+
+ The advantage of this flowchart is that, except for
+ the brief moment after the parent
+ fork s and before it exits, there is
+ always only one process active: Our
+ server does not take up much memory and other system
+ resources.
+
+ Note that we have added initialize
+ daemon in our flowchart. We did not need to
+ initialize our own daemon, but this is a good place in the
+ flow of the program to set up any
+ signal handlers, open any files we
+ may need, etc.
+
+ Just about everything in the flow chart can be used
+ literally on many different servers. The
+ serve entry is the exception. We
+ think of it as a black
+ box
, i.e., something you design
+ specifically for your own server, and just plug it
+ into the rest.
+
+ Not all protocols are that simple. Many receive a
+ request from the client, reply to it, then receive another
+ request from the same client. Because of that, they do not
+ know in advance how long they will be serving the
+ client. Such servers usually start a new process for each
+ client. While the new process is serving its client, the
+ daemon can continue listening for more connections.
+
+ Now, go ahead, save the above source code as
+ daytimed.c (it is customary to end
+ the names of daemons with the letter
+ d ). After you have compiled it, try
+ running it:
+
+&prompt.user; ./daytimed
+bind: Permission denied
+&prompt.user;
+
+ What happened here? As you will recall, the
+ daytime protocol uses port 13. But
+ all ports below 1024 are reserved to the superuser
+ (otherwise, anyone could start a daemon pretending to
+ serve a commonly used port, while causing a security
+ breach).
+
+ Try again, this time as the superuser:
+
+&prompt.root; ./daytimed
+&prompt.root;
+
+ What... Nothing? Let us try again:
+
+&prompt.root; ./daytimed
+
+bind: Address already in use
+&prompt.root;
+
+ Every port can only be bound by one program at a
+ time. Our first attempt was indeed successful: It started
+ the child daemon and returned quietly. It is still running
+ and will continue to run until you either kill it, or any
+ of its system calls fail, or you reboot the system.
+
+ Fine, we know it is running in the background. But is
+ it working? How do we know it is a proper
+ daytime server? Simple:
+
+&prompt.user; telnet localhost 13
+
+Trying ::1...
+telnet: connect to address ::1: Connection refused
+Trying 127.0.0.1...
+Connected to localhost.
+Escape character is '^]'.
+2001-06-19T21:04:42Z
+Connection closed by foreign host.
+&prompt.user;
+
+ telnet tried the new
+ IP v6, and failed. It retried with
+ IP v4 and succeeded. The daemon
+ works.
+
+ If you have access to another &unix; system via
+ telnet , you can use it to test
+ accessing the server remotely. My computer does not have a
+ static IP address, so this is what I
+ did:
+
+&prompt.user; who
+
+whizkid ttyp0 Jun 19 16:59 (216.127.220.143)
+xxx ttyp1 Jun 19 16:06 (xx.xx.xx.xx)
+&prompt.user; telnet 216.127.220.143 13
+
+Trying 216.127.220.143...
+Connected to r47.bfm.org.
+Escape character is '^]'.
+2001-06-19T21:31:11Z
+Connection closed by foreign host.
+&prompt.user;
+
+ Again, it worked. Will it work using the domain name?
+
+
+&prompt.user; telnet r47.bfm.org 13
+
+Trying 216.127.220.143...
+Connected to r47.bfm.org.
+Escape character is '^]'.
+2001-06-19T21:31:40Z
+Connection closed by foreign host.
+&prompt.user;
+
+ By the way, telnet prints
+ the Connection closed by foreign host
+ message after our daemon has closed the socket. This shows
+ us that, indeed, using
+ fclose(client); in our code works as
+ advertised.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Helper Functions
+
+ FreeBSD C library contains many helper functions for sockets
+ programming. For example, in our sample client we hard coded
+ the time.nist.gov
+ IP address. But we do not always know the
+ IP address. Even if we do, our software is
+ more flexible if it allows the user to enter the
+ IP address, or even the domain name.
+
+
+
+ gethostbyname
+
+ While there is no way to pass the domain name directly to
+ any of the sockets functions, the FreeBSD C library comes with
+ the &man.gethostbyname.3; and &man.gethostbyname2.3; functions,
+ declared in netdb.h .
+
+
+struct hostent * gethostbyname(const char *name);
+struct hostent * gethostbyname2(const char *name, int af);
+
+
+ Both return a pointer to the hostent
+ structure, with much information about the domain. For our
+ purposes, the h_addr_list[0] field of the
+ structure points at h_length bytes of the
+ correct address, already stored in the network byte
+ order .
+
+ This allows us to create a much more flexible—and
+ much more useful—version of our
+ daytime program:
+
+
+/*
+ * daytime.c
+ *
+ * Programmed by G. Adam Stanislav
+ * 19 June 2001
+ */
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <string.h>
+#include <sys/types.h>
+#include <sys/socket.h>
+#include <netinet/in.h>
+#include <netdb.h>
+
+int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
+ register int s;
+ register int bytes;
+ struct sockaddr_in sa;
+ struct hostent *he;
+ char buf[BUFSIZ+1];
+ char *host;
+
+ if ((s = socket(PF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0)) < 0) {
+ perror("socket");
+ return 1;
+ }
+
+ bzero(&sa, sizeof sa);
+
+ sa.sin_family = AF_INET;
+ sa.sin_port = htons(13);
+
+ host = (argc > 1) ? (char *)argv[1] : "time.nist.gov";
+
+ if ((he = gethostbyname(host)) == NULL) {
+ perror(host);
+ return 2;
+ }
+
+ bcopy(he->h_addr_list[0],&sa.sin_addr, he->h_length);
+
+ if (connect(s, (struct sockaddr *)&sa, sizeof sa) < 0) {
+ perror("connect");
+ return 3;
+ }
+
+ while ((bytes = read(s, buf, BUFSIZ)) > 0)
+ write(1, buf, bytes);
+
+ close(s);
+ return 0;
+}
+
+
+ We now can type a domain name (or an IP
+ address, it works both ways) on the command line, and the
+ program will try to connect to its
+ daytime server. Otherwise, it will still
+ default to time.nist.gov . However, even in
+ this case we will use gethostbyname
+ rather than hard coding 192.43.244.18 . That way, even if its
+ IP address changes in the future, we will
+ still find it.
+
+ Since it takes virtually no time to get the time from your
+ local server, you could run daytime
+ twice in a row: First to get the time from time.nist.gov , the second time from
+ your own system. You can then compare the results and see how
+ exact your system clock is:
+
+&prompt.user; daytime ; daytime localhost
+
+
+52080 01-06-20 04:02:33 50 0 0 390.2 UTC(NIST) *
+2001-06-20T04:02:35Z
+&prompt.user;
+
+ As you can see, my system was two seconds ahead of the
+ NIST time.
+
+
+
+
+ getservbyname
+
+ Sometimes you may not be sure what port a certain service
+ uses. The &man.getservbyname.3; function, also declared in
+ netdb.h comes in very handy in those
+ cases:
+
+
+struct servent * getservbyname(const char *name, const char *proto);
+
+
+ The servent structure contains the
+ s_port , which contains the proper port,
+ already in network byte order .
+
+ Had we not known the correct port for the
+ daytime service, we could have found it
+ this way:
+
+
+ struct servent *se;
+ ...
+ if ((se = getservbyname("daytime", "tcp")) == NULL {
+ fprintf(stderr, "Cannot determine which port to use.\n");
+ return 7;
+ }
+ sa.sin_port = se->s_port;
+
+
+ You usually do know the port. But if you are developing a
+ new protocol, you may be testing it on an unofficial
+ port. Some day, you will register the protocol and its port
+ (if nowhere else, at least in your
+ /etc/services , which is where
+ getservbyname looks). Instead of
+ returning an error in the above code, you just use the
+ temporary port number. Once you have listed the protocol in
+ /etc/services , your software will find
+ its port without you having to rewrite the code.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Concurrent Servers
+
+ Unlike a sequential server, a concurrent
+ server has to be able to serve more than one client
+ at a time. For example, a chat server may
+ be serving a specific client for hours—it cannot wait till
+ it stops serving a client before it serves the next one.
+
+ This requires a significant change in our flowchart:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +-----------------+
+| Create Socket |
++-----------------+
+ |
++-----------------+
+| Bind Port | Daemon Process
++-----------------+
+ | +--------+
+ +-------------+-->| Init |
+ | | +--------+
++-----------------+ | |
+| Exit | | +--------+
++-----------------+ | | Listen |
+ | +--------+
+ | |
+ | +--------+
+ | | Accept |
+ | +--------+
+ | | +------------------+
+ | +------>| Close Top Socket |
+ | | +------------------+
+ | +--------+ |
+ | | Close | +------------------+
+ | +--------+ | Serve |
+ | | +------------------+
+ |<--------+ |
+ +------------------+
+ | Close Acc Socket |
+ +--------+ +------------------+
+ | Signal | |
+ +--------+ +------------------+
+ | Exit |
+ +------------------+
+
+
+
+ Concurrent Server
+
+
+
+ We moved the serve from the
+ daemon process to its own server
+ process . However, because each child process inherits
+ all open files (and a socket is treated just like a file), the
+ new process inherits not only the accepted
+ handle,
i.e., the socket returned by the
+ accept call, but also the top
+ socket , i.e., the one opened by the top process right
+ at the beginning.
+
+ However, the server process does not
+ need this socket and should close it
+ immediately. Similarly, the daemon process
+ no longer needs the accepted socket , and
+ not only should, but must
+ close it—otherwise, it will run out
+ of available file descriptors sooner or
+ later.
+
+ After the server process is done
+ serving, it should close the accepted
+ socket . Instead of returning to
+ accept , it now exits.
+
+
+ Under &unix;, a process does not really
+ exit . Instead, it
+ returns to its parent. Typically, a parent
+ process wait s for its child process, and
+ obtains a return value. However, our daemon
+ process cannot simply stop and wait. That would
+ defeat the whole purpose of creating additional processes. But
+ if it never does wait , its children will
+ become zombies —no longer functional
+ but still roaming around.
+
+ For that reason, the daemon process
+ needs to set signal handlers in its
+ initialize daemon phase. At least a
+ SIGCHLD signal has to be processed, so the
+ daemon can remove the zombie return values from the system and
+ release the system resources they are taking up.
+
+ That is why our flowchart now contains a process
+ signals box, which is not connected to any other box.
+ By the way, many servers also process SIGHUP ,
+ and typically interpret as the signal from the superuser that
+ they should reread their configuration files. This allows us to
+ change settings without having to kill and restart these
+ servers.
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/testing/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/testing/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..fe2420dad9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/testing/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,226 @@
+
+
+
+ Regression and Performance Testing
+
+ Regression tests are used to exercise a particular bit of the
+ system to check that it works as expected, and to make sure that
+ old bugs are not reintroduced.
+
+ The &os; regression testing tools can be found in the &os;
+ source tree in the directory src/tools/regression .
+
+
+ Micro Benchmark Checklist
+
+ This section contains hints for doing proper
+ micro-benchmarking on &os; or of &os; itself.
+
+ It is not possible to use all of the suggestions below every
+ single time, but the more used, the better the benchmark's
+ ability to test small differences will be.
+
+
+
+ Disable APM and any other kind of
+ clock fiddling (ACPI ?).
+
+
+
+ Run in single user mode. E.g. &man.cron.8;, and and
+ other daemons only add noise. The &man.sshd.8; daemon can
+ also cause problems. If ssh access is required during test
+ either disable the SSHv1 key regeneration, or kill the
+ parent sshd daemon during the tests.
+
+
+
+ Do not run &man.ntpd.8;.
+
+
+
+ If &man.syslog.3; events are generated, run
+ &man.syslogd.8; with an empty
+ /etc/syslogd.conf , otherwise, do not
+ run it.
+
+
+
+ Minimize disk-I/O, avoid it entirely if possible.
+
+
+
+ Do not mount file systems that are not needed.
+
+
+
+ Mount / ,
+ /usr , and any other
+ file system as read-only if possible. This removes atime
+ updates to disk (etc.) from the I/O picture.
+
+
+
+ Reinitialize the read/write test file system with
+ &man.newfs.8; and populate it from a &man.tar.1; or
+ &man.dump.8; file before every run. Unmount and mount it
+ before starting the test. This results in a consistent file
+ system layout. For a worldstone test this would apply to
+ /usr/obj (just
+ reinitialize with newfs and mount). To
+ get 100% reproducibility, populate the file system from a
+ &man.dd.1; file (i.e.: dd
+ if=myimage of=/dev/ad0s1h
+ bs=1m )
+
+
+
+ Use malloc backed or preloaded &man.md.4;
+ partitions.
+
+
+
+ Reboot between individual iterations of the test, this
+ gives a more consistent state.
+
+
+
+ Remove all non-essential device drivers from the kernel.
+ For instance if USB is not needed for the test, do not put
+ USB in the kernel. Drivers which attach often have timeouts
+ ticking away.
+
+
+
+ Unconfigure hardware that are not in use. Detach disks
+ with &man.atacontrol.8; and &man.camcontrol.8; if the disks
+ are not used for the test.
+
+
+
+ Do not configure the network unless it is being tested,
+ or wait until after the test has been performed to ship the
+ results off to another computer.
+
+ If the system must be connected to a public network,
+ watch out for spikes of broadcast traffic. Even though it
+ is hardly noticeable, it will take up CPU cycles. Multicast
+ has similar caveats.
+
+
+
+ Put each file system on its own disk. This minimizes
+ jitter from head-seek optimizations.
+
+
+
+ Minimize output to serial or VGA consoles. Running
+ output into files gives less jitter. (Serial consoles
+ easily become a bottleneck.) Do not touch keyboard while
+ the test is running, even space or
+ back-space shows up in the numbers.
+
+
+
+ Make sure the test is long enough, but not too long. If
+ the test is too short, timestamping is a problem. If it is
+ too long temperature changes and drift will affect the
+ frequency of the quartz crystals in the computer. Rule of
+ thumb: more than a minute, less than an hour.
+
+
+
+ Try to keep the temperature as stable as possible around
+ the machine. This affects both quartz crystals and disk
+ drive algorithms. To get real stable clock, consider
+ stabilized clock injection. E.g. get a OCXO + PLL, inject
+ output into clock circuits instead of motherboard xtal.
+ Contact &a.phk; for more information about this.
+
+
+
+ Run the test at least 3 times but it is better to run
+ more than 20 times both for before
and
+ after
code. Try to interleave if possible
+ (i.e.: do not run 20 times before then 20 times after), this
+ makes it possible to spot environmental effects. Do not
+ interleave 1:1, but 3:3, this makes it possible to spot
+ interaction effects.
+
+ A good pattern is: bababa{bbbaaa}* .
+ This gives hint after the first 1+1 runs (so it is possible
+ to stop the test if it goes entirely the wrong way), a
+ standard deviation after the first 3+3 (gives a good
+ indication if it is going to be worth a long run) and
+ trending and interaction numbers later on.
+
+
+
+ Use usr/src/tools/tools/ministat
+ to see if the numbers are significant. Consider buying
+ Cartoon guide to statistics
ISBN:
+ 0062731025, highly recommended, if you have forgotten or
+ never learned about standard deviation and Student's
+ T.
+
+
+
+ Do not use background &man.fsck.8; unless the test is a
+ benchmark of background fsck . Also,
+ disable background_fsck in
+ /etc/rc.conf unless the benchmark is
+ not started at least 60+fsck
+ runtime
seconds after the boot, as &man.rc.8; wakes
+ up and checks if fsck needs to run on any
+ file systems when background fsck is
+ enabled. Likewise, make sure there are no snapshots lying
+ around unless the benchmark is a test with snapshots.
+
+
+
+ If the benchmark show unexpected bad performance, check
+ for things like high interrupt volume from an unexpected
+ source. Some versions of ACPI have been
+ reported to misbehave
and generate excess
+ interrupts. To help diagnose odd test results, take a few
+ snapshots of vmstat -i and look for
+ anything unusual.
+
+
+
+ Make sure to be careful about optimization parameters
+ for kernel and userspace, likewise debugging. It is easy to
+ let something slip through and realize later the test was
+ not comparing the same thing.
+
+
+
+ Do not ever benchmark with the
+ WITNESS and INVARIANTS
+ kernel options enabled unless the test is interested to
+ benchmarking those features. WITNESS can
+ cause 400%+ drops in performance. Likewise, userspace
+ &man.malloc.3; parameters default differently in -CURRENT
+ from the way they ship in production releases.
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/tools/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/tools/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..7508065173
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/tools/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,2366 @@
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ James
+ Raynard
+ Contributed by
+
+
+ Murray
+ Stokely
+
+
+
+
+ Programming Tools
+ Synopsis
+
+ This chapter is an introduction to using some of the
+ programming tools supplied with FreeBSD, although much of it
+ will be applicable to many other versions of &unix;. It does
+ not attempt to describe coding in any
+ detail. Most of the chapter assumes little or no previous
+ programming knowledge, although it is hoped that most
+ programmers will find something of value in it.
+
+
+
+ Introduction
+
+ FreeBSD offers an excellent development environment.
+ Compilers for C, C++, and Fortran and an assembler come with the
+ basic system, not to mention a Perl interpreter and classic &unix;
+ tools such as sed and awk .
+ If that is not enough, there are many more compilers and
+ interpreters in the Ports collection. FreeBSD is very
+ compatible with standards such as &posix; and
+ ANSI C, as well with its own BSD heritage, so
+ it is possible to write applications that will compile and run
+ with little or no modification on a wide range of
+ platforms.
+
+ However, all this power can be rather overwhelming at first
+ if you have never written programs on a &unix; platform before.
+ This document aims to help you get up and running, without
+ getting too deeply into more advanced topics. The intention is
+ that this document should give you enough of the basics to be
+ able to make some sense of the documentation.
+
+ Most of the document requires little or no knowledge of
+ programming, although it does assume a basic competence with
+ using &unix; and a willingness to learn!
+
+
+
+
+ Introduction to Programming
+
+ A program is a set of instructions that tell the computer to
+ do various things; sometimes the instruction it has to perform
+ depends on what happened when it performed a previous
+ instruction. This section gives an overview of the two main
+ ways in which you can give these instructions, or
+ commands
as they are usually called. One way
+ uses an interpreter , the other a
+ compiler . As human languages are too
+ difficult for a computer to understand in an unambiguous way,
+ commands are usually written in one or other languages specially
+ designed for the purpose.
+
+
+ Interpreters
+
+ With an interpreter, the language comes as an environment,
+ where you type in commands at a prompt and the environment
+ executes them for you. For more complicated programs, you can
+ type the commands into a file and get the interpreter to load
+ the file and execute the commands in it. If anything goes
+ wrong, many interpreters will drop you into a debugger to help
+ you track down the problem.
+
+ The advantage of this is that you can see the results of
+ your commands immediately, and mistakes can be corrected
+ readily. The biggest disadvantage comes when you want to
+ share your programs with someone. They must have the same
+ interpreter, or you must have some way of giving it to them,
+ and they need to understand how to use it. Also users may not
+ appreciate being thrown into a debugger if they press the
+ wrong key! From a performance point of view, interpreters can
+ use up a lot of memory, and generally do not generate code as
+ efficiently as compilers.
+
+ In my opinion, interpreted languages are the best way to
+ start if you have not done any programming before. This kind
+ of environment is typically found with languages like Lisp,
+ Smalltalk, Perl and Basic. It could also be argued that the
+ &unix; shell (sh , csh ) is itself an
+ interpreter, and many people do in fact write shell
+ scripts
to help with various
+ housekeeping
tasks on their machine. Indeed, part
+ of the original &unix; philosophy was to provide lots of small
+ utility programs that could be linked together in shell
+ scripts to perform useful tasks.
+
+
+
+ Interpreters available with FreeBSD
+
+ Here is a list of interpreters that are available from
+ the &os; Ports Collection, with a brief discussion of
+ some of the more popular interpreted languages.
+
+ Instructions on how to get and install applications
+ from the Ports Collection can be found in the
+
+ Ports section of the handbook.
+
+
+
+ BASIC
+
+
+ Short for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
+ Instruction Code. Developed in the 1950s for teaching
+ University students to program and provided with every
+ self-respecting personal computer in the 1980s,
+ BASIC has been the first programming
+ language for many programmers. It is also the foundation
+ for Visual Basic.
+
+ The Bywater Basic Interpreter can be found in the
+ Ports Collection as
+ lang/bwbasic
+ and the Phil Cockroft's Basic Interpreter
+ (formerly Rabbit Basic) is available as
+ lang/pbasic .
+
+
+
+
+ Lisp
+
+
+ A language that was developed in the late 1950s as
+ an alternative to the number-crunching
+ languages that were popular at the time. Instead of
+ being based on numbers, Lisp is based on lists; in fact
+ the name is short for List Processing
.
+ Very popular in AI (Artificial Intelligence)
+ circles.
+
+ Lisp is an extremely powerful and sophisticated
+ language, but can be rather large and unwieldy.
+
+ Various implementations of Lisp that can run on &unix;
+ systems are available in the Ports Collection for &os;.
+ GNU Common Lisp can be found as
+ lang/gcl . CLISP
+ by Bruno Haible and Michael Stoll is available as
+ lang/clisp .
+ For CMUCL, which includes a highly-optimizing compiler too, or
+ simpler Lisp implementations like SLisp, which implements most
+ of the Common Lisp constructs in a few hundred lines of C code,
+ lang/cmucl and
+ lang/slisp are available
+ respectively.
+
+
+
+
+ Perl
+
+
+ Very popular with system administrators for writing
+ scripts; also often used on World Wide Web servers for
+ writing CGI scripts.
+
+ Perl is available in the Ports Collection as
+ lang/perl5 for all
+ &os; releases, and is installed as /usr/bin/perl
+ in the base system 4.X releases.
+
+
+
+
+ Scheme
+
+
+ A dialect of Lisp that is rather more compact and
+ cleaner than Common Lisp. Popular in Universities as it
+ is simple enough to teach to undergraduates as a first
+ language, while it has a high enough level of
+ abstraction to be used in research work.
+
+ Scheme is available from the Ports Collection as
+ lang/elk for the
+ Elk Scheme Interpreter. The MIT Scheme Interpreter
+ can be found in
+ lang/mit-scheme
+ and the SCM Scheme Interpreter in
+ lang/scm .
+
+
+
+
+ Icon
+
+
+ Icon is a high-level language with extensive
+ facilities for processing strings and structures.
+ The version of Icon for &os; can be found in the
+ Ports Collection as
+ lang/icon .
+
+
+
+
+ Logo
+
+
+ Logo is a language that is easy to learn, and has
+ been used as an introductory programming language in
+ various courses. It is an excellent tool to work with
+ when teaching programming in small ages, as it makes the
+ creation of elaborate geometric shapes an easy task even
+ for very small children.
+
+ The lastest version of Logo for &os; is available from
+ the Ports Collection in
+ lang/logo .
+
+
+
+
+ Python
+
+
+ Python is an Object-Oriented, interpreted language.
+ Its advocates argue that it is one of the best languages
+ to start programming with, since it is relatively easy
+ to start with, but is not limited in comparison to other
+ popular interpreted languages that are used for the
+ development of large, complex applications (Perl and
+ Tcl are two other languages that are popular for such tasks).
+
+ The latest version of Python is available from the
+ Ports Collection in
+ lang/python .
+
+
+
+
+ Ruby
+
+
+ Ruby is an interpreter, pure object-oriented programming
+ language. It has become widely popular because of its easy
+ to understand syntax, flexibility when writing code, and the
+ ability to easily develop and maintain large, complex
+ programs.
+
+ Ruby is available from the Ports Collection as
+ lang/ruby18 .
+
+
+
+
+ Tcl and Tk
+
+
+ Tcl is an embeddable, interpreted language, that has
+ become widely used and became popular mostly because of its portability to many
+ platforms. It can be used both for quickly writing
+ small, prototype applications, or (when combined with
+ Tk, a GUI toolkit) fully-fledged, featureful
+ programs.
+
+ Various versions of Tcl are available as ports
+ for &os;. The latest version, Tcl 8.4, can be found in
+ lang/tcl84 .
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Compilers
+
+ Compilers are rather different. First of all, you write
+ your code in a file (or files) using an editor. You then run
+ the compiler and see if it accepts your program. If it did
+ not compile, grit your teeth and go back to the editor; if it
+ did compile and gave you a program, you can run it either at a
+ shell command prompt or in a debugger to see if it works
+ properly.
+
+
+ If you run it in the shell, you may get a core
+ dump.
+
+
+ Obviously, this is not quite as direct as using an
+ interpreter. However it allows you to do a lot of things
+ which are very difficult or even impossible with an
+ interpreter, such as writing code which interacts closely with
+ the operating system—or even writing your own operating
+ system! It is also useful if you need to write very efficient
+ code, as the compiler can take its time and optimize the code,
+ which would not be acceptable in an interpreter. Moreover,
+ distributing a program written for a compiler is usually more
+ straightforward than one written for an interpreter—you
+ can just give them a copy of the executable, assuming they
+ have the same operating system as you.
+
+ Compiled languages include Pascal, C and C++. C and C++
+ are rather unforgiving languages, and best suited to more
+ experienced programmers; Pascal, on the other hand, was
+ designed as an educational language, and is quite a good
+ language to start with. FreeBSD does not include Pascal
+ support in the base system, but both GNU Pascal Compiler (GPC)
+ and the Free Pascal Compiler
+ are available in the ports collection as
+ lang/gpc and
+ lang/fpc .
+
+ As the edit-compile-run-debug cycle is rather tedious when
+ using separate programs, many commercial compiler makers have
+ produced Integrated Development Environments
+ (IDE s for short). FreeBSD does not include
+ an IDE in the base system, but devel/kdevelop is
+ available in the ports tree and many use
+ Emacs for this purpose. Using
+ Emacs as an IDE is discussed in
+ .
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Compiling with cc
+
+ This section deals only with the GNU compiler for C and C++,
+ since that comes with the base FreeBSD system. It can be
+ invoked by either cc or gcc . The
+ details of producing a program with an interpreter vary
+ considerably between interpreters, and are usually well covered
+ in the documentation and on-line help for the
+ interpreter.
+
+ Once you have written your masterpiece, the next step is to
+ convert it into something that will (hopefully!) run on FreeBSD.
+ This usually involves several steps, each of which is done by a
+ separate program.
+
+
+
+ Pre-process your source code to remove comments and do
+ other tricks like expanding macros in C.
+
+
+
+ Check the syntax of your code to see if you have obeyed
+ the rules of the language. If you have not, it will
+ complain!
+
+
+
+ Convert the source code into assembly
+ language—this is very close to machine code, but still
+ understandable by humans. Allegedly.
+
+
+ To be strictly accurate, cc converts the
+ source code into its own, machine-independent
+ p-code instead of assembly language at
+ this stage.
+
+
+
+
+ Convert the assembly language into machine
+ code—yep, we are talking bits and bytes, ones and
+ zeros here.
+
+
+
+ Check that you have used things like functions and
+ global variables in a consistent way. For example, if you
+ have called a non-existent function, it will
+ complain.
+
+
+
+ If you are trying to produce an executable from several
+ source code files, work out how to fit them all
+ together.
+
+
+
+ Work out how to produce something that the system's
+ run-time loader will be able to load into memory and
+ run.
+
+
+
+ Finally, write the executable on the filesystem.
+
+
+
+ The word compiling is often used to refer to
+ just steps 1 to 4—the others are referred to as
+ linking . Sometimes step 1 is referred to as
+ pre-processing and steps 3-4 as
+ assembling .
+
+ Fortunately, almost all this detail is hidden from you, as
+ cc is a front end that manages calling all these
+ programs with the right arguments for you; simply typing
+
+ &prompt.user; cc foobar.c
+
+ will cause foobar.c to be compiled by all the
+ steps above. If you have more than one file to compile, just do
+ something like
+
+ &prompt.user; cc foo.c bar.c
+
+ Note that the syntax checking is just that—checking
+ the syntax. It will not check for any logical mistakes you may
+ have made, like putting the program into an infinite loop, or
+ using a bubble sort when you meant to use a binary
+ sort.
+
+
+ In case you did not know, a binary sort is an efficient
+ way of sorting things into order and a bubble sort
+ is not.
+
+
+ There are lots and lots of options for cc , which
+ are all in the manual page. Here are a few of the most important
+ ones, with examples of how to use them.
+
+
+
+ -o filename
+
+
+ The output name of the file. If you do not use this
+ option, cc will produce an executable called
+ a.out .
+
+
+ The reasons for this are buried in the mists of
+ history.
+
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc foobar.c executable is a.out
+&prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c executable is foobar
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ -c
+
+
+ Just compile the file, do not link it. Useful for toy
+ programs where you just want to check the syntax, or if
+ you are using a Makefile .
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -c foobar.c
+
+
+
+ This will produce an object file (not an
+ executable) called foobar.o . This
+ can be linked together with other object files into an
+ executable.
+
+
+
+
+ -g
+
+
+ Create a debug version of the executable. This makes
+ the compiler put information into the executable about
+ which line of which source file corresponds to which
+ function call. A debugger can use this information to show
+ the source code as you step through the program, which is
+ very useful; the disadvantage is that
+ all this extra information makes the program much bigger.
+ Normally, you compile with -g while you
+ are developing a program and then compile a release
+ version
without -g when you are
+ satisfied it works properly.
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -g foobar.c
+
+
+
+ This will produce a debug version of the
+ program.
+
+
+ Note, we did not use the -o flag
+ to specify the executable name, so we will get an
+ executable called a.out .
+ Producing a debug version called
+ foobar is left as an exercise for
+ the reader!
+
+
+
+
+
+ -O
+
+
+ Create an optimized version of the executable. The
+ compiler performs various clever tricks to try to produce
+ an executable that runs faster than normal. You can add a
+ number after the -O to specify a higher
+ level of optimization, but this often exposes bugs in the
+ compiler's optimizer. For instance, the version of
+ cc that comes with the 2.1.0 release of
+ FreeBSD is known to produce bad code with the
+ -O2 option in some circumstances.
+
+ Optimization is usually only turned on when compiling
+ a release version.
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -O -o foobar foobar.c
+
+
+
+ This will produce an optimized version of
+ foobar .
+
+
+
+
+ The following three flags will force cc
+ to check that your code complies to the relevant international
+ standard, often referred to as the ANSI
+ standard, though strictly speaking it is an
+ ISO standard.
+
+
+
+ -Wall
+
+
+ Enable all the warnings which the authors of
+ cc believe are worthwhile. Despite the
+ name, it will not enable all the warnings
+ cc is capable of.
+
+
+
+
+ -ansi
+
+
+ Turn off most, but not all, of the
+ non-ANSI C features provided by
+ cc . Despite the name, it does not
+ guarantee strictly that your code will comply to the
+ standard.
+
+
+
+
+ -pedantic
+
+
+ Turn off all
+ cc 's non-ANSI C
+ features.
+
+
+
+
+ Without these flags, cc will allow you to
+ use some of its non-standard extensions to the standard. Some
+ of these are very useful, but will not work with other
+ compilers—in fact, one of the main aims of the standard is
+ to allow people to write code that will work with any compiler
+ on any system. This is known as portable
+ code .
+
+ Generally, you should try to make your code as portable as
+ possible, as otherwise you may have to completely rewrite the
+ program later to get it to work somewhere else—and who
+ knows what you may be using in a few years time?
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -Wall -ansi -pedantic -o foobar foobar.c
+
+
+ This will produce an executable foobar
+ after checking foobar.c for standard
+ compliance.
+
+
+
+ -llibrary
+
+
+ Specify a function library to be used at link time.
+
+ The most common example of this is when compiling a
+ program that uses some of the mathematical functions in C.
+ Unlike most other platforms, these are in a separate
+ library from the standard C one and you have to tell the
+ compiler to add it.
+
+ The rule is that if the library is called
+ libsomething .a ,
+ you give cc the argument
+ -lsomething .
+ For example, the math library is
+ libm.a , so you give
+ cc the argument -lm .
+ A common gotcha
with the math library is
+ that it has to be the last library on the command
+ line.
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c -lm
+
+
+
+ This will link the math library functions into
+ foobar .
+
+ If you are compiling C++ code, you need to add
+ -lg++ , or -lstdc++ if
+ you are using FreeBSD 2.2 or later, to the command line
+ argument to link the C++ library functions.
+ Alternatively, you can run c++ instead
+ of cc , which does this for you.
+ c++ can also be invoked as
+ g++ on FreeBSD.
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.cc -lg++ For FreeBSD 2.1.6 and earlier
+&prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.cc -lstdc++ For FreeBSD 2.2 and later
+&prompt.user; c++ -o foobar foobar.cc
+
+
+
+ Each of these will both produce an executable
+ foobar from the C++ source file
+ foobar.cc . Note that, on &unix;
+ systems, C++ source files traditionally end in
+ .C , .cxx or
+ .cc , rather than the
+ &ms-dos; style
+ .cpp (which was already used for
+ something else). gcc used to rely on
+ this to work out what kind of compiler to use on the
+ source file; however, this restriction no longer applies,
+ so you may now call your C++ files
+ .cpp with impunity!
+
+
+
+
+
+ Common cc Queries and Problems
+
+
+
+
+ I am trying to write a program which uses the
+ sin() function and I get an error
+ like this. What does it mean?
+
+
+ /var/tmp/cc0143941.o: Undefined symbol `_sin' referenced from text segment
+
+
+
+
+
+ When using mathematical functions like
+ sin() , you have to tell
+ cc to link in the math library, like
+ so:
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c -lm
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ All right, I wrote this simple program to practice
+ using -lm . All it does is raise 2.1 to
+ the power of 6.
+
+
+ #include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+ float f;
+
+ f = pow(2.1, 6);
+ printf("2.1 ^ 6 = %f\n", f);
+ return 0;
+}
+
+
+
+ and I compiled it as:
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc temp.c -lm
+
+
+
+ like you said I should, but I get this when I run
+ it:
+
+
+ &prompt.user; ./a.out
+2.1 ^ 6 = 1023.000000
+
+
+
+ This is not the right answer!
+ What is going on?
+
+
+
+ When the compiler sees you call a function, it
+ checks if it has already seen a prototype for it. If it
+ has not, it assumes the function returns an
+ int , which is definitely not what you want
+ here.
+
+
+
+
+
+ So how do I fix this?
+
+
+
+ The prototypes for the mathematical functions are in
+ math.h . If you include this file,
+ the compiler will be able to find the prototype and it
+ will stop doing strange things to your
+ calculation!
+
+
+ #include <math.h>
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+...
+
+
+
+ After recompiling it as you did before, run
+ it:
+
+
+ &prompt.user; ./a.out
+2.1 ^ 6 = 85.766121
+
+
+
+ If you are using any of the mathematical functions,
+ always include
+ math.h and remember to link in the
+ math library.
+
+
+
+
+
+ I compiled a file called
+ foobar.c and I cannot find an
+ executable called foobar . Where has
+ it gone?
+
+
+
+ Remember, cc will call the
+ executable a.out unless you tell it
+ differently. Use the
+ -o filename
+ option:
+
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -o foobar foobar.c
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ OK, I have an executable called
+ foobar , I can see it when I run
+ ls , but when I type in
+ foobar at the command prompt it tells
+ me there is no such file. Why can it not find
+ it?
+
+
+
+ Unlike &ms-dos;, &unix; does not
+ look in the current directory when it is trying to find
+ out which executable you want it to run, unless you tell
+ it to. Either type ./foobar , which
+ means run the file called
+ foobar in the current
+ directory
, or change your PATH
+ environment
+ variable so that it looks something like
+
+
+ bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:.
+
+
+
+ The dot at the end means look in the current
+ directory if it is not in any of the
+ others
.
+
+
+
+
+
+ I called my executable test ,
+ but nothing happens when I run it. What is going
+ on?
+
+
+
+ Most &unix; systems have a program called
+ test in /usr/bin
+ and the shell is picking that one up before it gets to
+ checking the current directory. Either type:
+
+
+ &prompt.user; ./test
+
+
+
+ or choose a better name for your program!
+
+
+
+
+
+ I compiled my program and it seemed to run all right
+ at first, then there was an error and it said something
+ about core dumped . What does that
+ mean?
+
+
+
+ The name core dump dates back
+ to the very early days of &unix;, when the machines used
+ core memory for storing data. Basically, if the program
+ failed under certain conditions, the system would write
+ the contents of core memory to disk in a file called
+ core , which the programmer could
+ then pore over to find out what went wrong.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Fascinating stuff, but what I am supposed to do
+ now?
+
+
+
+ Use gdb to analyze the core (see
+ ).
+
+
+
+
+
+ When my program dumped core, it said something about
+ a segmentation fault . What is
+ that?
+
+
+
+ This basically means that your program tried to
+ perform some sort of illegal operation on memory; &unix;
+ is designed to protect the operating system and other
+ programs from rogue programs.
+
+ Common causes for this are:
+
+
+
+ Trying to write to a NULL
+ pointer, eg
+
+ char *foo = NULL;
+strcpy(foo, "bang!");
+
+
+
+
+ Using a pointer that has not been initialized,
+ eg
+
+ char *foo;
+strcpy(foo, "bang!");
+
+
+ The pointer will have some random value that,
+ with luck, will point into an area of memory that
+ is not available to your program and the kernel will
+ kill your program before it can do any damage. If
+ you are unlucky, it will point somewhere inside your
+ own program and corrupt one of your data structures,
+ causing the program to fail mysteriously.
+
+
+
+ Trying to access past the end of an array,
+ eg
+
+ int bar[20];
+bar[27] = 6;
+
+
+
+
+ Trying to store something in read-only memory,
+ eg
+
+ char *foo = "My string";
+strcpy(foo, "bang!");
+
+
+ &unix; compilers often put string literals like
+ "My string" into read-only areas
+ of memory.
+
+
+
+ Doing naughty things with
+ malloc() and
+ free() , eg
+
+ char bar[80];
+free(bar);
+
+
+ or
+
+ char *foo = malloc(27);
+free(foo);
+free(foo);
+
+
+
+
+ Making one of these mistakes will not always lead to
+ an error, but they are always bad practice. Some
+ systems and compilers are more tolerant than others,
+ which is why programs that ran well on one system can
+ crash when you try them on an another.
+
+
+
+
+
+ Sometimes when I get a core dump it says
+ bus error . It says in my &unix;
+ book that this means a hardware problem, but the
+ computer still seems to be working. Is this
+ true?
+
+
+
+ No, fortunately not (unless of course you really do
+ have a hardware problem…). This is usually
+ another way of saying that you accessed memory in a way
+ you should not have.
+
+
+
+
+
+ This dumping core business sounds as though it could
+ be quite useful, if I can make it happen when I want to.
+ Can I do this, or do I have to wait until there is an
+ error?
+
+
+
+ Yes, just go to another console or xterm, do
+
+ &prompt.user; ps
+
+
+ to find out the process ID of your program, and
+ do
+
+ &prompt.user; kill -ABRT pid
+
+
+ where
+ pid is
+ the process ID you looked up.
+
+ This is useful if your program has got stuck in an
+ infinite loop, for instance. If your program happens to
+ trap SIGABRT , there are several other
+ signals which have a similar effect.
+
+ Alternatively, you can create a core dump from
+ inside your program, by calling the
+ abort() function. See the manual page
+ of &man.abort.3; to learn more.
+
+ If you want to create a core dump from outside your
+ program, but do not want the process to terminate, you
+ can use the gcore program. See the
+ manual page of &man.gcore.1; for more information.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Make
+
+
+ What is make ?
+
+ When you are working on a simple program with only one or
+ two source files, typing in
+
+ &prompt.user; cc file1.c file2.c
+
+ is not too bad, but it quickly becomes very tedious when
+ there are several files—and it can take a while to
+ compile, too.
+
+ One way to get around this is to use object files and only
+ recompile the source file if the source code has changed. So
+ we could have something like:
+
+ &prompt.user; cc file1.o file2.o … file37.c …
+
+ if we had changed file37.c , but not any
+ of the others, since the last time we compiled. This may
+ speed up the compilation quite a bit, but does not solve the
+ typing problem.
+
+ Or we could write a shell script to solve the typing
+ problem, but it would have to re-compile everything, making it
+ very inefficient on a large project.
+
+ What happens if we have hundreds of source files lying
+ about? What if we are working in a team with other people who
+ forget to tell us when they have changed one of their source
+ files that we use?
+
+ Perhaps we could put the two solutions together and write
+ something like a shell script that would contain some kind of
+ magic rule saying when a source file needs compiling. Now all
+ we need now is a program that can understand these rules, as
+ it is a bit too complicated for the shell.
+
+ This program is called make . It reads
+ in a file, called a makefile , that
+ tells it how different files depend on each other, and works
+ out which files need to be re-compiled and which ones do not.
+ For example, a rule could say something like if
+ fromboz.o is older than
+ fromboz.c , that means someone must have
+ changed fromboz.c , so it needs to be
+ re-compiled.
The makefile also has rules telling
+ make how to re-compile the source file,
+ making it a much more powerful tool.
+
+ Makefiles are typically kept in the same directory as the
+ source they apply to, and can be called
+ makefile , Makefile
+ or MAKEFILE . Most programmers use the
+ name Makefile , as this puts it near the
+ top of a directory listing, where it can easily be
+ seen.
+
+
+ They do not use the MAKEFILE form
+ as block capitals are often used for documentation files
+ like README .
+
+
+
+
+ Example of using make
+
+ Here is a very simple make file:
+
+ foo: foo.c
+ cc -o foo foo.c
+
+ It consists of two lines, a dependency line and a creation
+ line.
+
+ The dependency line here consists of the name of the
+ program (known as the target ), followed
+ by a colon, then whitespace, then the name of the source file.
+ When make reads this line, it looks to see
+ if foo exists; if it exists, it compares
+ the time foo was last modified to the
+ time foo.c was last modified. If
+ foo does not exist, or is older than
+ foo.c , it then looks at the creation line
+ to find out what to do. In other words, this is the rule for
+ working out when foo.c needs to be
+ re-compiled.
+
+ The creation line starts with a tab (press
+ the tab key) and then the command you would
+ type to create foo if you were doing it
+ at a command prompt. If foo is out of
+ date, or does not exist, make then executes
+ this command to create it. In other words, this is the rule
+ which tells make how to re-compile
+ foo.c .
+
+ So, when you type make , it will
+ make sure that foo is up to date with
+ respect to your latest changes to foo.c .
+ This principle can be extended to
+ Makefile s with hundreds of
+ targets—in fact, on FreeBSD, it is possible to compile
+ the entire operating system just by typing make
+ world in the appropriate directory!
+
+ Another useful property of makefiles is that the targets
+ do not have to be programs. For instance, we could have a make
+ file that looks like this:
+
+ foo: foo.c
+ cc -o foo foo.c
+
+install:
+ cp foo /home/me
+
+ We can tell make which target we want to make by
+ typing:
+
+ &prompt.user; make target
+
+ make will then only look at that target
+ and ignore any others. For example, if we type
+ make foo with the makefile above, make
+ will ignore the install target.
+
+ If we just type make on its own,
+ make will always look at the first target and then stop
+ without looking at any others. So if we typed
+ make here, it will just go to the
+ foo target, re-compile
+ foo if necessary, and then stop without
+ going on to the install target.
+
+ Notice that the install target does not
+ actually depend on anything! This means that the command on
+ the following line is always executed when we try to make that
+ target by typing make install . In this
+ case, it will copy foo into the user's
+ home directory. This is often used by application makefiles,
+ so that the application can be installed in the correct
+ directory when it has been correctly compiled.
+
+ This is a slightly confusing subject to try to explain.
+ If you do not quite understand how make
+ works, the best thing to do is to write a simple program like
+ hello world
and a make file like the one above
+ and experiment. Then progress to using more than one source
+ file, or having the source file include a header file. The
+ touch command is very useful here—it
+ changes the date on a file without you having to edit
+ it.
+
+
+
+ Make and include-files
+
+ C code often starts with a list of files to include, for
+ example stdio.h. Some of these files are system-include
+ files, some of them are from the project you are now working
+ on:
+
+
+ #include <stdio.h>
+#include "foo.h"
+
+int main(....
+
+ To make sure that this file is recompiled the moment
+ foo.h is changed, you have to add it in
+ your Makefile :
+
+ foo: foo.c foo.h
+
+ The moment your project is getting bigger and you have
+ more and more own include-files to maintain, it will be a
+ pain to keep track of all include files and the files which
+ are depending on it. If you change an include-file but
+ forget to recompile all the files which are depending on
+ it, the results will be devastating. gcc
+ has an option to analyze your files and to produce a list
+ of include-files and their dependencies: -MM .
+
+
+ If you add this to your Makefile:
+
+ depend:
+ gcc -E -MM *.c > .depend
+
+ and run make depend , the file
+ .depend will appear with a list of
+ object-files, C-files and the include-files:
+
+ foo.o: foo.c foo.h
+
+ If you change foo.h , next time
+ you run make all files depending on
+ foo.h will be recompiled.
+
+ Do not forget to run make depend each
+ time you add an include-file to one of your files.
+
+
+
+ FreeBSD Makefiles
+
+ Makefiles can be rather complicated to write. Fortunately,
+ BSD-based systems like FreeBSD come with some very powerful
+ ones as part of the system. One very good example of this is
+ the FreeBSD ports system. Here is the essential part of a
+ typical ports Makefile :
+
+ MASTER_SITES= ftp://freefall.cdrom.com/pub/FreeBSD/LOCAL_PORTS/
+DISTFILES= scheme-microcode+dist-7.3-freebsd.tgz
+
+.include <bsd.port.mk>
+
+ Now, if we go to the directory for this port and type
+ make , the following happens:
+
+
+
+ A check is made to see if the source code for this
+ port is already on the system.
+
+
+
+ If it is not, an FTP connection to the URL in
+ MASTER_SITES is set up to download the
+ source.
+
+
+
+ The checksum for the source is calculated and compared
+ it with one for a known, good, copy of the source. This
+ is to make sure that the source was not corrupted while in
+ transit.
+
+
+
+ Any changes required to make the source work on
+ FreeBSD are applied—this is known as
+ patching .
+
+
+
+ Any special configuration needed for the source is
+ done. (Many &unix; program distributions try to work out
+ which version of &unix; they are being compiled on and which
+ optional &unix; features are present—this is where
+ they are given the information in the FreeBSD ports
+ scenario).
+
+
+
+ The source code for the program is compiled. In
+ effect, we change to the directory where the source was
+ unpacked and do make —the
+ program's own make file has the necessary information to
+ build the program.
+
+
+
+ We now have a compiled version of the program. If we
+ wish, we can test it now; when we feel confident about the
+ program, we can type make install .
+ This will cause the program and any supporting files it
+ needs to be copied into the correct location; an entry is
+ also made into a package database , so
+ that the port can easily be uninstalled later if we change
+ our mind about it.
+
+
+
+ Now I think you will agree that is rather impressive for a
+ four line script!
+
+ The secret lies in the last line, which tells
+ make to look in the system makefile called
+ bsd.port.mk . It is easy to overlook this
+ line, but this is where all the clever stuff comes
+ from—someone has written a makefile that tells
+ make to do all the things above (plus a
+ couple of other things I did not mention, including handling
+ any errors that may occur) and anyone can get access to that
+ just by putting a single line in their own make file!
+
+ If you want to have a look at these system makefiles,
+ they are in /usr/share/mk , but it is
+ probably best to wait until you have had a bit of practice with
+ makefiles, as they are very complicated (and if you do look at
+ them, make sure you have a flask of strong coffee
+ handy!)
+
+
+
+ More advanced uses of make
+
+ Make is a very powerful tool, and can
+ do much more than the simple example above shows.
+ Unfortunately, there are several different versions of
+ make , and they all differ considerably.
+ The best way to learn what they can do is probably to read the
+ documentation—hopefully this introduction will have
+ given you a base from which you can do this.
+
+ The version of make that comes with FreeBSD is the
+ Berkeley make ; there is a tutorial
+ for it in /usr/share/doc/psd/12.make . To
+ view it, do
+
+ &prompt.user; zmore paper.ascii.gz
+
+ in that directory.
+
+ Many applications in the ports use GNU
+ make , which has a very good set of
+ info
pages. If you have installed any of these
+ ports, GNU make will automatically
+ have been installed as gmake . It is also
+ available as a port and package in its own right.
+
+ To view the info pages for GNU
+ make , you will have to edit the
+ dir file in the
+ /usr/local/info directory to add an entry
+ for it. This involves adding a line like
+
+ * Make: (make). The GNU Make utility.
+
+ to the file. Once you have done this, you can type
+ info and then select
+ make from the menu (or in
+ Emacs , do C-h
+ i ).
+
+
+
+
+ Debugging
+
+
+ The Debugger
+
+ The debugger that comes with FreeBSD is called
+ gdb (GNU
+ debugger ). You start it up by typing
+
+ &prompt.user; gdb progname
+
+ although most people prefer to run it inside
+ Emacs . You can do this by:
+
+ M-x gdb RET progname RET
+
+ Using a debugger allows you to run the program under more
+ controlled circumstances. Typically, you can step through the
+ program a line at a time, inspect the value of variables,
+ change them, tell the debugger to run up to a certain point
+ and then stop, and so on. You can even attach to a program
+ that is already running, or load a core file to investigate why
+ the program crashed. It is even possible to debug the kernel,
+ though that is a little trickier than the user applications
+ we will be discussing in this section.
+
+ gdb has quite good on-line help, as
+ well as a set of info pages, so this section will concentrate
+ on a few of the basic commands.
+
+ Finally, if you find its text-based command-prompt style
+ off-putting, there is a graphical front-end for it (xxgdb ) in the ports
+ collection.
+
+ This section is intended to be an introduction to using
+ gdb and does not cover specialized topics
+ such as debugging the kernel.
+
+
+
+ Running a program in the debugger
+
+ You will need to have compiled the program with the
+ -g option to get the most out of using
+ gdb . It will work without, but you will only
+ see the name of the function you are in, instead of the source
+ code. If you see a line like:
+
+ … (no debugging symbols found) …
+
+ when gdb starts up, you will know that
+ the program was not compiled with the -g
+ option.
+
+ At the gdb prompt, type
+ break main . This will tell the
+ debugger to skip over the preliminary set-up code in the
+ program and start at the beginning of your code. Now type
+ run to start the program—it will
+ start at the beginning of the set-up code and then get stopped
+ by the debugger when it calls main() .
+ (If you have ever wondered where main()
+ gets called from, now you know!).
+
+ You can now step through the program, a line at a time, by
+ pressing n . If you get to a function call,
+ you can step into it by pressing s . Once
+ you are in a function call, you can return from stepping into a
+ function call by pressing f . You can also
+ use up and down to take
+ a quick look at the caller.
+
+ Here is a simple example of how to spot a mistake in a
+ program with gdb . This is our program
+ (with a deliberate mistake):
+
+ #include <stdio.h>
+
+int bazz(int anint);
+
+main() {
+ int i;
+
+ printf("This is my program\n");
+ bazz(i);
+ return 0;
+}
+
+int bazz(int anint) {
+ printf("You gave me %d\n", anint);
+ return anint;
+}
+
+ This program sets i to be
+ 5 and passes it to a function
+ bazz() which prints out the number we
+ gave it.
+
+ When we compile and run the program we get
+
+ &prompt.user; cc -g -o temp temp.c
+&prompt.user; ./temp
+This is my program
+anint = 4231
+
+ That was not what we expected! Time to see what is going
+ on!
+
+ &prompt.user; gdb temp
+GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it
+ under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions.
+There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details.
+GDB 4.13 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+(gdb) break main Skip the set-up code
+Breakpoint 1 at 0x160f: file temp.c, line 9. gdb puts breakpoint at main()
+(gdb) run Run as far as main()
+Starting program: /home/james/tmp/temp Program starts running
+
+Breakpoint 1, main () at temp.c:9 gdb stops at main()
+(gdb) n Go to next line
+This is my program Program prints out
+(gdb) s step into bazz()
+bazz (anint=4231) at temp.c:17 gdb displays stack frame
+(gdb)
+
+ Hang on a minute! How did anint get to be
+ 4231 ? Did we not we set it to be
+ 5 in main() ? Let's
+ move up to main() and have a look.
+
+ (gdb) up Move up call stack
+#1 0x1625 in main () at temp.c:11 gdb displays stack frame
+(gdb) p i Show us the value of i
+$1 = 4231 gdb displays 4231
+
+ Oh dear! Looking at the code, we forgot to initialize
+ i . We meant to put
+
+ …
+main() {
+ int i;
+
+ i = 5;
+ printf("This is my program\n");
+…
+
+ but we left the i=5; line out. As we
+ did not initialize i , it had whatever number
+ happened to be in that area of memory when the program ran,
+ which in this case happened to be
+ 4231 .
+
+
+ gdb displays the stack frame every
+ time we go into or out of a function, even if we are using
+ up and down to move
+ around the call stack. This shows the name of the function
+ and the values of its arguments, which helps us keep track
+ of where we are and what is going on. (The stack is a
+ storage area where the program stores information about the
+ arguments passed to functions and where to go when it
+ returns from a function call).
+
+
+
+
+ Examining a core file
+
+ A core file is basically a file which contains the
+ complete state of the process when it crashed. In the
+ good old days
, programmers had to print out hex
+ listings of core files and sweat over machine code manuals,
+ but now life is a bit easier. Incidentally, under FreeBSD and
+ other 4.4BSD systems, a core file is called
+ progname .core instead of just
+ core , to make it clearer which program a
+ core file belongs to.
+
+ To examine a core file, start up gdb in
+ the usual way. Instead of typing break or
+ run , type
+
+ (gdb) core progname .core
+
+ If you are not in the same directory as the core file,
+ you will have to do dir
+ /path/to/core/file first.
+
+ You should see something like this:
+
+ &prompt.user; gdb a.out
+GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it
+ under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions.
+There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details.
+GDB 4.13 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1994 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
+(gdb) core a.out.core
+Core was generated by `a.out'.
+Program terminated with signal 11, Segmentation fault.
+Cannot access memory at address 0x7020796d.
+#0 0x164a in bazz (anint=0x5) at temp.c:17
+(gdb)
+
+ In this case, the program was called
+ a.out , so the core file is called
+ a.out.core . We can see that the program
+ crashed due to trying to access an area in memory that was not
+ available to it in a function called
+ bazz .
+
+ Sometimes it is useful to be able to see how a function was
+ called, as the problem could have occurred a long way up the
+ call stack in a complex program. The bt
+ command causes gdb to print out a
+ back-trace of the call stack:
+
+ (gdb) bt
+#0 0x164a in bazz (anint=0x5) at temp.c:17
+#1 0xefbfd888 in end ()
+#2 0x162c in main () at temp.c:11
+(gdb)
+
+ The end() function is called when a
+ program crashes; in this case, the bazz()
+ function was called from main() .
+
+
+
+ Attaching to a running program
+
+ One of the neatest features about gdb
+ is that it can attach to a program that is already running. Of
+ course, that assumes you have sufficient permissions to do so.
+ A common problem is when you are stepping through a program
+ that forks, and you want to trace the child, but the debugger
+ will only let you trace the parent.
+
+ What you do is start up another gdb ,
+ use ps to find the process ID for the
+ child, and do
+
+ (gdb) attach pid
+
+ in gdb , and then debug as usual.
+
+ That is all very well,
you are probably
+ thinking, but by the time I have done that, the child
+ process will be over the hill and far away
. Fear
+ not, gentle reader, here is how to do it (courtesy of the
+ gdb info pages):
+
+ …
+if ((pid = fork()) < 0) /* _Always_ check this */
+ error();
+else if (pid == 0) { /* child */
+ int PauseMode = 1;
+
+ while (PauseMode)
+ sleep(10); /* Wait until someone attaches to us */
+ …
+} else { /* parent */
+ …
+
+ Now all you have to do is attach to the child, set
+ PauseMode to 0 , and wait
+ for the sleep() call to return!
+
+
+
+
+ Using Emacs as a Development Environment
+
+
+ Emacs
+
+ Unfortunately, &unix; systems do not come with the kind of
+ everything-you-ever-wanted-and-lots-more-you-did-not-in-one-gigantic-package
+ integrated development environments that other systems
+ have.
+
+
+ Some powerful, free IDEs now exist, such as KDevelop
+ in the ports collection.
+
+
+ However, it is possible to set up your own environment. It
+ may not be as pretty, and it may not be quite as integrated,
+ but you can set it up the way you want it. And it is free.
+ And you have the source to it.
+
+ The key to it all is Emacs. Now there are some people who
+ loathe it, but many who love it. If you are one of the former,
+ I am afraid this section will hold little of interest to you.
+ Also, you will need a fair amount of memory to run it—I would
+ recommend 8MB in text mode and 16MB in X as the bare minimum
+ to get reasonable performance.
+
+ Emacs is basically a highly customizable
+ editor—indeed, it has been customized to the point where
+ it is more like an operating system than an editor! Many
+ developers and sysadmins do in fact spend practically all
+ their time working inside Emacs, leaving it only to log
+ out.
+
+ It is impossible even to summarize everything Emacs can do
+ here, but here are some of the features of interest to
+ developers:
+
+
+
+ Very powerful editor, allowing search-and-replace on
+ both strings and regular expressions (patterns), jumping
+ to start/end of block expression, etc, etc.
+
+
+
+ Pull-down menus and online help.
+
+
+
+ Language-dependent syntax highlighting and
+ indentation.
+
+
+
+ Completely customizable.
+
+
+
+ You can compile and debug programs within
+ Emacs.
+
+
+
+ On a compilation error, you can jump to the offending
+ line of source code.
+
+
+
+ Friendly-ish front-end to the info
+ program used for reading GNU hypertext documentation,
+ including the documentation on Emacs itself.
+
+
+
+ Friendly front-end to gdb , allowing
+ you to look at the source code as you step through your
+ program.
+
+
+
+ You can read Usenet news and mail while your program
+ is compiling.
+
+
+
+ And doubtless many more that I have overlooked.
+
+ Emacs can be installed on FreeBSD using the Emacs
+ port .
+
+ Once it is installed, start it up and do C-h
+ t to read an Emacs tutorial—that means
+ hold down the control key, press
+ h , let go of the control
+ key, and then press t . (Alternatively, you
+ can you use the mouse to select Emacs
+ Tutorial from the Help
+ menu).
+
+ Although Emacs does have menus, it is well worth learning
+ the key bindings, as it is much quicker when you are editing
+ something to press a couple of keys than to try to find the
+ mouse and then click on the right place. And, when you are
+ talking to seasoned Emacs users, you will find they often
+ casually throw around expressions like M-x
+ replace-s RET foo RET bar RET
so it is
+ useful to know what they mean. And in any case, Emacs has far
+ too many useful functions for them to all fit on the menu
+ bars.
+
+ Fortunately, it is quite easy to pick up the key-bindings,
+ as they are displayed next to the menu item. My advice is to
+ use the menu item for, say, opening a file until you
+ understand how it works and feel confident with it, then try
+ doing C-x C-f. When you are happy with that, move on to
+ another menu command.
+
+ If you can not remember what a particular combination of
+ keys does, select Describe Key from
+ the Help menu and type it in—Emacs
+ will tell you what it does. You can also use the
+ Command Apropos menu item to find
+ out all the commands which contain a particular word in them,
+ with the key binding next to it.
+
+ By the way, the expression above means hold down the
+ Meta key, press x , release
+ the Meta key, type
+ replace-s (short for
+ replace-string —another feature of
+ Emacs is that you can abbreviate commands), press the
+ return key, type foo
+ (the string you want replaced), press the
+ return key, type bar (the string you want to
+ replace foo with) and press
+ return again. Emacs will then do the
+ search-and-replace operation you have just requested.
+
+ If you are wondering what on earth the
+ Meta key is, it is a special key that many
+ &unix; workstations have. Unfortunately, PC's do not have one,
+ so it is usually the alt key (or if you are
+ unlucky, the escape key).
+
+ Oh, and to get out of Emacs, do C-x C-c
+ (that means hold down the control key, press
+ x , press c and release the
+ control key). If you have any unsaved files
+ open, Emacs will ask you if you want to save them. (Ignore
+ the bit in the documentation where it says
+ C-z is the usual way to leave
+ Emacs—that leaves Emacs hanging around in the
+ background, and is only really useful if you are on a system
+ which does not have virtual terminals).
+
+
+
+ Configuring Emacs
+
+ Emacs does many wonderful things; some of them are built
+ in, some of them need to be configured.
+
+ Instead of using a proprietary macro language for
+ configuration, Emacs uses a version of Lisp specially adapted
+ for editors, known as Emacs Lisp. Working with Emacs Lisp can
+ be quite helpful if you want to go on and learn something like
+ Common Lisp. Emacs Lisp has many features of Common Lisp,
+ although it is considerably smaller (and thus easier to
+ master).
+
+ The best way to learn Emacs Lisp is to download the Emacs
+ Tutorial
+
+ However, there is no need to actually know any Lisp to get
+ started with configuring Emacs, as I have included a sample
+ .emacs file, which should be enough to
+ get you started. Just copy it into your home directory and
+ restart Emacs if it is already running; it will read the
+ commands from the file and (hopefully) give you a useful basic
+ setup.
+
+
+
+ A sample .emacs file
+
+ Unfortunately, there is far too much here to explain it in
+ detail; however there are one or two points worth
+ mentioning.
+
+
+
+ Everything beginning with a ; is a comment
+ and is ignored by Emacs.
+
+
+
+ In the first line, the
+ -*- Emacs-Lisp -*- is so that
+ we can edit the .emacs file itself
+ within Emacs and get all the fancy features for editing
+ Emacs Lisp. Emacs usually tries to guess this based on
+ the filename, and may not get it right for
+ .emacs .
+
+
+
+ The tab key is bound to an
+ indentation function in some modes, so when you press the
+ tab key, it will indent the current line of code. If you
+ want to put a tab character in whatever
+ you are writing, hold the control key down
+ while you are pressing the tab key.
+
+
+
+ This file supports syntax highlighting for C, C++,
+ Perl, Lisp and Scheme, by guessing the language from the
+ filename.
+
+
+
+ Emacs already has a pre-defined function called
+ next-error . In a compilation output
+ window, this allows you to move from one compilation error
+ to the next by doing M-n ; we define a
+ complementary function,
+ previous-error , that allows you to go
+ to a previous error by doing M-p . The
+ nicest feature of all is that C-c C-c
+ will open up the source file in which the error occurred
+ and jump to the appropriate line.
+
+
+
+ We enable Emacs's ability to act as a server, so that
+ if you are doing something outside Emacs and you want to
+ edit a file, you can just type in
+
+ &prompt.user; emacsclient filename
+
+
+ and then you can edit the file in your
+ Emacs!
+
+
+ Many Emacs users set their EDITOR
+ environment to
+ emacsclient so this happens every
+ time they need to edit a file.
+
+
+
+
+
+ A sample .emacs file
+
+ ;; -*-Emacs-Lisp-*-
+
+;; This file is designed to be re-evaled; use the variable first-time
+;; to avoid any problems with this.
+(defvar first-time t
+ "Flag signifying this is the first time that .emacs has been evaled")
+
+;; Meta
+(global-set-key "\M- " 'set-mark-command)
+(global-set-key "\M-\C-h" 'backward-kill-word)
+(global-set-key "\M-\C-r" 'query-replace)
+(global-set-key "\M-r" 'replace-string)
+(global-set-key "\M-g" 'goto-line)
+(global-set-key "\M-h" 'help-command)
+
+;; Function keys
+(global-set-key [f1] 'manual-entry)
+(global-set-key [f2] 'info)
+(global-set-key [f3] 'repeat-complex-command)
+(global-set-key [f4] 'advertised-undo)
+(global-set-key [f5] 'eval-current-buffer)
+(global-set-key [f6] 'buffer-menu)
+(global-set-key [f7] 'other-window)
+(global-set-key [f8] 'find-file)
+(global-set-key [f9] 'save-buffer)
+(global-set-key [f10] 'next-error)
+(global-set-key [f11] 'compile)
+(global-set-key [f12] 'grep)
+(global-set-key [C-f1] 'compile)
+(global-set-key [C-f2] 'grep)
+(global-set-key [C-f3] 'next-error)
+(global-set-key [C-f4] 'previous-error)
+(global-set-key [C-f5] 'display-faces)
+(global-set-key [C-f8] 'dired)
+(global-set-key [C-f10] 'kill-compilation)
+
+;; Keypad bindings
+(global-set-key [up] "\C-p")
+(global-set-key [down] "\C-n")
+(global-set-key [left] "\C-b")
+(global-set-key [right] "\C-f")
+(global-set-key [home] "\C-a")
+(global-set-key [end] "\C-e")
+(global-set-key [prior] "\M-v")
+(global-set-key [next] "\C-v")
+(global-set-key [C-up] "\M-\C-b")
+(global-set-key [C-down] "\M-\C-f")
+(global-set-key [C-left] "\M-b")
+(global-set-key [C-right] "\M-f")
+(global-set-key [C-home] "\M-<")
+(global-set-key [C-end] "\M->")
+(global-set-key [C-prior] "\M-<")
+(global-set-key [C-next] "\M->")
+
+;; Mouse
+(global-set-key [mouse-3] 'imenu)
+
+;; Misc
+(global-set-key [C-tab] "\C-q\t") ; Control tab quotes a tab.
+(setq backup-by-copying-when-mismatch t)
+
+;; Treat 'y' or <CR> as yes, 'n' as no.
+(fset 'yes-or-no-p 'y-or-n-p)
+(define-key query-replace-map [return] 'act)
+(define-key query-replace-map [?\C-m] 'act)
+
+;; Load packages
+(require 'desktop)
+(require 'tar-mode)
+
+;; Pretty diff mode
+(autoload 'ediff-buffers "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff" t)
+(autoload 'ediff-files "ediff" "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff" t)
+(autoload 'ediff-files-remote "ediff"
+ "Intelligent Emacs interface to diff")
+
+(if first-time
+ (setq auto-mode-alist
+ (append '(("\\.cpp$" . c++-mode)
+ ("\\.hpp$" . c++-mode)
+ ("\\.lsp$" . lisp-mode)
+ ("\\.scm$" . scheme-mode)
+ ("\\.pl$" . perl-mode)
+ ) auto-mode-alist)))
+
+;; Auto font lock mode
+(defvar font-lock-auto-mode-list
+ (list 'c-mode 'c++-mode 'c++-c-mode 'emacs-lisp-mode 'lisp-mode 'perl-mode 'scheme-mode)
+ "List of modes to always start in font-lock-mode")
+
+(defvar font-lock-mode-keyword-alist
+ '((c++-c-mode . c-font-lock-keywords)
+ (perl-mode . perl-font-lock-keywords))
+ "Associations between modes and keywords")
+
+(defun font-lock-auto-mode-select ()
+ "Automatically select font-lock-mode if the current major mode is in font-lock-auto-mode-list"
+ (if (memq major-mode font-lock-auto-mode-list)
+ (progn
+ (font-lock-mode t))
+ )
+ )
+
+(global-set-key [M-f1] 'font-lock-fontify-buffer)
+
+;; New dabbrev stuff
+;(require 'new-dabbrev)
+(setq dabbrev-always-check-other-buffers t)
+(setq dabbrev-abbrev-char-regexp "\\sw\\|\\s_")
+(add-hook 'emacs-lisp-mode-hook
+ '(lambda ()
+ (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) nil)
+ (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) nil)))
+(add-hook 'c-mode-hook
+ '(lambda ()
+ (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) nil)
+ (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) nil)))
+(add-hook 'text-mode-hook
+ '(lambda ()
+ (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-fold-search) t)
+ (set (make-local-variable 'dabbrev-case-replace) t)))
+
+;; C++ and C mode...
+(defun my-c++-mode-hook ()
+ (setq tab-width 4)
+ (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent)
+ (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-ce" 'c-comment-edit)
+ (setq c++-auto-hungry-initial-state 'none)
+ (setq c++-delete-function 'backward-delete-char)
+ (setq c++-tab-always-indent t)
+ (setq c-indent-level 4)
+ (setq c-continued-statement-offset 4)
+ (setq c++-empty-arglist-indent 4))
+
+(defun my-c-mode-hook ()
+ (setq tab-width 4)
+ (define-key c-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent)
+ (define-key c-mode-map "\C-ce" 'c-comment-edit)
+ (setq c-auto-hungry-initial-state 'none)
+ (setq c-delete-function 'backward-delete-char)
+ (setq c-tab-always-indent t)
+;; BSD-ish indentation style
+ (setq c-indent-level 4)
+ (setq c-continued-statement-offset 4)
+ (setq c-brace-offset -4)
+ (setq c-argdecl-indent 0)
+ (setq c-label-offset -4))
+
+;; Perl mode
+(defun my-perl-mode-hook ()
+ (setq tab-width 4)
+ (define-key c++-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent)
+ (setq perl-indent-level 4)
+ (setq perl-continued-statement-offset 4))
+
+;; Scheme mode...
+(defun my-scheme-mode-hook ()
+ (define-key scheme-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent))
+
+;; Emacs-Lisp mode...
+(defun my-lisp-mode-hook ()
+ (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-m" 'reindent-then-newline-and-indent)
+ (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-i" 'lisp-indent-line)
+ (define-key lisp-mode-map "\C-j" 'eval-print-last-sexp))
+
+;; Add all of the hooks...
+(add-hook 'c++-mode-hook 'my-c++-mode-hook)
+(add-hook 'c-mode-hook 'my-c-mode-hook)
+(add-hook 'scheme-mode-hook 'my-scheme-mode-hook)
+(add-hook 'emacs-lisp-mode-hook 'my-lisp-mode-hook)
+(add-hook 'lisp-mode-hook 'my-lisp-mode-hook)
+(add-hook 'perl-mode-hook 'my-perl-mode-hook)
+
+;; Complement to next-error
+(defun previous-error (n)
+ "Visit previous compilation error message and corresponding source code."
+ (interactive "p")
+ (next-error (- n)))
+
+;; Misc...
+(transient-mark-mode 1)
+(setq mark-even-if-inactive t)
+(setq visible-bell nil)
+(setq next-line-add-newlines nil)
+(setq compile-command "make")
+(setq suggest-key-bindings nil)
+(put 'eval-expression 'disabled nil)
+(put 'narrow-to-region 'disabled nil)
+(put 'set-goal-column 'disabled nil)
+(if (>= emacs-major-version 21)
+ (setq show-trailing-whitespace t))
+
+;; Elisp archive searching
+(autoload 'format-lisp-code-directory "lispdir" nil t)
+(autoload 'lisp-dir-apropos "lispdir" nil t)
+(autoload 'lisp-dir-retrieve "lispdir" nil t)
+(autoload 'lisp-dir-verify "lispdir" nil t)
+
+;; Font lock mode
+(defun my-make-face (face color &optional bold)
+ "Create a face from a color and optionally make it bold"
+ (make-face face)
+ (copy-face 'default face)
+ (set-face-foreground face color)
+ (if bold (make-face-bold face))
+ )
+
+(if (eq window-system 'x)
+ (progn
+ (my-make-face 'blue "blue")
+ (my-make-face 'red "red")
+ (my-make-face 'green "dark green")
+ (setq font-lock-comment-face 'blue)
+ (setq font-lock-string-face 'bold)
+ (setq font-lock-type-face 'bold)
+ (setq font-lock-keyword-face 'bold)
+ (setq font-lock-function-name-face 'red)
+ (setq font-lock-doc-string-face 'green)
+ (add-hook 'find-file-hooks 'font-lock-auto-mode-select)
+
+ (setq baud-rate 1000000)
+ (global-set-key "\C-cmm" 'menu-bar-mode)
+ (global-set-key "\C-cms" 'scroll-bar-mode)
+ (global-set-key [backspace] 'backward-delete-char)
+ ; (global-set-key [delete] 'delete-char)
+ (standard-display-european t)
+ (load-library "iso-transl")))
+
+;; X11 or PC using direct screen writes
+(if window-system
+ (progn
+ ;; (global-set-key [M-f1] 'hilit-repaint-command)
+ ;; (global-set-key [M-f2] [?\C-u M-f1])
+ (setq hilit-mode-enable-list
+ '(not text-mode c-mode c++-mode emacs-lisp-mode lisp-mode
+ scheme-mode)
+ hilit-auto-highlight nil
+ hilit-auto-rehighlight 'visible
+ hilit-inhibit-hooks nil
+ hilit-inhibit-rebinding t)
+ (require 'hilit19)
+ (require 'paren))
+ (setq baud-rate 2400) ; For slow serial connections
+ )
+
+;; TTY type terminal
+(if (and (not window-system)
+ (not (equal system-type 'ms-dos)))
+ (progn
+ (if first-time
+ (progn
+ (keyboard-translate ?\C-h ?\C-?)
+ (keyboard-translate ?\C-? ?\C-h)))))
+
+;; Under UNIX
+(if (not (equal system-type 'ms-dos))
+ (progn
+ (if first-time
+ (server-start))))
+
+;; Add any face changes here
+(add-hook 'term-setup-hook 'my-term-setup-hook)
+(defun my-term-setup-hook ()
+ (if (eq window-system 'pc)
+ (progn
+;; (set-face-background 'default "red")
+ )))
+
+;; Restore the "desktop" - do this as late as possible
+(if first-time
+ (progn
+ (desktop-load-default)
+ (desktop-read)))
+
+;; Indicate that this file has been read at least once
+(setq first-time nil)
+
+;; No need to debug anything now
+
+(setq debug-on-error nil)
+
+;; All done
+(message "All done, %s%s" (user-login-name) ".")
+
+
+
+
+
+ Extending the Range of Languages Emacs Understands
+
+ Now, this is all very well if you only want to program in
+ the languages already catered for in the
+ .emacs file (C, C++, Perl, Lisp and
+ Scheme), but what happens if a new language called
+ whizbang
comes out, full of exciting
+ features?
+
+ The first thing to do is find out if whizbang comes with
+ any files that tell Emacs about the language. These usually
+ end in .el , short for Emacs
+ Lisp
. For example, if whizbang is a FreeBSD port, we
+ can locate these files by doing
+
+ &prompt.user; find /usr/ports/lang/whizbang -name "*.el" -print
+
+ and install them by copying them into the Emacs site Lisp
+ directory. On FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE, this is
+ /usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp .
+
+ So for example, if the output from the find command
+ was
+
+ /usr/ports/lang/whizbang/work/misc/whizbang.el
+
+ we would do
+
+ &prompt.root; cp /usr/ports/lang/whizbang/work/misc/whizbang.el /usr/local/share/emacs/site-lisp
+
+ Next, we need to decide what extension whizbang source
+ files have. Let's say for the sake of argument that they all
+ end in .wiz . We need to add an entry to
+ our .emacs file to make sure Emacs will
+ be able to use the information in
+ whizbang.el .
+
+ Find the auto-mode-alist entry in
+ .emacs and add a line for whizbang, such
+ as:
+
+ …
+("\\.lsp$" . lisp-mode)
+("\\.wiz$" . whizbang-mode)
+("\\.scm$" . scheme-mode)
+…
+
+ This means that Emacs will automatically go into
+ whizbang-mode when you edit a file ending
+ in .wiz .
+
+ Just below this, you will find the
+ font-lock-auto-mode-list entry. Add
+ whizbang-mode to it like so:
+
+ ;; Auto font lock mode
+(defvar font-lock-auto-mode-list
+ (list 'c-mode 'c++-mode 'c++-c-mode 'emacs-lisp-mode 'whizbang-mode 'lisp-mode 'perl-mode 'scheme-mode)
+ "List of modes to always start in font-lock-mode")
+
+ This means that Emacs will always enable
+ font-lock-mode (ie syntax highlighting)
+ when editing a .wiz file.
+
+ And that is all that is needed. If there is anything else
+ you want done automatically when you open up a
+ .wiz file, you can add a
+ whizbang-mode hook (see
+ my-scheme-mode-hook for a simple example
+ that adds auto-indent ).
+
+
+
+
+ Further Reading
+
+ For information about setting up a development environment
+ for contributing fixes to FreeBSD itself, please see
+ &man.development.7;.
+
+
+
+ Brian Harvey and Matthew Wright
+ Simply Scheme
+ MIT 1994.
+ ISBN 0-262-08226-8
+
+
+
+ Randall Schwartz
+ Learning Perl
+ O'Reilly 1993
+ ISBN 1-56592-042-2
+
+
+
+ Patrick Henry Winston and Berthold Klaus Paul Horn
+ Lisp (3rd Edition)
+ Addison-Wesley 1989
+ ISBN 0-201-08319-1
+
+
+
+ Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike
+ The Unix Programming Environment
+ Prentice-Hall 1984
+ ISBN 0-13-937681-X
+
+
+
+ Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie
+ The C Programming Language (2nd Edition)
+ Prentice-Hall 1988
+ ISBN 0-13-110362-8
+
+
+
+ Bjarne Stroustrup
+ The C++ Programming Language
+ Addison-Wesley 1991
+ ISBN 0-201-53992-6
+
+
+
+ W. Richard Stevens
+ Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment
+ Addison-Wesley 1992
+ ISBN 0-201-56317-7
+
+
+
+ W. Richard Stevens
+ Unix Network Programming
+ Prentice-Hall 1990
+ ISBN 0-13-949876-1
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/x86/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/x86/chapter.sgml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..b4102f9fe4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/developers-handbook/x86/chapter.sgml
@@ -0,0 +1,6486 @@
+
+
+
+
+x86 Assembly Language Programming
+
+
+This chapter was written by &a.stanislav;.
+
+
+
+
+
+Synopsis
+
+
+Assembly language programming under &unix; is highly undocumented. It
+is generally assumed that no one would ever want to use it because
+various &unix; systems run on different microprocessors, so everything
+should be written in C for portability.
+
+
+
+In reality, C portability is quite a myth. Even C programs need
+to be modified when ported from one &unix; to another, regardless of
+what processor each runs on. Typically, such a program is full
+of conditional statements depending on the system it is
+compiled for.
+
+
+
+Even if we believe that all of &unix; software should be written in C,
+or some other high-level language, we still need assembly language
+programmers: Who else would write the section of C library
+that accesses the kernel?
+
+
+
+In this chapter I will attempt to show you
+how you can use assembly language writing
+&unix; programs, specifically under FreeBSD.
+
+
+
+This chapter does not explain the basics of assembly language.
+There are enough resources about that (for a complete
+online course in assembly language, see Randall Hyde's
+Art
+of Assembly Language ; or if you prefer
+a printed book, take a look at Jeff Duntemann's
+Assembly
+Language Step-by-Step ). However,
+once the chapter is finished, any assembly language programmer
+will be able to write programs for FreeBSD
+quickly and efficiently.
+
+
+
+Copyright © 2000-2001 G. Adam Stanislav. All rights reserved.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Tools
+
+
+The Assembler
+
+
+The most important tool for assembly language programming is the
+assembler, the software that converts assembly language code
+into machine language.
+
+
+
+Two very different assemblers are available for FreeBSD. One is
+as 1 ,
+which uses the traditional &unix; assembly language syntax. It
+comes with the system.
+
+
+
+The other is /usr/ports/devel/nasm .
+It uses the Intel syntax. Its main advantage is that it
+can assemble code for many operating systems. It needs
+to be installed separately, but is completely free.
+
+
+
+This chapter uses nasm
+syntax because most assembly language programmers
+coming to FreeBSD from other operating systems
+will find it easier to understand. And, because,
+quite frankly, that is what I am used to.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Linker
+
+
+The output of the assembler, like that of any
+compiler, needs to be linked to form an executable file.
+
+
+
+The standard
+ld 1
+linker comes with FreeBSD. It works with the
+code assembled with either assembler.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+System Calls
+
+
+Default Calling Convention
+
+
+By default, the FreeBSD kernel uses the C calling
+convention. Further, although the kernel is accessed
+using int 80h ,
+it is assumed the program will call a function that
+issues int 80h , rather than
+issuing int 80h directly.
+
+
+
+This convention is very convenient, and quite superior to the
+µsoft; convention used by &ms-dos; .
+Why? Because the &unix; convention allows any program written in
+any language to access the kernel.
+
+
+
+An assembly language program can do that as well.
+For example, we could open a file:
+
+
+
+kernel:
+ int 80h ; Call kernel
+ ret
+
+open:
+ push dword mode
+ push dword flags
+ push dword path
+ mov eax, 5
+ call kernel
+ add esp, byte 12
+ ret
+
+
+
+This is a very clean and portable way of coding. If you need to
+port the code to a &unix; system which uses a different interrupt,
+or a different way of passing parameters, all you need to change
+is the kernel procedure.
+
+
+
+But assembly language programmers like to shave off cycles. The above example
+requires a call/ret combination.
+We can eliminate it by
+push ing an extra dword:
+
+
+
+open:
+ push dword mode
+ push dword flags
+ push dword path
+ mov eax, 5
+ push eax ; Or any other dword
+ int 80h
+ add esp, byte 16
+
+
+
+The 5 that we have placed in
+EAX identifies
+the kernel function, in this case open .
+
+
+
+
+Alternate Calling Convention
+
+FreeBSD is an extremely flexible system. It offers other ways of
+calling the kernel. For it to work, however, the system must
+have Linux emulation installed.
+
+
+
+Linux is a &unix; like system. However, its kernel uses the same
+system-call convention of passing parameters in registers
+&ms-dos; does. As with the &unix; convention,
+the function number is placed in EAX .
+The parameters, however, are not passed on the stack but in
+EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI, EDI, EBP :
+
+
+
+open:
+ mov eax, 5
+ mov ebx, path
+ mov ecx, flags
+ mov edx, mode
+ int 80h
+
+
+
+This convention has a great disadvantage over
+the &unix; way, at least as far as assembly language programming
+is concerned: Every time you make a kernel call
+you must push the registers, then
+pop them later. This makes your code
+bulkier and slower. Nevertheless, FreeBSD gives
+you a choice.
+
+
+
+If you do choose the Linux convention, you must let
+the system know about it. After your program is assembled and
+linked, you need to brand the executable:
+
+
+&prompt.user; brandelf -f Linux filename
+
+
+
+
+Which Convention Should You Use?
+
+
+If you are coding specifically for FreeBSD, you should always
+use the &unix; convention: It is faster, you can store global
+variables in registers, you do not have to brand
+the executable, and you do not impose the installation of
+the Linux emulation package on the target system.
+
+
+
+If you want to create portable code that can also run
+on Linux, you will probably still want to give the FreeBSD
+users as efficient a code as possible. I will show you
+how you can accomplish that after I have explained the basics.
+
+
+
+
+
+Call Numbers
+
+
+To tell the kernel which system service you are calling,
+place its number in EAX . Of course, you need
+to know what the number is.
+
+
+
+The syscalls File
+
+
+The numbers are listed in syscalls .
+locate syscalls finds this file
+in several different formats, all produced automatically
+from syscalls.master .
+
+
+
+You can find the master file for the default &unix; calling
+convention in
+/usr/src/sys/kern/syscalls.master .
+If you need to use the other convention implemented
+in the Linux emulation mode, read
+/usr/src/sys/i386/linux/syscalls.master .
+
+
+
+
+Not only do FreeBSD and Linux use different calling
+conventions, they sometimes use different numbers for
+the same functions.
+
+
+
+
+syscalls.master describes how
+the call is to be made:
+
+
+
+0 STD NOHIDE { int nosys(void); } syscall nosys_args int
+1 STD NOHIDE { void exit(int rval); } exit rexit_args void
+2 STD POSIX { int fork(void); }
+3 STD POSIX { ssize_t read(int fd, void *buf, size_t nbyte); }
+4 STD POSIX { ssize_t write(int fd, const void *buf, size_t nbyte); }
+5 STD POSIX { int open(char *path, int flags, int mode); }
+6 STD POSIX { int close(int fd); }
+etc...
+
+
+It is the leftmost column that tells us the number to place in
+EAX .
+
+
+
+The rightmost column tells us what parameters to
+push . They are push ed
+from right to left .
+
+
+
+
+For example, to open a file, we need
+to push the mode first,
+then flags , then the address at which
+the path is stored.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Return Values
+
+
+A system call would not be useful most of the time
+if it did not return some kind of a value: The file
+descriptor of an open file, the number of bytes read
+to a buffer, the system time, etc.
+
+
+
+Additionally, the system needs to inform us if an error
+occurs: A file does not exist, system resources are exhausted,
+we passed an invalid parameter, etc.
+
+
+
+Man Pages
+
+
+The traditional place to look for information about various
+system calls under &unix; systems are the manual pages.
+FreeBSD describes its system calls in section 2, sometimes
+in section 3.
+
+
+
+For example, open 2 says:
+
+
+
+
+If successful, open() returns a non-negative
+integer, termed a file descriptor. It returns -1 on failure,
+and sets errno to indicate the error.
+
+
+
+
+The assembly language programmer new to &unix; and FreeBSD will
+immediately ask the puzzling question: Where is
+errno and how do I get to it?
+
+
+
+
+The information presented in the manual pages applies
+to C programs. The assembly language programmer needs additional
+information.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Where Are the Return Values?
+
+
+Unfortunately, it depends... For most system calls it is
+in EAX , but not for all.
+A good rule of thumb,
+when working with a system call for
+the first time, is to look for
+the return value in EAX .
+If it is not there, you
+need further research.
+
+
+
+
+I am aware of one system call that returns the value in
+EDX : SYS_fork . All others
+I have worked with use EAX .
+But I have not worked with them all yet.
+
+
+
+
+
+If you cannot find the answer here or anywhere else,
+study libc source code and see how it
+interfaces with the kernel.
+
+
+
+
+
+Where Is errno ?
+
+
+Actually, nowhere...
+
+
+
+errno is part of the C language, not the
+&unix; kernel. When accessing kernel services directly, the
+error code is returned in EAX ,
+the same register the proper
+return value generally ends up in.
+
+
+
+This makes perfect sense. If there is no error, there is
+no error code. If there is an error, there is no return
+value. One register can contain either.
+
+
+
+
+
+Determining an Error Occurred
+
+
+When using the standard FreeBSD calling convention,
+the carry flag is cleared upon success,
+set upon failure.
+
+
+
+When using the Linux emulation mode, the signed
+value in EAX is non-negative upon success,
+and contains the return value. In case of an error, the value
+is negative, i.e., -errno .
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Creating Portable Code
+
+
+Portability is generally not one of the strengths of assembly language.
+Yet, writing assembly language programs for different platforms is
+possible, especially with nasm . I have written
+assembly language libraries that can be assembled for such different
+operating systems as &windows; and FreeBSD.
+
+
+
+It is all the more possible when you want your code to run
+on two platforms which, while different, are based on
+similar architectures.
+
+
+
+For example, FreeBSD is &unix;, Linux is &unix; like. I only
+mentioned three differences between them (from an assembly language
+programmer's perspective): The calling convention, the
+function numbers, and the way of returning values.
+
+
+Dealing with Function Numbers
+
+
+In many cases the function numbers are the same. However,
+even when they are not, the problem is easy to deal with:
+Instead of using numbers in your code, use constants which
+you have declared differently depending on the target
+architecture:
+
+
+
+%ifdef LINUX
+%define SYS_execve 11
+%else
+%define SYS_execve 59
+%endif
+
+
+Dealing with Conventions
+
+Both, the calling convention, and the return value (the
+errno problem) can be resolved with macros:
+
+
+
+%ifdef LINUX
+
+%macro system 0
+ call kernel
+%endmacro
+
+align 4
+kernel:
+ push ebx
+ push ecx
+ push edx
+ push esi
+ push edi
+ push ebp
+
+ mov ebx, [esp+32]
+ mov ecx, [esp+36]
+ mov edx, [esp+40]
+ mov esi, [esp+44]
+ mov ebp, [esp+48]
+ int 80h
+
+ pop ebp
+ pop edi
+ pop esi
+ pop edx
+ pop ecx
+ pop ebx
+
+ or eax, eax
+ js .errno
+ clc
+ ret
+
+.errno:
+ neg eax
+ stc
+ ret
+
+%else
+
+%macro system 0
+ int 80h
+%endmacro
+
+%endif
+
+
+
+
+Dealing with Other Portability Issues
+
+
+The above solutions can handle most cases of writing code
+portable between FreeBSD and Linux. Nevertheless, with some
+kernel services the differences are deeper.
+
+
+
+In that case, you need to write two different handlers
+for those particular system calls, and use conditional
+assembly. Luckily, most of your code does something other
+than calling the kernel, so usually you will only need
+a few such conditional sections in your code.
+
+
+
+
+Using a Library
+
+
+You can avoid portability issues in your main code altogether
+by writing a library of system calls. Create a separate library
+for FreeBSD, a different one for Linux, and yet other libraries
+for more operating systems.
+
+
+
+In your library, write a separate function (or procedure, if
+you prefer the traditional assembly language terminology) for each system
+call. Use the C calling convention of passing parameters.
+But still use EAX to pass the call number in.
+In that case, your FreeBSD library can be very simple, as
+many seemingly different functions can be just labels to
+the same code:
+
+
+
+sys.open:
+sys.close:
+[etc...]
+ int 80h
+ ret
+
+
+
+Your Linux library will require more different functions.
+But even here you can group system calls using the same
+number of parameters:
+
+
+
+sys.exit:
+sys.close:
+[etc... one-parameter functions]
+ push ebx
+ mov ebx, [esp+12]
+ int 80h
+ pop ebx
+ jmp sys.return
+
+...
+
+sys.return:
+ or eax, eax
+ js sys.err
+ clc
+ ret
+
+sys.err:
+ neg eax
+ stc
+ ret
+
+
+
+The library approach may seem inconvenient at first because
+it requires you to produce a separate file your code depends
+on. But it has many advantages: For one, you only need to
+write it once and can use it for all your programs. You can
+even let other assembly language programmers use it, or perhaps use
+one written by someone else. But perhaps the greatest
+advantage of the library is that your code can be ported
+to other systems, even by other programmers, by simply
+writing a new library without any changes to your code.
+
+
+
+If you do not like the idea of having a library, you can
+at least place all your system calls in a separate assembly language file
+and link it with your main program. Here, again, all porters
+have to do is create a new object file to link with your
+main program.
+
+
+
+
+
+Using an Include File
+
+
+If you are releasing your software as (or with)
+source code, you can use macros and place them
+in a separate file, which you include in your
+code.
+
+
+
+Porters of your software will simply write a new
+include file. No library or external object file
+is necessary, yet your code is portable without any
+need to edit the code.
+
+
+
+
+This is the approach we will use throughout this chapter.
+We will name our include file system.inc , and
+add to it whenever we deal with a new system call.
+
+
+
+
+We can start our system.inc by declaring the
+standard file descriptors:
+
+
+
+%define stdin 0
+%define stdout 1
+%define stderr 2
+
+
+
+Next, we create a symbolic name for each system call:
+
+
+
+%define SYS_nosys 0
+%define SYS_exit 1
+%define SYS_fork 2
+%define SYS_read 3
+%define SYS_write 4
+; [etc...]
+
+
+
+We add a short, non-global procedure with a long name,
+so we do not accidentally reuse the name in our code:
+
+
+
+section .text
+align 4
+access.the.bsd.kernel:
+ int 80h
+ ret
+
+
+
+We create a macro which takes one argument, the syscall number:
+
+
+
+%macro system 1
+ mov eax, %1
+ call access.the.bsd.kernel
+%endmacro
+
+
+
+Finally, we create macros for each syscall. These macros take
+no arguments.
+
+
+
+%macro sys.exit 0
+ system SYS_exit
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.fork 0
+ system SYS_fork
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.read 0
+ system SYS_read
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.write 0
+ system SYS_write
+%endmacro
+
+; [etc...]
+
+
+
+Go ahead, enter it into your editor and save it as
+system.inc . We will add more to it as we
+discuss more syscalls.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Our First Program
+
+
+We are now ready for our first program, the mandatory
+Hello, World!
+
+
+
+ 1: %include 'system.inc'
+ 2:
+ 3: section .data
+ 4: hello db 'Hello, World!', 0Ah
+ 5: hbytes equ $-hello
+ 6:
+ 7: section .text
+ 8: global _start
+ 9: _start:
+10: push dword hbytes
+11: push dword hello
+12: push dword stdout
+13: sys.write
+14:
+15: push dword 0
+16: sys.exit
+
+
+
+Here is what it does: Line 1 includes the defines, the macros,
+and the code from system.inc .
+
+
+
+Lines 3-5 are the data: Line 3 starts the data section/segment.
+Line 4 contains the string "Hello, World!" followed by a new
+line (0Ah ). Line 5 creates a constant that contains
+the length of the string from line 4 in bytes.
+
+
+
+Lines 7-16 contain the code. Note that FreeBSD uses the elf
+file format for its executables, which requires every
+program to start at the point labeled _start (or, more
+precisely, the linker expects that). This label has to be
+global.
+
+
+
+Lines 10-13 ask the system to write hbytes bytes
+of the hello string to stdout .
+
+
+
+Lines 15-16 ask the system to end the program with the return
+value of 0 . The SYS_exit syscall never
+returns, so the code ends there.
+
+
+
+
+If you have come to &unix; from &ms-dos;
+assembly language background, you may be used to writing directly
+to the video hardware. You will never have to worry about
+this in FreeBSD, or any other flavor of &unix;. As far as
+you are concerned, you are writing to a file known as
+stdout . This can be the video screen, or
+a telnet terminal, or an actual file,
+or even the input of another program. Which one it is,
+is for the system to figure out.
+
+
+
+Assembling the Code
+
+
+Type the code (except the line numbers) in an editor, and save
+it in a file named hello.asm . You need
+nasm to assemble it.
+
+
+Installing nasm
+
+
+If you do not have nasm , type:
+
+
+&prompt.user; su
+Password:your root password
+&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/devel/nasm
+&prompt.root; make install
+&prompt.root; exit
+&prompt.user;
+
+
+You may type make install clean instead of just
+make install if you do not want to keep
+nasm source code.
+
+
+
+Either way, FreeBSD will automatically download
+nasm from the Internet,
+compile it, and install it on your system.
+
+
+
+
+If your system is not FreeBSD, you need to get
+nasm from its
+home
+page . You can still use it to assemble FreeBSD code.
+
+
+
+
+Now you can assemble, link, and run the code:
+
+
+&prompt.user; nasm -f elf hello.asm
+&prompt.user; ld -s -o hello hello.o
+&prompt.user; ./hello
+Hello, World!
+&prompt.user;
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Writing &unix; Filters
+
+
+A common type of &unix; application is a filter—a program
+that reads data from the stdin , processes it
+somehow, then writes the result to stdout .
+
+
+
+In this chapter, we shall develop a simple filter, and
+learn how to read from stdin and write to
+stdout . This filter will convert each byte
+of its input into a hexadecimal number followed by a
+blank space.
+
+
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+section .data
+hex db '0123456789ABCDEF'
+buffer db 0, 0, ' '
+
+section .text
+global _start
+_start:
+ ; read a byte from stdin
+ push dword 1
+ push dword buffer
+ push dword stdin
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ or eax, eax
+ je .done
+
+ ; convert it to hex
+ movzx eax, byte [buffer]
+ mov edx, eax
+ shr dl, 4
+ mov dl, [hex+edx]
+ mov [buffer], dl
+ and al, 0Fh
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ mov [buffer+1], al
+
+ ; print it
+ push dword 3
+ push dword buffer
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ jmp short _start
+
+.done:
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+
+In the data section we create an array called hex .
+It contains the 16 hexadecimal digits in ascending order.
+The array is followed by a buffer which we will use for
+both input and output. The first two bytes of the buffer
+are initially set to 0 . This is where we will write
+the two hexadecimal digits (the first byte also is
+where we will read the input). The third byte is a
+space.
+
+
+
+The code section consists of four parts: Reading the byte,
+converting it to a hexadecimal number, writing the result,
+and eventually exiting the program.
+
+
+
+To read the byte, we ask the system to read one byte
+from stdin , and store it in the first byte
+of the buffer . The system returns the number
+of bytes read in EAX . This will be 1
+while data is coming, or 0 , when no more input
+data is available. Therefore, we check the value of
+EAX . If it is 0 ,
+we jump to .done , otherwise we continue.
+
+
+
+
+For simplicity sake, we are ignoring the possibility
+of an error condition at this time.
+
+
+
+
+The hexadecimal conversion reads the byte from the
+buffer into EAX , or actually just
+AL , while clearing the remaining bits of
+EAX to zeros. We also copy the byte to
+EDX because we need to convert the upper
+four bits (nibble) separately from the lower
+four bits. We store the result in the first two
+bytes of the buffer.
+
+
+
+Next, we ask the system to write the three bytes
+of the buffer, i.e., the two hexadecimal digits and
+the blank space, to stdout . We then
+jump back to the beginning of the program and
+process the next byte.
+
+
+
+Once there is no more input left, we ask the system
+to exit our program, returning a zero, which is
+the traditional value meaning the program was
+successful.
+
+
+
+Go ahead, and save the code in a file named hex.asm ,
+then type the following (the ^D means press the
+control key and type D while holding the
+control key down):
+
+
+&prompt.user; nasm -f elf hex.asm
+&prompt.user; ld -s -o hex hex.o
+&prompt.user; ./hex
+Hello, World!
+48 65 6C 6C 6F 2C 20 57 6F 72 6C 64 21 0A Here I come!
+48 65 72 65 20 49 20 63 6F 6D 65 21 0A ^D &prompt.user;
+
+
+
+If you are migrating to &unix; from &ms-dos; ,
+you may be wondering why each line ends with 0A
+instead of 0D 0A .
+This is because &unix; does not use the cr/lf convention, but
+a "new line" convention, which is 0A in hexadecimal.
+
+
+
+
+Can we improve this? Well, for one, it is a bit confusing because
+once we have converted a line of text, our input no longer
+starts at the beginning of the line. We can modify it to print
+a new line instead of a space after each 0A :
+
+
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+section .data
+hex db '0123456789ABCDEF'
+buffer db 0, 0, ' '
+
+section .text
+global _start
+_start:
+ mov cl, ' '
+
+.loop:
+ ; read a byte from stdin
+ push dword 1
+ push dword buffer
+ push dword stdin
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ or eax, eax
+ je .done
+
+ ; convert it to hex
+ movzx eax, byte [buffer]
+ mov [buffer+2], cl
+ cmp al, 0Ah
+ jne .hex
+ mov [buffer+2], al
+
+.hex:
+ mov edx, eax
+ shr dl, 4
+ mov dl, [hex+edx]
+ mov [buffer], dl
+ and al, 0Fh
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ mov [buffer+1], al
+
+ ; print it
+ push dword 3
+ push dword buffer
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ jmp short .loop
+
+.done:
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+
+We have stored the space in the CL register. We can
+do this safely because, unlike µsoft.windows;, &unix; system
+calls do not modify the value of any register they do not use
+to return a value in.
+
+
+
+That means we only need to set CL once. We have, therefore,
+added a new label .loop and jump to it for the next byte
+instead of jumping at _start . We have also added the
+.hex label so we can either have a blank space or a
+new line as the third byte of the buffer .
+
+
+
+Once you have changed hex.asm to reflect
+these changes, type:
+
+
+&prompt.user; nasm -f elf hex.asm
+&prompt.user; ld -s -o hex hex.o
+&prompt.user; ./hex
+Hello, World!
+48 65 6C 6C 6F 2C 20 57 6F 72 6C 64 21 0A
+Here I come!
+48 65 72 65 20 49 20 63 6F 6D 65 21 0A
+^D &prompt.user;
+
+
+That looks better. But this code is quite inefficient! We
+are making a system call for every single byte twice (once
+to read it, another time to write the output).
+
+
+
+
+
+Buffered Input and Output
+
+
+We can improve the efficiency of our code by buffering our
+input and output. We create an input buffer and read a whole
+sequence of bytes at one time. Then we fetch them one by one
+from the buffer.
+
+
+
+We also create an output buffer. We store our output in it until
+it is full. At that time we ask the kernel to write the contents
+of the buffer to stdout .
+
+
+
+The program ends when there is no more input. But we still need
+to ask the kernel to write the contents of our output buffer
+to stdout one last time, otherwise some of our output
+would make it to the output buffer, but never be sent out.
+Do not forget that, or you will be wondering why some of your
+output is missing.
+
+
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+%define BUFSIZE 2048
+
+section .data
+hex db '0123456789ABCDEF'
+
+section .bss
+ibuffer resb BUFSIZE
+obuffer resb BUFSIZE
+
+section .text
+global _start
+_start:
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ebx, ebx
+ sub ecx, ecx
+ mov edi, obuffer
+
+.loop:
+ ; read a byte from stdin
+ call getchar
+
+ ; convert it to hex
+ mov dl, al
+ shr al, 4
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ call putchar
+
+ mov al, dl
+ and al, 0Fh
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ call putchar
+
+ mov al, ' '
+ cmp dl, 0Ah
+ jne .put
+ mov al, dl
+
+.put:
+ call putchar
+ jmp short .loop
+
+align 4
+getchar:
+ or ebx, ebx
+ jne .fetch
+
+ call read
+
+.fetch:
+ lodsb
+ dec ebx
+ ret
+
+read:
+ push dword BUFSIZE
+ mov esi, ibuffer
+ push esi
+ push dword stdin
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov ebx, eax
+ or eax, eax
+ je .done
+ sub eax, eax
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.done:
+ call write ; flush output buffer
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+putchar:
+ stosb
+ inc ecx
+ cmp ecx, BUFSIZE
+ je write
+ ret
+
+align 4
+write:
+ sub edi, ecx ; start of buffer
+ push ecx
+ push edi
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ecx, ecx ; buffer is empty now
+ ret
+
+
+We now have a third section in the source code, named
+.bss . This section is not included in our
+executable file, and, therefore, cannot be initialized. We use
+resb instead of db .
+It simply reserves the requested size of uninitialized memory
+for our use.
+
+
+
+We take advantage of the fact that the system does not modify the
+registers: We use registers for what, otherwise, would have to be
+global variables stored in the .data section. This is
+also why the &unix; convention of passing parameters to system calls
+on the stack is superior to the Microsoft convention of passing
+them in the registers: We can keep the registers for our own use.
+
+
+
+We use EDI and ESI as pointers to the next byte
+to be read from or written to. We use EBX and
+ECX to keep count of the number of bytes in the
+two buffers, so we know when to dump the output to, or read more
+input from, the system.
+
+
+
+Let us see how it works now:
+
+
+&prompt.user; nasm -f elf hex.asm
+&prompt.user; ld -s -o hex hex.o
+&prompt.user; ./hex
+Hello, World!
+Here I come!
+48 65 6C 6C 6F 2C 20 57 6F 72 6C 64 21 0A
+48 65 72 65 20 49 20 63 6F 6D 65 21 0A
+^D &prompt.user;
+
+
+Not what you expected? The program did not print the output
+until we pressed ^D . That is easy to fix by
+inserting three lines of code to write the output every time
+we have converted a new line to 0A . I have marked
+the three lines with > (do not copy the > in your
+hex.asm ).
+
+
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+%define BUFSIZE 2048
+
+section .data
+hex db '0123456789ABCDEF'
+
+section .bss
+ibuffer resb BUFSIZE
+obuffer resb BUFSIZE
+
+section .text
+global _start
+_start:
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ebx, ebx
+ sub ecx, ecx
+ mov edi, obuffer
+
+.loop:
+ ; read a byte from stdin
+ call getchar
+
+ ; convert it to hex
+ mov dl, al
+ shr al, 4
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ call putchar
+
+ mov al, dl
+ and al, 0Fh
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ call putchar
+
+ mov al, ' '
+ cmp dl, 0Ah
+ jne .put
+ mov al, dl
+
+.put:
+ call putchar
+> cmp al, 0Ah
+> jne .loop
+> call write
+ jmp short .loop
+
+align 4
+getchar:
+ or ebx, ebx
+ jne .fetch
+
+ call read
+
+.fetch:
+ lodsb
+ dec ebx
+ ret
+
+read:
+ push dword BUFSIZE
+ mov esi, ibuffer
+ push esi
+ push dword stdin
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov ebx, eax
+ or eax, eax
+ je .done
+ sub eax, eax
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.done:
+ call write ; flush output buffer
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+putchar:
+ stosb
+ inc ecx
+ cmp ecx, BUFSIZE
+ je write
+ ret
+
+align 4
+write:
+ sub edi, ecx ; start of buffer
+ push ecx
+ push edi
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ecx, ecx ; buffer is empty now
+ ret
+
+
+
+Now, let us see how it works:
+
+
+&prompt.user; nasm -f elf hex.asm
+&prompt.user; ld -s -o hex hex.o
+&prompt.user; ./hex
+Hello, World!
+48 65 6C 6C 6F 2C 20 57 6F 72 6C 64 21 0A
+Here I come!
+48 65 72 65 20 49 20 63 6F 6D 65 21 0A
+^D &prompt.user;
+
+
+Not bad for a 644-byte executable, is it!
+
+
+
+
+This approach to buffered input/output still
+contains a hidden danger. I will discuss—and
+fix—it later, when I talk about the
+ dark
+side of buffering.
+
+
+
+How to Unread a Character
+
+
+This may be a somewhat advanced topic, mostly of interest to
+programmers familiar with the theory of compilers. If you wish,
+you may skip to the next
+section, and perhaps read this later.
+
+
+
+While our sample program does not require it, more sophisticated
+filters often need to look ahead. In other words, they may need
+to see what the next character is (or even several characters).
+If the next character is of a certain value, it is part of the
+token currently being processed. Otherwise, it is not.
+
+
+
+For example, you may be parsing the input stream for a textual
+string (e.g., when implementing a language compiler): If a
+character is followed by another character, or perhaps a digit,
+it is part of the token you are processing. If it is followed by
+white space, or some other value, then it is not part of the
+current token.
+
+
+
+This presents an interesting problem: How to return the next
+character back to the input stream, so it can be read again
+later?
+
+
+
+One possible solution is to store it in a character variable,
+then set a flag. We can modify getchar to check the flag,
+and if it is set, fetch the byte from that variable instead of the
+input buffer, and reset the flag. But, of course, that slows us
+down.
+
+
+
+The C language has an ungetc() function, just for that
+purpose. Is there a quick way to implement it in our code?
+I would like you to scroll back up and take a look at the
+getchar procedure and see if you can find a nice and
+fast solution before reading the next paragraph. Then come back
+here and see my own solution.
+
+
+
+The key to returning a character back to the stream is in how
+we are getting the characters to start with:
+
+
+
+First we check if the buffer is empty by testing the value
+of EBX . If it is zero, we call the
+read procedure.
+
+
+
+If we do have a character available, we use lodsb , then
+decrease the value of EBX . The lodsb
+instruction is effectively identical to:
+
+
+
+ mov al, [esi]
+ inc esi
+
+
+
+The byte we have fetched remains in the buffer until the next
+time read is called. We do not know when that happens,
+but we do know it will not happen until the next call to
+getchar . Hence, to "return" the last-read byte back
+to the stream, all we have to do is decrease the value of
+ESI and increase the value of EBX :
+
+
+
+ungetc:
+ dec esi
+ inc ebx
+ ret
+
+
+
+But, be careful! We are perfectly safe doing this if our look-ahead
+is at most one character at a time. If we are examining more than
+one upcoming character and call ungetc several times
+in a row, it will work most of the time, but not all the time
+(and will be tough to debug). Why?
+
+
+
+Because as long as getchar does not have to call
+read , all of the pre-read bytes are still in the buffer,
+and our ungetc works without a glitch. But the moment
+getchar calls read ,
+the contents of the buffer change.
+
+
+
+We can always rely on ungetc working properly on the last
+character we have read with getchar , but not on anything
+we have read before that.
+
+
+
+If your program reads more than one byte ahead, you have at least
+two choices:
+
+
+
+If possible, modify the program so it only reads one byte ahead.
+This is the simplest solution.
+
+
+
+If that option is not available, first of all determine the maximum
+number of characters your program needs to return to the input
+stream at one time. Increase that number slightly, just to be
+sure, preferably to a multiple of 16—so it aligns nicely.
+Then modify the .bss section of your code, and create
+a small "spare" buffer right before your input buffer,
+something like this:
+
+
+
+section .bss
+ resb 16 ; or whatever the value you came up with
+ibuffer resb BUFSIZE
+obuffer resb BUFSIZE
+
+
+
+You also need to modify your ungetc to pass the value
+of the byte to unget in AL :
+
+
+
+ungetc:
+ dec esi
+ inc ebx
+ mov [esi], al
+ ret
+
+
+
+With this modification, you can call ungetc
+up to 17 times in a row safely (the first call will still
+be within the buffer, the remaining 16 may be either within
+the buffer or within the "spare").
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Command Line Arguments
+
+
+Our hex program will be more useful if it can
+read the names of an input and output file from its command
+line, i.e., if it can process the command line arguments.
+But... Where are they?
+
+
+
+Before a &unix; system starts a program, it push es some
+data on the stack, then jumps at the _start
+label of the program. Yes, I said jumps, not calls. That means the
+data can be accessed by reading [esp+offset] ,
+or by simply pop ping it.
+
+
+
+The value at the top of the stack contains the number of
+command line arguments. It is traditionally called
+argc , for "argument count."
+
+
+
+Command line arguments follow next, all argc of them.
+These are typically referred to as argv , for
+"argument value(s)." That is, we get argv[0] ,
+argv[1] , ... ,
+argv[argc-1] . These are not the actual
+arguments, but pointers to arguments, i.e., memory addresses of
+the actual arguments. The arguments themselves are
+NUL-terminated character strings.
+
+
+
+The argv list is followed by a NULL pointer,
+which is simply a 0 . There is more, but this is
+enough for our purposes right now.
+
+
+
+
+If you have come from the &ms-dos; programming
+environment, the main difference is that each argument is in
+a separate string. The second difference is that there is no
+practical limit on how many arguments there can be.
+
+
+
+
+Armed with this knowledge, we are almost ready for the next
+version of hex.asm . First, however, we need to
+add a few lines to system.inc :
+
+
+
+First, we need to add two new entries to our list of system
+call numbers:
+
+
+
+%define SYS_open 5
+%define SYS_close 6
+
+
+
+Then we add two new macros at the end of the file:
+
+
+
+%macro sys.open 0
+ system SYS_open
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.close 0
+ system SYS_close
+%endmacro
+
+
+
+Here, then, is our modified source code:
+
+
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+%define BUFSIZE 2048
+
+section .data
+fd.in dd stdin
+fd.out dd stdout
+hex db '0123456789ABCDEF'
+
+section .bss
+ibuffer resb BUFSIZE
+obuffer resb BUFSIZE
+
+section .text
+align 4
+err:
+ push dword 1 ; return failure
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+global _start
+_start:
+ add esp, byte 8 ; discard argc and argv[0]
+
+ pop ecx
+ jecxz .init ; no more arguments
+
+ ; ECX contains the path to input file
+ push dword 0 ; O_RDONLY
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc err ; open failed
+
+ add esp, byte 8
+ mov [fd.in], eax
+
+ pop ecx
+ jecxz .init ; no more arguments
+
+ ; ECX contains the path to output file
+ push dword 420 ; file mode (644 octal)
+ push dword 0200h | 0400h | 01h
+ ; O_CREAT | O_TRUNC | O_WRONLY
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc err
+
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov [fd.out], eax
+
+.init:
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ebx, ebx
+ sub ecx, ecx
+ mov edi, obuffer
+
+.loop:
+ ; read a byte from input file or stdin
+ call getchar
+
+ ; convert it to hex
+ mov dl, al
+ shr al, 4
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ call putchar
+
+ mov al, dl
+ and al, 0Fh
+ mov al, [hex+eax]
+ call putchar
+
+ mov al, ' '
+ cmp dl, 0Ah
+ jne .put
+ mov al, dl
+
+.put:
+ call putchar
+ cmp al, dl
+ jne .loop
+ call write
+ jmp short .loop
+
+align 4
+getchar:
+ or ebx, ebx
+ jne .fetch
+
+ call read
+
+.fetch:
+ lodsb
+ dec ebx
+ ret
+
+read:
+ push dword BUFSIZE
+ mov esi, ibuffer
+ push esi
+ push dword [fd.in]
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov ebx, eax
+ or eax, eax
+ je .done
+ sub eax, eax
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.done:
+ call write ; flush output buffer
+
+ ; close files
+ push dword [fd.in]
+ sys.close
+
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.close
+
+ ; return success
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+putchar:
+ stosb
+ inc ecx
+ cmp ecx, BUFSIZE
+ je write
+ ret
+
+align 4
+write:
+ sub edi, ecx ; start of buffer
+ push ecx
+ push edi
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ecx, ecx ; buffer is empty now
+ ret
+
+
+
+In our .data section we now have two new variables,
+fd.in and fd.out . We store the input and
+output file descriptors here.
+
+
+
+In the .text section we have replaced the references
+to stdin and stdout with
+[fd.in] and [fd.out] .
+
+
+
+The .text section now starts with a simple error
+handler, which does nothing but exit the program with a return
+value of 1 .
+The error handler is before _start so we are
+within a short distance from where the errors occur.
+
+
+
+Naturally, the program execution still begins at _start .
+First, we remove argc and argv[0] from the
+stack: They are of no interest to us (in this program, that is).
+
+
+
+We pop argv[1] to ECX . This
+register is particularly suited for pointers, as we can handle
+NULL pointers with jecxz . If argv[1]
+is not NULL, we try to open the file named in the first
+argument. Otherwise, we continue the program as before: Reading
+from stdin , writing to stdout .
+If we fail to open the input file (e.g., it does not exist),
+we jump to the error handler and quit.
+
+
+
+If all went well, we now check for the second argument. If
+it is there, we open the output file. Otherwise, we send
+the output to stdout . If we fail to open the output
+file (e.g., it exists and we do not have the write permission),
+we, again, jump to the error handler.
+
+
+
+The rest of the code is the same as before, except we close
+the input and output files before exiting, and, as mentioned,
+we use [fd.in] and [fd.out] .
+
+
+
+Our executable is now a whopping 768 bytes long.
+
+
+
+Can we still improve it? Of course! Every program can be improved.
+Here are a few ideas of what we could do:
+
+
+
+
+
+Have our error handler print a message to
+stderr .
+
+
+
+
+
+Add error handlers to the read
+and write functions.
+
+
+
+
+
+Close stdin when we open an input file,
+stdout when we open an output file.
+
+
+
+
+
+Add command line switches, such as -i
+and -o , so we can list the input and
+output files in any order, or perhaps read from
+stdin and write to a file.
+
+
+
+
+
+Print a usage message if command line arguments are incorrect.
+
+
+
+
+
+I shall leave these enhancements as an exercise to the reader:
+You already know everything you need to know to implement them.
+
+
+
+
+
+&unix; Environment
+
+
+An important &unix; concept is the environment, which is defined by
+environment variables . Some are set by the system, others
+by you, yet others by the shell , or any program
+that loads another program.
+
+
+
+How to Find Environment Variables
+
+
+I said earlier that when a program starts executing, the stack
+contains argc followed by the NULL-terminated
+argv array, followed by something else. The
+"something else" is the environment , or,
+to be more precise, a NULL-terminated array of pointers to
+environment variables . This is often referred
+to as env .
+
+
+
+The structure of env is the same as that of
+argv , a list of memory addresses followed by a
+NULL (0 ). In this case, there is no
+"envc" —we figure out where the array ends
+by searching for the final NULL.
+
+
+
+The variables usually come in the name=value
+format, but sometimes the =value part
+may be missing. We need to account for that possibility.
+
+
+
+
+
+webvars
+
+
+I could just show you some code that prints the environment
+the same way the &unix; env command does. But
+I thought it would be more interesting to write a simple
+assembly language CGI utility.
+
+
+
+CGI: A Quick Overview
+
+
+I have a
+detailed
+CGI tutorial on my web site,
+but here is a very quick overview of CGI :
+
+
+
+
+
+The web server communicates with the CGI
+program by setting environment variables .
+
+
+
+
+
+The CGI program
+sends its output to stdout .
+The web server reads it from there.
+
+
+
+
+
+It must start with an HTTP
+header followed by two blank lines.
+
+
+
+
+
+It then prints the HTML
+code, or whatever other type of data it is producing.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+While certain environment variables use
+standard names, others vary, depending on the web server. That
+makes webvars
+quite a useful diagnostic tool.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The Code
+
+
+Our webvars program, then, must send out
+the HTTP header followed by some
+HTML mark-up. It then must read
+the environment variables one by one
+and send them out as part of the
+HTML page.
+
+
+
+The code follows. I placed comments and explanations
+right inside the code:
+
+
+
+;;;;;;; webvars.asm ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+;
+; Copyright (c) 2000 G. Adam Stanislav
+; All rights reserved.
+;
+; Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
+; modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
+; are met:
+; 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
+; notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
+; 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
+; notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
+; documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
+;
+; THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
+; ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
+; IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
+; ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
+; FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
+; DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
+; OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
+; HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
+; LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
+; OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
+; SUCH DAMAGE.
+;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+;
+; Version 1.0
+;
+; Started: 8-Dec-2000
+; Updated: 8-Dec-2000
+;
+;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+section .data
+http db 'Content-type: text/html', 0Ah, 0Ah
+ db '<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>', 0Ah
+ db '<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C/DTD XHTML Strict//EN" '
+ db '"DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">', 0Ah
+ db '<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" '
+ db 'xml.lang="en" lang="en">', 0Ah
+ db '<head>', 0Ah
+ db '<title>Web Environment</title>', 0Ah
+ db '<meta name="author" content="G. Adam Stanislav" />', 0Ah
+ db '</head>', 0Ah, 0Ah
+ db '<body bgcolor="#ffffff" text="#000000" link="#0000ff" '
+ db 'vlink="#840084" alink="#0000ff">', 0Ah
+ db '<div class="webvars">', 0Ah
+ db '<h1>Web Environment</h1>', 0Ah
+ db '<p>The following <b>environment variables</b> are defined '
+ db 'on this web server:</p>', 0Ah, 0Ah
+ db '<table align="center" width="80" border="0" cellpadding="10" '
+ db 'cellspacing="0" class="webvars">', 0Ah
+httplen equ $-http
+left db '<tr>', 0Ah
+ db '<td class="name"><tt>'
+leftlen equ $-left
+middle db '</tt></td>', 0Ah
+ db '<td class="value"><tt><b>'
+midlen equ $-middle
+undef db '<i>(undefined)</i>'
+undeflen equ $-undef
+right db '</b></tt></td>', 0Ah
+ db '</tr>', 0Ah
+rightlen equ $-right
+wrap db '</table>', 0Ah
+ db '</div>', 0Ah
+ db '</body>', 0Ah
+ db '</html>', 0Ah, 0Ah
+wraplen equ $-wrap
+
+section .text
+global _start
+_start:
+ ; First, send out all the http and xhtml stuff that is
+ ; needed before we start showing the environment
+ push dword httplen
+ push dword http
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; Now find how far on the stack the environment pointers
+ ; are. We have 12 bytes we have pushed before "argc"
+ mov eax, [esp+12]
+
+ ; We need to remove the following from the stack:
+ ;
+ ; The 12 bytes we pushed for sys.write
+ ; The 4 bytes of argc
+ ; The EAX*4 bytes of argv
+ ; The 4 bytes of the NULL after argv
+ ;
+ ; Total:
+ ; 20 + eax * 4
+ ;
+ ; Because stack grows down, we need to ADD that many bytes
+ ; to ESP.
+ lea esp, [esp+20+eax*4]
+ cld ; This should already be the case, but let's be sure.
+
+ ; Loop through the environment, printing it out
+.loop:
+ pop edi
+ or edi, edi ; Done yet?
+ je near .wrap
+
+ ; Print the left part of HTML
+ push dword leftlen
+ push dword left
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; It may be tempting to search for the '=' in the env string next.
+ ; But it is possible there is no '=', so we search for the
+ ; terminating NUL first.
+ mov esi, edi ; Save start of string
+ sub ecx, ecx
+ not ecx ; ECX = FFFFFFFF
+ sub eax, eax
+repne scasb
+ not ecx ; ECX = string length + 1
+ mov ebx, ecx ; Save it in EBX
+
+ ; Now is the time to find '='
+ mov edi, esi ; Start of string
+ mov al, '='
+repne scasb
+ not ecx
+ add ecx, ebx ; Length of name
+
+ push ecx
+ push esi
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; Print the middle part of HTML table code
+ push dword midlen
+ push dword middle
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; Find the length of the value
+ not ecx
+ lea ebx, [ebx+ecx-1]
+
+ ; Print "undefined" if 0
+ or ebx, ebx
+ jne .value
+
+ mov ebx, undeflen
+ mov edi, undef
+
+.value:
+ push ebx
+ push edi
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; Print the right part of the table row
+ push dword rightlen
+ push dword right
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; Get rid of the 60 bytes we have pushed
+ add esp, byte 60
+
+ ; Get the next variable
+ jmp .loop
+
+.wrap:
+ ; Print the rest of HTML
+ push dword wraplen
+ push dword wrap
+ push dword stdout
+ sys.write
+
+ ; Return success
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+
+
+This code produces a 1,396-byte executable. Most of it is data,
+i.e., the HTML mark-up we need to send out.
+
+
+
+Assemble and link it as usual:
+
+
+&prompt.user; nasm -f elf webvars.asm
+&prompt.user; ld -s -o webvars webvars.o
+
+
+To use it, you need to upload webvars to your
+web server. Depending on how your web server is set up, you
+may have to store it in a special cgi-bin directory,
+or perhaps rename it with a .cgi extension.
+
+
+
+Then you need to use your browser to view its output.
+To see its output on my web server, please go to
+http://www.int80h.org/webvars/ .
+If curious about the additional environment variables
+present in a password protected web directory, go to
+http://www.int80h.org/private/ ,
+using the name asm and password
+programmer .
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Working with Files
+
+
+We have already done some basic file work: We know how
+to open and close them, how to read and write them using
+buffers. But &unix; offers much more functionality when it
+comes to files. We will examine some of it in this section,
+and end up with a nice file conversion utility.
+
+
+
+Indeed, let us start at the end, that is, with the file
+conversion utility. It always makes programming easier
+when we know from the start what the end product is
+supposed to do.
+
+
+
+One of the first programs I wrote for &unix; was
+tuc ,
+a text-to-&unix; file converter. It converts a text
+file from other operating systems to a &unix; text file.
+In other words, it changes from different kind of line endings
+to the newline convention of &unix;. It saves the output
+in a different file. Optionally, it converts a &unix; text
+file to a DOS text file.
+
+
+
+I have used tuc extensively, but always
+only to convert from some other OS
+to &unix;, never the other way. I have always wished
+it would just overwrite the file instead of me having
+to send the output to a different file. Most of the time,
+I end up using it like this:
+
+
+&prompt.user; tuc myfile tempfile
+&prompt.user; mv tempfile myfile
+
+
+It would be nice to have a ftuc ,
+i.e., fast tuc , and use it like this:
+
+
+&prompt.user; ftuc myfile
+
+
+In this chapter, then, we will write
+ftuc in assembly language
+(the original tuc
+is in C), and study various
+file-oriented kernel services in the process.
+
+
+
+At first sight, such a file conversion is very
+simple: All you have to do is strip the carriage
+returns, right?
+
+
+
+If you answered yes, think again: That approach will
+work most of the time (at least with MS
+DOS text files), but will fail occasionally.
+
+
+
+The problem is that not all non &unix; text files end their
+line with the carriage return / line feed sequence. Some
+use carriage returns without line feeds. Others combine several
+blank lines into a single carriage return followed by several
+line feeds. And so on.
+
+
+
+A text file converter, then, must be able to handle
+any possible line endings:
+
+
+
+
+
+carriage return / line feed
+
+
+
+
+
+carriage return
+
+
+
+
+
+line feed / carriage return
+
+
+
+
+
+line feed
+
+
+
+
+
+It should also handle files that use some kind of a
+combination of the above (e.g., carriage return followed
+by several line feeds).
+
+
+
+Finite State Machine
+
+
+The problem is easily solved by the use of a technique
+called finite state machine , originally developed
+by the designers of digital electronic circuits. A
+finite state machine is a digital circuit
+whose output is dependent not only on its input but on
+its previous input, i.e., on its state. The microprocessor
+is an example of a finite state machine : Our
+assembly language code is assembled to machine language in which
+some assembly language code produces a single byte
+of machine language, while others produce several bytes.
+As the microprocessor fetches the bytes from the memory
+one by one, some of them simply change its state rather than
+produce some output. When all the bytes of the op code are
+fetched, the microprocessor produces some output, or changes
+the value of a register, etc.
+
+
+
+Because of that, all software is essentially a sequence of state
+instructions for the microprocessor. Nevertheless, the concept
+of finite state machine is useful in software design as well.
+
+
+
+Our text file converter can be designed as a finite state machine with three
+possible states. We could call them states 0-2,
+but it will make our life easier if we give them symbolic names:
+
+
+
+
+
+ordinary
+
+
+
+
+
+cr
+
+
+
+
+
+lf
+
+
+
+
+
+Our program will start in the ordinary
+state. During this state, the program action depends on
+its input as follows:
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is anything other than a carriage return
+or line feed, the input is simply passed on to the output. The
+state remains unchanged.
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is a carriage return, the state is changed
+to cr . The input is then discarded, i.e.,
+no output is made.
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is a line feed, the state is changed to
+lf . The input is then discarded.
+
+
+
+
+
+Whenever we are in the cr state, it is
+because the last input was a carriage return, which was
+unprocessed. What our software does in this state again
+depends on the current input:
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is anything other than a carriage return
+or line feed, output a line feed, then output the input, then
+change the state to ordinary .
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is a carriage return, we have received
+two (or more) carriage returns in a row. We discard the
+input, we output a line feed, and leave the state unchanged.
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is a line feed, we output the line feed
+and change the state to ordinary . Note that
+this is not the same as the first case above – if we tried
+to combine them, we would be outputting two line feeds
+instead of one.
+
+
+
+
+
+Finally, we are in the lf state after
+we have received a line feed that was not preceded by a
+carriage return. This will happen when our file already is
+in &unix; format, or whenever several lines in a row are
+expressed by a single carriage return followed by several
+line feeds, or when line ends with a line feed /
+carriage return sequence. Here is how we need to handle
+our input in this state:
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is anything other than a carriage return or
+line feed, we output a line feed, then output the input, then
+change the state to ordinary . This is exactly
+the same action as in the cr state upon
+receiving the same kind of input.
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is a carriage return, we discard the input,
+we output a line feed, then change the state to ordinary .
+
+
+
+
+
+If the input is a line feed, we output the line feed,
+and leave the state unchanged.
+
+
+
+
+
+The Final State
+
+
+The above finite state machine works for the entire file, but leaves
+the possibility that the final line end will be ignored. That will
+happen whenever the file ends with a single carriage return or
+a single line feed. I did not think of it when I wrote
+tuc , just to discover that
+occasionally it strips the last line ending.
+
+
+
+This problem is easily fixed by checking the state after the
+entire file was processed. If the state is not
+ordinary , we simply
+need to output one last line feed.
+
+
+
+
+Now that we have expressed our algorithm as a finite state machine ,
+we could easily design a dedicated digital electronic
+circuit (a "chip") to do the conversion for us. Of course,
+doing so would be considerably more expensive than writing
+an assembly language program.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The Output Counter
+
+
+Because our file conversion program may be combining two
+characters into one, we need to use an output counter. We
+initialize it to 0 , and increase it
+every time we send a character to the output. At the end of
+the program, the counter will tell us what size we need
+to set the file to.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Implementing FSM in Software
+
+
+The hardest part of working with a finite state machine
+is analyzing the problem and expressing it as a
+finite state machine . That accomplished,
+the software almost writes itself.
+
+
+
+In a high-level language, such as C, there are several main
+approaches. One is to use a switch statement
+which chooses what function should be run. For example,
+
+
+
+ switch (state) {
+ default:
+ case REGULAR:
+ regular(inputchar);
+ break;
+ case CR:
+ cr(inputchar);
+ break;
+ case LF:
+ lf(inputchar);
+ break;
+ }
+
+
+
+Another approach is by using an array of function pointers,
+something like this:
+
+
+
+ (output[state])(inputchar);
+
+
+
+Yet another is to have state be a
+function pointer, set to point at the appropriate function:
+
+
+
+ (*state)(inputchar);
+
+
+This is the approach we will use in our program because it is very easy to do in assembly language, and very fast, too. We will simply keep the address of the right procedure in EBX , and then just issue:
+
+
+ call ebx
+
+
+
+This is possibly faster than hardcoding the address in the code
+because the microprocessor does not have to fetch the address from
+the memory—it is already stored in one of its registers. I said
+possibly because with the caching modern
+microprocessors do, either way may be equally fast.
+
+
+
+
+
+Memory Mapped Files
+
+
+Because our program works on a single file, we cannot use the
+approach that worked for us before, i.e., to read from an input
+file and to write to an output file.
+
+
+
+&unix; allows us to map a file, or a section of a file,
+into memory. To do that, we first need to open the file with the
+appropriate read/write flags. Then we use the mmap
+system call to map it into the memory. One nice thing about
+mmap is that it automatically works with
+virtual memory: We can map more of the file into the memory than
+we have physical memory available, yet still access it through
+regular memory op codes, such as mov ,
+lods , and stos .
+Whatever changes we make to the memory image of the file will be
+written to the file by the system. We do not even have to keep
+the file open: As long as it stays mapped, we can
+read from it and write to it.
+
+
+
+The 32-bit Intel microprocessors can access up to four
+gigabytes of memory – physical or virtual. The FreeBSD system
+allows us to use up to a half of it for file mapping.
+
+
+
+For simplicity sake, in this tutorial we will only convert files
+that can be mapped into the memory in their entirety. There are
+probably not too many text files that exceed two gigabytes in size.
+If our program encounters one, it will simply display a message
+suggesting we use the original
+tuc instead.
+
+
+
+If you examine your copy of syscalls.master ,
+you will find two separate syscalls named mmap .
+This is because of evolution of &unix;: There was the traditional
+BSD mmap ,
+syscall 71. That one was superseded by the &posix; mmap ,
+syscall 197. The FreeBSD system supports both because
+older programs were written by using the original BSD
+version. But new software uses the &posix; version,
+which is what we will use.
+
+
+
+The syscalls.master file lists
+the &posix; version like this:
+
+
+
+197 STD BSD { caddr_t mmap(caddr_t addr, size_t len, int prot, \
+ int flags, int fd, long pad, off_t pos); }
+
+
+
+This differs slightly from what
+mmap 2
+says. That is because
+mmap 2
+describes the C version.
+
+
+
+The difference is in the long pad argument, which is not present in the C version. However, the FreeBSD syscalls add a 32-bit pad after push ing a 64-bit argument. In this case, off_t is a 64-bit value.
+
+
+When we are finished working with a memory-mapped file,
+we unmap it with the munmap syscall:
+
+
+
+
+For an in-depth treatment of mmap , see
+W. Richard Stevens'
+Unix
+Network Programming, Volume 2, Chapter 12 .
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Determining File Size
+
+
+Because we need to tell mmap how many bytes
+of the file to map into the memory, and because we want to map
+the entire file, we need to determine the size of the file.
+
+
+
+We can use the fstat syscall to get all
+the information about an open file that the system can give us.
+That includes the file size.
+
+
+
+Again, syscalls.master lists two versions
+of fstat , a traditional one
+(syscall 62), and a &posix; one
+(syscall 189). Naturally, we will use the
+&posix; version:
+
+
+
+189 STD POSIX { int fstat(int fd, struct stat *sb); }
+
+
+
+This is a very straightforward call: We pass to it the address
+of a stat structure and the descriptor
+of an open file. It will fill out the contents of the
+stat structure.
+
+
+
+I do, however, have to say that I tried to declare the
+stat structure in the
+.bss section, and
+fstat did not like it: It set the carry
+flag indicating an error. After I changed the code to allocate
+the structure on the stack, everything was working fine.
+
+
+
+
+
+Changing the File Size
+
+
+Because our program may combine carriage return / line feed
+sequences into straight line feeds, our output may be smaller
+than our input. However, since we are placing our output into
+the same file we read the input from, we may have to change the
+size of the file.
+
+
+
+The ftruncate system call allows us to do
+just that. Despite its somewhat misleading name, the
+ftruncate system call can be used to both
+truncate the file (make it smaller) and to grow it.
+
+
+
+And yes, we will find two versions of ftruncate
+in syscalls.master , an older one
+(130), and a newer one (201). We will use
+the newer one:
+
+
+
+201 STD BSD { int ftruncate(int fd, int pad, off_t length); }
+
+
+
+Please note that this one contains a int pad again.
+
+
+
+
+
+ftuc
+
+
+We now know everything we need to write ftuc .
+We start by adding some new lines in system.inc .
+First, we define some constants and structures, somewhere at
+or near the beginning of the file:
+
+
+
+;;;;;;; open flags
+%define O_RDONLY 0
+%define O_WRONLY 1
+%define O_RDWR 2
+
+;;;;;;; mmap flags
+%define PROT_NONE 0
+%define PROT_READ 1
+%define PROT_WRITE 2
+%define PROT_EXEC 4
+;;
+%define MAP_SHARED 0001h
+%define MAP_PRIVATE 0002h
+
+;;;;;;; stat structure
+struc stat
+st_dev resd 1 ; = 0
+st_ino resd 1 ; = 4
+st_mode resw 1 ; = 8, size is 16 bits
+st_nlink resw 1 ; = 10, ditto
+st_uid resd 1 ; = 12
+st_gid resd 1 ; = 16
+st_rdev resd 1 ; = 20
+st_atime resd 1 ; = 24
+st_atimensec resd 1 ; = 28
+st_mtime resd 1 ; = 32
+st_mtimensec resd 1 ; = 36
+st_ctime resd 1 ; = 40
+st_ctimensec resd 1 ; = 44
+st_size resd 2 ; = 48, size is 64 bits
+st_blocks resd 2 ; = 56, ditto
+st_blksize resd 1 ; = 64
+st_flags resd 1 ; = 68
+st_gen resd 1 ; = 72
+st_lspare resd 1 ; = 76
+st_qspare resd 4 ; = 80
+endstruc
+
+
+
+We define the new syscalls:
+
+
+
+%define SYS_mmap 197
+%define SYS_munmap 73
+%define SYS_fstat 189
+%define SYS_ftruncate 201
+
+
+
+We add the macros for their use:
+
+
+
+%macro sys.mmap 0
+ system SYS_mmap
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.munmap 0
+ system SYS_munmap
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.ftruncate 0
+ system SYS_ftruncate
+%endmacro
+
+%macro sys.fstat 0
+ system SYS_fstat
+%endmacro
+
+
+
+And here is our code:
+
+
+
+;;;;;;; Fast Text-to-Unix Conversion (ftuc.asm) ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+;;
+;; Started: 21-Dec-2000
+;; Updated: 22-Dec-2000
+;;
+;; Copyright 2000 G. Adam Stanislav.
+;; All rights reserved.
+;;
+;;;;;;; v.1 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+section .data
+ db 'Copyright 2000 G. Adam Stanislav.', 0Ah
+ db 'All rights reserved.', 0Ah
+usg db 'Usage: ftuc filename', 0Ah
+usglen equ $-usg
+co db "ftuc: Can't open file.", 0Ah
+colen equ $-co
+fae db 'ftuc: File access error.', 0Ah
+faelen equ $-fae
+ftl db 'ftuc: File too long, use regular tuc instead.', 0Ah
+ftllen equ $-ftl
+mae db 'ftuc: Memory allocation error.', 0Ah
+maelen equ $-mae
+
+section .text
+
+align 4
+memerr:
+ push dword maelen
+ push dword mae
+ jmp short error
+
+align 4
+toolong:
+ push dword ftllen
+ push dword ftl
+ jmp short error
+
+align 4
+facerr:
+ push dword faelen
+ push dword fae
+ jmp short error
+
+align 4
+cantopen:
+ push dword colen
+ push dword co
+ jmp short error
+
+align 4
+usage:
+ push dword usglen
+ push dword usg
+
+error:
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+
+ push dword 1
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+global _start
+_start:
+ pop eax ; argc
+ pop eax ; program name
+ pop ecx ; file to convert
+ jecxz usage
+
+ pop eax
+ or eax, eax ; Too many arguments?
+ jne usage
+
+ ; Open the file
+ push dword O_RDWR
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc cantopen
+
+ mov ebp, eax ; Save fd
+
+ sub esp, byte stat_size
+ mov ebx, esp
+
+ ; Find file size
+ push ebx
+ push ebp ; fd
+ sys.fstat
+ jc facerr
+
+ mov edx, [ebx + st_size + 4]
+
+ ; File is too long if EDX != 0 ...
+ or edx, edx
+ jne near toolong
+ mov ecx, [ebx + st_size]
+ ; ... or if it is above 2 GB
+ or ecx, ecx
+ js near toolong
+
+ ; Do nothing if the file is 0 bytes in size
+ jecxz .quit
+
+ ; Map the entire file in memory
+ push edx
+ push edx ; starting at offset 0
+ push edx ; pad
+ push ebp ; fd
+ push dword MAP_SHARED
+ push dword PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE
+ push ecx ; entire file size
+ push edx ; let system decide on the address
+ sys.mmap
+ jc near memerr
+
+ mov edi, eax
+ mov esi, eax
+ push ecx ; for SYS_munmap
+ push edi
+
+ ; Use EBX for state machine
+ mov ebx, ordinary
+ mov ah, 0Ah
+ cld
+
+.loop:
+ lodsb
+ call ebx
+ loop .loop
+
+ cmp ebx, ordinary
+ je .filesize
+
+ ; Output final lf
+ mov al, ah
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+
+.filesize:
+ ; truncate file to new size
+ push dword 0 ; high dword
+ push edx ; low dword
+ push eax ; pad
+ push ebp
+ sys.ftruncate
+
+ ; close it (ebp still pushed)
+ sys.close
+
+ add esp, byte 16
+ sys.munmap
+
+.quit:
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+ordinary:
+ cmp al, 0Dh
+ je .cr
+
+ cmp al, ah
+ je .lf
+
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.cr:
+ mov ebx, cr
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.lf:
+ mov ebx, lf
+ ret
+
+align 4
+cr:
+ cmp al, 0Dh
+ je .cr
+
+ cmp al, ah
+ je .lf
+
+ xchg al, ah
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+
+ xchg al, ah
+ ; fall through
+
+.lf:
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+ mov ebx, ordinary
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.cr:
+ mov al, ah
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+ ret
+
+align 4
+lf:
+ cmp al, ah
+ je .lf
+
+ cmp al, 0Dh
+ je .cr
+
+ xchg al, ah
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+
+ xchg al, ah
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+ mov ebx, ordinary
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.cr:
+ mov ebx, ordinary
+ mov al, ah
+ ; fall through
+
+.lf:
+ stosb
+ inc edx
+ ret
+
+
+
+Do not use this program on files stored on a disk formated
+by &ms-dos; or &windows;. There seems to be a
+subtle bug in the FreeBSD code when using mmap
+on these drives mounted under FreeBSD: If the file is over
+a certain size, mmap will just fill the memory
+with zeros, and then copy them to the file overwriting
+its contents.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+One-Pointed Mind
+
+
+As a student of Zen, I like the idea of a one-pointed mind:
+Do one thing at a time, and do it well.
+
+
+
+This, indeed, is very much how &unix; works as well. While
+a typical &windows; application is attempting to do everything
+imaginable (and is, therefore, riddled with bugs), a
+typical &unix; program does only one thing, and it does it
+well.
+
+
+
+The typical &unix; user then essentially assembles his own
+applications by writing a shell script which combines the
+various existing programs by piping the output of one
+program to the input of another.
+
+
+
+When writing your own &unix; software, it is generally a
+good idea to see what parts of the problem you need to
+solve can be handled by existing programs, and only
+write your own programs for that part of the problem
+that you do not have an existing solution for.
+
+
+CSV
+
+
+I will illustrate this principle with a specific real-life
+example I was faced with recently:
+
+
+
+I needed to extract the 11th field of each record from a
+database I downloaded from a web site. The database was a
+CSV file, i.e., a list of
+comma-separated values . That is quite
+a standard format for sharing data among people who may be
+using different database software.
+
+
+
+The first line of the file contains the list of various fields
+separated by commas. The rest of the file contains the data
+listed line by line, with values separated by commas.
+
+
+
+I tried awk , using the comma as a separator.
+But because several lines contained a quoted comma,
+awk was extracting the wrong field
+from those lines.
+
+
+
+Therefore, I needed to write my own software to extract the 11th
+field from the CSV file. However, going with the &unix;
+spirit, I only needed to write a simple filter that would do the
+following:
+
+
+
+
+
+Remove the first line from the file;
+
+
+
+
+
+Change all unquoted commas to a different character;
+
+
+
+
+
+Remove all quotation marks.
+
+
+
+
+
+Strictly speaking, I could use sed to remove
+the first line from the file, but doing so in my own program
+was very easy, so I decided to do it and reduce the size of
+the pipeline.
+
+
+
+At any rate, writing a program like this took me about
+20 minutes. Writing a program that extracts the 11th field
+from the CSV file would take a lot longer,
+and I could not reuse it to extract some other field from some
+other database.
+
+
+
+This time I decided to let it do a little more work than
+a typical tutorial program would:
+
+
+
+
+
+It parses its command line for options;
+
+
+
+
+
+It displays proper usage if it finds wrong arguments;
+
+
+
+
+
+It produces meaningful error messages.
+
+
+
+
+
+Here is its usage message:
+
+
+Usage: csv [-t<delim>] [-c<comma>] [-p] [-o <outfile>] [-i <infile>]
+
+
+All parameters are optional, and can appear in any order.
+
+
+
+The -t parameter declares what to replace
+the commas with. The tab is the default here.
+For example, -t; will replace all unquoted
+commas with semicolons.
+
+
+
+I did not need the -c option, but it may
+come in handy in the future. It lets me declare that I want a
+character other than a comma replaced with something else.
+For example, -c@ will replace all at signs
+(useful if you want to split a list of email addresses
+to their user names and domains).
+
+
+
+The -p option preserves the first line, i.e.,
+it does not delete it. By default, we delete the first
+line because in a CSV file it contains the field
+names rather than data.
+
+
+
+The -i and -o
+options let me specify the input and the output files. Defaults
+are stdin and stdout ,
+so this is a regular &unix; filter.
+
+
+
+I made sure that both -i filename and
+-ifilename are accepted. I also made
+sure that only one input and one output files may be
+specified.
+
+
+
+To get the 11th field of each record, I can now do:
+
+
+&prompt.user; csv '-t;' data.csv | awk '-F;' '{print $11}'
+
+
+The code stores the options (except for the file descriptors)
+in EDX : The comma in DH , the new
+separator in DL , and the flag for
+the -p option in the highest bit of
+EDX , so a check for its sign will give us a
+quick decision what to do.
+
+
+
+Here is the code:
+
+
+
+;;;;;;; csv.asm ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+;
+; Convert a comma-separated file to a something-else separated file.
+;
+; Started: 31-May-2001
+; Updated: 1-Jun-2001
+;
+; Copyright (c) 2001 G. Adam Stanislav
+; All rights reserved.
+;
+;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+%define BUFSIZE 2048
+
+section .data
+fd.in dd stdin
+fd.out dd stdout
+usg db 'Usage: csv [-t<delim>] [-c<comma>] [-p] [-o <outfile>] [-i <infile>]', 0Ah
+usglen equ $-usg
+iemsg db "csv: Can't open input file", 0Ah
+iemlen equ $-iemsg
+oemsg db "csv: Can't create output file", 0Ah
+oemlen equ $-oemsg
+
+section .bss
+ibuffer resb BUFSIZE
+obuffer resb BUFSIZE
+
+section .text
+align 4
+ierr:
+ push dword iemlen
+ push dword iemsg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 1 ; return failure
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+oerr:
+ push dword oemlen
+ push dword oemsg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 2
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+usage:
+ push dword usglen
+ push dword usg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 3
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+global _start
+_start:
+ add esp, byte 8 ; discard argc and argv[0]
+ mov edx, (',' << 8) | 9
+
+.arg:
+ pop ecx
+ or ecx, ecx
+ je near .init ; no more arguments
+
+ ; ECX contains the pointer to an argument
+ cmp byte [ecx], '-'
+ jne usage
+
+ inc ecx
+ mov ax, [ecx]
+
+.o:
+ cmp al, 'o'
+ jne .i
+
+ ; Make sure we are not asked for the output file twice
+ cmp dword [fd.out], stdout
+ jne usage
+
+ ; Find the path to output file - it is either at [ECX+1],
+ ; i.e., -ofile --
+ ; or in the next argument,
+ ; i.e., -o file
+
+ inc ecx
+ or ah, ah
+ jne .openoutput
+ pop ecx
+ jecxz usage
+
+.openoutput:
+ push dword 420 ; file mode (644 octal)
+ push dword 0200h | 0400h | 01h
+ ; O_CREAT | O_TRUNC | O_WRONLY
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc near oerr
+
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov [fd.out], eax
+ jmp short .arg
+
+.i:
+ cmp al, 'i'
+ jne .p
+
+ ; Make sure we are not asked twice
+ cmp dword [fd.in], stdin
+ jne near usage
+
+ ; Find the path to the input file
+ inc ecx
+ or ah, ah
+ jne .openinput
+ pop ecx
+ or ecx, ecx
+ je near usage
+
+.openinput:
+ push dword 0 ; O_RDONLY
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc near ierr ; open failed
+
+ add esp, byte 8
+ mov [fd.in], eax
+ jmp .arg
+
+.p:
+ cmp al, 'p'
+ jne .t
+ or ah, ah
+ jne near usage
+ or edx, 1 << 31
+ jmp .arg
+
+.t:
+ cmp al, 't' ; redefine output delimiter
+ jne .c
+ or ah, ah
+ je near usage
+ mov dl, ah
+ jmp .arg
+
+.c:
+ cmp al, 'c'
+ jne near usage
+ or ah, ah
+ je near usage
+ mov dh, ah
+ jmp .arg
+
+align 4
+.init:
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ebx, ebx
+ sub ecx, ecx
+ mov edi, obuffer
+
+ ; See if we are to preserve the first line
+ or edx, edx
+ js .loop
+
+.firstline:
+ ; get rid of the first line
+ call getchar
+ cmp al, 0Ah
+ jne .firstline
+
+.loop:
+ ; read a byte from stdin
+ call getchar
+
+ ; is it a comma (or whatever the user asked for)?
+ cmp al, dh
+ jne .quote
+
+ ; Replace the comma with a tab (or whatever the user wants)
+ mov al, dl
+
+.put:
+ call putchar
+ jmp short .loop
+
+.quote:
+ cmp al, '"'
+ jne .put
+
+ ; Print everything until you get another quote or EOL. If it
+ ; is a quote, skip it. If it is EOL, print it.
+.qloop:
+ call getchar
+ cmp al, '"'
+ je .loop
+
+ cmp al, 0Ah
+ je .put
+
+ call putchar
+ jmp short .qloop
+
+align 4
+getchar:
+ or ebx, ebx
+ jne .fetch
+
+ call read
+
+.fetch:
+ lodsb
+ dec ebx
+ ret
+
+read:
+ jecxz .read
+ call write
+
+.read:
+ push dword BUFSIZE
+ mov esi, ibuffer
+ push esi
+ push dword [fd.in]
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov ebx, eax
+ or eax, eax
+ je .done
+ sub eax, eax
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.done:
+ call write ; flush output buffer
+
+ ; close files
+ push dword [fd.in]
+ sys.close
+
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.close
+
+ ; return success
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+putchar:
+ stosb
+ inc ecx
+ cmp ecx, BUFSIZE
+ je write
+ ret
+
+align 4
+write:
+ jecxz .ret ; nothing to write
+ sub edi, ecx ; start of buffer
+ push ecx
+ push edi
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ecx, ecx ; buffer is empty now
+.ret:
+ ret
+
+
+
+Much of it is taken from hex.asm above. But there
+is one important difference: I no longer call write
+whenever I am outputting a line feed. Yet, the code can be
+used interactively.
+
+
+
+I have found a better solution for the interactive problem
+since I first started writing this chapter. I wanted to
+make sure each line is printed out separately only when needed.
+After all, there is no need to flush out every line when used
+non-interactively.
+
+
+
+The new solution I use now is to call write every
+time I find the input buffer empty. That way, when running in
+the interactive mode, the program reads one line from the user's
+keyboard, processes it, and sees its input buffer is empty. It
+flushes its output and reads the next line.
+
+
+
+The Dark Side of Buffering
+
+This change prevents a mysterious lockup
+in a very specific case. I refer to it as the
+dark side of buffering , mostly
+because it presents a danger that is not
+quite obvious.
+
+
+
+It is unlikely to happen with a program like the
+csv above, so let us consider yet
+another filter: In this case we expect our input
+to be raw data representing color values, such as
+the red , green , and
+blue intensities of a pixel. Our
+output will be the negative of our input.
+
+
+
+Such a filter would be very simple to write.
+Most of it would look just like all the other
+filters we have written so far, so I am only
+going to show you its inner loop:
+
+
+
+.loop:
+ call getchar
+ not al ; Create a negative
+ call putchar
+ jmp short .loop
+
+
+Because this filter works with raw data,
+it is unlikely to be used interactively.
+
+
+
+But it could be called by image manipulation software.
+And, unless it calls write before each call
+to read , chances are it will lock up.
+
+
+
+Here is what might happen:
+
+
+
+The image editor will load our filter using the
+C function popen() .
+
+
+
+It will read the first row of pixels from
+a bitmap or pixmap.
+
+
+
+It will write the first row of pixels to
+the pipe leading to
+the fd.in of our filter.
+
+
+
+Our filter will read each pixel
+from its input, turn it to a negative,
+and write it to its output buffer.
+
+
+
+Our filter will call getchar
+to fetch the next pixel.
+
+
+
+getchar will find an empty
+input buffer, so it will call
+read .
+
+
+
+read will call the
+SYS_read system call.
+
+
+
+The kernel will suspend
+our filter until the image editor
+sends more data to the pipe.
+
+
+
+The image editor will read from the
+other pipe, connected to the
+fd.out of our filter so it can set the first row of the
+output image before
+it sends us the second row of the input.
+
+
+
+The kernel suspends
+the image editor until it receives
+some output from our filter, so it
+can pass it on to the image editor.
+
+
+
+
+At this point our filter waits for the image
+editor to send it more data to process, while
+the image editor is waiting for our filter
+to send it the result of the processing
+of the first row. But the result sits in
+our output buffer.
+
+
+
+The filter and the image editor will continue
+waiting for each other forever (or, at least,
+until they are killed). Our software has just
+entered a
+ race condition.
+
+
+
+This problem does not exist if our filter flushes
+its output buffer before asking the
+kernel for more input data.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Using the FPU
+
+Strangely enough, most of assembly language literature does not
+even mention the existence of the FPU ,
+or floating point unit , let alone discuss
+programming it.
+
+
+
+Yet, never does assembly language shine more than when
+we create highly optimized FPU
+code by doing things that can be done only in assembly language.
+
+Organization of the FPU
+
+The FPU consists of 8 80–bit floating–point registers.
+These are organized in a stack fashion—you can
+push a value on TOS
+(top of stack ) and you can
+pop it.
+
+
+
+That said, the assembly language op codes are not push
+and pop because those are already taken.
+
+
+You can push a value on TOS
+by using fld , fild ,
+and fbld . Several other op codes
+let you push many common
+constants —such as pi —on
+the TOS .
+
+
+
+Similarly, you can pop a value by
+using fst , fstp ,
+fist , fistp , and
+fbstp . Actually, only the op
+codes that end with a p will
+literally pop the value,
+the rest will store it
+somewhere else without removing it from
+the TOS .
+
+
+
+We can transfer the data between the
+TOS and the computer memory either as
+a 32–bit, 64–bit, or 80–bit real ,
+a 16–bit, 32–bit, or 64–bit integer ,
+or an 80–bit packed decimal .
+
+
+
+The 80–bit packed decimal is
+a special case of binary coded
+decimal which is very convenient when
+converting between the ASCII
+representation of data and the internal
+data of the FPU . It allows us to use
+18 significant digits.
+
+
+
+No matter how we represent data in the memory,
+the FPU always stores it in the 80–bit
+real format in its registers.
+
+
+
+Its internal precision is at least 19 decimal
+digits, so even if we choose to display results
+as ASCII in the full
+18–digit precision, we are still showing
+correct results.
+
+
+
+We can perform mathematical operations on the
+TOS : We can calculate its
+sine , we can scale it
+(i.e., we can multiply or divide it by a power
+of 2), we can calculate its base–2
+logarithm , and many other things.
+
+
+
+We can also multiply or
+divide it by, add
+it to, or subtract it from,
+any of the FPU registers (including
+itself).
+
+
+
+The official Intel op code for the
+TOS is st , and
+for the registers
+st(0) –st(7) .
+st and st(0) , then,
+refer to the same register.
+
+
+
+For whatever reasons, the original author of
+nasm has decided to use
+different op codes, namely
+st0 –st7 .
+In other words, there are no parentheses,
+and the TOS is always
+st0 , never just st .
+
+
+
+The Packed Decimal Format
+
+The packed decimal format
+uses 10 bytes (80 bits) of
+memory to represent 18 digits. The
+number represented there is always an
+integer .
+
+
+
+
+You can use it to get decimal places
+by multiplying the TOS
+by a power of 10 first.
+
+
+
+
+The highest bit of the highest byte
+(byte 9) is the sign bit :
+If it is set, the number is negative ,
+otherwise, it is positive .
+The rest of the bits of this byte are unused/ignored.
+
+
+
+The remaining 9 bytes store the 18 digits
+of the number: 2 digits per byte.
+
+
+The more significant digit is
+stored in the high nibble
+(4 bits), the less significant
+digit in the low nibble .
+
+
+
+That said, you might think that -1234567
+would be stored in the memory like this (using
+hexadecimal notation):
+
+
+
+80 00 00 00 00 00 01 23 45 67
+
+
+Alas it is not! As with everything else of Intel make,
+even the packed decimal is
+little–endian .
+
+
+That means our -1234567
+is stored like this:
+
+
+
+67 45 23 01 00 00 00 00 00 80
+
+
+Remember that, or you will be pulling your hair out
+in desperation!
+
+
+
+
+The book to read—if you can find it—is Richard Startz'
+8087/80287/80387
+for the IBM PC & Compatibles .
+Though it does seem to take the fact about the
+little–endian storage of the packed
+decimal for granted. I kid you not about the
+desperation of trying to figure out what was wrong
+with the filter I show below before
+it occurred to me I should try the
+little–endian order even for this type of data.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Excursion to Pinhole Photography
+
+To write meaningful software, we must not only
+understand our programming tools, but also the
+field we are creating software for.
+
+
+
+Our next filter will help us whenever we want
+to build a pinhole camera ,
+so, we need some background in pinhole
+photography before we can continue.
+
+
+
+The Camera
+
+The easiest way to describe any camera ever built
+is as some empty space enclosed in some
+lightproof material, with a small hole in the
+enclosure.
+
+
+
+The enclosure is usually sturdy (e.g., a box),
+though sometimes it is flexible (the bellows).
+It is quite dark inside the camera. However, the
+hole lets light rays in through a single point
+(though in some cases there may be several).
+These light rays form an image, a representation
+of whatever is outside the camera, in front of the
+hole.
+
+
+
+If some light sensitive material (such as film)
+is placed inside the camera, it can capture the
+image.
+
+
+The hole often contains a lens , or
+a lens assembly, often called the objective .
+
+
+
+
+
+The Pinhole
+
+But, strictly speaking, the lens is not necessary:
+The original cameras did not use a lens but a
+pinhole . Even today, pinholes
+are used, both as a tool to study how cameras
+work, and to achieve a special kind of image.
+
+
+
+The image produced by the pinhole
+is all equally sharp. Or blurred .
+There is an ideal size for a pinhole: If it is
+either larger or smaller, the image loses its
+sharpness.
+
+
+
+
+Focal Length
+
+This ideal pinhole diameter is a function
+of the square root of focal
+length , which is the distance of the
+pinhole from the film.
+
+
+
+ D = PC * sqrt(FL)
+
+
+In here, D is the
+ideal diameter of the pinhole,
+FL is the focal length,
+and PC is a pinhole
+constant. According to Jay Bender,
+its value is 0.04 , while
+Kenneth Connors has determined it to
+be 0.037 . Others have
+proposed other values. Plus, this
+value is for the daylight only: Other types
+of light will require a different constant,
+whose value can only be determined by
+experimentation.
+
+
+
+
+
+The F–Number
+
+The f–number is a very useful measure of
+how much light reaches the film. A light
+meter can determine that, for example,
+to expose a film of specific sensitivity
+with f5.6 may require the exposure to last
+1/1000 sec.
+
+
+It does not matter whether it is a 35–mm
+camera, or a 6x9cm camera, etc.
+As long as we know the f–number, we can determine
+the proper exposure.
+
+
+
+The f–number is easy to calculate:
+
+
+
+ F = FL / D
+
+
+In other words, the f–number equals the focal
+length divided by the diameter of the pinhole.
+It also means a higher f–number either implies
+a smaller pinhole or a larger focal distance,
+or both. That, in turn, implies, the higher
+the f–number, the longer the exposure has to be.
+
+
+
+Furthermore, while pinhole diameter and focal
+distance are one–dimensional measurements,
+both, the film and the pinhole, are two–dimensional.
+That means that
+if you have measured the exposure at f–number
+A as t , then the exposure
+at f–number B is:
+
+
+ t * (B / A)²
+
+
+
+
+Normalized F–Number
+
+While many modern cameras can change the diameter
+of their pinhole, and thus their f–number, quite
+smoothly and gradually, such was not always the case.
+
+
+
+To allow for different f–numbers, cameras typically
+contained a metal plate with several holes of
+different sizes drilled to them.
+
+
+
+Their sizes were chosen according to the above
+formula in such a way that the resultant f–number
+was one of standard f–numbers used on all cameras
+everywhere. For example, a very old Kodak Duaflex IV
+camera in my possession has three such holes for
+f–numbers 8, 11, and 16.
+
+
+
+A more recently made camera may offer f–numbers of
+2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11,
+16, 22, and 32 (as well as others).
+These numbers were not chosen arbitrarily: They all are
+powers of the square root of 2, though they may
+be rounded somewhat.
+
+
+
+
+
+The F–Stop
+
+A typical camera is designed in such a way that setting
+any of the normalized f–numbers changes the feel of the
+dial. It will naturally stop in that
+position. Because of that, these positions of the dial
+are called f–stops.
+
+
+Since the f–numbers at each stop are powers of the
+square root of 2, moving the dial by 1
+stop will double the amount of light required for
+proper exposure. Moving it by 2 stops will
+quadruple the required exposure. Moving the dial by
+3 stops will require the increase in exposure
+8 times, etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Designing the Pinhole Software
+
+We are now ready to decide what exactly we want our
+pinhole software to do.
+
+
+
+Processing Program Input
+
+Since its main purpose is to help us design a working
+pinhole camera, we will use the focal
+length as the input to the program. This is something
+we can determine without software: Proper focal length
+is determined by the size of the film and by the need
+to shoot "regular" pictures, wide angle pictures, or
+telephoto pictures.
+
+
+
+Most of the programs we have written so far worked with
+individual characters, or bytes, as their input: The
+hex program converted individual bytes
+into a hexadecimal number, the csv
+program either let a character through, or deleted it,
+or changed it to a different character, etc.
+
+
+
+One program, ftuc used the state machine
+to consider at most two input bytes at a time.
+
+
+
+But our pinhole program cannot just
+work with individual characters, it has to deal with
+larger syntactic units.
+
+
+
+For example, if we want the program to calculate the
+pinhole diameter (and other values we will discuss
+later) at the focal lengths of 100 mm ,
+150 mm , and 210 mm , we may want
+to enter something like this:
+
+100, 150, 210
+
+Our program needs to consider more than a single byte of
+input at a time. When it sees the first 1 ,
+it must understand it is seeing the first digit of a
+decimal number. When it sees the 0 and
+the other 0 , it must know it is seeing
+more digits of the same number.
+
+
+
+When it encounters the first comma, it must know it is
+no longer receiving the digits of the first number.
+It must be able to convert the digits of the first number
+into the value of 100 . And the digits of the
+second number into the value of 150 . And,
+of course, the digits of the third number into the
+numeric value of 210 .
+
+
+
+We need to decide what delimiters to accept: Do the
+input numbers have to be separated by a comma? If so,
+how do we treat two numbers separated by something else?
+
+
+
+Personally, I like to keep it simple. Something either
+is a number, so I process it. Or it is not a number,
+so I discard it. I do not like the computer complaining
+about me typing in an extra character when it is
+obvious that it is an extra character. Duh!
+
+
+
+Plus, it allows me to break up the monotony of computing
+and type in a query instead of just a number:
+
+
+What is the best pinhole diameter for the focal length of 150?
+
+There is no reason for the computer to spit out
+a number of complaints:
+
+
+Syntax error: What
+Syntax error: is
+Syntax error: the
+Syntax error: best
+
+Et cetera, et cetera, et cetera.
+
+
+Secondly, I like the # character to denote
+the start of a comment which extends to the end of the
+line. This does not take too much effort to code, and
+lets me treat input files for my software as executable
+scripts.
+
+
+
+In our case, we also need to decide what units the
+input should come in: We choose millimeters
+because that is how most photographers measure
+the focus length.
+
+
+
+Finally, we need to decide whether to allow the use
+of the decimal point (in which case we must also
+consider the fact that much of the world uses a
+decimal comma ).
+
+
+In our case allowing for the decimal point/comma
+would offer a false sense of precision: There is
+little if any noticeable difference between the
+focus lengths of 50 and 51 ,
+so allowing the user to input something like
+50.5 is not a good idea. This is
+my opinion, mind you, but I am the one writing
+this program. You can make other choices in yours,
+of course.
+
+
+
+
+
+Offering Options
+
+The most important thing we need to know when building
+a pinhole camera is the diameter of the pinhole. Since
+we want to shoot sharp images, we will use the above
+formula to calculate the pinhole diameter from focal length.
+As experts are offering several different values for the
+PC constant, we will need to have the choice.
+
+
+
+It is traditional in &unix; programming to have two main ways
+of choosing program parameters, plus to have a default for
+the time the user does not make a choice.
+
+
+
+Why have two ways of choosing?
+
+
+One is to allow a (relatively) permanent
+choice that applies automatically each time the
+software is run without us having to tell it over and
+over what we want it to do.
+
+
+
+The permanent choices may be stored in a configuration
+file, typically found in the user's home directory.
+The file usually has the same name as the application
+but is started with a dot. Often "rc"
+is added to the file name. So, ours could be
+~/.pinhole or ~/.pinholerc .
+(The ~/ means current user's
+home directory.)
+
+
+
+The configuration file is used mostly by programs
+that have many configurable parameters. Those
+that have only one (or a few) often use a different
+method: They expect to find the parameter in an
+environment variable . In our case,
+we might look at an environment variable named
+PINHOLE .
+
+
+
+Usually, a program uses one or the other of the
+above methods. Otherwise, if a configuration
+file said one thing, but an environment variable
+another, the program might get confused (or just
+too complicated).
+
+
+
+Because we only need to choose one
+such parameter, we will go with the second method
+and search the environment for a variable named
+PINHOLE .
+
+
+The other way allows us to make ad hoc
+decisions: "Though I usually want
+you to use 0.039, this time I want 0.03872."
+In other words, it allows us to override
+the permanent choice.
+
+
+
+This type of choice is usually done with command
+line parameters.
+
+
+
+Finally, a program always needs a
+default . The user may not make
+any choices. Perhaps he does not know what
+to choose. Perhaps he is "just browsing."
+Preferably, the default will be the value
+most users would choose anyway. That way
+they do not need to choose. Or, rather, they
+can choose the default without an additional
+effort.
+
+
+
+Given this system, the program may find conflicting
+options, and handle them this way:
+
+
+
+If it finds an ad hoc choice
+(e.g., command line parameter), it should
+accept that choice. It must ignore any permanent
+choice and any default.
+
+
+
+Otherwise , if it finds
+a permanent option (e.g., an environment
+variable), it should accept it, and ignore
+the default.
+
+
+Otherwise , it should use
+the default.
+
+
+
+
+We also need to decide what format
+our PC option should have.
+
+
+
+At first site, it seems obvious to use the
+PINHOLE=0.04 format for the
+environment variable, and -p0.04
+for the command line.
+
+
+
+Allowing that is actually a security risk.
+The PC constant is a very small
+number. Naturally, we will test our software
+using various small values of PC .
+But what will happen if someone runs the program
+choosing a huge value?
+
+
+
+It may crash the program because we have not
+designed it to handle huge numbers.
+
+
+
+Or, we may spend more time on the program so
+it can handle huge numbers. We might do that
+if we were writing commercial software for
+computer illiterate audience.
+
+
+
+Or, we might say, "Tough!
+The user should know better.""
+
+
+
+Or, we just may make it impossible for the user
+to enter a huge number. This is the approach we
+will take: We will use an implied 0.
+prefix.
+
+
+
+In other words, if the user wants 0.04 ,
+we will expect him to type -p04 ,
+or set PINHOLE=04 in his environment.
+So, if he says -p9999999 , we will
+interpret it as 0.9999999 —still
+ridiculous but at least safer.
+
+
+
+Secondly, many users will just want to go with either
+Bender's constant or Connors' constant.
+To make it easier on them, we will interpret
+-b as identical to -p04 ,
+and -c as identical to -p037 .
+
+
+
+
+
+The Output
+
+We need to decide what we want our software to
+send to the output, and in what format.
+
+
+
+Since our input allows for an unspecified number
+of focal length entries, it makes sense to use
+a traditional database–style output of showing
+the result of the calculation for each
+focal length on a separate line, while
+separating all values on one line by a
+tab character.
+
+
+
+Optionally, we should also allow the user
+to specify the use of the CSV
+format we have studied earlier. In this case,
+we will print out a line of comma–separated
+names describing each field of every line,
+then show our results as before, but substituting
+a comma for the tab .
+
+
+We need a command line option for the CSV
+format. We cannot use -c because
+that already means use Connors' constant .
+For some strange reason, many web sites refer to
+CSV files as "Excel
+spreadsheet" (though the CSV
+format predates Excel). We will, therefore, use
+the -e switch to inform our software
+we want the output in the CSV format.
+
+
+
+We will start each line of the output with the
+focal length. This may sound repetitious at first,
+especially in the interactive mode: The user
+types in the focal length, and we are repeating it.
+
+
+
+But the user can type several focal lengths on one
+line. The input can also come in from a file or
+from the output of another program. In that case
+the user does not see the input at all.
+
+
+
+By the same token, the output can go to a file
+which we will want to examine later, or it could
+go to the printer, or become the input of another
+program.
+
+
+
+So, it makes perfect sense to start each line with
+the focal length as entered by the user.
+
+
+
+No, wait! Not as entered by the user. What if the user
+types in something like this:
+
+00000000150
+
+Clearly, we need to strip those leading zeros.
+
+
+So, we might consider reading the user input as is,
+converting it to binary inside the FPU ,
+and printing it out from there.
+
+
+
+But...
+
+
+What if the user types something like this:
+
+
+17459765723452353453534535353530530534563507309676764423
+
+Ha! The packed decimal FPU format
+lets us input 18–digit numbers. But the
+user has entered more than 18 digits. How
+do we handle that?
+
+
+
+Well, we could modify our code to read
+the first 18 digits, enter it to the FPU ,
+then read more, multiply what we already have on the
+TOS by 10 raised to the number
+of additional digits, then add to it.
+
+
+
+Yes, we could do that. But in this
+program it would be ridiculous (in a different one it may be just the thing to do): Even the circumference of the Earth expressed in
+millimeters only takes 11 digits. Clearly,
+we cannot build a camera that large (not yet,
+anyway).
+
+
+
+So, if the user enters such a huge number, he is
+either bored, or testing us, or trying to break
+into the system, or playing games—doing
+anything but designing a pinhole camera.
+
+
+
+What will we do?
+
+
+We will slap him in the face, in a manner of speaking:
+
+17459765723452353453534535353530530534563507309676764423 ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
+
+To achieve that, we will simply ignore any leading zeros.
+Once we find a non–zero digit, we will initialize a
+counter to 0 and start taking three steps:
+
+
+
+
+Send the digit to the output.
+
+
+
+Append the digit to a buffer we will use later to
+produce the packed decimal we can send to the
+FPU .
+
+
+
+Increase the counter.
+
+
+
+
+Now, while we are taking these three steps,
+we also need to watch out for one of two
+conditions:
+
+
+
+
+If the counter grows above 18,
+we stop appending to the buffer. We
+continue reading the digits and sending
+them to the output.
+
+
+
+
+
+If, or rather when ,
+the next input character is not
+a digit, we are done inputting
+for now.
+
+
+
+Incidentally, we can simply
+discard the non–digit, unless it
+is a # , which we must
+return to the input stream. It
+starts a comment, so we must see it
+after we are done producing output
+and start looking for more input.
+
+
+
+
+
+That still leaves one possibility
+uncovered: If all the user enters
+is a zero (or several zeros), we
+will never find a non–zero to
+display.
+
+
+We can determine this has happened
+whenever our counter stays at 0 .
+In that case we need to send 0
+to the output, and perform another
+"slap in the face":
+
+
+0 ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
+
+Once we have displayed the focal
+length and determined it is valid
+(greater than 0
+but not exceeding 18 digits),
+we can calculate the pinhole diameter.
+
+
+
+It is not by coincidence that pinhole
+contains the word pin . Indeed,
+many a pinhole literally is a pin
+hole , a hole carefully punched with the
+tip of a pin.
+
+
+
+That is because a typical pinhole is very
+small. Our formula gets the result in
+millimeters. We will multiply it by 1000 ,
+so we can output the result in microns .
+
+
+
+At this point we have yet another trap to face:
+Too much precision.
+
+
+
+Yes, the FPU was designed
+for high precision mathematics. But we
+are not dealing with high precision
+mathematics. We are dealing with physics
+(optics, specifically).
+
+
+
+Suppose we want to convert a truck into
+a pinhole camera (we would not be the
+first ones to do that!). Suppose its box is
+12
+meters long, so we have the focal length
+of 12000 . Well, using Bender's constant, it gives us square root of
+12000 multiplied by 0.04 ,
+which is 4.381780460 millimeters,
+or 4381.780460 microns.
+
+
+
+Put either way, the result is absurdly precise.
+Our truck is not exactly 12000
+millimeters long. We did not measure its length
+with such a precision, so stating we need a pinhole
+with the diameter of 4.381780460
+millimeters is, well, deceiving. 4.4
+millimeters would do just fine.
+
+
+
+
+I "only" used ten digits in the above example.
+Imagine the absurdity of going for all 18!
+
+
+
+
+We need to limit the number of significant
+digits of our result. One way of doing it
+is by using an integer representing microns.
+So, our truck would need a pinhole with the diameter
+of 4382 microns. Looking at that number, we still decide that 4400 microns,
+or 4.4 millimeters is close enough.
+
+
+
+Additionally, we can decide that no matter how
+big a result we get, we only want to display four
+significant digits (or any other number
+of them, of course). Alas, the FPU
+does not offer rounding to a specific number
+of digits (after all, it does not view the
+numbers as decimal but as binary).
+
+
+
+We, therefore, must devise an algorithm to reduce
+the number of significant digits.
+
+
+
+Here is mine (I think it is awkward—if
+you know a better one, please , let me know):
+
+
+
+Initialize a counter to 0 .
+
+
+
+While the number is greater than or equal to
+10000 , divide it by
+10 and increase the counter.
+
+
+
+Output the result.
+
+
+While the counter is greater than 0 ,
+output 0 and decrease the counter.
+
+
+
+
+
+The 10000 is only good if you want
+four significant digits. For any other
+number of significant digits, replace
+10000 with 10
+raised to the number of significant digits.
+
+
+
+
+We will, then, output the pinhole diameter
+in microns, rounded off to four significant
+digits.
+
+
+
+At this point, we know the focal
+length and the pinhole
+diameter . That means we have enough
+information to also calculate the
+f–number .
+
+
+
+We will display the f–number, rounded to
+four significant digits. Chances are the
+f–number will tell us very little. To make
+it more meaningful, we can find the nearest
+normalized f–number , i.e.,
+the nearest power of the square root
+of 2.
+
+
+
+We do that by multiplying the actual f–number
+by itself, which, of course, will give us
+its square . We will then calculate
+its base–2 logarithm, which is much
+easier to do than calculating the
+base–square–root–of–2 logarithm!
+We will round the result to the nearest integer.
+Next, we will raise 2 to the result. Actually,
+the FPU gives us a good shortcut
+to do that: We can use the fscale
+op code to "scale" 1, which is
+analogous to shift ing an
+integer left. Finally, we calculate the square
+root of it all, and we have the nearest
+normalized f–number.
+
+
+
+If all that sounds overwhelming—or too much
+work, perhaps—it may become much clearer
+if you see the code. It takes 9 op
+codes altogether:
+
+
+ fmul st0, st0
+ fld1
+ fld st1
+ fyl2x
+ frndint
+ fld1
+ fscale
+ fsqrt
+ fstp st1
+
+
+The first line, fmul st0, st0 , squares
+the contents of the TOS
+(top of the stack, same as st ,
+called st0 by nasm ).
+The fld1 pushes 1
+on the TOS .
+
+
+The next line, fld st1 , pushes
+the square back to the TOS .
+At this point the square is both in st
+and st(2) (it will become
+clear why we leave a second copy on the stack
+in a moment). st(1) contains
+1 .
+
+
+
+Next, fyl2x calculates base–2
+logarithm of st multiplied by
+st(1) . That is why we placed 1 on st(1) before.
+
+
+At this point, st contains
+the logarithm we have just calculated,
+st(1) contains the square
+of the actual f–number we saved for later.
+
+
+
+frndint rounds the TOS
+to the nearest integer. fld1 pushes
+a 1 . fscale shifts the
+1 we have on the TOS
+by the value in st(1) ,
+effectively raising 2 to st(1) .
+
+
+
+Finally, fsqrt calculates
+the square root of the result, i.e.,
+the nearest normalized f–number.
+
+
+
+We now have the nearest normalized
+f–number on the TOS ,
+the base–2 logarithm rounded to the
+nearest integer in st(1) ,
+and the square of the actual f–number
+in st(2) . We are saving
+the value in st(2) for later.
+
+
+
+But we do not need the contents of
+st(1) anymore. The last
+line, fstp st1 , places the
+contents of st to
+st(1) , and pops. As a
+result, what was st(1)
+is now st , what was st(2)
+is now st(1) , etc.
+The new st contains the
+normalized f–number. The new
+st(1) contains the square
+of the actual f–number we have
+stored there for posterity.
+
+
+
+At this point, we are ready to output
+the normalized f–number. Because it is
+normalized, we will not round it off to
+four significant digits, but will
+send it out in its full precision.
+
+
+
+The normalized f-number is useful as long
+as it is reasonably small and can be found
+on our light meter. Otherwise we need a
+different method of determining proper
+exposure.
+
+
+
+Earlier we have figured out the formula
+of calculating proper exposure at an arbitrary
+f–number from that measured at a different
+f–number.
+
+
+
+Every light meter I have ever seen can determine
+proper exposure at f5.6. We will, therefore,
+calculate an "f5.6 multiplier,"
+i.e., by how much we need to multiply the exposure measured
+at f5.6 to determine the proper exposure
+for our pinhole camera.
+
+
+
+From the above formula we know this factor can be
+calculated by dividing our f–number (the
+actual one, not the normalized one) by
+5.6 , and squaring the result.
+
+
+
+Mathematically, dividing the square of our
+f–number by the square of 5.6
+will give us the same result.
+
+
+
+Computationally, we do not want to square
+two numbers when we can only square one.
+So, the first solution seems better at first.
+
+
+
+But...
+
+
+5.6 is a constant .
+We do not have to have our FPU
+waste precious cycles. We can just tell it
+to divide the square of the f–number by
+whatever 5.6² equals to.
+Or we can divide the f–number by 5.6 ,
+and then square the result. The two ways
+now seem equal.
+
+
+
+But, they are not!
+
+
+Having studied the principles of photography
+above, we remember that the 5.6
+is actually square root of 2 raised to
+the fifth power. An irrational
+number. The square of this number is
+exactly 32 .
+
+
+
+Not only is 32 an integer,
+it is a power of 2. We do not need
+to divide the square of the f–number by
+32 . We only need to use
+fscale to shift it right by
+five positions. In the FPU
+lingo it means we will fscale it
+with st(1) equal to
+-5 . That is much
+faster than a division.
+
+
+
+So, now it has become clear why we have
+saved the square of the f–number on the
+top of the FPU stack.
+The calculation of the f5.6 multiplier
+is the easiest calculation of this
+entire program! We will output it rounded
+to four significant digits.
+
+
+
+There is one more useful number we can calculate:
+The number of stops our f–number is from f5.6.
+This may help us if our f–number is just outside
+the range of our light meter, but we have
+a shutter which lets us set various speeds,
+and this shutter uses stops.
+
+
+
+Say, our f–number is 5 stops from
+f5.6, and the light meter says
+we should use 1/1000 sec.
+Then we can set our shutter speed to 1/1000
+first, then move the dial by 5 stops.
+
+
+
+This calculation is quite easy as well. All
+we have to do is to calculate the base-2
+logarithm of the f5.6 multiplier
+we had just calculated (though we need its
+value from before we rounded it off). We then
+output the result rounded to the nearest integer.
+We do not need to worry about having more than
+four significant digits in this one: The result
+is most likely to have only one or two digits
+anyway.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FPU Optimizations
+
+In assembly language we can optimize the FPU
+code in ways impossible in high languages,
+including C.
+
+
+
+Whenever a C function needs to calculate
+a floating–point value, it loads all necessary
+variables and constants into FPU
+registers. It then does whatever calculation is
+required to get the correct result. Good C
+compilers can optimize that part of the code really
+well.
+
+
+
+It "returns" the value by leaving
+the result on the TOS .
+However, before it returns, it cleans up.
+Any variables and constants it used in its
+calculation are now gone from the FPU .
+
+
+
+It cannot do what we just did above: We calculated
+the square of the f–number and kept it on the
+stack for later use by another function.
+
+
+
+We knew we would need that value
+later on. We also knew we had enough room on the
+stack (which only has room for 8 numbers)
+to store it there.
+
+
+
+A C compiler has no way of knowing
+that a value it has on the stack will be
+required again in the very near future.
+
+
+
+Of course, the C programmer may know it.
+But the only recourse he has is to store the
+value in a memory variable.
+
+
+
+That means, for one, the value will be changed
+from the 80-bit precision used internally
+by the FPU to a C double
+(64 bits) or even single (32
+bits).
+
+
+
+That also means that the value must be moved
+from the TOS into the memory,
+and then back again. Alas, of all FPU
+operations, the ones that access the computer
+memory are the slowest.
+
+
+
+So, whenever programming the FPU
+in assembly language, look for the ways of keeping
+intermediate results on the FPU
+stack.
+
+
+
+We can take that idea even further! In our
+program we are using a constant
+(the one we named PC ).
+
+
+
+It does not matter how many pinhole diameters
+we are calculating: 1, 10, 20,
+1000, we are always using the same constant.
+Therefore, we can optimize our program by keeping
+the constant on the stack all the time.
+
+
+
+Early on in our program, we are calculating the
+value of the above constant. We need to divide
+our input by 10 for every digit in the
+constant.
+
+
+
+It is much faster to multiply than to divide.
+So, at the start of our program, we divide 10
+into 1 to obtain 0.1 , which we
+then keep on the stack: Instead of dividing the
+input by 10 for every digit,
+we multiply it by 0.1 .
+
+
+
+By the way, we do not input 0.1 directly,
+even though we could. We have a reason for that:
+While 0.1 can be expressed with just one
+decimal place, we do not know how many binary
+places it takes. We, therefore, let the FPU
+calculate its binary value to its own high precision.
+
+
+
+We are using other constants: We multiply the pinhole
+diameter by 1000 to convert it from
+millimeters to microns. We compare numbers to
+10000 when we are rounding them off to
+four significant digits. So, we keep both, 1000
+and 10000 , on the stack. And, of course,
+we reuse the 0.1 when rounding off numbers
+to four digits.
+
+
+
+Last but not least, we keep -5 on the stack.
+We need it to scale the square of the f–number,
+instead of dividing it by 32 . It is not
+by coincidence we load this constant last. That makes
+it the top of the stack when only the constants
+are on it. So, when the square of the f–number is
+being scaled, the -5 is at st(1) ,
+precisely where fscale expects it to be.
+
+
+
+It is common to create certain constants from
+scratch instead of loading them from the memory.
+That is what we are doing with -5 :
+
+
+
+ fld1 ; TOS = 1
+ fadd st0, st0 ; TOS = 2
+ fadd st0, st0 ; TOS = 4
+ fld1 ; TOS = 1
+ faddp st1, st0 ; TOS = 5
+ fchs ; TOS = -5
+
+
+We can generalize all these optimizations into one rule:
+Keep repeat values on the stack!
+
+
+
+
+&postscript; is a stack–oriented
+programming language. There are many more books
+available about &postscript; than about the
+FPU assembly language: Mastering
+&postscript; will help you master the FPU .
+
+
+
+
+
+
+pinhole —The Code
+
+;;;;;;; pinhole.asm ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+;
+; Find various parameters of a pinhole camera construction and use
+;
+; Started: 9-Jun-2001
+; Updated: 10-Jun-2001
+;
+; Copyright (c) 2001 G. Adam Stanislav
+; All rights reserved.
+;
+;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
+
+%include 'system.inc'
+
+%define BUFSIZE 2048
+
+section .data
+align 4
+ten dd 10
+thousand dd 1000
+tthou dd 10000
+fd.in dd stdin
+fd.out dd stdout
+envar db 'PINHOLE=' ; Exactly 8 bytes, or 2 dwords long
+pinhole db '04,', ; Bender's constant (0.04)
+connors db '037', 0Ah ; Connors' constant
+usg db 'Usage: pinhole [-b] [-c] [-e] [-p <value>] [-o <outfile>] [-i <infile>]', 0Ah
+usglen equ $-usg
+iemsg db "pinhole: Can't open input file", 0Ah
+iemlen equ $-iemsg
+oemsg db "pinhole: Can't create output file", 0Ah
+oemlen equ $-oemsg
+pinmsg db "pinhole: The PINHOLE constant must not be 0", 0Ah
+pinlen equ $-pinmsg
+toobig db "pinhole: The PINHOLE constant may not exceed 18 decimal places", 0Ah
+biglen equ $-toobig
+huhmsg db 9, '???'
+separ db 9, '???'
+sep2 db 9, '???'
+sep3 db 9, '???'
+sep4 db 9, '???', 0Ah
+huhlen equ $-huhmsg
+header db 'focal length in millimeters,pinhole diameter in microns,'
+ db 'F-number,normalized F-number,F-5.6 multiplier,stops '
+ db 'from F-5.6', 0Ah
+headlen equ $-header
+
+section .bss
+ibuffer resb BUFSIZE
+obuffer resb BUFSIZE
+dbuffer resb 20 ; decimal input buffer
+bbuffer resb 10 ; BCD buffer
+
+section .text
+align 4
+huh:
+ call write
+ push dword huhlen
+ push dword huhmsg
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ ret
+
+align 4
+perr:
+ push dword pinlen
+ push dword pinmsg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 4 ; return failure
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+consttoobig:
+ push dword biglen
+ push dword toobig
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 5 ; return failure
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+ierr:
+ push dword iemlen
+ push dword iemsg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 1 ; return failure
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+oerr:
+ push dword oemlen
+ push dword oemsg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 2
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+usage:
+ push dword usglen
+ push dword usg
+ push dword stderr
+ sys.write
+ push dword 3
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+global _start
+_start:
+ add esp, byte 8 ; discard argc and argv[0]
+ sub esi, esi
+
+.arg:
+ pop ecx
+ or ecx, ecx
+ je near .getenv ; no more arguments
+
+ ; ECX contains the pointer to an argument
+ cmp byte [ecx], '-'
+ jne usage
+
+ inc ecx
+ mov ax, [ecx]
+ inc ecx
+
+.o:
+ cmp al, 'o'
+ jne .i
+
+ ; Make sure we are not asked for the output file twice
+ cmp dword [fd.out], stdout
+ jne usage
+
+ ; Find the path to output file - it is either at [ECX+1],
+ ; i.e., -ofile --
+ ; or in the next argument,
+ ; i.e., -o file
+
+ or ah, ah
+ jne .openoutput
+ pop ecx
+ jecxz usage
+
+.openoutput:
+ push dword 420 ; file mode (644 octal)
+ push dword 0200h | 0400h | 01h
+ ; O_CREAT | O_TRUNC | O_WRONLY
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc near oerr
+
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov [fd.out], eax
+ jmp short .arg
+
+.i:
+ cmp al, 'i'
+ jne .p
+
+ ; Make sure we are not asked twice
+ cmp dword [fd.in], stdin
+ jne near usage
+
+ ; Find the path to the input file
+ or ah, ah
+ jne .openinput
+ pop ecx
+ or ecx, ecx
+ je near usage
+
+.openinput:
+ push dword 0 ; O_RDONLY
+ push ecx
+ sys.open
+ jc near ierr ; open failed
+
+ add esp, byte 8
+ mov [fd.in], eax
+ jmp .arg
+
+.p:
+ cmp al, 'p'
+ jne .c
+ or ah, ah
+ jne .pcheck
+
+ pop ecx
+ or ecx, ecx
+ je near usage
+
+ mov ah, [ecx]
+
+.pcheck:
+ cmp ah, '0'
+ jl near usage
+ cmp ah, '9'
+ ja near usage
+ mov esi, ecx
+ jmp .arg
+
+.c:
+ cmp al, 'c'
+ jne .b
+ or ah, ah
+ jne near usage
+ mov esi, connors
+ jmp .arg
+
+.b:
+ cmp al, 'b'
+ jne .e
+ or ah, ah
+ jne near usage
+ mov esi, pinhole
+ jmp .arg
+
+.e:
+ cmp al, 'e'
+ jne near usage
+ or ah, ah
+ jne near usage
+ mov al, ','
+ mov [huhmsg], al
+ mov [separ], al
+ mov [sep2], al
+ mov [sep3], al
+ mov [sep4], al
+ jmp .arg
+
+align 4
+.getenv:
+ ; If ESI = 0, we did not have a -p argument,
+ ; and need to check the environment for "PINHOLE="
+ or esi, esi
+ jne .init
+
+ sub ecx, ecx
+
+.nextenv:
+ pop esi
+ or esi, esi
+ je .default ; no PINHOLE envar found
+
+ ; check if this envar starts with 'PINHOLE='
+ mov edi, envar
+ mov cl, 2 ; 'PINHOLE=' is 2 dwords long
+rep cmpsd
+ jne .nextenv
+
+ ; Check if it is followed by a digit
+ mov al, [esi]
+ cmp al, '0'
+ jl .default
+ cmp al, '9'
+ jbe .init
+ ; fall through
+
+align 4
+.default:
+ ; We got here because we had no -p argument,
+ ; and did not find the PINHOLE envar.
+ mov esi, pinhole
+ ; fall through
+
+align 4
+.init:
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ebx, ebx
+ sub ecx, ecx
+ sub edx, edx
+ mov edi, dbuffer+1
+ mov byte [dbuffer], '0'
+
+ ; Convert the pinhole constant to real
+.constloop:
+ lodsb
+ cmp al, '9'
+ ja .setconst
+ cmp al, '0'
+ je .processconst
+ jb .setconst
+
+ inc dl
+
+.processconst:
+ inc cl
+ cmp cl, 18
+ ja near consttoobig
+ stosb
+ jmp short .constloop
+
+align 4
+.setconst:
+ or dl, dl
+ je near perr
+
+ finit
+ fild dword [tthou]
+
+ fld1
+ fild dword [ten]
+ fdivp st1, st0
+
+ fild dword [thousand]
+ mov edi, obuffer
+
+ mov ebp, ecx
+ call bcdload
+
+.constdiv:
+ fmul st0, st2
+ loop .constdiv
+
+ fld1
+ fadd st0, st0
+ fadd st0, st0
+ fld1
+ faddp st1, st0
+ fchs
+
+ ; If we are creating a CSV file,
+ ; print header
+ cmp byte [separ], ','
+ jne .bigloop
+
+ push dword headlen
+ push dword header
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.write
+
+.bigloop:
+ call getchar
+ jc near done
+
+ ; Skip to the end of the line if you got '#'
+ cmp al, '#'
+ jne .num
+ call skiptoeol
+ jmp short .bigloop
+
+.num:
+ ; See if you got a number
+ cmp al, '0'
+ jl .bigloop
+ cmp al, '9'
+ ja .bigloop
+
+ ; Yes, we have a number
+ sub ebp, ebp
+ sub edx, edx
+
+.number:
+ cmp al, '0'
+ je .number0
+ mov dl, 1
+
+.number0:
+ or dl, dl ; Skip leading 0's
+ je .nextnumber
+ push eax
+ call putchar
+ pop eax
+ inc ebp
+ cmp ebp, 19
+ jae .nextnumber
+ mov [dbuffer+ebp], al
+
+.nextnumber:
+ call getchar
+ jc .work
+ cmp al, '#'
+ je .ungetc
+ cmp al, '0'
+ jl .work
+ cmp al, '9'
+ ja .work
+ jmp short .number
+
+.ungetc:
+ dec esi
+ inc ebx
+
+.work:
+ ; Now, do all the work
+ or dl, dl
+ je near .work0
+
+ cmp ebp, 19
+ jae near .toobig
+
+ call bcdload
+
+ ; Calculate pinhole diameter
+
+ fld st0 ; save it
+ fsqrt
+ fmul st0, st3
+ fld st0
+ fmul st5
+ sub ebp, ebp
+
+ ; Round off to 4 significant digits
+.diameter:
+ fcom st0, st7
+ fstsw ax
+ sahf
+ jb .printdiameter
+ fmul st0, st6
+ inc ebp
+ jmp short .diameter
+
+.printdiameter:
+ call printnumber ; pinhole diameter
+
+ ; Calculate F-number
+
+ fdivp st1, st0
+ fld st0
+
+ sub ebp, ebp
+
+.fnumber:
+ fcom st0, st6
+ fstsw ax
+ sahf
+ jb .printfnumber
+ fmul st0, st5
+ inc ebp
+ jmp short .fnumber
+
+.printfnumber:
+ call printnumber ; F number
+
+ ; Calculate normalized F-number
+ fmul st0, st0
+ fld1
+ fld st1
+ fyl2x
+ frndint
+ fld1
+ fscale
+ fsqrt
+ fstp st1
+
+ sub ebp, ebp
+ call printnumber
+
+ ; Calculate time multiplier from F-5.6
+
+ fscale
+ fld st0
+
+ ; Round off to 4 significant digits
+.fmul:
+ fcom st0, st6
+ fstsw ax
+ sahf
+
+ jb .printfmul
+ inc ebp
+ fmul st0, st5
+ jmp short .fmul
+
+.printfmul:
+ call printnumber ; F multiplier
+
+ ; Calculate F-stops from 5.6
+
+ fld1
+ fxch st1
+ fyl2x
+
+ sub ebp, ebp
+ call printnumber
+
+ mov al, 0Ah
+ call putchar
+ jmp .bigloop
+
+.work0:
+ mov al, '0'
+ call putchar
+
+align 4
+.toobig:
+ call huh
+ jmp .bigloop
+
+align 4
+done:
+ call write ; flush output buffer
+
+ ; close files
+ push dword [fd.in]
+ sys.close
+
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.close
+
+ finit
+
+ ; return success
+ push dword 0
+ sys.exit
+
+align 4
+skiptoeol:
+ ; Keep reading until you come to cr, lf, or eof
+ call getchar
+ jc done
+ cmp al, 0Ah
+ jne .cr
+ ret
+
+.cr:
+ cmp al, 0Dh
+ jne skiptoeol
+ ret
+
+align 4
+getchar:
+ or ebx, ebx
+ jne .fetch
+
+ call read
+
+.fetch:
+ lodsb
+ dec ebx
+ clc
+ ret
+
+read:
+ jecxz .read
+ call write
+
+.read:
+ push dword BUFSIZE
+ mov esi, ibuffer
+ push esi
+ push dword [fd.in]
+ sys.read
+ add esp, byte 12
+ mov ebx, eax
+ or eax, eax
+ je .empty
+ sub eax, eax
+ ret
+
+align 4
+.empty:
+ add esp, byte 4
+ stc
+ ret
+
+align 4
+putchar:
+ stosb
+ inc ecx
+ cmp ecx, BUFSIZE
+ je write
+ ret
+
+align 4
+write:
+ jecxz .ret ; nothing to write
+ sub edi, ecx ; start of buffer
+ push ecx
+ push edi
+ push dword [fd.out]
+ sys.write
+ add esp, byte 12
+ sub eax, eax
+ sub ecx, ecx ; buffer is empty now
+.ret:
+ ret
+
+align 4
+bcdload:
+ ; EBP contains the number of chars in dbuffer
+ push ecx
+ push esi
+ push edi
+
+ lea ecx, [ebp+1]
+ lea esi, [dbuffer+ebp-1]
+ shr ecx, 1
+
+ std
+
+ mov edi, bbuffer
+ sub eax, eax
+ mov [edi], eax
+ mov [edi+4], eax
+ mov [edi+2], ax
+
+.loop:
+ lodsw
+ sub ax, 3030h
+ shl al, 4
+ or al, ah
+ mov [edi], al
+ inc edi
+ loop .loop
+
+ fbld [bbuffer]
+
+ cld
+ pop edi
+ pop esi
+ pop ecx
+ sub eax, eax
+ ret
+
+align 4
+printnumber:
+ push ebp
+ mov al, [separ]
+ call putchar
+
+ ; Print the integer at the TOS
+ mov ebp, bbuffer+9
+ fbstp [bbuffer]
+
+ ; Check the sign
+ mov al, [ebp]
+ dec ebp
+ or al, al
+ jns .leading
+
+ ; We got a negative number (should never happen)
+ mov al, '-'
+ call putchar
+
+.leading:
+ ; Skip leading zeros
+ mov al, [ebp]
+ dec ebp
+ or al, al
+ jne .first
+ cmp ebp, bbuffer
+ jae .leading
+
+ ; We are here because the result was 0.
+ ; Print '0' and return
+ mov al, '0'
+ jmp putchar
+
+.first:
+ ; We have found the first non-zero.
+ ; But it is still packed
+ test al, 0F0h
+ jz .second
+ push eax
+ shr al, 4
+ add al, '0'
+ call putchar
+ pop eax
+ and al, 0Fh
+
+.second:
+ add al, '0'
+ call putchar
+
+.next:
+ cmp ebp, bbuffer
+ jb .done
+
+ mov al, [ebp]
+ push eax
+ shr al, 4
+ add al, '0'
+ call putchar
+ pop eax
+ and al, 0Fh
+ add al, '0'
+ call putchar
+
+ dec ebp
+ jmp short .next
+
+.done:
+ pop ebp
+ or ebp, ebp
+ je .ret
+
+.zeros:
+ mov al, '0'
+ call putchar
+ dec ebp
+ jne .zeros
+
+.ret:
+ ret
+
+
+The code follows the same format as all the other
+filters we have seen before, with one subtle
+exception:
+
+
+
+
+We are no longer assuming that the end of input
+implies the end of things to do, something we
+took for granted in the character–oriented
+filters.
+
+
+
+This filter does not process characters. It
+processes a language
+(albeit a very simple
+one, consisting only of numbers).
+
+
+
+When we have no more input, it can mean one
+of two things:
+
+
+
+We are done and can quit. This is the
+same as before.
+
+
+
+
+
+The last character we have read was a digit.
+We have stored it at the end of our
+ASCII –to–float conversion
+buffer. We now need to convert
+the contents of that buffer into a
+number and write the last line of our
+output.
+
+
+
+
+
+For that reason, we have modified our getchar
+and our read routines to return with
+the carry flag clear whenever we are
+fetching another character from the input, or the
+carry flag set whenever there is no more
+input.
+
+
+
+Of course, we are still using assembly language magic
+to do that! Take a good look at getchar .
+It always returns with the
+carry flag clear .
+
+
+
+Yet, our main code relies on the carry
+flag to tell it when to quit—and it works.
+
+
+
+The magic is in read . Whenever it
+receives more input from the system, it just
+returns to getchar , which
+fetches a character from the input buffer,
+clears the carry flag
+and returns.
+
+
+
+But when read receives no more
+input from the system, it does not
+return to getchar at all.
+Instead, the add esp, byte 4
+op code adds 4 to ESP ,
+sets the carry
+flag , and returns.
+
+
+
+So, where does it return to? Whenever a
+program uses the call op code,
+the microprocessor push es the
+return address, i.e., it stores it on
+the top of the stack (not the FPU
+stack, the system stack, which is in the memory).
+When a program uses the ret
+op code, the microprocessor pop s
+the return value from the stack, and jumps
+to the address that was stored there.
+
+
+
+But since we added 4 to
+ESP (which is the stack
+pointer register), we have effectively
+given the microprocessor a minor case
+of amnesia : It no longer
+remembers it was getchar
+that call ed read .
+
+
+
+And since getchar never
+push ed anything before
+call ing read ,
+the top of the stack now contains the
+return address to whatever or whoever
+call ed getchar .
+As far as that caller is concerned,
+he call ed getchar ,
+which ret urned with the
+carry flag set!
+
+
+
+
+Other than that, the bcdload
+routine is caught up in the middle of a
+Lilliputian conflict between the Big–Endians
+and the Little–Endians.
+
+
+
+It is converting the text representation
+of a number into that number: The text
+is stored in the big–endian order, but
+the packed decimal is little–endian.
+
+
+
+To solve the conflict, we use the std
+op code early on. We cancel it with cld
+later on: It is quite important we do not
+call anything that may depend on
+the default setting of the direction
+flag while std is active.
+
+
+
+Everything else in this code should be quite
+clear, providing you have read the entire chapter
+that precedes it.
+
+
+
+It is a classical example of the adage that
+programming requires a lot of thought and only
+a little coding. Once we have thought through every
+tiny detail, the code almost writes itself.
+
+
+
+
+
+Using pinhole
+
+Because we have decided to make the program
+ignore any input except for numbers
+(and even those inside a comment), we can
+actually perform textual queries .
+We do not have to , but we can .
+
+
+
+In my humble opinion, forming a textual query,
+instead of having to follow a very strict
+syntax, makes software much more user friendly.
+
+
+
+Suppose we want to build a pinhole camera to use the
+4x5 inch film. The standard focal
+length for that film is about 150mm. We want
+to fine–tune our focal length so the
+pinhole diameter is as round a number as possible.
+Let us also suppose we are quite comfortable with
+cameras but somewhat intimidated by computers.
+Rather than just have to type in a bunch of numbers,
+we want to ask a couple of questions.
+
+
+
+Our session might look like this:
+
+&prompt.user; pinhole
+
+Computer,
+
+What size pinhole do I need for the focal length of 150?
+150 490 306 362 2930 12
+Hmmm... How about 160?
+160 506 316 362 3125 12
+Let's make it 155, please.
+155 498 311 362 3027 12
+Ah, let's try 157...
+157 501 313 362 3066 12
+156?
+156 500 312 362 3047 12
+That's it! Perfect! Thank you very much!
+^D
+
+We have found that while for the focal length
+of 150, our pinhole diameter should be 490
+microns, or 0.49 mm, if we go with the almost
+identical focal length of 156 mm, we can
+get away with a pinhole diameter of exactly
+one half of a millimeter.
+
+
+
+
+
+Scripting
+
+Because we have chosen the #
+character to denote the start of a comment,
+we can treat our pinhole
+software as a scripting language .
+
+
+
+You have probably seen shell
+scripts that start with:
+
+
+#! /bin/sh
+
+
+...or...
+
+
+#!/bin/sh
+
+...because the blank space after the #!
+is optional.
+
+
+
+Whenever &unix; is asked to run an executable
+file which starts with the #! ,
+it assumes the file is a script. It adds the
+command to the rest of the first line of the
+script, and tries to execute that.
+
+
+
+Suppose now that we have installed pinhole
+in /usr/local/bin/ , we can now
+write a script to calculate various pinhole
+diameters suitable for various focal lengths
+commonly used with the 120 film.
+
+
+The script might look something like this:
+
+
+#! /usr/local/bin/pinhole -b -i
+# Find the best pinhole diameter
+# for the 120 film
+
+### Standard
+80
+
+### Wide angle
+30, 40, 50, 60, 70
+
+### Telephoto
+100, 120, 140
+
+
+Because 120 is a medium size film,
+we may name this file medium .
+
+
+
+We can set its permissions to execute,
+and run it as if it were a program:
+
+
+&prompt.user; chmod 755 medium
+&prompt.user; ./medium
+
+&unix; will interpret that last command as:
+
+&prompt.user; /usr/local/bin/pinhole -b -i ./medium
+
+It will run that command and display:
+
+
+80 358 224 256 1562 11
+30 219 137 128 586 9
+40 253 158 181 781 10
+50 283 177 181 977 10
+60 310 194 181 1172 10
+70 335 209 181 1367 10
+100 400 250 256 1953 11
+120 438 274 256 2344 11
+140 473 296 256 2734 11
+
+
+Now, let us enter:
+
+&prompt.user; ./medium -c
+
+&unix; will treat that as:
+
+&prompt.user; /usr/local/bin/pinhole -b -i ./medium -c
+
+That gives it two conflicting options:
+-b and -c
+(Use Bender's constant and use Connors'
+constant). We have programmed it so
+later options override early ones—our
+program will calculate everything
+using Connors' constant:
+
+
+80 331 242 256 1826 11
+30 203 148 128 685 9
+40 234 171 181 913 10
+50 262 191 181 1141 10
+60 287 209 181 1370 10
+70 310 226 256 1598 11
+100 370 270 256 2283 11
+120 405 296 256 2739 11
+140 438 320 362 3196 12
+
+We decide we want to go with Bender's
+constant after all. We want to save its
+values as a comma–separated file:
+
+
+&prompt.user; ./medium -b -e > bender
+&prompt.user; cat bender
+focal length in millimeters,pinhole diameter in microns,F-number,normalized F-number,F-5.6 multiplier,stops from F-5.6
+80,358,224,256,1562,11
+30,219,137,128,586,9
+40,253,158,181,781,10
+50,283,177,181,977,10
+60,310,194,181,1172,10
+70,335,209,181,1367,10
+100,400,250,256,1953,11
+120,438,274,256,2344,11
+140,473,296,256,2734,11
+&prompt.user;
+
+
+
+
+
+Caveats
+
+
+Assembly language programmers who "grew up" under
+&ms-dos; and &windows; often tend to take shortcuts.
+Reading the keyboard scan codes and writing directly to video
+memory are two classical examples of practices which, under
+&ms-dos; are not frowned upon but considered the
+right thing to do.
+
+
+
+The reason? Both the PC BIOS and
+&ms-dos; are notoriously
+slow when performing these operations.
+
+
+
+You may be tempted to continue similar practices in the
+&unix; environment. For example, I have seen a web site which
+explains how to access the keyboard scan codes on a popular &unix; clone.
+
+
+
+That is generally a very bad idea
+in &unix; environment! Let me explain why.
+
+
+
+&unix; Is Protected
+
+
+For one thing, it may simply not be possible. &unix; runs in
+protected mode. Only the kernel and device drivers are allowed
+to access hardware directly. Perhaps a particular &unix; clone
+will let you read the keyboard scan codes, but chances are a real
+&unix; operating system will not. And even if one version may let you
+do it, the next one may not, so your carefully crafted software may
+become a dinosaur overnight.
+
+
+
+
+
+&unix; Is an Abstraction
+
+
+But there is a much more important reason not to try
+accessing the hardware directly (unless, of course,
+you are writing a device driver), even on the &unix; like
+systems that let you do it:
+
+
+
+&unix; is an abstraction!
+
+
+
+There is a major difference in the philosophy of design
+between &ms-dos; and &unix;.
+&ms-dos; was designed as a single-user
+system. It is run on a computer with a keyboard and a video
+screen attached directly to that computer. User input is almost
+guaranteed to come from that keyboard. Your program's output
+virtually always ends up on that screen.
+
+
+
+This is NEVER guaranteed under &unix;. It is quite common
+for a &unix; user to pipe and redirect program input and output:
+
+
+&prompt.user; program1 | program2 | program3 > file1
+
+
+If you have written program2 , your input
+does not come from the keyboard but from the output of
+program1 . Similarly, your output does not
+go to the screen but becomes the input for
+program3 whose output, in turn,
+goes to file1 .
+
+
+
+But there is more! Even if you made sure that your input comes
+from, and your output goes to, the terminal, there is no guarantee
+the terminal is a PC: It may not have its video memory
+where you expect it, nor may its keyboard be producing
+PC -style scan codes. It may be a &macintosh;,
+or any other computer.
+
+
+
+Now you may be shaking your head: My software is in
+PC assembly language, how can
+it run on a &macintosh;? But I did not say your software
+would be running on a &macintosh;, only that its terminal
+may be a &macintosh;.
+
+
+
+Under &unix;, the terminal does not have to be directly
+attached to the computer that runs your software, it can
+even be on another continent, or, for that matter, on another
+planet. It is perfectly possible that a &macintosh; user in
+Australia connects to a &unix; system in North America (or
+anywhere else) via telnet . The
+software then runs on one computer, while the terminal is
+on a different computer: If you try to read the scan codes,
+you will get the wrong input!
+
+
+
+Same holds true about any other hardware: A file you are reading
+may be on a disk you have no direct access to. A camera you are
+reading images from may be on a space shuttle, connected to you
+via satellites.
+
+
+
+That is why under &unix; you must never make any assumptions about
+where your data is coming from and going to. Always let the
+system handle the physical access to the hardware.
+
+
+
+
+These are caveats, not absolute rules. Exceptions are possible.
+For example, if a text editor has determined it is running
+on a local machine, it may want to read the scan codes
+directly for improved control. I am not mentioning these caveats
+to tell you what to do or what not to do, just to make you aware
+of certain pitfalls that await you if you have just arrived to &unix;
+form &ms-dos; . Of course, creative people often break
+rules, and it is OK as long as they know they are breaking
+them and why.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Acknowledgements
+
+
+This tutorial would never have been possible without the
+help of many experienced FreeBSD programmers from the
+&a.hackers;, many of whom have patiently
+answered my questions, and pointed me in the right direction
+in my attempts to explore the inner workings of &unix;
+system programming in general and FreeBSD in particular.
+
+
+
+Thomas M. Sommers opened the door for me. His
+How
+do I write "Hello, world" in FreeBSD assembler?
+web page was my first encounter with an example of
+assembly language programming under FreeBSD.
+
+
+
+Jake Burkholder has kept the door open by willingly
+answering all of my questions and supplying me with
+example assembly language source code.
+
+
+
+Copyright © 2000-2001 G. Adam Stanislav. All rights reserved.
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/faq/book.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/faq/book.sgml
index e079c30212..807a489d56 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/faq/book.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/faq/book.sgml
@@ -1,11177 +1,11641 @@
%man;
%freebsd;
%authors;
%teams;
%bookinfo;
%mailing-lists;
%books.ent;
]>
FreeBSD 4.X¡B5.X¡B6.X ±`¨£°Ýµª¶°
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$FreeBSD$
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&bookinfo.legalnotice;
&tm-attrib.freebsd;
&tm-attrib.3com;
&tm-attrib.adobe;
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&tm-attrib.ibm;
&tm-attrib.ieee;
&tm-attrib.intel;
&tm-attrib.iomega;
&tm-attrib.linux;
&tm-attrib.microsoft;
&tm-attrib.mips;
&tm-attrib.netscape;
&tm-attrib.opengroup;
&tm-attrib.oracle;
&tm-attrib.sgi;
&tm-attrib.sparc;
&tm-attrib.sun;
&tm-attrib.usrobotics;
&tm-attrib.xfree86;
&tm-attrib.general;
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First, you will need to restore the machine to a state where
it can get through its self-test screen. Doing this requires
powering up the machine without letting it find a FreeBSD
partition on its primary disk. One way is to remove the hard disk
and temporarily move it to an older ThinkPad (such as a ThinkPad
600) or a desktop PC with an appropriate conversion cable. Once
it is there, you can delete the FreeBSD partition and move the hard
disk back. The ThinkPad should now be in a bootable state
again.
With the machine functional again, you can use the workaround
procedure described here to get a working FreeBSD
installation.
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¤]´N¬O§â¤U±´X¦æ¶}ÀY¥[¤W #
# When a USB keyboard arrives, attach it as the console keyboard.
#attach 100 {
# device-name "ukbd0";
# action "kbdcontrol -k /dev/ukbd0 < /dev/console && /etc/rc.d/syscons restart";
#};
#detach 100 {
# device-name "ukbd0";
# action "kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd0 < /dev/console";
#};
µM«á¿é¤J exit Â÷¶} Single User Mode ¤§«á¡A
´N¥i¥H¶¶§Q¶i¤J¨t²Î¡B¦Ó¥BÁä½L¤]¥i¥H¥¿±`¹B§@¡A¤U¦¸¶}¾÷¤]¤£·|¦³°ÝÃD¡I
¥t¥~¡A&dell; ªº DRAC/BMC ¬Ý°_¨Ó¦³ÆZ¦h¤£¿ùªº»·ºÝ¦s¨ú¥\¯à¡A¦³¿³½ìªº¤H¥i¥Hª±ª±¬Ý...
William
Liao
chliao@tpts4.seed.net.tw
±`¨£°ÝÃD¸Ñ¨M
+
+
+ Why is &os; finding the wrong amount of memory?
+
+
+
+ The reason is the difference between physical memory addresses
+ and virtual addresses.
+
+ The convention for most PC hardware is to use the memory area
+ between 3.5G and 4G for a special purpose (usually for PCI). This
+ address space is used to access PCI hardware. As a result real,
+ physical memory can not appear in that address space.
+
+ What happens to the memory that should appear in that location
+ is dependent on your hardware. Unfortunately, some hardware does
+ nothing and the ability to use that last 500M of RAM is entirely
+ lost.
+
+ Luckily, most hardware remaps the memory to a higher location
+ so that it can still be used. However, this can cause some
+ confusion if you watch the boot messages.
+
+ On a 32 bit version of &os;, the memory appears lost, since it
+ will be remapped above 4G, which a 32 bit kernel is unable to
+ access. In this case, the solution is to build a PAE enabled
+ kernel. See this FAQ entry
+ for more information.
+
+ On a 64 bit version of &os;, or when running a PAE-enabled
+ kernel, &os; will correctly detect and remap the memory so it is
+ usable. During boot, however, it may seem as if &os; is detecting
+ more memory than the system really has. This is normal and the
+ available memory will be corrected as the boot process
+ completes.
+
+
+
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FreeBSD 4.X ²{¦b¤w¸g§ó PnP ¾É¦V ¤F¡A
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The PNP bios preconfigured it [the modem] and left it
laying around in port space¡Aso [in 3.x] the old-style ISA
probes found
it there.
Under 4.0¡Athe ISA code is much more PnP-centric. It was
possible [in 3.x] for an ISA probe to find a
stray
device and then for the PNP device id to
match and then fail due to resource conflicts. So¡Ait
disables the programmable cards first so this double probing
cannot happen. It also means that it needs to know the PnP
id's for supported PnP hardware. Making this more user
tweakable is on the TODO list.
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¥[¤J¤@¥÷¦b°»´ú ISA ¸Ë¸m®É·|¨Ï¥Îªºªí¤¤¡C¥i¥H°õ¦æ &man.pnpinfo.8;
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&prompt.root; pnpinfo
Checking for Plug-n-Play devices...
Card assigned CSN #1
Vendor ID PMC2430 (0x3024a341)¡ASerial Number 0xffffffff
PnP Version 1.0¡AVendor Version 0
Device Description: Pace 56 Voice Internal Plug & Play Modem
Logical Device ID: PMC2430 0x3024a341 #0
Device supports I/O Range Check
TAG Start DF
I/O Range 0x3f8 .. 0x3f8¡Aalignment 0x8¡Alen 0x8
[16-bit addr]
IRQ: 4 - only one type (true/edge)
[more TAG lines elided]
TAG End DF
End Tag
Successfully got 31 resources¡A1 logical fdevs
-- card select # 0x0001
CSN PMC2430 (0x3024a341)¡ASerial Number 0xffffffff
Logical device #0
IO: 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8
IRQ 5 0
DMA 4 0
IO range check 0x00 activate 0x01
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PnP id¡A¦Ó¦b³o¤§«eªº¦r¦ê¡]PMC2430¡^«h¬O¤@Ó¿W¤@µL¤Gªº ASCII id¡C
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static struct isa_pnp_id sio_ids[] = {
±µµÛ©¹¤U±²°Ê¡A§äÓ¥¿½Tªº¦ì¸m¨Ó´¡¤J±zªº¸Ë¸m¸ê°T¡C±z¬Ý¨ìªº´N
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{0x0f804f3f¡ANULL}¡A /* OZO800f - Zoom 2812 (56k Modem) */
{0x39804f3f¡ANULL}¡A /* OZO8039 - Zoom 56k flex */
{0x3024a341¡ANULL}¡A /* PMC2430 - Pace 56 Voice Internal Modem */
{0x1000eb49¡ANULL}¡A /* ROK0010 - Rockwell ? */
{0x5002734a¡ANULL}¡A /* RSS0250 - 5614Jx3(G) Internal Modem */
§â±z³oӸ˸mªº¤Q¤»¶i¦ìªº Vender ID ¥[¨ì¥¿½Tªº¦a¤è¡A¦sÀÉ¡A
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Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
Timecounter "TSC" frequency 595573479 Hz
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²¤Æ¤@¨Çªº¤pµ{¦¡¡C§A¤]¥i¥H¦Û¤v¸Ë¤WÃB¥~ªº¤u¨ã¨Ó³B²z¡C
&man.pkg.version.1; «ü¥O¥i¥H¦Û°Ê²£¥Í¥Î¨Ó¹F¨ì¦Û°Ê¤É¯Å¨ì
ports tree ³Ì·sª©¥»ªº script¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_version -c > /tmp/myscript
¤@©wn ¦b¤â°Êקï¤@¤U²£¥Í¥X¨Óªº script¡C
¥Ø«eªº &man.pkg.version.1; ¦b script ³Ì«e±¥[¤J &man.exit.1; ±j
¢§A¥hק復¡C
§AÀ³±N°õ¦æ script ©Ò²£¥Íªº¿é¥X°O¿ý¤U¨Ó¡A¦]¬°¸Ì±·|¦³°O¸ü¬Y¨Ç
©|¥¼¤É¯Å¦ý¤w¸g§ó·sªº ports¡C¤£¹L§A¤£¤@©wn¥h¤É¯Å¥¦Ì¡C³q±`¬O¦]¬°
¦³¬YÓ¦@¥Îªº¨ç¦¡®w¤w¸g§ïÅܪ©¥»¸¹¤F¡A¤~n¥h«½s¤@¦¸¨º¨Ç¨Ï¥Î¨ì¸Ó¨ç
¦¡®wªº ports¡C
¦pªG§AªºµwºÐªÅ¶¡«Ü°÷¡A¨º»ò¥i¥H¥Î portupgrade
³oÓ¤u¨ã¨Ó°µ¥þ¦Û°Ê³B¸Ì¡Cportupgrade ¸Ì±¤]¦³
¤@¨Ç¤pµ{¦¡¨Ó²¤Æ package ¤É¯Å¡A¥¦¦b
sysutils/portupgrade ¡C
³oÓ¤u¨ã¬O¥Î Ruby ³oÓ»y¨¥¼gªº¡A©Ò¥H¨Ã¤£¾A¦X¥[¤J¨ì FreeBSD ªºì
©l½X¤¤¡A¤£¹L¨Ã¤£·|¦]¦¹Åý¬Y¨Ç¤H¤£¥Î¥¦¡C
¦pªG§Aªº¨t²Î¤@ª½³£³B©ó¶}¾÷ª¬ºA¡A¥i§Q¥Î &man.periodic.8; ¨t²Î¡A
¨CÓ¬P´Á²£¥Í¤@±i»Ýn¤É¯Åªº²M³æ¡C¥un¦b
/etc/periodic.conf ¥[¤J
weekly_status_pkg_enable="YES" ´N¥i¥H¤F¡C
¬°¤°»ò /bin/sh ³o»òªº¤p¡H¬°¤°»ò FreeBSD
¤£§ï¥Î bash ©ÎªÌ¬O¨ä¥L¤ñ¸û±j®«ªº shell¡H
¦]¬° POSIX »¡¡A¸Ón¦³³o»ò¼Ëªº¤@Ó shell ¦b¤~¦æ¡C
¤ñ¸ûÁcº¾ªºµª®×¡G³\¦h¤H»Ýn¼g¥i¥H¸ó«Ü¦h¥¥xªº shell script ¡C
³o¤]¬O¬°¦ó POSIX ±N shell ¥H¤Î¤u¨ã©RºÙ³£©w¸qªº«D±`¸Ô²Óªº½t¬G¡C
¤j³¡¥÷ªº script ³£¾A¥Î©ó Bourne shell¡A¤S¦]¬°¦³´XÓ«nªº
¼gµ{¦¡©Ò¥Î¨ìªºµ{¦¡©ÎªÌ¨ç¦¡ (&man.make.1; , &man.system.3;,
&man.popen.3;, ÁÙ¦³¦b Perl ©ÎªÌ Tcl ¸Ì±©I¥s¨t²Îµ{¦¡ªº¦a¤è)
³£«ü©w¥Î Bourne shell ¡C¨º»ò¦]¬° Bourne Shell ¦p¦¹ªº¼sªx±`¥Î¡A
¨º»ò¥¦ªº°õ¦æ®Ä²v«K«Ü«n¡A§Ö³t¬O¥¦¨M©w©ÊªºnÂI¤§¤@¡AÁÙn¤£¦û¤Ó¦h
°O¾ÐÅé¡C
¥Ø«eªº /bin/sh ¤w¬O§Ú̹äßÃw¦å¤§§@¡A¥¦¤w
¸gºÉ¶q¦a²Å¦X¼Ð·Ç³W©w¡C¬°¤FÅý¥¦«D±`¤p¡A§ÚÌ®³±¼¤F¤@¨Ç¨ä¥L shell
¦³ªº¤è«K¥\¯à¡C³o¤]¬O¬°¤°»ò ports ¸Ì±ÁÙ¦³«Ü¦h±j®«ªº shell ¡A¹³¬O
bash, scsh, tcsh ¥H¤Î zsh ¡C (§A¥i¥H¦Û¤v¤ñ¸û¤@¤U³o¨Ç shell °õ¦æ
®É©Ò¦ûªº°O¾ÐÅé¤j¤p¡A¥h¬Ý¬Ý ps -u ¦C¥X¨Óªº
VSZ
©M RSS
³o¨âÓÄæ¦ì´Nª¾¹D¤F¡C)
¬°¤°»ò Netscape ©M Opera nªá¦n¤[ªº®É¶¡¤~¯à±Ò°Ê¡H
³q±`¬O¦]¬°§Aªº DNS ¨S¦³³]©w¦n¡C Netscape ¸ò Opera ¦b±Ò°Êªº®ÉÔ
³£·|¥hÀˬd¤@¤U DNS¡Cª½¨ì DNS ¦³¦^À³¡A©ÎªÌ¬OÂ_©wºô¸ô¥Ø«e¬OÂ_½u¤§«á¡A
¥¦Ì¤~·|Åã¥Üµe±¥X¨Ó¡C
-
+
+
+
+
+
+ Yi-Feng
+ Tzeng
+
+ yftzeng@iis.sinica.edu.tw
+
+
+
+
+ Ports and Packages ±`¨£°ÝÃD
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¥u§ì¨ú tarball¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦pªG¥u§Æ±æ§ì¨ú tarball ¤U¨Óªº¸Ü¡A¶È»Ý¥´¤U±«ü¥O§Y¥i¡G
+ &prompt.root; make fetch
+ ¦pªG¬On§ì¨ú³æ¤@ªº port¡A¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Òªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+&prompt.root; make fetch
+ ¨º»ò¡A¹w³]·|±N editors/joe ªº tarball ¤U¸ü¦Ü /usr/ports/distfiles ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡C
+
+ ¦pªG¬O§Æ±æ§ì¨ú¦w¸Ë¦¹ ports ©Ò¦³¬ÛÃö¬Û¨Ì ports ªº tarball¡A¥H systuils/portupgrade ¬°¨Òªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/systuils/portupgrade
+&prompt.root; make fetch-recursive
+ ¹w³]·|±N¦¹ port »P©Ò¦³»Ýnªº¨ä¥L port ªº tarball¡A³£¤U¸ü¦Ü /usr/ports/distfiles ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡C
+
+ ¦pªG¬O§Æ±æ§ì¨ú ftp ¤ÀÃþ¤U©Ò¦³ ports ªº tarball ¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/ftp
+&prompt.root; make fetch-recursive
+ «h·|©Ò±N ftp ¤ÀÃþ¤U©Ò¦³ ports ªº tarball ³£¤U¸ü¦Ü /usr/ports/distfiles ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦³®ÉԲߺD¦Û¤v patch ì©l½Xªº®ÉÔ¡A·|«Ü±`¥Î¨ì³oÓ¥\¯à¡C¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Òªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make extract
+
+ ¨º»ò´N·|±N tarball¸Ñ¶}¦Ü /usr/ports/editors/joe/work ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¶È°µ¨ì¸Ñ¶} tarball ¨Ã¸É¤W©x¤è´£¨Ñªº patch ¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦¹ªk»P¤W±¤è¦¡¦³¤@¨ÇÃþ¦ü¡A¤£¦P©ó¬O¥ý¸É¤W©x¤è´£¨Ñªº patch ¡A¦A¦æ patch ¦Û¤vªº×¥¿¡C¦³®ÉԲߺD¦Û¤v patch ì©l½Xªº®ÉÔ¡A·|«Ü±`¥Î¨ì³oÓ¥\¯à¡C
+ ¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Òªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make patch
+
+ ¨º»ò´N·|±N tarball¸Ñ¶}¦Ü /usr/ports/editors/joe/work ¥Ø¿ý¤U
+ ¡A¨Ã¸É¤W©x¤è´£¨Ñªº patch¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº port¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦pªG¨t²Î¤W¥¼¦w¸Ë¦¹³nÅé¡A«h¥i¥H¿ï¾Ü¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº port¡C
+ ¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Òªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make install
+
+ ¦p¦¹·|¦b¨t²Î¤W¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº joe ³nÅé¡C
+ ¦pªG»Ýn¦b¦w¸Ë§¹¦¨«á¡A¤]¤@¨Ö²M°£½s¿è®É´Á©Ò¯d¤U¨Óªº¼È¦s¥Ø¿ý¡A«h¥i°t¦X make clean
+ ¤èªk¤@°_¨Ï¥Î¡A¦p¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make clean
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº port¡A¨Ã¥´¥](package)°_¨Ó¡H
+
+
+
+ ±N¦w¸Ë§¹¦¨ªº³nÅ饴¥]°_¨Ó¡A¦³³\¦h«K§Q©Ê¡G¥]¬A¦bÂO¶°¨t²Î¤¤¡A¥i¨Ñ¨ä¥¦¾÷¾¹¨Ï¥Î¡A
+ ©Î±N¥¼¨Ó¦¹³nÅé¥X°ÝÃD¥i«·s§Q¥Î¦¹ package «·s§Ö³t¦w¸Ë¡C
+ ¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Òªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make package
+
+ ¦p¦¹·|¦b¨t²Î¤W¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº joe ³nÅé¡A¨Ã±N¦¹³nÅ饴¥](package)°_¨Ó¡C
+ package ¹w³]·|¦b /usr/ports/editors/joe ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡A¦pªG§Æ±æ¶°¤¤ºÞ²zªº¸Ü¡A«Øij°µ¦p¤Uªº¨BÆJ¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/ports/packages/All
+
+ ¥H«á¥´¥]ªº packages ³£·|¦s©ñ¦b¦¹¥Ø¿ý¤U¡A¨Ã¥B¨t²Î·|¦Û°Ê°µ¤ÀÃþ¡A¥H¤è«KºÞ²z¡C
+ ¦pªG»Ýn¦b¦w¸Ë§¹¦¨«á¡A¤@¨Ö²M°£½s¿è®É´Á©Ò¯d¤U¨Óªº¼È¦s¥Ø¿ý¡A«h¥i¥[¤W make clean ¤@°_¨Ï¥Î¡A¤ñ¦p¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make package clean
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¥´¥]¤@Ó port¡A¨Ã±N¨ä©Ò¦³¬Û¨Ìªº ports ¤]¥´¥]°_¨Ó¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦]¬°¤W±è»¡ªº make package ¤è¦¡¥u¦³¥´¥]³æ¤@®M¥ó¡A
+ ¤¤¶¡¨Ì¿àªº ports ¨Ã¨S¦³¤@°_¥´¥]¡A³o·|¥X²{¤@Ó±`¹J¨ìªº°ÝÃD¡G
+ ´N¬O¦pªG¤@Ó port »Ýn¨Ì¿à¨ä¥¦ªº ports¡A¨º»ò¥²¶·±N¨ä¥¦ ports ¤]¤@°_¥´¥]¡A§_«h¦w¸Ë packages ·|¦³¬Û¨Ìªº°ÝÃD¡C
+ ¥H sysutils/portupgrade ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/portupgrade
+ &prompt.root; make DEPENDS_TARGET=package package
+
+ ¦p¦¹¤@¨Ó¡A´N·|¹ï©Ò¦³ portupgrade ©Ò¬Û¨Ì¿àªº ports ³£¤@¨Ö¥´¥]¡A¤]¥]¬A¦Û¤v¥»¨¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¹ï¤@Ó¤w¸g¦w¸Ëªº port ¥´¥]¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦pªG¦w¸Ë¦n¤@Ó®M³n¡A¨Æ«e¨Ã¥¼¥´¥]¡A¨Æ«á·Q¥´¥]ªº¸Ü¡A
+ ¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /var/db/pkg
+ &prompt.root; pkg_create -b joe-{ª©¥»¸¹}
+
+ ¦p¦¹¤@¨Ó¡A´N·|±N¤w¦w¸Ëªº port ¥´¥]°_¨Ó¡A©ñ¦b /var/db/pkg ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó²M²z ports ½s¿è´Á¶¡©Ò²£¥Íªº¼È¦s¸ê®Æ¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë port ªº®ÉÔ¡A³q±`·|¦³½sĶ´Á¶¡©Ò»Ýnªº¤u§@¥Ø¿ý(work)¡A¦]¦¹³q±`¦w¸Ë¦n¤@Ó®M¥ó«á¡A·|²M°£¦¹¼È¦s¥Ø¿ý¡A¥H¸`¬ÙµwºÐªÅ¶¡¡C
+ ¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make clean
+
+ ¦Ó¦pªG¬O§Æ±æ²M°£©Ò¦³ ports ªº¼È¦s¥Ø¿ý¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
+ &prompt.root; make clean
+
+ ¦Ó¦pªG¬O§Æ±æ²M°£©Ò¦³ ftp ¤ÀÃþªº¼È¦s¥Ø¿ý¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/ftp
+ &prompt.root; make clean
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó²M²z ports ½s¿è´Á¶¡©Ò²£¥Íªº¼È¦s¸ê®Æ¡A¥H¤Î tarball ÀÉ¡H
+
+
+
+ ¤W±©ÒÁ¿ªº make clean ¶È¥u¬O²M°£½s¿è´Á¶¡©Ò»Ýnªº¤u§@¥Ø¿ý(work)¡A¨Ã¨S¦³±N½sĶ
+ ports ®É¤@¨Ö¤U¸üªº tarball §R°£(¬Û¹ïÀ³¤§ tarball ¹w³]·|¦s©ñ¦b /usr/ports/distfiles )
+ ¦pªG¥´ºâ§â tarball ¤]¤@¨Ö²M°£ªº¸Ü¡A¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make distclean
+
+ make distclean ªº¨BÆJ¥]§t¤F make clean
+ ªº¥\¯à¡A¤]´N¬O»¡°£¤F·|§R°£ tarball ¥~¡AÁÙ·|¤@¨Ö²M°£½sĶ®Éªº¼È¦s work ¥Ø¿ý¡C
+
+ ¦pªG¬O§Æ±æ²M°£©Ò¦³ ports ªº¼È¦s work ¥Ø¿ý¤Î tarball¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
+ &prompt.root; make distclean
+
+ ¦Ó¦pªG¬O§Æ±æ²M°£©Ò¦³ ftp ¤ÀÃþªº¼È¦s¥Ø¿ý¥H¤Î tarball¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/ftp
+ &prompt.root; make distclean
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¦b¦w¸Ë ports «e¬d¸ß©Ò¨Ì¿àªº¬ÛÃö®M¥ó¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë ports «e¡A¥i¥H¬d¸ß©Ò»Ý¨Ì¿à/¬ÛÃöªº®M¥ó¡C
+ ¥H mail/p5-Mail-SpamAssassin ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/mail/p5-Mail-SpamAssassin
+ &prompt.root; make all-depends-list
+ make all-depends-list Åã¥Ü¦¹®M¥ó©Ò¦³¬Û¨Ìªº®M¥ó¡C
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/mail/p5-Mail-SpamAssassin
+ &prompt.root; make pretty-print-build-depends-list
+ make all-depends-list Åã¥Ü¦¹®M¥ó¦b½sĶ´Á¶¡©Ò»Ýnªº®M¥ó¡C
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/mail/p5-Mail-SpamAssassin
+ &prompt.root; make pretty-print-run-depends-list
+ make all-depends-list Åã¥Ü¦¹®M¥ón°õ¦æ®É©Ò»Ýnªº®M¥ó¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó²¾°£¤w¦w¸Ëªº ports¡H
+
+
+
+ ¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make deinstall
+
+ ©Î¬O¨Ï¥Î pkg_delete ¡G
+ &prompt.root; pkg_delete joe-{version}
+
+ ¦³®ÉÔ®M¥ó¤§¶¡ªº¬Û¨Ì©Ê·|¾ÉPµLªkª½±µ²¾°£¡A¦pªGn±j¨î²¾°£ªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; pkg_delete -f joe-{version}
+ ¦ý½Ðª`·N¡G«Ü¦³¥i¯à·|¾ÉP¨ä¥¦¬Û¨Ì¨ì³o³nÅ骺®M¥ó°õ¦æ°_¨Ó¥X²{°ÝÃD¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¤@¨Ö²¾°£©Ò¬Û¨Ìªº ports¡H
+
+
+
+ ¥H sysutils/portupgrade ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/portupgrade
+ &prompt.root; make deinstall-depends
+
+ °õ¦æ¦¹¨BÆJ«e¡A½Ðª`·N¬O§_·|²¾°£¨ä¥L®M¥ó¤]¦³¦@¦P¬Û¨Ìªº³¡¤À¡C«Øij¥ý°Ñ¦Ò
+ ¤W±©ÒÁ¿ªº make-depends-list ªº¤èªk¨ÓÀˬd¡C
+ &prompt.root; pkg_delete joe-{version}
+
+ ©ÎªÌ«Øij¥Î¡Gpkg_delete ¡A³o¼ËY¤´¦³¬Û¨Ì¸Ó®M¥óªº¸Ü¡A·|¥ýĵ§i¦Ó¤£·|²¾°£¡C
+ °£«D¦³¥t¥~¥[¤F -f °Ñ¼Æ¨Ó±j¨î²¾°£...¡C
+ &prompt.root; pkg_delete -r joe-{version}
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó«·s¦w¸Ë¤w¦w¸Ë¹Lªº ports¡H
+
+
+
+ «·s¦w¸Ëªº«e´£¬O¡G¤§«e¦³¦w¸Ë¹L©Î¥Ø«e¤w¦w¸Ë¡C¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make deinstall clean install
+
+ ©Î¬O
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make reinstall
+
+ ©Î¬O
+ &prompt.root; portupgrade -f joe
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¥HÃöÁä¦r·j´M©Òn§äªº ports¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦pªGn±q¥þ³¡ªº ports collection ¤¤§ä´M»PÃöÁä¦r "ldap" ¦³Ãöªº ports¡A«h¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
+ &prompt.root; make search key=ldap
+
+ ¦pªG¥un±q»P ftp ¬ÛÃöªº ports ¤U§ä´M»PÃöÁä¦r "ldap" ¦³Ãöªº ports¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/ftp
+ &prompt.root; make search key=ldap
+
+ ¥t¥~¡AÁÙ¦³¥t¤@ӥΪk¡A¤èªk¥u¬O±N key ´«¦¨ name¡C¦pªG¤w¸gª¾¹Dn·j´M ports ªº¦WºÙ¡A©Î¥u·Q§ä¦WºÙ¬ÛÃöªºÃöÁä¦r "ldap"¡A «h¡G
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
+ &prompt.root; make search name=ldap
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¤É¯Å¤w¦w¸Ëªº ports¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦pªG¤w¸g¦w¸Ë®M¥ó¡A¨Æ«á±ý¤É¯Åªº¸Ü¡A¥²¶·¥ý²¾°£Âª©ªº port¡C¥H editors/joe ¬°¨Ò¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; portupgrade joe
+
+ ©Î¬O
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/joe
+ &prompt.root; make clean reinstall
+
+ ©Î¬O
+ &prompt.root; portupgrade -f joe
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¬d¸ß¥Ø«e¨t²Î¦w¸Ë¤Fþ¨Ç®M¥ó¡H
+
+
+
+ ¬d¸ß¥Ø«e¨t²Î¤w¦w¸Ëªº¥þ³¡®M¥ó¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; pkg_info
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¬d¸ß¥Ø«e¨t²Î¦³¨S¦³¦w¸Ë³oÓÃöÁä¦rªº®M¥ó¡H
+
+
+
+ °²³]n§äªºÃöÁä¦r¬O joe ªº¸Ü¡G
+ &prompt.root; pkg_info | grep joe
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¬d¸ß¬YÓÀɮ׬OÄÝ©óþ¨Ç®M¥ó¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦pªG·Q¬d¸ß /usr/local/bin/joe ¬OÄÝ©óþÓ®M¥óªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; pkg_info -W /usr/local/bin/joe
+ ¦pªG¨S¦³¦^¶Ç¥ô¦ó¸ê°Tªº¸Ü¡A¥NªíµÛ³oÓÀɮ׬O¥Ñ FreeBSD ¤º«Øªº¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¬d¸ß¬YÓ®M¥ó¦w¸Ë¤Fþ¨ÇÀɮסH
+
+
+
+ ¦pªG·Q¬d¸ß¥Ø«e¨t²Î©Ò¦w¸Ëªº joe ¥]§t¤Fþ¨ÇÀɮסA«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; pkg_info -L /var/db/pkg/joe-{version}
+
+
+
+
+
+ ¦p¦ó¦w¸Ëª©ªº ports¡H
+
+
+
+ ¦³®ÉÔ·|¦]¬°¬Û¨Ì©Ê¡A©Î¬O·sª©¦³°ÝÃD¡A¦Ó·|·Q¸Ëª©¥»ªº®M¥ó¡C
+ ³o¸Ì¤¶²Ðªº¤èªk¬O§Q¥Î CVS ªº¦n³B¡A¦^Âk¨ì¥H«eª©¥»¦s¦bªº¤é¤l¡A¥H¦w¸Ëª©¥»ªº®M¥ó¡C
+
+ º¥ý¡AY§ÚÌn¦^´_¨ì¬Y¤@Ó®M¥óªºª©¥»®É¡A»Ýn¥h¬d¸ß FreeBSD ports CVS repository¡C
+ ³Ì±`¨£ªº´N¬O Freshports ºô¯¸¡B FreeBSD ªº
+ Mailing FreeBSD cvs ©Î¬O FreeBSD
+ ports cvsweb ¡C
+
+ ¬d¨ì¸Ó®M¥óª©¥»©Ò¨Ì¦sªº¤é¤l«á¡A´Nקï CVS tag¡C¤@¯ë¹w³] ports ªº CVS tag ·|¼g¦b /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
+ ¡A¦pn¦^·¹¨ì 2002/10/05 ¸¹ªº¸Ü¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; vi /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
+ default date=2002.10.05.00.00.00 #±N date §ï¦¨·í¤é
+
+ µM«á«ö·Ó¤@¯ë CVSup ©Î csup ªº®ÉÔ¤@¼Ë¡A°õ¦æ CVSup ©Î csup (make update)¡A¦¹®Éªº
+ ports collections ´N·|¦^¨ì·í®Éªº±¡§Î¡A¨º»ò¸Ó®M¥óªºÂª©¤]·|¥X²{¦b ports collections ¤¤¡A¥un¦w¸Ë§Y¥i¡C
+
+ ¦pªG¶È¬O·Q¦^·¹¬Y³¡¥÷ªº ports¡A«h¥²¶·¥[¤WÃB¥~ªº¸ê°T¡A¦p¶È§Æ±æ§â lang/perl5.8 ¦^·¹¡A
+ ¦Ó§Ú̱oª¾¦¹ÄÝ©ó lang ¤¤ªº¤@¤ä¡A«h¡G
+ &prompt.root; vi /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
+ #ports-all #±N ports-all ¼Ð¥Ü°_¨Ó
+ ports-lang #¥[¤J³o¦æ
+
+ ³Ì«á¡A°õ¦æ CVSup ©Î csup ¡A¨Ã¦w¸Ë§Y¥i¡C¥Ø«eY§Æ±æ³æ¿W¦^·¹³æ¤@ªº port¡A«h¤ñ¸û³Â·Ð¡C
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Kang-min
Liu
gugod@gugod.org
kernel ³]©w
§Ú·Q¦Ûq kernel¡A³o·|«Ü§xÃø¶Ü¡H
¤£·|¡I½Ð¬d¾\
¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U¤¤ªº kernel ³]©w¤@¸` ¡C
§Ú·|«Øij§A¦b§AÅý®Ö¤ß¯à¥¿±`¤u§@«á¡A°µ¤@Ó
kernel.YYMMDD ¤é´Á§Î¦¡ªº³Æ¥÷¡A¦P®É¤]³Æ¥÷
/module ³oӥؿý¦Ü
/modules.YYMMDD ¡C³o¼Ë¤U¦¸¦pªG§A«Ü¤£©¯ªºª±
Ãa¤F³]©w¡A¦Ü¤Ö¥i¥H¤£»Ýn¨Ï¥Î³Ìì©lªº
kernel.GENERIC ¡C¦p§A¥¿±q¤@Ó GENERIC
kernel ¸Ì±¤£¤ä´©ªº±±¨î¾¹¸Ì±Ò°Ê®É¡A³o´NÅã±o¯S§O«n¡C
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(¸Ô¨£ &man.npx.4;) ±q§Aªº kernel ³]©wÀɲ¾°£¤F¡A¦]¬°§A¨S¦³¼Æ¾Ç¹Bºâ¾¹¡A
¹ï¶Ü¡H¿ù¤F¡I:-) ³oÓ npx0 ¬O
¥²¶·n¦³ªº ¡C´Nºâ§A¨S¦³¼Æ¾Ç¹Bºâ¾¹¡A§AÁÙ¬O
¥²¶· ¤Þ¤J npx0 ¸Ë¸m¡C
¬°¤°»ò³y¥X¨Óªº kernel ³o»ò¤j (10MB ¥H¤W) ¡H
³o«Ü¦³¥i¯à¬O¦]¬°¡A§A§â kernel ½s¦¨ °»¿ù¼Ò¦¡
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¼W¥[ kernel ªº¤j¤p¡C¦pªG»¡§Aªº FreeBSD ¬O 3.0 ¥H«áªºª©¥»¡A³o¹ï©ó
®Ä¯à¨Ó»¡¼vÅT¨Ã¤£¤j¡A´X¥G¬O¨S¦³¡C¦Ó¦b¨t²Î·|¦]¬Y¨Çì¦] panic ®É¡A
¦³Ó°»¿ù¼Ò¦¡ªº kernel ¦b¤]®¼¦³¥Îªº¡C
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kernel ªº¸Ü¡A½Ð½T»{¥H¤U¨Æ±¡¡G
kernel ³]©wÀɸ̱¨S¦³³o¤@¦æ¡G
makeoptions DEBUGS=-g
°õ¦æ &man.config.8; ®É¨S¦³¥[¤W -g
³oӿﶵ¡C
¥H¤W¨â¥ó¨Æ±¡³£·|Åý§A½s¥X¤@Ó°»¿ù¼Ò¦¡ªº kernel¡C¦ý¥unÁקK¤§¡A
´N¥i¥H½s¥X¤@Ó¥¿±`ªº kernel¡A¦Ó§A¤]·|ª`·N¨ì¡Akernel ©úÅ㪺Åܤp¤F¡F
¤j³¡¥÷ªº kernel ³£®t¤£¦h¦b 1.5MB ¨ì 2MB ¤§¶¡¡C
¬°¦ó¥X²{¤F multi-port serial code ªº¤¤Â_½Ä¬ð¡H
·í§Ú½sĶ¤@Ó multi-port serial code ªº®Ö¤ß®É¡A¥¦§i¶D§Ú¥u¦³
²Ä¤@Ó³Q°»´ú¨ì¡A¨ä¥Lªº«h¦]¤¤Â_½Ä¬ð¦Ó¸õ¹L¤F¡A§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò×¥¿¥¦¡H
³oÓ°ÝÃD¬O¦]¬° FreeBSD ¨Ï¥Î¤º«Øµ{¦¡½XÁקK¦]¬°µwÅé©Î³nÅé½Ä¬ð
¾ÉP kernel ¹L©óªÎ¤j©ÎµL¥Î¡Cn×¥¿³oºØ±¡§Îªº¤èªk¬O°£¤F¤@Ó port
¥~§â¨ä¥L©Ò¦³ªº IRQ ³]©w³£°µ«O¯d¡C³o¸Ì¦³¤@Ó½d¨Ò¡G
#
# Multiport high-speed serial line - 16550 UARTS
#
device sio2 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty irq 5 flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio3 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio4 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
device sio5 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
¬°¤°»ò§Ú¤@Ó kernel ³£½s¤£°_¨Ó¡H¬Æ¦Ü GENERIC ¤]¤£¦æ¡H
³o¦³«Ü¦hºØ¥i¯àªºì¦]¡G
§A¨S¦³¥Î·sªº make buildkernel »P
make installkernel ³o¨âÓ¤èªk¨Ó½s¡A¦Ó¥¿¦n
§Aªº¨t²Îì©l½Xªºª©¥»©M¥¿¦b°õ¦æªº¨t²Î®Ö¤ßª©¥»¤£¤@¼Ë (¹³¬O¡A
¦b¶] 4.0-RELEASE ªº¨t²Î¤W¹Á¸ÕµÛ½s 4.3-RELEASE)¡C¦pªG»¡§An¤É
¯Å¨t²Îªº¸Ü¡A½Ð°È¥²¥h¬Ý¬Ý /usr/src/UPDATING
³oÓÀɮסA¯S§Oª`·N³Ì«á±ªº COMMON ITEMS
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§A¤w¸g¥Î¤W make buildkernel ¥H¤Î
make installkernel ¤F¡A¦ý¬O¦b
make buildworld ®É¥¢±Ñ¤F¡C¥i±¤ªº¬O¡A
make buildkernel n¦¨¥\¡A»Ýn¨Ì¿à
make buildworld «á³y¥X¨Óªº¤@¨ÇÀɮסC
- ´Nºâ¬O§A¦b½s FreeBSD-STABLE¡A
+ ´Nºâ¬O§A¦b½s &os.stable;¡A
ÁÙ¬O¦³¥i¯à§A§ì¨ì¤F¥¿¦bק襤¡A©ÎµÛ¦]¬°¬Y¨Ç½t¬G¦Ó®Ú¥»ÁÙ¨S§ï¦n
- ªºì©l½X¡FÁöµM»¡ FreeBSD-STABLE
+ ªºì©l½X¡FÁöµM»¡ &os.stable;
¤j³¡¥÷ªº®ÉÔ³£¬O¥i¥H½sªº¡A¦ý¥u¦³ RELEASE ¤~¬O«OÃÒ¥i¥H½sªº¡C¸I
¨ì³oÓ°ÝÃD®É¡A¦A¦¸§ó·sì©l½X¨Ã¥B¦A¸Õ¸Õ¬Ý¡C¤]¦³¥i¯à¬O©ñì©l½Xªº
¦øªA¾¹¥X²{¬Y¨Ç°ÝÃD¡A©Ò¥H§ó·sì©l½X®É¤]¸Õ¸Õ±q¤£¦P¦øªA¾¹¨Ó§ó·s¬Ý
¬Ý¡C
µwºÐ¡BÀɮרt²Î¡BBoot Loader
¦p¦ó¦b FreeBSD ¤º§â·sµwºÐ±¾¤W¥h¥Î©O¡H
½Ð°Ñ¾\
ºÏºÐ®æ¦¡¤Æ±Ð¾Ç ¡C
How do I move my system over to my huge new disk?
²z·Qªº¤è¦¡¬O¥ý¦b·sµwºÐ¤W«¸Ë¦n§@·~¨t²Î¡AµM«á§â¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¬ÛÃöµ{¦¡¡B¸ê®Æ·h¹L¥h´N¦n¡C
This is highly
recommended if you have been tracking -STABLE for more
than one release, or have updated a release instead of
installing a new one. You can install booteasy on both
disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, and dual boot them until
you are happy with the new configuration. Skip the
next paragraph to find out how to move the data after
doing this.
Should you decide not to do a fresh install, you
need to partition and label the new disk with either
- /stand/sysinstall , or &man.fdisk.8;
+ sysinstall (&os; 5.2 ¤§«eª©¥»«h¬O /stand/sysinstall ), or &man.fdisk.8;
and &man.disklabel.8;. You should also install booteasy
on both disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, so that you can
dual boot to the old or new system after the copying
is done. See the
formatting-media article for details on this
process.
Now you have the new disk set up, and are ready
to move the data. Unfortunately, you cannot just blindly
copy the data. Things like device files (in
/dev ), flags, and links tend to
screw that up. You need to use tools that understand
these things, which means &man.dump.8;.
Although it is suggested that you move the data in single user
mode, it is not required.
You should never use anything but &man.dump.8; and
&man.restore.8; to move the root filesystem. The
&man.tar.1; command may work - then again, it may not.
You should also use &man.dump.8; and &man.restore.8;
if you are moving a single partition to another empty
partition. The sequence of steps to use dump to move
a partitions data to a new partition is:
newfs the new partition.
mount it on a temporary mount point.
cd to that directory.
dump the old partition, piping output to the
new one.
For example, if you are going to move root to
/dev/ad1s1a , with
/mnt as the temporary mount point,
it is:
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -
Rearranging your partitions with dump takes a bit more
work. To merge a partition like /var
into its parent, create the new partition large enough
for both, move the parent partition as described above,
then move the child partition into the empty directory
that the first move created:
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -
&prompt.root; cd var
&prompt.root; dump 0af - /var | restore xf -
To split a directory from its parent, say putting
/var on its own partition when it was not
before, create both partitions, then mount the child partition
on the appropriate directory in the temporary mount point, then
move the old single partition:
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1a
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/ad1s1d
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1a /mnt
&prompt.root; mkdir /mnt/var
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad1s1d /mnt/var
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
&prompt.root; dump 0af - / | restore xf -
You might prefer &man.cpio.1;, &man.pax.1;,
&man.tar.1; to &man.dump.8; for user data. At the time of
this writing, these are known to lose file flag information,
so use them with caution.
Will a dangerously dedicated
disk endanger
my health?
The installation procedure allows
you to chose two different methods in partitioning your
hard disk(s). The default way makes it compatible with other
operating systems on the same machine, by using fdisk table
entries (called slices
in FreeBSD), with a
FreeBSD slice that employs partitions of its own. Optionally,
one can chose to install a boot-selector to switch between the
possible operating systems on the disk(s). The alternative uses
the entire disk for FreeBSD, and makes no attempt to be
compatible with other operating systems.
So why it is called dangerous
? A disk
in this mode does not contain what normal PC utilities
would consider a valid fdisk table. Depending on how well
they have been designed, they might complain at you once
they are getting in contact with such a disk, or even
worse, they might damage the BSD bootstrap without even
asking or notifying you. In addition, the
dangerously dedicated
disk's layout is
known to confuse many BIOSes, including those from AWARD
(e.g. as found in HP Netserver and Micronics systems as
well as many others) and Symbios/NCR (for the popular
53C8xx range of SCSI controllers). This is not a complete
list, there are more. Symptoms of this confusion include
the read error message printed by
the FreeBSD bootstrap when it cannot find itself, as well
as system lockups when booting.
Why have this mode at all then? It only saves a few kbytes
of disk space, and it can cause real problems for a new
installation. Dangerously dedicated
mode's
origins lie in a desire to avoid one of the most common
problems plaguing new FreeBSD installers - matching the BIOS
geometry
numbers for a disk to the disk
itself.
Geometry
is an outdated concept, but one
still at the heart of the PC's BIOS and its interaction with
disks. When the FreeBSD installer creates slices, it has to
record the location of these slices on the disk in a fashion
that corresponds with the way the BIOS expects to find them. If
it gets it wrong, you will not be able to boot.
Dangerously dedicated
mode tries to work
around this by making the problem simpler. In some cases, it
gets it right. But it is meant to be used as a last-ditch
alternative - there are better ways to solve the problem 99
times out of 100.
So, how do you avoid the need for DD
mode
when you are installing? Start by making a note of the geometry
that your BIOS claims to be using for your disks. You can
arrange to have the kernel print this as it boots by specifying
-v at the boot: prompt, or
using boot -v in the loader. Just before the
installer starts, the kernel will print a list of BIOS
geometries. Do not panic - wait for the installer to start and
then use scrollback to read the numbers. Typically the BIOS
disk units will be in the same order that FreeBSD lists your
disks, first IDE, then SCSI.
When you are slicing up your disk, check that the disk
geometry displayed in the FDISK screen is correct (ie. it
matches the BIOS numbers); if it is wrong, use the
g key to fix it. You may have to do this if
there is absolutely nothing on the disk, or if the disk has been
moved from another system. Note that this is only an issue with
the disk that you are going to boot from; FreeBSD will sort
itself out just fine with any other disks you may have.
Once you have got the BIOS and FreeBSD agreeing about the
geometry of the disk, your problems are almost guaranteed to be
over, and with no need for DD
mode at all. If,
however, you are still greeted with the dreaded read
error message when you try to boot, it is time to cross
your fingers and go for it - there is nothing left to
lose.
To return a dangerously dedicated
disk
for normal PC use, there are basically two options. The first
is, you write enough NULL bytes over the MBR to make any
subsequent installation believe this to be a blank disk. You
can do this for example with
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda0 count=15
Alternatively, the undocumented DOS
feature
C:\> fdisk /mbr
will to install a new master boot record as well, thus
clobbering the BSD bootstrap.
Which partitions can safely use Soft Updates? I have
heard that Soft Updates on / can cause
problems.
Short answer: you can usually use Soft Updates safely
on all partitions.
Long answer: There used to be some concern over using
Soft Updates on the root partition. Soft Updates has two
characteristics that caused this. First, a Soft Updates
partition has a small chance of losing data during a
system crash. (The partition will not be corrupted; the
data will simply be lost.) Also, Soft Updates can cause
temporary space shortages.
When using Soft Updates, the kernel can take up to
thirty seconds to actually write changes to the physical
disk. If you delete a large file, the file still resides
on disk until the kernel actually performs the deletion.
This can cause a very simple race condition. Suppose you
delete one large file and immediately create another large
file. The first large file is not yet actually removed
from the physical disk, so the disk might not have enough
room for the second large file. You get an error that the
partition does not have enough space, although you know
perfectly well that you just released a large chunk of
space! When you try again mere seconds later, the file
creation works as you expect. This has left more than one
user scratching his head and doubting his sanity, the
FreeBSD filesystem, or both.
If a system should crash after the kernel accepts a
chunk of data for writing to disk, but before that data is
actually written out, data could be lost or corrupted.
This risk is extremely small, but generally manageable.
Use of IDE write caching greatly increases this risk; it
is strongly recommended that you disable IDE write caching
when using Soft Updates.
These issues affect all partitions using Soft Updates.
So, what does this mean for the root partition?
Vital information on the root partition changes very
rarely. Files such as /kernel and
the contents of /etc only change
during system maintenance, or when users change their
passwords. If the system crashed during the
thirty-second window after such a change is made, it is
possible that data could be lost. This risk is negligible
for most applications, but you should be aware that it
exists. If your system cannot tolerate this much risk,
do not use Soft Updates on the root filesystem!
/ is traditionally one of the
smallest partitions. By default, FreeBSD puts the
/tmp directory on
/ . If you have a busy
/tmp , you might see intermittent
space problems. Symlinking /tmp to
/var/tmp will solve this
problem.
What is inappropriate about my ccd?
The symptom of this is:
&prompt.root; ccdconfig -C
ccdconfig: ioctl (CCDIOCSET): /dev/ccd0c: Inappropriate file type or format
This usually happens when you are trying to concatenate
the c partitions, which default to type
unused . The ccd driver requires the
underlying partition type to be FS_BSDFFS. Edit the disklabel
of the disks you are trying to concatenate and change the types
of partitions to 4.2BSD .
Why can I not edit the disklabel on my ccd?
The symptom of this is:
&prompt.root; disklabel ccd0
(it prints something sensible here, so let us try to edit it)
&prompt.root; disklabel -e ccd0
(edit, save, quit)
disklabel: ioctl DIOCWDINFO: No disk label on disk;
use "disklabel -r" to install initial label
This is because the disklabel returned by ccd is actually
a fake
one that is not really on the disk.
You can solve this problem by writing it back explicitly,
as in:
&prompt.root; disklabel ccd0 > /tmp/disklabel.tmp
&prompt.root; disklabel -Rr ccd0 /tmp/disklabel.tmp
&prompt.root; disklabel -e ccd0
(this will work now)
Can I mount other foreign filesystems under FreeBSD?
FreeBSD supports a variety of other
filesystems.
Digital UNIX
UFS CDROMs can be mounted directly on FreeBSD.
Mounting disk partitions from Digital UNIX and other
systems that support UFS may be more complex, depending
on the details of the disk partitioning for the operating
system in question.
&linux;
FreeBSD supports ext2fs
partitions. See &man.mount.ext2fs.8; for more
information.
&windowsnt;
FreeBSD includes a read-only NTFS driver. For
more information, see &man.mount.ntfs.8;.
FAT
FreeBSD includes a read-write FAT driver. For
more information, see &man.mount.msdosfs.8;.
FreeBSD also supports network filesystems such as NFS
(see &man.mount.nfs.8;), NetWare (see &man.mount.nwfs.8;),
and Microsoft-style SMB filesystems (see
&man.mount.smbfs.8;).
How do I mount a secondary DOS partition?
The secondary DOS partitions are found after ALL the
primary partitions. For example, if you have an
E
partition as the second DOS partition on
the second SCSI drive, you need to create the special files
for slice 5
in /dev ,
then mount /dev/da1s5 :
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV da1s5
&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/da1s5 /dos/e
You can omit this step if you are running FreeBSD
5.0-RELEASE or newer with &man.devfs.5;
enabled.
- Is there a cryptographic filesystem for &os;?
+ &os; ¦³ÀÉ®×¥[±K¨t²Î¶Ü¡H
- Yes. If you are running FreeBSD 5.0 or later, see
- &man.gbde.8;. For earlier releases, see the security/cfs port.
+ ¦³°Ú¡I FreeBSD 5.0 °_¤º«Ø &man.gbde.8;¡A¦Ó FreeBSD 6.0
+ ¤S¥[¤W &man.geli.8;¡C ¦Ó¸û¦´Áªºª©¥»¡A½Ð¦h§Q¥Î security/cfs port¡AÁÂÁ¡C
How can I use the &windowsnt; loader to boot FreeBSD?
The general idea is that you copy the first sector of your
native root FreeBSD partition into a file in the DOS/&windowsnt;
partition. Assuming you name that file something like
c:\bootsect.bsd (inspired by
c:\bootsect.dos ), you can then edit the
c:\boot.ini file to come up with something
like this:
[boot loader]
timeout=30
default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS
[operating systems]
multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS="Windows NT"
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD="FreeBSD"
C:\="DOS"
If FreeBSD is installed on the same disk as the &windowsnt; boot
partition simply copy /boot/boot1 to
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD . However, if FreeBSD is
installed on a different disk /boot/boot1
will not work, /boot/boot0 is needed.
/boot/boot0 needs to be installed
- using sysinstall by selecting the FreeBSD boot manager on
+ using sysinstall(&os; 5.2 ¤§«eª©¥»«h¬O /stand/sysinstall ) by selecting the FreeBSD boot manager on
the screen which asks if you wish to use a boot
manager. This is because /boot/boot0
has the partition table area filled with NULL characters
but sysinstall copies the partition table before copying
/boot/boot0 to the MBR.
Do not simply copy /boot/boot0
instead of /boot/boot1 ; you will
overwrite your partition table and render your computer
un-bootable!
When the FreeBSD boot manager runs it records the last
OS booted by setting the active flag on the partition table
entry for that OS and then writes the whole 512-bytes of itself
back to the MBR so if you just copy
/boot/boot0 to
C:\BOOTSECT.BSD then it writes an empty
partition table, with the active flag set on one entry, to the
MBR.
How do I boot FreeBSD and &linux; from LILO?
If you have FreeBSD and &linux; on the same disk, just follow
LILO's installation instructions for booting a non-&linux;
operating system. Very briefly, these are:
Boot &linux;, and add the following lines to
/etc/lilo.conf :
other=/dev/hda2
table=/dev/hda
label=FreeBSD
(the above assumes that your FreeBSD slice is known to
&linux; as /dev/hda2 ; tailor to
suit your setup). Then, run lilo as
root and you should be done.
If FreeBSD resides on another disk, you need to add
loader=/boot/chain.b to the LILO entry.
For example:
other=/dev/dab4
table=/dev/dab
loader=/boot/chain.b
label=FreeBSD
In some cases you may need to specify the BIOS drive number
to the FreeBSD boot loader to successfully boot off the second
disk. For example, if your FreeBSD SCSI disk is probed by BIOS
as BIOS disk 1, at the FreeBSD boot loader prompt you need to
specify:
Boot: 1:da(0,a)/kernel
- On FreeBSD 2.2.5 and later, you can configure
+ You can configure
&man.boot.8;
to automatically do this for you at boot time.
The
&linux;+FreeBSD mini-HOWTO is a good reference for
FreeBSD and &linux; interoperability issues.
How do I boot FreeBSD and &linux; using BootEasy?
Install LILO at the start of your &linux; boot partition
instead of in the Master Boot Record. You can then boot LILO
from BootEasy.
If you are running &windows; 95 and &linux; this is recommended
anyway, to make it simpler to get &linux; booting again if you
should need to reinstall &windows; 95 (which is a Jealous
Operating System, and will bear no other Operating Systems in
the Master Boot Record).
How do I change the boot prompt from ??? to
something more meaningful?
You can not do that with the standard boot manager without
rewriting it. There are a number of other boot managers
in the sysutils ports category that
provide this functionality.
I have a new removable drive, how do I use it?
Whether it is a removable drive like a &iomegazip; or an EZ drive
(or even a floppy, if you want to use it that way), or a new
hard disk, once it is installed and recognized by the system,
and you have your cartridge/floppy/whatever slotted in, things
are pretty much the same for all devices.
(this section is based on
Mark Mayo's ZIP FAQ )
If it is a ZIP drive or a floppy, you have already got a DOS
filesystem on it, you can use a command like this:
&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/fd0c /floppy
if it is a floppy, or this:
&prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/da2s4 /zip
for a ZIP disk with the factory configuration.
For other disks, see how they are laid out using
&man.fdisk.8; or
&man.sysinstall.8;.
The rest of the examples will be for a ZIP drive on da2,
the third SCSI disk.
Unless it is a floppy, or a removable you plan on sharing
with other people, it is probably a better idea to stick a BSD
filesystem on it. You will get long filename support, at least a
2X improvement in performance, and a lot more stability. First,
you need to redo the DOS-level partitions/filesystems. You can
either use &man.fdisk.8; or
- /stand/sysinstall , or for a small drive
+ sysinstall (&os; 5.2 ¤§«eª©¥»«h¬O /stand/sysinstall ), or for a small drive
that you do not want to bother with multiple operating system
support on, just blow away the whole FAT partition table
(slices) and just use the BSD partitioning:
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda2 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da2 auto
You can use disklabel or
- /stand/sysinstall to create multiple BSD
+ sysinstall to create multiple BSD
partitions. You will certainly want to do this if you are adding
swap space on a fixed disk, but it is probably irrelevant on a
removable drive like a ZIP.
Finally, create a new filesystem, this one is on our ZIP
drive using the whole disk:
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda2c
and mount it:
&prompt.root; mount /dev/da2c /zip
and it is probably a good idea to add a line like this
to /etc/fstab (see &man.fstab.5;) so
you can just type mount /zip in the
future:
/dev/da2c /zip ffs rw,noauto 0 0
Why do I get Incorrect super block when
mounting a CDROM?
You have to tell &man.mount.8; the type of the device
that you want to mount. This is described in the Handbook section on
optical media , specifically the section Using Data
CDs .
Why do I get Device not
configured when mounting a CDROM?
This generally means that there is no CDROM in the
CDROM drive, or the drive is not visible on the
bus. Please see the Using Data
CDs section of the Handbook for a detailed
discussion of this issue.
Why do all non-English characters in filenames show up as
?
on my CDs when mounted in FreeBSD?
Your CDROM probably uses the Joliet
extension for storing information about files and
directories. This is discussed in the Handbook chapter on
creating and
using CDROMs , specifically the section on Using Data
CDROMs .
I burned a CD under FreeBSD and now I can not read it
under any other operating system. Why?
You most likely burned a raw file to your CD, rather
than creating an ISO 9660 filesystem. Take a look at the
Handbook
chapter on creating CDROMs , particularly the
section on burning raw
data CDs .
How can I create an image of a data CD?
This is discussed in the Handbook section on duplicating
data CDs . For more on working with CDROMs, see the
Creating CDs
Section in the Storage chapter in the
Handbook.
Why can I not mount an audio
CD?
If you try to mount an audio CD, you will get an error
like cd9660: /dev/acd0c: Invalid
argument . This is because
mount only works on filesystems. Audio
CDs do not have filesystems; they just have data. You
need a program that reads audio CDs, such as the
audio/xmcd port.
How do I mount a multi-session CD?
By default, &man.mount.8; will attempt to mount the
last data track (session) of a CD. If you would like to
load an earlier session, you must use the
-s command line argument. Please see
&man.mount.cd9660.8; for specific examples.
How do I let ordinary users mount floppies, CDROMs and
other removable media?
Ordinary users can be permitted to mount devices. Here is
how:
As root set the sysctl variable
vfs.usermount to
1 .
&prompt.root; sysctl -w vfs.usermount=1
As root assign the appropriate
permissions to the block device associated with the
removable media.
For example, to allow users to mount the first floppy
drive, use:
&prompt.root; chmod 666 /dev/fd0
To allow users in the group
operator to mount the CDROM drive,
use:
&prompt.root; chgrp operator /dev/acd0c
&prompt.root; chmod 640 /dev/acd0c
If you are running &os; 5.X or later, you will need to alter
/etc/devfs.conf to make these changes
permanent across reboots.
As root , add the necessary lines to
/etc/devfs.conf . For example, to allow
users to mount the first floppy drive add:
# Allow all users to mount the floppy disk.
own /dev/fd0 root:operator
perm /dev/fd0 0666
To allow users in the group operator
to mount the CD-ROM drive add:
# Allow members of the group operator to mount CD-ROMs.
own /dev/acd0 root:operator
perm /dev/acd0 0660
Finally, add the line
vfs.usermount =1
to the file /etc/sysctl.conf so
that it is reset at system boot time.
All users can now mount the floppy
/dev/fd0 onto a directory that they
own:
&prompt.user; mkdir ~/my-mount-point
&prompt.user; mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 ~/my-mount-point
Users in group operator can now
mount the CDROM /dev/acd0c onto a
directory that they own:
&prompt.user; mkdir ~/my-mount-point
&prompt.user; mount -t cd9660 /dev/acd0c ~/my-mount-point
Unmounting the device is simple:
&prompt.user; umount ~/my-mount-point
Enabling vfs.usermount , however,
has negative security implications. A better way to
access &ms-dos; formatted media is to use the
emulators/mtools
package in the ports collection.
The device name used in the previous examples must be
changed according to your configuration.
The du and df
commands show different amounts of disk space available.
What is going on?
You need to understand what du and
df really do. du
goes through the directory tree, measures how large each
file is, and presents the totals. df
just asks the filesystem how much space it has left. They
seem to be the same thing, but a file without a directory
entry will affect df but not
du .
When a program is using a file, and you delete the
file, the file is not really removed from the filesystem
until the program stops using it. The file is immediately
deleted from the directory listing, however. You can see
this easily enough with a program such as
more . Assume you have a file large
enough that its presence affects the output of
du and df . (Since
disks can be so large today, this might be a
very large file!) If you delete this
file while using more on it,
more does not immediately choke and
complain that it cannot view the file. The entry is
simply removed from the directory so no other program or
user can access it. du shows that it
is gone — it has walked the directory tree and the file
is not listed. df shows that it is
still there, as the filesystem knows that
more is still using that space. Once
you end the more session,
du and df will
agree.
Note that Soft Updates can delay the freeing of disk
space; you might need to wait up to 30 seconds for the
change to be visible!
This situation is common on web servers. Many people
set up a FreeBSD web server and forget to rotate the log
files. The access log fills up /var .
The new administrator deletes the file, but the system
still complains that the partition is full. Stopping and
restarting the web server program would free the file,
allowing the system to release the disk space. To prevent
this from happening, set up &man.newsyslog.8;.
How can I add more swap space?
In the Configuration and
Tuning section of the Handbook, you will find a
section
describing how to do this.
Why does &os; see my disk as smaller than the
manufacturer says it is?
Disk manufacturers calculate gigabytes as a billion bytes
each, whereas &os; calculates them as 1,073,741,824 bytes
each. This explains why, for example, &os;'s boot messages
will report a disk that supposedly has 80GB as holding
76319MB.
Also note that &os; will (by default)
reserve 8% of the disk
space.
How is it possible for a partition to be more than 100%
full?
A portion of each UFS partition (8%, by default) is
reserved for use by the operating system and the
root user.
&man.df.1; does not count that space when
calculating the Capacity column, so it can
exceed 100%. Also, you will notice that the
Blocks column is always greater than the
sum of the Used and
Avail columns, usually by a factor of
8%.
For more details, look up the -m option
in &man.tunefs.8;.
Wei-Hon
Chen
plasmaball@pchome.com.tw
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foo.mc ¡A§An°µªº¥u¬O§â¥¦Âà´«¦¨¤@Ó¦³®Äªº
sendmail.cf ¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail/cf/cf
&prompt.root; make foo.cf
&prompt.root; cp foo.cf /etc/mail/sendmail.cf
¤@Ө嫬ªº .mc Àɬݰ_¨Ó¥i¯à¹³³o¼Ë¡G
VERSIONID(`Your version number ')
OSTYPE(bsd4.4)
FEATURE(accept_unresolvable_domains)
FEATURE(nocanonify)
FEATURE(mailertable, `hash -o /etc/mail/mailertable')
define(`UUCP_RELAY', your.uucp.relay )
define(`UUCP_MAX_SIZE', 200000)
define(`confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES')
MAILER(local)
MAILER(smtp)
MAILER(uucp)
Cw your.alias.host.name
Cw youruucpnodename.UUCP
accept_unresolvable_domains ¡A
nocanonify ¡A ©M
confDONT_PROBE_INTERFACES ¯S©Ê±NÁקK¥ô¦ó¦b
»¼°e¶l¥ó®É·|¥Î¨ì DNS ªº¾÷·|¡CUUCP_RELAY
¶µ¥Øªº¥X²{²z¥Ñ«Ü©_©Ç¡A´N¤£n°Ý¬°¦ó¤F¡C²³æªº©ñ¤J¤@Óºô»Úºô¸ô
¤W¥i¥H³B²z .UUCP µêÀÀºô°ì¦ì§}ªº¥D¾÷¦WºÙ¡F³q±`¡A§A¥u»Ýn¦b³o
¸Ì¶ñ¤J§A ISP ªº«H¥ó¦^ÂгB (mail replay)¡C
§A¤w¸g°µ¨ì³o¸Ì¤F¡A§AÁÙ»Ýn³oÓ¥s
/etc/mail/mailertable ¡C¦pªG§A¥u¦³¤@Ó¥Î
¨Ó¶Ç»¼©Ò¦³¶l¥óªº¹ï¥~³q¹Dªº¸Ü¡A¥H¤UªºÀÉ®×´N¨¬°÷¤F¡G
#
# makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable
uucp-dom:your.uucp.relay
¥t¤@Ó§ó½ÆÂøªº¨Ò¤l¬Ý°_¨Ó¹³³o¼Ë¡G
#
# makemap hash /etc/mail/mailertable.db < /etc/mail/mailertable
#
horus.interface-business.de uucp-dom:horus
interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
interface-business.de uucp-dom:if-bus
heep.sax.de smtp8:%1
horus.UUCP uucp-dom:horus
if-bus.UUCP uucp-dom:if-bus
uucp-dom:
¦p§A©Ò¨£¡A³o¬O¬YÓ¯u¹êÀɮ׸̪º¤@³¡¥÷¡Cº¤T¦æ³B²zºô°ì©w§}«H¥ó
¤£À³¸Ó³Q°e¥X¨ì¤º©w¸ô®|¡A¦Ó¥Ñ¬Y¨Ç UUCP ¾F©~(UUCP neighbor)¨ú¥N
ªº¯S®í±¡§Î¡A³o¬O¬°¤F ÁYµu
»¼°eªº¸ô®|¡C¤U¤@¦æ³B²z¨ì
¥»¦a¤A¤Óºô¸ôºô°ìªº«H¥óÅý¥¦¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î SMTP ¨Ó»¼°e¡C³Ì«á¡AUUCP ¾F©~´£¨ì
.UUCP µêÀÀºô°ìªº°O¸ü¡A¤¹³\¤@Ó uucp-neighbor
!recipient ±À½
¤º©w³W«h¡C³Ì«á¤@¦æ«h¥H¤@Ó³æ¿Wªº¥yÂI°µµ²§ô¡A¥H UUCP »¼°e¨ì´£¨Ñ·í
§A¥þ¥@¬É©Ê¶l¥ó¹hªùªºUUCP ¾F©~¡C©Ò¦³¦b uucp-dom:
ÃöÁä¦r¸Ìªº¸`ÂI¦WºÙ¥²¶·³£¬O¦³®Äªº UUCP ¾F©~¡A§A¥i¥H¥Î
uuname ©R¥O¥h½T»{¡C
´£¿ô§A³oÓÀɮצb¨Ï¥Î«e¥²¶·³QÂà´«¦¨ DBM ¸ê®Æ®wÀɮסA³Ì¦n¦b
mailertable ³Ì¤W±¥Îµù¸Ñ¼g¥X©R¥O¦C¨Ó§¹¦¨³oÓ¤u§@¡C·í§A¨C¦¸§ó´«§A
ªº mailertable «á§AÁ`¬O»Ýn°õ¦æ³oÓ©R¥O¡C
³Ì«á´£¥Ü¡G¦pªG§A¤£½T©w¬Y¨Ç¯S©wªº«H¥ó¸ô®|¥i¥Î¡A°O±o§â
-bt ¿ï¶µ¥[¨ì sendmail¡C³o·|±N sendmail ±Ò°Ê¦b
address test mode ¡F¥un«ö¤U
0 ¡A±µµÛ¿é¤J§A§Æ±æ´ú¸Õªº«H¥ó¸ô®|¦ì§}¡C
³Ì«á¤@¦æ§i¶D§A¨Ï¥Î¤º³¡ªº«H¥ó¥N²zµ{¦¡¡A¥N²zµ{¦¡ªº·|³qª¾¥Øªº¥D¾÷¡A
¥H¤Î(¥i¯àÂà´«ªº)¦ì§}¡CnÂ÷¶}¦¹¼Ò¦¡½Ð«ö Control-D¡C
&prompt.user; sendmail -bt
ADDRESS TEST MODE (ruleset 3 NOT automatically invoked)
Enter <ruleset> <address>
> 3,0 foo@example.com
canonify input: foo @ example . com
..
parse returns: $# uucp-dom $@ your.uucp.relay $: foo < @ example . com . >
> ^D
·í§Ú¥Î¼·±µ³s¤Wºô¸ô®É¸Ó«ç»ò³]©w«H¥ó»¼°e¡H
¦pªG§A¤w¸g¦³¤@Ó©T©wªº IP ¼Æ¦r¡A§A¤£»Ýn½Õ¾ã¥ô¦ó¤º©wÈ¡C³]¦n
§An«ü©wªººô¸ô¦WºÙ¡A¨ä¥Lªº sendmail ³£·|À°§A°µ§¹¡C
¦pªG§A®³¨ìªº¬O°ÊºA°t¸mªº IP ¼Æ¦r¦Ó¨Ï¥Î¼·±µ ppp ³s±µ¨ìºô»Úºô
¸ô¡A§A¥i¯à¤w¸g¦b§Aªº ISP «H¥ó¥D¾÷¤W¦³¤@Ó«H½c¡C°²³]§Aªº ISP ºô°ì
¬O example.net ¡A§Aªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¦W
ºÙ¬O user ¡C¥ç°²³]§AºÙ¦Û¤vªº¥D¾÷¦WºÙ¬O
bsd.home ¦Ó§Aªº ISP §i¶D§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î
relay.example.net ·í§@«H¥ó¦^ÂгB¡C
¬°¤F±q§Aªº«H½c±µ¦¬«H¥ó¡A§A±N»Ýn¦w¸Ë¨ú«Hµ{¦¡¥H«K±q«H½c¨ú¦^«H¥ó¡C
Fetchmail ¬O¤@Ó¤£¿ùªº¿ï¾Ü¡A¦]¬°¥¦¤ä
´©³\¦h¤£¦Pªº³q°T¨ó©w¡A³q±`§Aªº ISP ·|´£¨Ñ POP3¡C¦pªG§A¿ï¾Ü¨Ï¥Î
user-ppp¡A§A¥i¥H¦b³s½u¨ìºô¸ô¦¨¥\«á¦Û°Ê§ì¨ú§Aªº«H¥ó¡A¥un¦b
/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup ¸Ì±³]©w¥H¤U³o¶µ¡G
MYADDR:
!bg su user -c fetchmail
°²¨Ï§A¥¿¨Ï¥Î sendmail (¦p¤U©Ò¥Ü)
¶Ç°e«H¥ó¨ì«D¥»¦a±b¸¹¡A¸m¤J¥H¤U©R¥O¡G
!bg su user -c "sendmail -q"
¦b¤W±¨º¶µ©R¥O¤§«á¡C³o·|±j¢ sendmail
¦b³s±µ¤Wºô¸ô«á°¨¤W¶}©l³B²z mailqueue¡C
§Ú°²³]§A¦b bsd.home ¾÷¾¹¤W¦³¤@Ó
user ªº±b¸¹¡C¦b bsd.home ¾÷¾¹¤W user
ªº®a¥Ø¿ý¸Ì«Ø¥ß¤@Ó .fetchmailrc ªºÀɮסG
poll example.net protocol pop3 fetchall pass MySecret
µL¶·Âب¥¡A³oÓÀÉ°£¤F user ¥~¤£À³¸Ó³Q¥ô
¦ó¤HŪ¨ú¡A¦]¬°¥¦¥]§t MySecret ³oÓ±K½X¡C
¬°¤F¦b±H«H®É¦³¥¿½Tªº©ïÀY from: ¡A§A¥²¶·§i¶D
sendmail ¨Ï¥Î
user@example.net ¦Ó«D
user@bsd.home ¡C§A¥i¯à·|§Æ±æ§i¶D
sendmail ±q
relay.example.net °e¥X©Ò¦³«H¥ó¡A
¥[§Ö«H¥ó¶Ç°e¡C
¥H¤Uªº .mc ÀÉÀ³¯àº¡¨¬§Aªºn¨D¡G
VERSIONID(`bsd.home.mc version 1.0')
OSTYPE(bsd4.4)dnl
FEATURE(nouucp)dnl
MAILER(local)dnl
MAILER(smtp)dnl
Cwlocalhost
Cwbsd.home
MASQUERADE_AS(`example.net')dnl
FEATURE(allmasquerade)dnl
FEATURE(masquerade_envelope)dnl
FEATURE(nocanonify)dnl
FEATURE(nodns)dnl
define(`SMART_HOST', `relay.example.net')
Dmbsd.home
define(`confDOMAIN_NAME',`bsd.home')dnl
define(`confDELIVERY_MODE',`deferred')dnl
¦p¦óÂà´«³oÓ .mc Àɮרì
sendmail.cf Àɪº¸Ô²Ó²Ó¸`¡A½Ð°Ñ¦Ò¤W¤@¸`¡C
¥t¥~¡A¦b§ó·s sendmail.cf ¥H«á¤£n§Ñ°O«·s±Ò°Ê
sendmail ¡C
°£¤F Sendmail ¥~¡AÁÙ¦³þ¨Ç¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î©O¡H
Sendmail
¬O FreeBSD ¹w³]¨Ï¥Îªº¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹¡A¦ý¬O§AÁÙ¬O¥i¥H«Ü®e©ö¦a¥H¨ä¥¦
¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹ (¨Ò¦p¡A±q port ¦w¸Ëªº¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹) ¨ú¥N¤§¡C
port ¸Ì¦³«Ü¦h¥i¨Ñ¿ï¾Üªº¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹¡A¹³
mail/exim ¡B
mail/postfix ¡B
mail/qmail ¡B
mail/zmailer 杭A
´N¬O´XӫܨüÅwªïªº¿ï¾Ü¡C
¦h¼Ë¿ï¾Ü¬O¦n¨Æ¡A¦Ó¥B¤j®a¦³³\¦h¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¤]³Q»{¬°¬O
¦n¨Æ¡F©Ò¥H½ÐÁקK¦b³q«H½×¾Â¸Ì°Ý¹³ Sendmail ¦³¤ñ Qmail
¦n¶Ü¡H
³o¼Ëªº°ÝÃD¡C¦pªG§A¯uªº«Ü·Q°Ýªº¸Ü¡A½Ð¥ý¨ì³q«H½×¾Â
archive ¸Ì§ä¤@¤U¡C¨C¤@Ó¶l¥ó¦øªA¾¹ªºÀuÂI»P¯ÊÂI¡A¥H«e¤j·§´N¤w¸g
°Q½×¦n´X¦¸¤F¡C
§Ú§Ñ¤F root ±K½X¤F¡I«ç»ò¿ì¡H
¤£nÅå·W¡I¥un«·s±Ò°Ê¨t²Î¡A¦b¬Ý¨ì Boot: ®É¿é¤J
boot -s §Y¥i¶i¤J³æ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¼Ò¦¡
(¦b 3.2-RELEASE ¤§«eªºª©¥»½Ð§ï¥Î -s )¡C
¦b°Ýn¨Ï¥ÎþÓ shell ®É¡A«ö¤U ENTER¡C§A·|¬Ý¨ì¤@Ó &prompt.root;
ªº´£¥Ü¸¹¡A¿é¤J mount -u / ¥H«·s±¾¤W(mount)
§Aªº®ÚÀɮרt²Î¥i¨ÑŪ/¼g¡C°õ¦æ passwd root
¥H§ó´« root ±K½X¡AµM«á°õ¦æ &man.exit.1;
Ä~Äò±Ò°Êµ{§Ç¡C
§Ú¸Ó«ç»òÅý Control-Alt-Delete ¤£·|«·s±Ò°Ê¨t²Î¡H
¦pªG§A¬O¨Ï¥Î FreeBSD 2.2.7-RELEASE ©Î¤§«áª©¥»ªº
syscons(¨t²Î¤º©wªº¥D±±¥xÅX°Êµ{¦¡)¡A§â¤U¦C³o¦æ©ñ¨ì kernel ³]©wÀɤº¡A
µM«á«°µ¤@Ó·sªº®Ö¤ß¡G
options SC_DISABLE_REBOOT
Y¬O¨Ï¥Î FreeBSD 2.2.5-RELEASE ©Î¤§«áª©¥»ªº PCVT ¥D±±¥xÅX°Ê
µ{¦¡¡A«h¥H¤U¦C¿ï¶µ¥N´À¡G
options PCVT_CTRL_ALT_DEL
¨ä¥L§ó¦´Áªº FreeBSD ª©¥»¡A½Ðקï§A¥¿¦b¨Ï¥Îªº¥D±±¥xÁä½L¹ïÀ³¡A
¨Ã±N©Ò¦³ boot ÃöÁä¦r¥H nop
¨ú¥N¡C¤º©wªºÁä½L¹ïÀ³¬O¦b
/usr/share/syscons/keymaps/us.iso.kbd ¡C
§A¥i¯à»Ýn©ú¥Õªº§h©J /etc/rc.conf ¥hŪ¨ú
³oÓÁä½L¹ïÀ³¥H½T«O§ó°Ê¥Í®Ä¡C·íµM¦pªG§A¥¿¦b¥Î¾A¦X§A°êÄyªºÁä½L¹ïÀ³¡A
§AÀ³¸Ó½s¿è¨º¤@Ó¡C
§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò§â DOS ¤å¦rÀɮ׫·s®æ¦¡¤Æ¦¨ UNIX ªº¡H
¥un¨Ï¥Î³oÓ perl ©R¥O¡G
&prompt.user; perl -i.bak -npe 's/\r\n/\n/g' file ...
file ´N¬On³B²zªºÀɮסC³oÓקï¬O¦b¤º³¡§¹¦¨¡Aì©lªºÀÉ®×·|Àx¦s¦¨
°ÆÀɦW¬° .bak ªºÀɮסC
©ÎªÌ§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î &man.tr.1; ³oÓ©R¥O¡G
&prompt.user; tr -d '\r' < dos-text-file > unix-file
dos-text-file ¬O¥]§t DOS ¤å¦rªº
ÀɮסA¦Ó unix-text-file «h¬O¥]§tÂà´«
ªº¿é¥Xµ²ªG¡C³o¤ñ¨Ï¥Î perl ÁÙn§Ö¤W¤@ÂIÂI¡C
§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò¥Î¦WºÙ¬å±¼ process¡H
¨Ï¥Î &man.killall.1; ¡C
¬°¦ó¦b su ¤@ª½»¡§Ú¤£¦b root ªº ACL ¸Ì¡H
³oÓ¿ù»~¬O¦]¬° Kerberos ¤À´²»{ÃÒ¨t²Î¡C³oÓ°ÝÃD¨Ã¤£¬O«ÜÄY«
¦ý¬O¥O¤H¹½·Ð¡C§A¥i¥H¥Î -K ¿ï¶µ¥h°õ¦æ su¡A©Î¬O¹³¤UÓ°ÝÃD©Ò´yzªº
²¾°£ Kerberos¡C
§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò²¾°£ Kerberos¡H
n±q¨t²Î¸Ì²¾°£ Kerberos¡A«¸Ë§A¥¿¦b°õ¦æªº release ª©¥»ªº
bin distribution¡C¦pªG§A¦³ CDROM¡A§A¥i¥H mount cd(°²³]¦b /cdrom)
¨Ã°õ¦æ¡G
&prompt.root; cd /cdrom/bin
&prompt.root; ./install.sh
©ÎªÌ§A¤]¥i¥H±N /etc/make.conf ¸Ìªº
"MAKE_KERBEROS" ¿ï¶µ¥þ³£®³±¼¡AµM«á¦A build world.
§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò¼W¥[¨t²ÎªºµêÀÀ²×ºÝ¾÷¡H
¦pªG§A¦³³\¦h telnet¡Assh¡AX ©Î¬O screen ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¡A§A©Î³\·|¥Î§¹
µêÀÀ²×ºÝ¾÷¡A³o¯à±Ð§A«ç»ò¥[§ó¦h¡G
«Ø¥ß¨Ã¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº kernel ¨Ã¥B§â³o¤@¦æ
pseudo-device pty 256
¥[¤J¨ì³]©wÀɸ̡C
°õ¦æ³oÓ©R¥O¡G
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV pty{1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
·|³y¥X 256 ÓµêÀÀ²×ºÝ¾÷ªº¸Ë¸m¸`ÂI¡C
½s¿è /etc/ttys ¨Ã¥[¤J²Å¦X 256
Ӳ׺ݾ÷ªº¦æ¼Æ¡C¥¦ÌÀ³¸Ó²Å¦X¤w¸g¦s¦b³æ¶µªº®æ¦¡¡AÁ|¨Ò¨Ó»¡¡A
¥¦Ì¬Ý°_¨Ó¹³¡G
ttyqc none network
¦r¥À³]pªº¶¶§Ç¬O
tty[pqrsPQRS][0-9a-v] ¡A¨Ï¥Î¥¿³Wªí¥Ü¦¡¡C
¥Î·sªº kernel «·s±Ò°Ê¹q¸£´N¥i¥H¤F¡C
/dev/snd0 ³oӸ˸m°µ¤£¥X¨Ó¡I
¨Ã¨S snd ³oӸ˸mªº¦s¦b¡C³oÓ¦W¦r
¬O¥Î¨Ó·í§@¦UÓ²Õ¦¨ FreeBSD ÁnµÅX°Êµ{¦¡²Õ¡A½Ñ¦p
mixer ¡A
sequencer ¡A¥H¤Î
dsp ªºÂ²ºÙ¡C
¥i¥H¥Î¥H¤Uªº©R¥O§@¥X³o¨Ç¸Ë¸m¡G
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0
¥i¥H¤£¥Î¶}¾÷¡A«·sŪ¨ú /etc/rc.conf ¡B
¦A¦¸±Ò°Ê /etc/rc ¶Ü?
¥ý¶i¤J³æ¤H¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¼Ò¦¡¡AµM«á¦A¦^¨ì¦h¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¼Ò¦¡¡C
¦b¥D±±¥x°õ¦æ¡G
&prompt.root; shutdown now
(Note: without -r or -h)
&prompt.root; return
&prompt.root; exit
§Ú·Qn§â§Úªº¨t²Îª@¯Å¨ì³Ì·sªº -STABLE¡A¦ý¬O±o¨ìªº¬O -RC ©Î
-PRERELEASE¡I«ç»ò¤F¡H
²³æ¦a»¡¡G¨º¥u¬O¦W¦r¦Ó¤w¡CRC ªº·N«ä¬O Release Candiate¡A
µo¦æԿ睊¥»
¡A¥¦ªí¥Ü·sª©¥»§Önµo¦æ¤F¡C¦b FreeBSD ¤¤¡A
-PRERELEASE ³q±`¬Oµo¦æ«eªºµ{¦¡½Xáµ²ªº¥N¦Wµü¡C(¦³¨Çµo¦æª©¥»¤¤¡A
-BETA ¼ÐÅÒ¸ò -PRERELEASE ¬O¬Û¦P·N«äªº¡C)
¸Ô²Ó¦a»¡¡GFreeBSD ±q¨âÓ¦a¤è¤À¤ä¥X¥¦ªºµo¦æª©¥»¡C¥Dª©¸¹¡B
ÂI¹s¡Brelease (¨Ò¦p 3.0-RELEASE ¤Î 4.0-RELEASE) ªº¡A¬O±qµo®i¹Lµ{
¶}©l®É¤À¤ä¥X¨Óªº¡A³q±`ºÙ¬° -CURRENT
¡C¦³°Æª©¸¹ªºª©¥» (¨Ò¦p 3.1-RELEASE ©Î 4.2-RELEASE)¡A¬O
¬¡ÅDªº -STABLE ¤À¤ä¤¤ªºµo¦æª©¥»
§Ö·Ó¡C±q 4.3-RELEASE ¶}©l¡A¨C¤@Óµo¦æª©¥»¦³¥¦¦Û¤vªº¤À¤ä¡A¥i¬°
°¾¦n·¥«×«O¦uªºµo®i³t«× (³q±`¥u·|§@¦w¥þ¤è±ªº§ó·s) ªº¤H©Ò¥Î¡C
·Ç³Æn»s§@µo¦æª©¥»®É¡A¨ä©Ò¦bªº¤À¤ä·|¸g¹L¤@©wªºµ{§Ç¡C¦³¤@Ó¬O
µ{¦¡½Xáµ²¡C·íµ{¦¡½Xáµ²¶}©l®É¡A¤À¤ä¦WºÙ·|§ó¦W¡A¥H¤Ï¬M¥¦§Ön¦¨¬°
¤@Óµo¦æª©¥»¤F¡CÁ|Ó¨Ò¤l¡A¦pªGì¨Óªº¤À¤ä¥s 4.5-STABLE¡A¥¦ªº¦W¦r
·|Åܦ¨ 4.6-PRERELEASE ¥Hªí¥Üµ{¦¡½X¤wáµ²¡A¨Ã¥BÃB¥~ªºµo¦æ«e´ú¸Õ
±Nn¶}©l¤F¡C¯äÂΧ󥿤´¥i¦^³ø¡A¥H¦¨¬°µo¦æª©¥»ªº¤@³¡¥÷¡C·íµ{¦¡½X
¦³¤F¥i¦¨¬°µo¦æª©¥»ªºÂú§Î®É¡A¥¦ªº¦W¦r´N·|Åܦ¨ 4.6-RC¡A¥Hªí¥Üµo¦æ
ª©¥»§Ö¦n¤F¡C¶i¤J RC ¶¥¬q«á¡A¥u¦³§ä¨ìªº³Ì¦³¼vÅTªº¯äÂΤ~·|³Q×¥¿¡C
·íµo¦æª©¥» (¥»¨Ò¤¤¬° 4.6-RELEASE) ²£¥Í«á¡Aµo¦æª©¥»·|¦³¦Û¤vªº¤À¤ä¡A
ì¤À¤ä·|³Q§ó¦W¬° 4.6-STABLE¡C
·Qn±oª¾§ó¦h¦³Ãöª©¥»¸¹½X»P¦U CVS ¤À¤äªº¸ê°T¡A½Ð°Ñ¦Ò
Release
Engineering ¤@¤å¡C
§Ú¸ÕµÛn¦w¸Ë¤@Ó·sªº®Ö¤ß¡A¦ý¬OµLªk chflags¡C§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò¸Ñ¨M¡H
²³æ¦a»¡¡G§Aªº securelevel ¥i¯à¤j©ó¹s¡Cª½±µ«·s¶}¾÷¨ì
³æ¤H¼Ò¦¡¡A¦A¦w¸Ë®Ö¤ß¡C
¸Ô²Ó¦a»¡¡GFreeBSD ¦b securelevel ¤j©ó¹s±¡ªp¤U¡A¤£¤¹³\
Åܧó¨t²ÎºX¼Ð (system flags)¡C§A¥i¥H¥Î³oÓ«ü¥OÀˬd§Aªº
securelevel¡G
&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevel
§A¨S¦³¿ìªk°§C securelevel¡F§A¥²¶·±Ò°Ê¨t²Î¨ì³æ¤H¼Ò¦¡¥H
¦w¸Ë®Ö¤ß¡A©Î¬Oקï /etc/rc.conf ¤ºªº
securelevel ¦A«·s¶}¾÷¡C½Ð°Ñ¦Ò &man.init.8; »¡©ú¤å¥ó¡A¥H¨ú±o
§ó¦h¦³Ãö securelevel ªº¸ê°T¡AÁÙ¦³ /etc/defaults/rc.conf
©M &man.rc.conf.5; »¡©ú¤å¥ó¡A¥H¨ú±o§ó¦h¦³Ãö rc.conf
ªº¸ê°T¡C
¦b§Úªº¨t²Î¤W¡A§ÚµLªkÅܧó®É¶¡¶W¹L¤@¬í¥H¤Wªº½d³ò¡I
§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò¿ì¡H
²³æ¦aÁ¿¡G§A¨t²Îªº securelevel ¤]³\¤j©ó 1¡Cª½±µ«·s¶}¾÷¦Ü
³æ¤H¼Ò¦¡¡AµM«á¦Aקï®É¶¡¡C
¸Ô²Ó¦a»¡¡G¦b securelevel ¤j©ó 1 ªº±¡ªp¤U¡AFreeBSD ¤£¤¹³\®É¶¡
Åܰʤj©ó¤@¬í¡C§A¥i¥H¥Î¥H¤Uªº©R¥O¨ÓÀˬd¥Ø«eªº securelevel¡G
&prompt.root; sysctl kern.securelevel
§AµLªk°§C securelevel¡F§A¥²¶·±Ò°Ê¹q¸£¦Ü³æ¤H¼Ò¦¡¤U¥Hקï®É¶¡¡A
©Î¬Oקï /etc/rc.conf ¦A«·s¶}¾÷¡C½Ð°Ñ¦Ò
&man.init.8; »¡©ú¤å¥ó¡A¥H¨ú±o§ó¦h¦³Ãö securelevel ªº¸ê°T¡AÁÙ¦³
/etc/defaults/rc.conf ©M &man.rc.conf.5;
»¡©ú¤å¥ó¡A¥H¨ú±o§ó¦h¦³Ãö rc.conf ªº¸ê°T¡C
¬°¤°»ò rpc.statd ¥Î¤F 256 megabytes
ªº°O¾ÐÅé¡H
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256MB¡C
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§A¥¿¦b¤@Ó´£°ª¤F securelevel (¤]´N¬O¤j©ó 0) ªº¨t²Î¹B§@¡C
°§C securelevel ¦A¸Õ¸Õ¬Ý¡C½Ð°Ñ¦Ò
FAQ ¤¤¹ï securelevel ªº»¡©ú ©M &man.init.8; »¡©ú¤å¥ó¡C
¬°¤°»òªñ¨Óªº·sª© FreeBSD ¹w³]µLªk§Q¥Î .shosts
§¹¦¨ SSH »{ÃÒ¡H
¬°¤°»òªñ¨Ó·sª© FreeBSD .shosts »{ÃÒ¹w³]
¬°¨ú®øªºì¦]¡A¬O¦]¬° &man.ssh.1; ¹w³]¤£¦w¸Ë¬° suid ¦¨
root ¡Cn ×¥¿
³oÂI¡A§A¥i¥H§@¤U¦Cªº
¥ô¦ó¤@¥ó¨Æ¡G
n¤@³Ò¥Ã¶h¸Ñ¨M¡A½Ð±N /etc/make.conf
¸Ìªº ENABLE_SUID_SSH ³]¦¨ true
¡AµM«á¦A«·s build ssh (©Î¬O°õ¦æ make
world )¡C
¥u§@¤@®Éªº×¥¿ªº¸Ü¡A¥i¥H root ¨¥÷
°õ¦æ chmod 4755 /usr/bin/ssh ±N
/usr/bin/ssh ³]¦¨ 4555
¡CµM«á±N ENABLE_SUID_SSH= true
¥[¤J /etc/make.conf ¸Ì¡A³o¼Ë¤U¦¸
make world °õ¦æ´N·|¥Í®Ä¤F¡C
¤°»ò¬O vnlru ?
·í¨t²Î¹F¨ì¤W kern.maxvnodes ®É¡A
vnlru ·|²M°£¨ÃÄÀ©ñ vnode¡C³oÓ®Ö¤ß
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Wei-Hon
Chen
plasmaball@pchome.com.tw
X Window System ¤Î Virtual Consoles
§Ú·Qn°õ¦æ X ¡A§Ú¸Ó«ç»ò°µ¡H
³Ì²³æªº¤èªk´N¬O¦b¦w¸Ë¨t²Îªº®ÉÔ¤@¨Ö¦w¸Ë¡C
µM«á¬Ý¬Ý &man.xorgconfig.1; ªº¤å¥ó¡A³oÓµ{¦¡¥i¥H
- À°±z³]©w &xfree86; ¬ÛÃö³]©w¡A¨Ï¥¦¯à°÷¥¿½T¹B¥Î±zªºÅã¥Ü¥d¡B·Æ¹«µ¥¶gÃä¡C¦¹¥~¡AÁÙ¥i¥H¥Î &man.xorgcfg.1;
+ À°±z³]©w &xorg; ¬ÛÃö³]©w¡A¨Ï¥¦¯à°÷¥¿½T¹B¥Î±zªºÅã¥Ü¥d¡B·Æ¹«µ¥¶gÃä¡C¦¹¥~¡AÁÙ¥i¥H¥Î &man.xorgcfg.1;
ªº¹Ï§Î¤¶±¨Ó°µ¬ÛÃö³]©w¡C
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§Aªº¨t²Î¤@©w´£°ª¤F securelevel¡A¹ï¤£¹ï¡H¦b¤@Ó´£°ª¤F
securelevel ªº¨t²Î¤W¡A¬Oµ´¹ïµLªk°_°Ê X ªº¡C·Qª¾¹D¬°¤°»ò¡A
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò &man.init.8; »¡©ú¤å¥ó¡C
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±N§Aªº securelevel ³]¦^¹s (³q±`¦b /etc/rc.conf
¸Ì±³]©w)¡A©Î¬O¦b±Ò°Ê®É°õ¦æ &man.xdm.1; (¦b
securelevel ³Qª@°ª«e)¡C
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¬°¤°»ò§Ú¤£¯à¦b X ¸Ì¨Ï¥Î·Æ¹«¡H
¦pªG±z¥Îªº¬O syscons (¤º©wªº console ÅX°Êµ{¦¡) ªº¸Ü¡A±z¥i¥H
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ÁקK©M X ²£¥Í½Ä¬ð¡Asyscons ¨Ï¥Î¤F¤@Ó¥s°µ
/dev/sysmouse ªºµêÀÀ¸Ë¸m¡C©Ò¦³·Æ¹«²£¥Íªº
event ³£·|§Q¥Î moused ¨Ó¼g¨ì sysmouse ³oӸ˸m¡C¦pªG±z§Æ±æ¦b¤@Ó
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¯à°÷¨Ï¥Î X ªº¸Ü¡A½Ð°Ñ¦Ò
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moused¡C
µM«á½s¿è /etc/XF86Config ³oÓÀɮסA
¨Ã¥B½T»{§A¦³¥H¤U³o´X¦æªº³]©w¡C
Section Pointer
Protocol "SysMouse"
Device "/dev/sysmouse"
....
¥H¤Wªº¨Ò¤l¡A¾A¥Î©ó XFree86 3.3.2 ¤Î¨ä«áªºª©¥»¡C¥Î©ó§ó¦ªº
ª©¥»ªº¡A¨ä Protocol À³¬°
MouseSystems ¡C
¦³¨Ç¤H¤ñ¸û³ßÅw¦b³]©w X ªº®ÉÔ¥Î
/dev/mouse ³oӸ˸m¡C¦pªG±znÅý¥¦¯à°÷
¥¿±`¤u§@ªº¸Ü¡A±z´N¥²¶·§â /dev/mouse
³sµ²¨ì /dev/sysmouse (½Ð°Ñ¦Ò
&man.sysmouse.4;):
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; rm -f mouse
&prompt.root; ln -s sysmouse mouse
- §Úªº·Æ¹«¦³Ó«Ü¬¯ªººu½ü¡C§Ú¯à¦b X ¸Ì±¨Ï¥Î¶Ü¡H
+ ·Æ¹«ªººu½ü¡A¯à¦b X ¸Ì±¨Ï¥Î¶Ü¡H
- ¥i¥H¡C¤£¹L§A»Ýn³]©w X ¥Î¤áºÝµ{¦¡¡C ½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¥i¥H¡C¤£¹L»Ýn³]©w X client ºÝµ{¦¡¡C ½Ð°Ñ¦Ò
Colas Nahaboo ªººô¶
(http://www.inria.fr/koala/colas/mouse-wheel-scroll/)
.
¦pªG§An¨Ï¥Î imwheel µ{¦¡¡A
¥un¸òµÛ¤U¦C¨BÆJ§@§Y¥i¡C
Âà´«ºu½ü event
Translate the Wheel Events
imwheel µ{¦¡ªº¹B§@ì²z¡A
¬O±N·Æ¹«ªº²Ä¥|Áä»P²Ä¤ÁäÂà´«¦¨«öÁä event¡C¦]¬°¦p¦¹¡A©Ò¥H
§A¥²¶·Åý·Æ¹«ÅX°Êµ{¦¡±N·Æ½ü¨Æ¥óÂà´«¦¨²Ä¥|Áä»P²Ä¤Áä event¡C
¦³¨âºØ¤èªk¥i¥H¹F¨ì¥Øªº¡A¤@¬OÅý &man.moused.8; §@Âà´«¡A¤G¬O
Åý X ¥»¨¥h§@ event Âà´«¡C
¨Ï¥Î &man.moused.8; ¨ÓÂà´«ºu½ü Event
nÅý &man.moused.8; ¨Ó§@ event Âà´«¡A¥un¦b
°õ¦æ &man.moused.8; ªº©R¥O¦C¤¤¥[¤W -z 4
§Y¥i¡CÁ|Ó¨Ò¤l¡A¦pªG§A¤@¯ë³£¬O¥H
moused -p /dev/psm0 ¨Ó°_°Ê
&man.moused.8; ªº¸Ü¡A¥un§ï¦¨ moused -p
/dev/psm0 -z 4 §Y¥i¡C¦pªG§A¬O¦b¶}¾÷¹Lµ{¤¤§Q¥Î
/etc/rc.conf ¨Ó°_°Ê &man.moused.8;¡A
§A¥i¥H¦b /etc/rc.conf ¤¤±N
moused_flags ¤W¥[ -z 4
§Y¥i¡C
§A²{¦b»ÝnÅý X ª¾¹D§Aªº·Æ¹«¦³¤Ó«öÁä¡A¥un¦b
/etc/XF86Config ¤¤ªº
Pointer
°Ï¶ô¤¤¥[¤W
Buttons 5 ³o¤@¦æ§Y¥i¡C¨Ò¦p¡A
§A¥i¯à¦b /etc/XF86Config ¤¤¦³
¥H¤Uªº Pointer
°Ï¶ô¡G
¦b XFree86 3.3.x ¨t¦Cªº XF86Config ³]©wÀɪº
Pointer
°Ï¶ô¤¤¡A¥H moused §@Âà´«
ªººu½ü¹«ªº³]©w½d¨Ò
Section "Pointer"
Protocol "SysMouse"
Device "/dev/sysmouse"
Buttons 5
EndSection
¦b XFree86 4.x ¨t¦Cªº XF86Config ³]©wÀɪº
InputDevice
°Ï¶ô¤¤¡A¥H X Server §@Âà´«
ªººu½ü¹«ªº³]©w½d¨Ò
Section "InputDevice"
Identifier "Mouse1"
Driver "mouse"
Option "Protocol" "auto"
Option "Device" "/dev/sysmouse"
Option "Buttons" "5"
EndSection
¦b .emacs
¤¤¡A³]©wºu½ü¹«ªºì¥Í
¶±ºu°Ê¤ä´©½d¨Ò
;; wheel mouse
(global-set-key [mouse-4] 'scroll-down)
(global-set-key [mouse-5] 'scroll-up)
§Q¥Î§Aªº X Server ¨Ó§@ºu½ü Event Âà´«
¦pªG§A¨S¦³°õ¦æ &man.moused.8;¡A©Î¬O§A¤£·Q§Q¥Î
&man.moused.8; ¥h§@ºu½ü event Âà´«¡A§A¥i¥H§ï¥Î
X server ¨Ó§@³o¼Ëªº event Âà´«¡C§A±o¦b
/etc/XF86Config Àɮפ¤§@´XÓ§ó°Ê¡C²Ä¤@¡A
§An¬°§Aªº·Æ¹«¿ï¾Ü¾A·íªº³q°T¨ó©w¡C¤j¦h¼Æªººu½ü¹«³£
¨Ï¥Î IntelliMouse
¨ó©w¡A¤£¹L XFree86
¤]¤ä´©¨ä¥¦ªº³q°T¨ó©w¡A¨Ò¦pù§Þªº MouseMan+ ·Æ¹«©Ò¥Îªº
MouseManPlusPS/2
¡C·í§A¿ï¦n¤§«á¡A¥un
¥[¶i¤@¦æ Pointer
°Ï¶ôªº
Protocol ÅܼƧY¥i¡C
²Ä¤G¡A§An§i¶D X server ±N±²°Ê¨Æ¥ó«·s¹ï¬M¦Ü·Æ¹«ªº
²Ä¥|©M²Ä¤Áä¡C³o¥i¥H§Q¥Î ZAxisMapping
¿ï¶µ¿ì¨ì¡C
Á|Ó¨Ò¤l¡A¦pªG§A¨S¦³¨Ï¥Î &man.moused.8;¡A¦Ó§A¦³¤@Ó
IntelliMouse ¦w¸Ë¦b PS/2 ·Æ¹«°ðªº¸Ü¡A§A¥i¥H¦b
/etc/XF86Config ¸Ì¨Ï¥Î¥H¤Uªº³]©w¡C
¦b XF86Config ³]©wÀɪº Pointer
°Ï¶ô¤¤¡A¥H X Server §@Âà´«ªººu½ü¹«ªº³]©w½d¨Ò
Section "Pointer"
Protocol "IntelliMouse"
Device "/dev/psm0"
ZAxisMapping 4 5
EndSection
¦b XFree86 4.x ¨t¦Cªº XF86Config ³]©wÀɪº
InputDevice
°Ï¶ô¤¤¡A¥H X Server §@Âà´«
ªººu½ü¹«ªº³]©w½d¨Ò
Section "InputDevice"
Identifier "Mouse1"
Driver "mouse"
Option "Protocol" "auto"
Option "Device" "/dev/psm0"
Option "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"
EndSection
¦b .emacs
¤¤¡A³]©wºu½ü¹«ªºì¥Í
¶±ºu°Ê¤ä´©½d¨Ò
;; wheel mouse
(global-set-key [mouse-4] 'scroll-down)
(global-set-key [mouse-5] 'scroll-up)
¦w¸Ë imwheel
±µ¤U¨Ó¡A±q Ports ¸Ì¦w¸Ë imwheel
¡C¦b x11 Ãþ§O¸Ì¥i¥H§ä¨ì¥¦¡A¥¦¥i¥H±N
ºu½ü event ¹ï¬M¨ìÁä½L event¡CÁ|Ó¨Ò¤l¡A¥¦¥i¥H¦b§A
±Nºu½ü©¹«e±À®É¡A°e¥X¤@Ó Page Up
¨ì§AªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¥h¡CImwheel
§Q¥Î¤@Ó³]©wÀÉ¡A¥H«K¹ïÀ³ºu½ü event ¦ÜÁä½L event¡A³o¼Ë
¥¦´N¥i¥H¦b¤£¦PªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¤¤¡A°e¥X¤£¦PªºÁä½L«öÁä¡C¹w³]ªº
imwheel ³]©wÀɬO¦b
/usr/X11R6/etc/imwheelrc ¡A¦pªG§A·Q
½s¿è¦Ûqªº³]©wÀɪº¸Ü¡A¥i¥H±N¥¦½Æ»s¨ì
~/.imwheelrc ¡AµM«á¨Ì§Aªº»Ýnק復¡C
³]©wÀɪº®æ¦¡¦b &man.imwheel.1; ¸Ì±¦³¸Ô²Óªº»¡©ú¡C
³]©w Emacs »P
Imwheel ¨ó¦P¤u§@
(¿ï¾Ü©Ê )
¦pªG§A¨Ï¥Î emacs ©Î¬O
Xemacs ªº¸Ü¡A¨º§A»Ýn¦b§Aªº
~/.emacs Àɮ׸̥[¤W¤@¤p¬q³]©w¡C
emacs ½Ð¥[¤W³o¤@¬q¡G
Imwheel ªº
Emacs ³]©w
;;; For imwheel
(setq imwheel-scroll-interval 3)
(defun imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-down imwheel-scroll-interval))
(defun imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-up imwheel-scroll-interval))
(global-set-key [?\M-\C-\)] 'imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines)
(global-set-key [?\M-\C-\(] 'imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines)
;;; end imwheel section
Xemacs «h¦b
~/.emacs Àɸ̥[¤W³o¤@¬q¡G
Imwheel ªº
Xemacs ³]©w
;;; For imwheel
(setq imwheel-scroll-interval 3)
(defun imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-down imwheel-scroll-interval))
(defun imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines ()
(interactive)
(scroll-up imwheel-scroll-interval))
(define-key global-map [(control meta \))] 'imwheel-scroll-up-some-lines)
(define-key global-map [(control meta \()] 'imwheel-scroll-down-some-lines)
;;; end imwheel section
°õ¦æ Imwheel
¦w¸Ë¤§«á¡A§A¥i¥Hª½±µ¦b xterm ¸ÌÁä¤J imwheel
©R¥O¥H°_°Ê¥¦¡C¥¦·|¥HI´º°õ¦æ¡A¨Ã¥B°¨¤Wµo´§®Ä¥Î¡C
¦pªG§A½T©wnª½±µ¨Ï¥Î imwheel ¡A
¥un§â¥¦¥[¶i§A¦Û¤vªº .xinitrc ©Î
.xsession ¤ºÀɮקY¥i¡C§A¥i¥H¤£ºÞ
imwheel ©Ò°e¥X¨Ó¦³Ãö PID ÀÉ®×
ĵ§i¡C¨º¨Çĵ§i¥u¹ï Linux ª©ªº imwheel
¦³®Ä¦Ó¤w¡C
§â Num Lock Ãö±¼¸Õ¸Õ¡C
¦pªG±zªº Num Lock ¦b¶}¾÷®Éªº¹w³]ȬO¶}µÛªº¸Ü¡A±z¥²¶·§â¤U¦C
³o¦æ©ñ¨ì XF86Config ³]©wÀɤ¤ªº
Keyboard ³¡¥÷¡C
# Let the server do the NumLock processing. This should only be
# required when using pre-R6 clients
ServerNumLock
¤°»ò¬O virtual console¡H§Ún«ç»ò°µ¤~¯à¥Î¦h¤@ÂI¡H
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login ªº´£¥Ü²Å¸¹¡C¦b³oÓ®ÉÔ±z´N¥i¥H¿é¤J±zªº login name ¥H¤Î
password ¡AµM«á´N¥i¥H¦b²Ä¤@Ó virtual console ¤W¶}©l¤u§@¤F
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±z´N·|¦b²Ä¤GÓ virtual console
¤W¬Ý¨ì¤@Ó login
´£¥Ü²Å¸¹¡I·í±z·Qn¦^¨ìì¨Óªº¤u§@®É¡A½Ð«ö Alt-F1¡C
FreeBSD ¦b¦w¸Ë®Éªº¹w³]ȬO¨Ï¥Î¤TÓ virtual console
(3.3-RELEASE «á¬°¤KÓ)¡A±z¥i¥H¥Î Alt-F1¡AAlt-F2¡A¥H¤Î Alt-F3
¦b¥¦Ì¤§¶¡°µ¤Á´«¡C
¦pªG±z·Qn¦h¤@ÂI virtual console ªº¸Ü¡A±z¥u»Ýn½s¿è
/etc/ttys ³oÓÀÉ (½Ð°Ñ¦Ò &man.ttys.5;)¡A
¦b Virtual terminals
³oÓµù¸Ñ«á±¥[¤J
ttyv4 ¨ì ttyvc
ªºÄæ¦ì¡G
# Edit the existing entry for ttyv3 in /etc/ttys and change
# "off" to "on".
ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv4 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv5 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv6 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv8 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv9 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyva "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
±z·Q¥Î´XÓ´N³]´XÓ¡C±z³]¶V¦h virtual terminal ¡A¥¦Ì´N¥Î±¼
¶V¦h¨t²Î¸ê·½¡F¦pªG±z¥u¦³¤£¨ì 8MB ªº°O¾ÐÅ骺¸Ü¡A³o¼vÅT´N¤j¤F¡C
±z¥i¯à¤]·|·Q§â secure ´«¦¨
insecure ¡C
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¬°¥¦«O¯d (©ÎÃö±¼) ¦Ü¤Ö¤@Ó virtual terminal ¡C³o´N¬O»¡¡A¦pªG
±z·Q¦b«ö¤Q¤GÓ Alt ¥\¯àÁä®É³£¦³ login ´£¥Ü²Å¸¹¡A¦Ó¥B¤S¦b¦P¤@
³¡¹q¸£¤W¤]·Q°õ¦æ X ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò³o¯u¬O¤Ó¤£©¯¤F - ±z¥u¯à¥Î¤Q¤@Ó¡C
¨ú®ø¤@Ó console ³Ì²³æªº¤èªk´N¬O§â¥¦Ãö±¼¡CÁ|¨Ò¨Ó»¡¡A¦pªG
±z¹³¤W±Á¿ªº¤@¼Ë³]©w¤F¥þ³¡ªº 12 Ó terminal ¨Ã¥B·Qn°õ¦æ X ¡A
±z¥²»Ý§â virtual terminal 12 ±q¡G
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
³]¦¨¡G
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
¦pªG±zªºÁä½L¥u¦³ 10 Ó¥\¯àÁ䪺¸Ü¡A±z´Nn§ï¦¨³o¼Ë¡G
ttyv9 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
ttyva "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
ttyvb "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure
(±z¤]¥i¥Hª½±µ§â³o´X¦æ¬å±¼¡C)
¤@¥¹±z§ï¤F /etc/ttys ¡A¤U¤@Ó¨BÆJ´N¬On
½T©w±z¦³¨¬°÷ªº virtual terminal ¸Ë¸m¡C³Ì²³æªº¤èªk´N¬O¡G
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV vty12
¦A¹L¨Ó¡A·Qn±Ò°Ê³o¨Ç virtual console ³Ì²³æ (¤]¬O³Ì°®²b)
ªº°µªk´N¬O«¶}¾÷¡CµM«á¡A¦pªG±z¤£·Q«¶}¾÷ªº¸Ü¡A±z¥i¥H§â X Window
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Biing Jong
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PPP
I cannot make &man.ppp.8; work. What am I doing wrong?
You should first read the
&man.ppp.8;
man page and the
PPP section of the handbook . Enable logging with
the command
set log Phase Chat Connect Carrier lcp ipcp ccp command
This command may be typed at the
&man.ppp.8; command prompt or it may be
entered in the /etc/ppp/ppp.conf
configuration file (the start of the
default section is the best
place to put it). Make sure that
/etc/syslog.conf (see &man.syslog.conf.5;) contains the lines
!ppp
*.* /var/log/ppp.log
and that the file /var/log/ppp.log
exists. You can now find out a lot about what is going on
from the log file. Do not worry if it does not all make sense.
If you need to get help from someone, it may make sense to
them.
If your version of &man.ppp.8; does not understand the
set log command, you should download the
latest version . It will build on FreeBSD version
2.1.5 and higher.
Why does &man.ppp.8; hang when I run it?
This is usually because your hostname will not resolve.
The best way to fix this is to make sure that
/etc/hosts is consulted by your
resolver first by editing /etc/host.conf
and putting the hosts line first. Then,
simply put an entry in /etc/hosts for
your local machine. If you have no local network, change your
localhost line:
127.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo localhost
Otherwise, simply add another entry for your host.
Consult the relevant man pages for more details.
You should be able to successfully
ping -c1 `hostname` when you are done.
Why will &man.ppp.8; not dial in -auto
mode?
First, check that you have got a default route. By running
netstat -rn (see &man.netstat.1;), you should see two entries like this:
Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire
default 10.0.0.2 UGSc 0 0 tun0
10.0.0.2 10.0.0.1 UH 0 0 tun0
This is assuming that you have used the addresses from the
handbook, the man page or from the ppp.conf.sample file.
If you do not have a default route, it may be because you are
running an old version of &man.ppp.8;
that does not understand the word HISADDR
in the ppp.conf file. If your version of
&man.ppp.8; is from before FreeBSD
2.2.5, change the
add 0 0 HISADDR
line to one saying
add 0 0 10.0.0.2
Another reason for the default route line being missing
is that you have mistakenly set up a default router in your
/etc/rc.conf (see &man.rc.conf.5;) file (this file was called
/etc/sysconfig prior to release 2.2.2),
and you have omitted the line saying
delete ALL
from ppp.conf . If this is the case,
go back to the
Final system configuration section of the
handbook.
What does No route to host mean?
This error is usually due to a missing
MYADDR:
delete ALL
add 0 0 HISADDR
section in your /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup
file. This is only necessary if you have a dynamic IP address
or do not know the address of your gateway. If you are using
interactive mode, you can type the following after entering
packet mode (packet mode is
indicated by the capitalized PPP in the
prompt):
delete ALL
add 0 0 HISADDR
Refer to the
PPP and Dynamic IP addresses section of the handbook
for further details.
Why does my connection drop after about 3 minutes?
The default PPP timeout is 3 minutes. This can be
adjusted with the line
set timeout NNN
where NNN is the number of
seconds of inactivity before the connection is closed. If
NNN is zero, the connection is never
closed due to a timeout. It is possible to put this command in
the ppp.conf file, or to type it at the
prompt in interactive mode. It is also possible to adjust it on
the fly while the line is active by connecting to
ppp s server socket using
&man.telnet.1; or &man.pppctl.8;.
Refer to the
&man.ppp.8; man
page for further details.
Why does my connection drop under heavy load?
If you have Link Quality Reporting (LQR) configured,
it is possible that too many LQR packets are lost between
your machine and the peer. Ppp deduces that the line must
therefore be bad, and disconnects. Prior to FreeBSD version
2.2.5, LQR was enabled by default. It is now disabled by
default. LQR can be disabled with the line
disable lqr
Why does my connection drop after a random amount of
time?
Sometimes, on a noisy phone line or even on a line with
call waiting enabled, your modem may hang up because it
thinks (incorrectly) that it lost carrier.
There is a setting on most modems for determining how
tolerant it should be to temporary losses of carrier. On a
USR Sportster for example, this is measured by the S10
register in tenths of a second. To make your modem more
forgiving, you could add the following send-expect sequence
to your dial string:
set dial "...... ATS10=10 OK ......"
Refer to your modem manual for details.
Why does my connection hang after a random amount of
time?
Many people experience hung connections with no apparent
explanation. The first thing to establish is which side of
the link is hung.
If you are using an external modem, you can simply try
using &man.ping.8; to see if the
TD light is flashing when you transmit data.
If it flashes (and the RD light does not),
the problem is with the remote end. If TD
does not flash, the problem is local. With an internal modem,
you will need to use the set server command in
your ppp.conf file. When the hang occurs,
connect to &man.ppp.8; using &man.pppctl.8;. If your network connection
suddenly revives (PPP was revived due to the activity on the
diagnostic socket) or if you cannot connect (assuming the
set socket command succeeded at startup
time), the problem is local. If you can connect and things are
still hung, enable local async logging with set log
local async and use &man.ping.8; from
another window or terminal to make use of the link. The async
logging will show you the data being transmitted and received
on the link. If data is going out and not coming back, the
problem is remote.
Having established whether the problem is local or remote,
you now have two possibilities:
The remote end is not responding. What can I do?
There is very little you can do about this. Most ISPs
will refuse to help if you are not running a Microsoft OS.
You can enable lqr in your
ppp.conf file, allowing &man.ppp.8; to detect
the remote failure and hang up, but this detection is
relatively slow and therefore not that useful. You may want to
avoid telling your ISP that you are running user-PPP...
First, try disabling all local compression by adding the
following to your configuration:
disable pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vj
deny pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vj
Then reconnect to ensure that this makes no difference.
If things improve or if the problem is solved completely,
determine which setting makes the difference through trial
and error. This will provide good ammunition when you contact
your ISP (although it may make it apparent that you are not
running a Microsoft product).
Before contacting your ISP, enable async logging locally
and wait until the connection hangs again. This may use up
quite a bit of disk space. The last data read from the port
may be of interest. It is usually ascii data, and may even
describe the problem
(Memory fault, core dumped
?).
If your ISP is helpful, they should be able to enable
logging on their end, then when the next link drop occurs,
they may be able to tell you why their side is having a
problem. Feel free to send the details to &a.brian;, or
even to ask your ISP to contact me directly.
&man.ppp.8; has hung. What can I do?
Your best bet here is to rebuild &man.ppp.8; by adding
CFLAGS+=-g and STRIP=
to the end of the Makefile, then doing a
make clean && make && make
install . When &man.ppp.8; hangs, find the &man.ppp.8; process id
with ps ajxww | fgrep ppp and run
gdb ppp PID .
From the gdb prompt, you can then use bt
to get a stack trace.
Send the results to brian@Awfulhak.org .
Why does nothing happen after the Login OK!
message?
Prior to FreeBSD version 2.2.5, once the link was
established, &man.ppp.8;
would wait for the peer to initiate the Line Control Protocol
(LCP). Many ISPs will not initiate negotiations and expect
the client to do so. To force
&man.ppp.8; to initiate the LCP, use the
following line:
set openmode active
It usually does no
harm if both sides initiate negotiation, so openmode is now
active by default. However, the next section explains when
it does do some harm.
I keep seeing errors about magic being the same. What does
it mean?
Occasionally, just after connecting, you may see messages
in the log that say magic is the same
.
Sometimes, these messages are harmless, and sometimes one side
or the other exits. Most PPP implementations cannot survive
this problem, and even if the link seems to come up, you will see
repeated configure requests and configure acknowledgments in
the log file until &man.ppp.8; eventually gives up and closes the
connection.
This normally happens on server machines with slow disks
that are spawning a getty on the port, and executing &man.ppp.8; from
a login script or program after login. I have also heard reports
of it happening consistently when using slirp. The reason is
that in the time taken between &man.getty.8; exiting and &man.ppp.8; starting,
the client-side &man.ppp.8; starts sending Line Control Protocol (LCP)
packets. Because ECHO is still switched on for the port on
the server, the client &man.ppp.8; sees these packets
reflect
back.
One part of the LCP negotiation is to establish a magic
number for each side of the link so that
reflections
can be detected. The protocol says
that when the peer tries to negotiate the same magic number, a
NAK should be sent and a new magic number should be chosen.
During the period that the server port has ECHO turned on, the
client &man.ppp.8; sends LCP packets, sees the same magic in the
reflected packet and NAKs it. It also sees the NAK reflect
(which also means &man.ppp.8; must change its magic). This produces a
potentially enormous number of magic number changes, all of
which are happily piling into the server's tty buffer. As soon
as &man.ppp.8; starts on the server, it is flooded with magic number
changes and almost immediately decides it has tried enough to
negotiate LCP and gives up. Meanwhile, the client, who no
longer sees the reflections, becomes happy just in time to see
a hangup from the server.
This can be avoided by allowing the peer to start
negotiating with the following line in your ppp.conf
file:
set openmode passive
This tells &man.ppp.8; to wait for the server to initiate LCP
negotiations. Some servers however may never initiate
negotiations. If this is the case, you can do something
like:
set openmode active 3
This tells &man.ppp.8; to be passive for 3 seconds, and then to
start sending LCP requests. If the peer starts sending
requests during this period, &man.ppp.8; will immediately respond
rather than waiting for the full 3 second period.
LCP negotiations continue until the connection is
closed. What is wrong?
There is currently an implementation mis-feature in
&man.ppp.8; where it does not associate
LCP, CCP & IPCP responses with their original requests. As
a result, if one PPP
implementation is more than 6 seconds slower than the other
side, the other side will send two additional LCP configuration
requests. This is fatal.
Consider two implementations,
A and
B . A starts
sending LCP requests immediately after connecting and
B takes 7 seconds to start. When
B starts, A
has sent 3 LCP REQs. We are assuming the line has ECHO switched
off, otherwise we would see magic number problems as described in
the previous section. B sends a
REQ, then an ACK to the first of
A 's REQs. This results in
A entering the OPENED
state and sending and ACK (the first) back to
B . In the meantime,
B sends back two more ACKs in response to
the two additional REQs sent by A
before B started up.
B then receives the first ACK from
A and enters the
OPENED state.
A receives the second ACK from
B and goes back to the
REQ-SENT state, sending another (forth) REQ
as per the RFC. It then receives the third ACK and enters the
OPENED state. In the meantime,
B receives the forth REQ from
A , resulting in it reverting to the
ACK-SENT state and sending
another (second) REQ and (forth) ACK as per the RFC.
A gets the REQ, goes into
REQ-SENT and sends another REQ. It
immediately receives the following ACK and enters
OPENED .
This goes on until one side figures out that they are
getting nowhere and gives up.
The best way to avoid this is to configure one side to be
passive - that is, make one side
wait for the other to start negotiating. This can be done
with the
set openmode passive
command. Care should be taken with this option. You
should also use the
set stopped N
command to limit the amount of time that
&man.ppp.8; waits for the peer to begin
negotiations. Alternatively, the
set openmode active N
command (where N is the
number of seconds to wait before starting negotiations) can be
used. Check the manual page for details.
Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up shortly after connection?
Prior to version 2.2.5 of FreeBSD, it was possible that
your link was disabled shortly after connection due to
&man.ppp.8; mis-handling Predictor1
compression negotiation. This would only happen if both sides
tried to negotiate different Compression Control Protocols
(CCP). This problem is now corrected, but if you are still
running an old version of &man.ppp.8;
the problem can be circumvented with the line
disable pred1
Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up when I shell out to test it?
When you execute the shell or
! command, &man.ppp.8; executes a
shell (or if you have passed any arguments,
&man.ppp.8; will execute those arguments). Ppp will
wait for the command to complete before continuing. If you
attempt to use the PPP link while running the command, the link
will appear to have frozen. This is because
&man.ppp.8; is waiting for the command to
complete.
If you wish to execute commands like this, use the
!bg command instead. This will execute
the given command in the background, and &man.ppp.8; can continue to
service the link.
Why does &man.ppp.8; over a null-modem cable never exit?
There is no way for &man.ppp.8; to
automatically determine that a direct connection has been
dropped. This is due to the lines that are used in a
null-modem serial cable. When using this sort of connection,
LQR should always be enabled with the line
enable lqr
LQR is accepted by default if negotiated by the peer.
Why does &man.ppp.8; dial for no reason in -auto mode?
If &man.ppp.8; is dialing
unexpectedly, you must determine the cause, and set up Dial
filters (dfilters) to prevent such dialing.
To determine the cause, use the following line:
set log +tcp/ip
This will log all traffic through the connection. The
next time the line comes up unexpectedly, you will see the
reason logged with a convenient timestamp next to it.
You can now disable dialing under these circumstances.
Usually, this sort of problem arises due to DNS lookups. To
prevent DNS lookups from establishing a connection (this will
not prevent
&man.ppp.8; from passing the packets
through an established connection), use the following:
set dfilter 1 deny udp src eq 53
set dfilter 2 deny udp dst eq 53
set dfilter 3 permit 0/0 0/0
This is not always suitable, as it will effectively break
your demand-dial capabilities - most programs will need a DNS
lookup before doing any other network related things.
In the DNS case, you should try to determine what is
actually trying to resolve a host name. A lot of the time,
&man.sendmail.8; is the culprit. You should make sure that
you tell sendmail not to do any DNS lookups in its
configuration file. See the section on
Mail Configuration for details
on how to create your own configuration file and what should
go into it. You may also want to add the following line to
your .mc file:
define(`confDELIVERY_MODE', `d')dnl
This will make sendmail queue everything until the queue
is run (usually, sendmail is invoked with
-bd -q30m , telling it to run the queue every
30 minutes) or until a sendmail -q is done
(perhaps from your ppp.linkup file).
What do these CCP errors mean?
I keep seeing the following errors in my log file:
CCP: CcpSendConfigReq
CCP: Received Terminate Ack (1) state = Req-Sent (6)
This is because &man.ppp.8; is trying to negotiate Predictor1
compression, and the peer does not want to negotiate any
compression at all. The messages are harmless, but if you
wish to remove them, you can disable Predictor1 compression
locally too:
disable pred1
Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up during file transfers with IO
errors?
Under FreeBSD 2.2.2 and before, there was a bug in the
tun driver that prevents incoming packets of a size larger
than the tun interface's MTU size. Receipt of a packet
greater than the MTU size results in an IO error being logged
via syslogd.
The PPP specification says that an MRU of 1500 should
always be accepted as a minimum,
despite any LCP negotiations, therefore it is possible that
should you decrease the MTU to less than 1500, your ISP will
transmit packets of 1500 regardless, and you will tickle this
non-feature - locking up your link.
The problem can be circumvented by never setting an MTU of
less than 1500 under FreeBSD 2.2.2 or before.
Why does &man.ppp.8; not log my connection speed?
In order to log all lines of your modem
conversation
, you must enable the
following:
set log +connect
This will make &man.ppp.8; log
everything up until the last requested expect
string.
If you wish to see your connect speed and are using PAP
or CHAP (and therefore do not have anything to
chat
after the CONNECT in the dial script - no
set login script), you must make sure that
you instruct &man.ppp.8; to expect
the whole CONNECT
line, something like this:
set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 4 \
\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK ATDT\\T TIMEOUT 60 CONNECT \\c \\n"
Here, we get our CONNECT, send nothing, then expect a
line-feed, forcing &man.ppp.8; to read
the whole CONNECT response.
Why does &man.ppp.8; ignore the \ character
in my chat script?
Ppp parses each line in your config files so that it can
interpret strings such as
set phone "123 456 789" correctly (and
realize that the number is actually only
one argument. In order to specify a
" character, you must escape it
using a backslash (\ ).
When the chat interpreter parses each argument, it
re-interprets the argument in order to find any special
escape sequences such as \P or
\T (see the man page). As a result of this
double-parsing, you must remember to use the correct number of
escapes.
If you wish to actually send a \
character to (say) your modem, you would need something
like:
set dial "\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK AT\\\\X OK"
resulting in the following sequence:
ATZ
OK
AT\X
OK
or
set phone 1234567
set dial "\"\" ATZ OK ATDT\\T"
resulting in the following sequence:
ATZ
OK
ATDT1234567
Why does &man.ppp.8; get a seg-fault, but I see no
ppp.core file?
Ppp (or any other program for that matter) should never
dump core. Because &man.ppp.8; runs with an effective user id of 0,
the operating system will not write &man.ppp.8;'s core image to disk
before terminating it. If, however &man.ppp.8;
is actually terminating due to a
segmentation violation or some other signal that normally
causes core to be dumped, and
you are sure you are using the latest version (see the start of
this section), then you should do the following:
&prompt.user; tar xfz ppp-*.src.tar.gz
&prompt.user; cd ppp*/ppp
&prompt.user; echo STRIP= >>Makefile
&prompt.user; echo CFLAGS+=-g >>Makefile
&prompt.user; make clean all
&prompt.user; su
&prompt.root; make install
&prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/sbin/ppp
You will now have a debuggable version of &man.ppp.8; installed.
You will have to be root to run &man.ppp.8; as all of its privileges
have been revoked. When you start &man.ppp.8;, take a careful note
of what your current directory was at the time.
Now, if and when &man.ppp.8; receives the segmentation violation,
it will dump a core file called ppp.core . You should then do
the following:
&prompt.user; su
&prompt.root; gdb /usr/sbin/ppp ppp.core
(gdb) bt
.....
(gdb) f 0
....
(gdb) i args
....
(gdb) l
.....
All of this information should be given alongside your
question, making it possible to diagnose the problem.
If you are familiar with gdb, you may wish to find out some
other bits and pieces such as what actually caused the dump and
the addresses & values of the relevant variables.
Why does the process that forces a dial in auto mode never
connect?
This was a known problem with
&man.ppp.8; set up to negotiate a
dynamic local IP number with the peer in auto mode. It is
fixed in the latest version - search the man page for
iface .
The problem was that when that initial program calls
&man.connect.2;, the IP number of the tun interface is assigned
to the socket endpoint. The kernel creates the first outgoing
packet and writes it to the tun device.
&man.ppp.8; then reads the packet and
establishes a connection. If, as a result of
&man.ppp.8;'s dynamic IP assignment, the
interface address is changed, the original socket endpoint will
be invalid. Any subsequent packets sent to the peer will
usually be dropped. Even if they are not, any responses will
not route back to the originating machine as the IP number is
no longer owned by that machine.
There are several theoretical ways to approach this
problem. It would be nicest if the peer would re-assign the
same IP number if possible :-)
The current version of &man.ppp.8; does
this, but most other implementations do not.
The easiest method from our side would be to never change
the tun interface IP number, but instead to change all outgoing
packets so that the source IP number is changed from the
interface IP to the negotiated IP on the fly. This is
essentially what the iface-alias option in
the latest version of &man.ppp.8; is
doing (with the help of
&man.libalias.3; and &man.ppp.8;'s -nat switch) -
it is maintaining all previous interface addresses and NATing
them to the last negotiated address.
Another alternative (and probably the most reliable) would
be to implement a system call that changes all bound sockets
from one IP to another. &man.ppp.8; would
use this call to modify the sockets of all existing programs
when a new IP number is negotiated. The same system call could
be used by dhcp clients when they are forced to re-bind() their
sockets.
Yet another possibility is to allow an interface to be
brought up without an IP number. Outgoing packets would be
given an IP number of 255.255.255.255 up until the first
SIOCAIFADDR ioctl is done. This would result in fully binding
the socket. It would be up to &man.ppp.8;
to change the source IP number, but only if it is set to
255.255.255.255, and only the IP number and IP checksum would
need to change. This, however is a bit of a hack as the kernel
would be sending bad packets to an improperly configured
interface, on the assumption that some other mechanism is
capable of fixing things retrospectively.
Why do most games not work with the -nat switch?
The reason games and the like do not work when libalias
is in use is that the machine on the outside will try to open a
connection or send (unsolicited) UDP packets to the machine on
the inside. The NAT software does not know that it should send
these packets to the interior machine.
To make things work, make sure that the only thing
running is the software that you are having problems with, then
either run tcpdump on the tun interface of the gateway or
enable &man.ppp.8; tcp/ip logging (set log +tcp/ip )
on the gateway.
When you start the offending software, you should see
packets passing through the gateway machine. When something
comes back from the outside, it will be dropped (that is the
problem). Note the port number of these packets then shut down
the offending software. Do this a few times to see if the port
numbers are consistent. If they are, then the following line in
the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf will make the
software functional:
nat port proto internalmachine :port port
where proto is either
tcp or udp ,
internalmachine is the machine that
you want the packets to be sent to and
port is the destination port number
of the packets.
You will not be able to use the software on other machines
without changing the above command, and running the software
on two internal machines at the same time is out of the question
- after all, the outside world is seeing your entire internal
network as being just a single machine.
If the port numbers are not consistent, there are three
more options:
Submit support in
libalias. Examples of special cases
can be found
in /usr/src/lib/libalias/alias_*.c
(alias_ftp.c is a good prototype). This
usually involves reading certain recognised outgoing packets,
identifying the instruction that tells the outside machine to
initiate a connection back to the internal machine on a
specific (random) port and setting up a route
in
the alias table so that the subsequent packets know where to
go.
This is the most difficult solution, but it is the best
and will make the software work with multiple machines.
Use a proxy. The
application may support socks5 for example, or (as in the
cvsup
case) may have a passive
option that avoids ever requesting that the peer open
connections back to the local machine.
Redirect everything to
the internal machine using nat addr . This
is the sledge-hammer approach.
Has anybody made a list of useful port numbers?
Not yet, but this is intended to grow into such a list
(if any interest is shown). In each example,
internal should be replaced with
the IP number of the machine playing the game.
Asheron's Call
nat port udp
internal
:65000 65000
Manually change the port number within the game to
65000. If you have got a number of machines that you wish
to play on assign a unique port number for each (i.e.
65001, 65002, etc) and add a nat port
line for each one.
Half Life
nat port udp
internal :27005
27015
PCAnywhere 8.0
nat port udp
internal :5632
5632
nat port tcp
internal :5631
5631
Quake
nat port udp
internal :6112
6112
Alternatively, you may want to take a look at
www.battle.net for Quake proxy support.
Quake 2
nat port udp
internal :27901
27910
nat port udp
internal :60021
60021
nat port udp
internal :60040
60040
Red Alert
nat port udp
internal :8675
8675
nat port udp
internal :5009
5009
What are FCS errors?
FCS stands for F rame
C heck
S equence. Each PPP packet
has a checksum attached to ensure that the data being
received is the data being sent. If the FCS of an incoming
packet is incorrect, the packet is dropped and the HDLC FCS
count is increased. The HDLC error values can be displayed
using the show hdlc command.
If your link is bad (or if your serial driver is dropping
packets), you will see the occasional FCS error. This is not
usually worth worrying about although it does slow down the
compression protocols substantially. If you have an external
modem, make sure your cable is properly shielded from
interference - this may eradicate the problem.
If your link freezes as soon as you have connected and you
see a large number of FCS errors, this may be because your link
is not 8 bit clean. Make sure your modem is not using software
flow control (XON/XOFF). If your datalink
must use software flow control, use the
command set accmap 0x000a0000 to tell
&man.ppp.8; to escape the ^Q and
^S characters.
Another reason for seeing too many FCS errors may be that
the remote end has stopped talking PPP . You
may want to enable async logging at this
point to determine if the incoming data is actually a login or
shell prompt. If you have a shell prompt at the remote end,
it is possible to terminate &man.ppp.8; without dropping the line by
using the close lcp command (a following
term command will reconnect you to the shell
on the remote machine.
If nothing in your log file indicates why the link might
have been terminated, you should ask the remote administrator
(your ISP?) why the session was terminated.
Why do MacOS and Windows 98 connections freeze when
running PPPoE on the gateway?
Thanks to Michael Wozniak
mwozniak@netcom.ca for figuring this out and
Dan Flemming danflemming@mac.com for the Mac
solution:
This is due to what is called a Black Hole
router. MacOS and Windows 98 (and maybe other Microsoft OSs)
send TCP packets with a requested segment size too big to fit
into a PPPoE frame (MTU is 1500 by default for Ethernet)
and have the do not
fragment
bit set (default of TCP) and the Telco router
is not sending ICMP must fragment
back to the
www site you are trying to load. (Alternatively, the router is
sending the ICMP packet correctly, but the firewall at the www
site is dropping it.) When the www server is sending
you frames that do not fit into the PPPoE pipe the Telco router
drops them on the floor and your page does not load (some
pages/graphics do as they are smaller than a MSS.) This seems
to be the default of most Telco PPPoE configurations (if only
they knew how to program a router... sigh...)
One fix is to use regedit on your 95/98 boxes to add the
following registry entry...
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Services\Class\NetTrans\0000\MaxMTU
It should be a string with a value 1436
, as
some ADSL routers are reported to be unable to deal with packets
larger than this. This registry key has been changed to
Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\ID for adapter \MTU
in Windows 2000 and becomes a DWORD.
Refer to the Microsoft Knowledge Base documents Q158474
- Windows TCPIP Registry Entries and Q120642
- TCPIP & NBT Configuration Parameters for Windows
NT for more information on changing Windows MTU to
work with a NAT router.
Another regedit possibility under Windows 2000 is to
set the
Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\ID for
adapter \EnablePMTUBHDetect DWORD
to 1 as mentioned in the Microsoft document 120642
mentioned above.
Unfortunately, MacOS does not provide an interface for
changing TCP/IP settings. However, there is commercial software
available, such as OTAdvancedTuner (OT for OpenTransport, the
MacOS TCP/IP stack) by Sustainable Softworks ,
that will allow users to customize TCP/IP settings. MacOS NAT
users should select ip_interface_MTU from
the drop-down menu, enter 1450 instead of
1500 in the box, click the box next to
Save as Auto Configure , and click
Make Active .
The latest version of &man.ppp.8;
(2.3 or greater) has an enable tcpmssfixup
command that will automatically adjust the MSS to an appropriate
value. This facility is enabled by default. If you are stuck
with an older version of &man.ppp.8;, you
may want to look at the tcpmssd
port.
None of this helps - I am desperate! What can I do?
If all else fails, send as much information as you can,
including your config files, how you are starting
&man.ppp.8;, the relevant parts of your
log file and the output of the netstat -rn
command (before and after connecting) to the &a.questions; or
the
comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc news group, and someone
should point you in the right direction.
Serial Communications
This section answers common questions about serial
communications with FreeBSD. PPP and SLIP are covered in the
section.
How do I tell if FreeBSD found my serial ports?
As the FreeBSD kernel boots, it will probe for the serial
ports in your system for which the kernel was configured.
You can either watch your system closely for the messages it
prints or run the command
&prompt.user; dmesg | grep sio
after your system is up and running.
Here is some example output from the above command:
sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa
sio1: type 16550A
This shows two serial ports. The first is on irq 4, is
using port address 0x3f8 , and has a
16550A-type UART chip. The second uses the same kind of chip
but is on irq 3 and is at port address 0x2f8 .
Internal modem cards are treated just like serial ports---except
that they always have a modem attached
to the
port.
The GENERIC kernel includes support
for two serial ports using the same irq and port address
settings in the above example. If these settings are not
right for your system, or if you have added modem cards or have
more serial ports than your kernel is configured for, just
reconfigure your kernel. See section
about building a kernel for
more details.
How do I tell if FreeBSD found my modem cards?
Refer to the answer to the previous question.
I just upgraded to 2.0.5 and my
tty0X
are missing! How do I solve this problem?
Do not worry, they have been merged with the
ttydX devices. You will have to change
any old configuration files you have, though.
How do I access the serial ports on FreeBSD?
The third serial port,
sio2
(see &man.sio.4;, known as COM3 in DOS), is on /dev/cuaa2
for dial-out devices, and on /dev/ttyd2
for dial-in devices. What is the difference between these two
classes of devices?
You use ttydX for dial-ins. When
opening /dev/ttydX in blocking mode, a
process will wait for the corresponding
cuaaX device to become inactive, and then
wait for the carrier detect line to go active. When you open
the cuaaX device, it makes sure the serial
port is not already in use by the ttydX
device. If the port is available, it steals
it
from the ttydX device. Also, the
cuaaX device does not care about carrier
detect. With this scheme and an auto-answer modem, you can have
remote users log in and you can still dial out with the same
modem and the system will take care of all the
conflicts.
How do I enable support for a multiport serial
card?
Again, the section on kernel configuration provides
information about configuring your kernel. For a multiport
serial card, place an &man.sio.4; line
for each serial port on the card in the kernel configuration
file. But place the irq and vector specifiers on only one of
the entries. All of the ports on the card should share one irq.
For consistency, use the last serial port to specify the irq.
Also, specify the COM_MULTIPORT
option.
The following example is for an AST 4-port serial card on
irq 7:
options "COM_MULTIPORT"
device sio4 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty flags 0x781
device sio5 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x781
device sio6 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x781
device sio7 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x781 irq 7 vector siointr
The flags indicate that the master port has minor number 7
(0x700 ), diagnostics enabled during probe
(0x080 ), and all the ports share an irq
(0x001 ).
Can FreeBSD handle multiport serial cards sharing
irqs?
Not yet. You will have to use a different irq for each
card.
Can I set the default serial parameters for a
port?
The ttydX (or
cuaaX ) device is the regular device
you will want to open for your applications. When a process
opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O
settings. You can see these settings with the command
&prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1
When you change the settings to this device, the settings
are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened,
it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the
default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the
initial state
device. For example, to turn on
CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and
XON/XOFF flow control by default for
ttyd5, do:
&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff
A good place to do this is in
/etc/rc.serial . Now, an application will
have these settings by default when it opens
ttyd5 . It can still change these settings
to its liking, though.
You can also prevent certain settings from being changed
by an application by making adjustments to the
lock state
device. For example, to lock the
speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do
&prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600
Now, an application that opens ttyd5
and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with
57600 bps.
Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state
devices writable only by root . The
&man.MAKEDEV.8;
script does NOT do this when it creates the
device entries.
How can I enable dialup logins on my modem?
So you want to become an Internet service provider, eh?
First, you will need one or more modems that can auto-answer.
Your modem will need to assert carrier-detect when it detects a
carrier and not assert it all the time. It will need to hang up
the phone and reset itself when the data terminal ready
(DTR ) line goes from on to off. It should
probably use RTS/CTS flow control or no
local flow control at all. Finally, it must use a constant
speed between the computer and itself, but (to be nice to your
callers) it should negotiate a speed between itself and the
remote modem.
For many Hayes command-set--compatible modems, this
command will make these settings and store them in
nonvolatile memory:
AT &C1 &D3 &K3 &Q6 S0=1 &W
See the section on sending AT
commands below for information on how to make these
settings without resorting to an MS-DOS terminal program.
Next, make an entry in
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;) for the modem. This file lists all the ports
on which the operating system will await logins. Add a line
that looks something like this:
ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.57600" dialup on insecure
This line indicates that the second serial port
(/dev/ttyd1 ) has a modem connected
running at 57600 bps and no parity
(std.57600 , which comes from the file
/etc/gettytab , see &man.gettytab.5;).
The terminal type for this port is dialup .
The port is on and is
insecure ---meaning root
logins on the port are not allowed. For dialin ports like this one,
use the ttydX
entry.
It is common practice to use dialup as
the terminal type. Many users set up in their .profile or
.login files a prompt for the actual terminal type if the
starting type is dialup. The example shows the port as
insecure. To become root on this port, you
have to login as a regular user, then &man.su.1; to become
root . If you use secure
then root can login in directly.
After making modifications to
/etc/ttys , you need to send a hangup or
HUP signal to the
&man.init.8; process:
&prompt.root; kill -HUP 1
This forces the &man.init.8; process to reread
/etc/ttys . The init process will then start getty
processes on all on ports. You can find
out if logins are available for your port by typing
&prompt.user; ps -ax | grep '[t]tyd1'
You should see something like:
747 ?? I 0:00.04 /usr/libexec/getty std.57600 ttyd1
How can I connect a dumb terminal to my FreeBSD
box?
If you are using another computer as a terminal into your
FreeBSD system, get a null modem cable to go between the two
serial ports. If you are using an actual terminal, see its
accompanying instructions.
Then, modify
/etc/ttys (see &man.ttys.5;), like above. For example, if you are
hooking up a WYSE-50 terminal to the fifth serial port,
use an entry like this:
ttyd4 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wyse50 on secure
This example shows that the port on
/dev/ttyd4 has a wyse50 terminal
connected at 38400 bps with no parity
(std.38400 from
/etc/gettytab , see &man.gettytab.5;) and root logins are
allowed (secure ).
Why can I not run tip or
cu ?
On your system, the programs &man.tip.1;
and &man.cu.1;
are probably executable only by
uucp
and group dialer . You can use the group
dialer to control who has access to your
modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group
dialer.
Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system
run &man.tip.1; and &man.cu.1; by
typing:
&prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/cu
&prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip
My stock Hayes modem is not supported---what
can I do?
Actually, the man page for &man.tip.1; is
out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in.
Just use at=hayes in your
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;) file.
The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of
the advanced features of newer modems---messages like
BUSY , NO DIALTONE , or
CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You
should turn those messages off when you use &man.tip.1;
(using ATX0&W ).
Also, the dial timeout for &man.tip.1; is 60
seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip
will think there is a communication problem. Try
ATS7=45&W .
Actually, as shipped &man.tip.1; does not yet
support it fully. The solution is to edit the file
tipconf.h in the directory
/usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip . Obviously you
need the source distribution to do this.
Edit the line #define HAYES 0
to #define HAYES 1 . Then
make and make install .
Everything works nicely after that.
How am I expected to enter these AT commands?
Make what is called a direct
entry in your
/etc/remote file (see &man.remote.5;). For example, if your modem is hooked
up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0 ,
then put in the following line:
cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none
Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br
capability. Then, type
tip cuaa0 (see &man.tip.1;)
and you will be connected to your modem.
If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your
system, do this:
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV cuaa0
Or use cu as root with the following command:
&prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed
with line being the serial port (e.g.
/dev/cuaa0 ) and speed being the speed
(e.g.57600 ). When you are done entering
the AT commands hit ~. to exit.
Why does the <@> sign for the pn
capability not work?
The <@> sign in the phone number
capability tells tip to look in
/etc/phones for a phone number. But the
<@> sign is also a special character
in capability files like /etc/remote .
Escape it with a backslash:
pn=\@
How can I dial a phone number on the command
line?
Put what is called a generic
entry in your
/etc/remote file (see &man.remote.5;). For example:
tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
Then you can do something like tip -115200
5551234 . If you prefer &man.cu.1;
over
&man.tip.1;, use a generic cu entry:
cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
and type cu 5551234 -s 115200 .
Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do
that?
Put in an entry for tip1200 or
cu1200 , but go ahead and use whatever bps
rate is appropriate with the br capability.
&man.tip.1;
thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for
a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200
bps, though.
How can I more easily access a number of hosts through a
terminal server?
Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing
CONNECT host
each time, use tip's cm capability. For
example, these entries in
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;):
pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
:cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:
will let you type tip pain or
tip muffin to connect to the hosts
pain or muffin ; and
tip deep13 to get to the terminal
server.
Can tip try more than one line for each site?
This is often a problem where a university has several
modem lines and several thousand students trying to use
them...
Make an entry for your university in
/etc/remote (see &man.remote.5;) and use <\@> for
the pn capability:
big-university:\
:pn=\@:tc=dialout
dialout:\
:dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:
Then, list the phone numbers for the university in
/etc/phones (see &man.phones.5;):
big-university 5551111
big-university 5551112
big-university 5551113
big-university 5551114
&man.tip.1;
will try each one in the listed order, then give
up. If you want to keep retrying, run &man.tip.1;
in a while loop.
Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P
once?
CTRL+P is the default force
character,
used to tell &man.tip.1;
that the next character is literal data. You can set the
force character to any other character with the
~s escape, which means set a
variable
.
Type ~sforce=single-char
followed by a newline.
single-char is any single character.
If you leave out single-char ,
then the force character is the nul character, which you can
get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for
single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which
I have seen only used on some terminal servers.
You can have the force character be whatever you want by
specifying the following in your
$HOME/.tiprc file:
force=single-char
Why is everything I type suddenly in UPPER CASE?
You must have pressed CTRL+A, &man.tip.1;
raise character
, specially
designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use
~s as above and set the variable
raisechar
to something reasonable. In fact,
you can set it to the same as the force character, if you
never expect to use either of these features.
Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who
need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot:
force=^^
raisechar=^^
The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6.
How can I do file transfers with
tip ?
If you are talking to another Unix system, you can send
and receive files with ~p (put) and
~t (take). These commands run
&man.cat.1; and
&man.echo.1; on the remote system to accept and send files.
The syntax is:
~p <local-file> [<remote-file>]
~t <remote-file> [<local-file>]
There is no error checking, so you probably should use
another protocol, like zmodem.
How can I run zmodem with
tip ?
First, install one of the zmodem programs from the
ports collection (such as one of the two from the comms
category, lrzsz or
rzsz .
To receive files, start the sending program on the
remote end. Then, press enter and type
~C rz (or ~C lrz if you
installed lrzsz ) to begin
receiving them locally.
To send files, start the receiving program on the remote
end. Then, press enter and type
~C sz files
(or ~C lsz files )
to send them to the remote system.
Why does FreeBSD not find my serial ports, even
when the settings are correct?
Motherboards and cards with Acer UARTs do not probe
properly under the FreeBSD sio probe. Obtain a patch from
www.lemis.com to fix your problem.
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+ url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/getmsg.cgi?fetch=506636+517178+/usr/local/www/db/text/1999/freebsd-hackers/19991003.freebsd-hackers">
+ ¦b«C»A¯ó¦a¤Wªº¸}½ñ¨®¨®´×(¥ô¦óÃC¦âªº)...¡C¥H¤U¡A¶ÈºKn¸Ó«h¤å³¹³¡¤À¤º®e¡G
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- Richard P. Feynmann µ¹¤F¤@¨Ç¦³½ì¡A¥B«D±`¤@°w¨£¦åªº½×ÂI¡A¦b¥Lªº
- ®Ñ´£¨ì¤F Los Alamos ªº¨Ò¤l¡C
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+ Richard P. Feynmann µ¹¤F¤@¨Ç¦³½ì¡A¥B«D±`¤@°w¨£¦åªº½×ÂI¡A¦b¥Lªº®Ñ´£¨ì¤F Los Alamos ªº¨Ò¤l¡C
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+ ³oÃö«Y¨ì§A¬O§_¥i¥H«üµÛ¬Y¦a«á¹ïµÛ§O¤H»¡¡G¡y³o¸Ì! ³o¬O §Ú §@ªº¡C¡z
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Edward
Chuang
edwardc@firebird.org.tw
The FreeBSD Funnies
How cool is FreeBSD¡H
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+ (halt) «ü¥O¡A¥i¦b¨t²Î¶¢¸m®É°§C¹q¤Oªº¨Ï¥Î¤]´î¤Ö¤F¼öªº²£¥Í¡C¦pªG¦³³]©w APM(Automatic Power Management)
+ ¡AFreeBSD ¤]¥i¥HÅý CPU ¶i¤J¬Ù¹q¼Ò¦¡¡C
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CPU ªº¸ê®Æ´²¼ö¾¹) §Aªº CPU ¤]³\·|°§C¤u§@·Å«×¡A¦ý¬O§Aªº¨t²Î±N
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/dev/random ¨Ã±N¥LÀH·N¶Ç°e¦Ü¦U³B¡A
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Paul Robinson ¸É¥R¡G
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There are other methods. As every good sysadmin knows,
it is part of standard practise to send data to the screen
of interesting variety to keep all the pixies that make up
your picture happy. Screen pixies (commonly mis-typed or
re-named as 'pixels') are categorised by the type of hat
they wear (red, green or blue) and will hide or appear
(thereby showing the colour of their hat) whenever they
receive a little piece of food. Video cards turn data into
pixie-food, and then send them to the pixies - the more
expensive the card, the better the food, so the better
behaved the pixies are. They also need constant simulation
- this is why screen savers exist.
To take your suggestions further, you could just throw
the random data to console, thereby letting the pixies
consume it. This causes no heat to be produced at all,
keeps the pixies happy and gets rid of your data quite
quickly, even if it does make things look a bit messy on
your screen.
Incidentally, as an ex-admin of a large ISP who
experienced many problems attempting to maintain a stable
temperature in a server room, I would strongly discourage
people sending the data they do not want out to the
network. The fairies who do the packet switching and
routing get annoyed by it as well.
En-Ran
Zhou
zhouer@tfcis.org
¶i¶¥¥DÃD
¦p¦ó¯à¾Ç²ß§ó¦h¦³Ãö FreeBSD ¤º³¡ªºªF¦è¡H
¥Ø«e¥«±¤WÁÙ¨S¦³±´°Q§@·~¨t²Î¤º³¡ªº®Ñ¬O±M¬° FreeBSD ¦Ó¼g
ªº¡CµM¦Ó¡A³\¦h¤@¯ëªº UNIX ª¾Ãѳ£¥i¥Hª½±µÀ³¥Î¦b FreeBSD ¤W¡Cªþ
¥[¤@ÂI¡A¤´µM¦³¬ÛÃöªº®Ñ¬O±M¬° BSD ©Ò¼gªº¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò Handbook ªº§@·~¨t²Î¤º³¡¤§°Ñ¦Ò®Ñ¥Ø
¡C
¦p¦ó¯à¬° FreeBSD ¥X¤@¥÷¤O¡H
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò³o½g¤å³¹ Contributing
to FreeBSD ¨Ó´£¨Ñ±zªº«Øij¡C¦pªG±z¯àÀ°¦£¨º´N§óÅwªï¤F¡I
SNAP ©M RELEASE ¬O¤°»ò¡H
¥Ø«e¦³¤TÓ¬¡ÅD/¥b¬¡ÅDªº¤À¤ä¦b FreeBSD ªº CVS Repository
- (RELENG_2 ¤À¤ä¤@¦~¤j·§§ó°Ê¨â¦¸¡A¥¿¬O¬°¦ó¥u¦³¤TÓ¬¡ÅDªºµo®i¤¤¤À¤ä)¡G
+ (¥j¦¤À¤ä¤w¸g´X¥G¨S¦b§ó·s¤F¡A¦]¬°³q±`¥u¦³¤TÓ¬¡ÅDªºµo®i¤À¤ä)¡G
- RELENG_2_2 §Y
- 2.2-STABLE
-
-
-
- RELENG_3 §Y
- 3.X-STABLE
+ RELENG_5 §Y
+ 5-STABLE
- RELENG_4 §Y
- 4-STABLE
+ RELENG_6 §Y
+ 6-STABLE
HEAD §Y
- -CURRENT §Y
- 5.0-CURRENT
+ -CURRENT ¤]´N¬O¥Ø«eªº
+ 7.X-CURRENT
-
- ¦p¦P¨ä¥L¨âÓ¡AHEAD ¨Ã¤£¬O¯u¥¿
- ªº branch tag¡A¥¦¥u¬O¤@ӲŸ¹±`¼Æ¡A«ü¦V current
- (©|¥¼¤À¤äªºµo®i¤¤ª©¥»)
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- -CURRENT
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-
- ¥H²{¦b¨Ó»¡¡A-CURRENT
´Â¦V 5.0 µo®i¡A¦Ó
- 4-STABLE ¤À¤ä¡A¤]´N¬O
- RELENG_4 ¡A¦b 2000 ¦~¤T¤ë±q
- -CURRENT
¤À¤ä¥X¨Ó¡C
+ »P¤W±¨ä¥L¨âÓ¤À¤ä¬Û¤ñ¡A¨ä¹ê HEAD ¨Ã¤£¬O¯u¥¿
+ ªº branch tag¡A¥¦¥u¬OÓ symbolic constant¡A¥Nªí current
+ (©|¥¼¤À¤äªºµo®i¤¤ª©¥»)
¡A³q±`§ÚÌ·|²¼g¬° -CURRENT
¡C
- 2.2-STABLE ³oÓ¤À¤ä¡A¤]´N¬O
- RELENG_2_2 ¡A¦b 1996 ¦~¤Q¤@¤ë±q -CURRENT ¤À¤ä¥X
- ¨Ó¡A³oÓ¤À¤ä¥Ø«e¤w¸g§¹¥þ°h¥ð¤F¡C
+ ´N²{¦b¦Ó¨¥¡A-CURRENT
´N¬O«ü 7.X ªºµo®i¡F
+ ¦Ó 5-STABLE ¤À¤ä(RELENG_5 )¬O¦b 2004 ¦~ 10 ¤ë±q
+ -CURRENT
fork ¥X¨Óªº¡F
+ 6-STABLE ¤À¤ä(RELENG_6 )¬O¦b 2005 ¦~ 11 ¤ë±q
+ -CURRENT
fork ¥X¨Óªº¡C
n«ç»ò§@¥X¦Û¤vªº release¡H
½Ð°Ñ·Ó Release ¤uµ{
¤å³¹»¡©ú¡C
- ¬°¤°»ò make world §âì¨Ó¸Ëªº binary ÀÉ
- ³£´«±¼¤F¡H
+ ¬°¦ó make world ·|§âì¨Ó¸Ëªº binary Àɳ£´«±¼¤F¡H
¨S¿ù¡A´N¬O³o¼Ë¤l¡C¦p¦W¦r©Ò¥Ü¡Amake world
- ·|«·s½sĶ¨t²Î¤º«Øªº¨CÓ binary ÀÉ¡A³o¼Ë¦bµ²§ô®É´N¥i½T©w¦³Ó¤@P
- ¥B°®²bªºÀô¹Ò(©Ò¥Hnªá¤W¦n¤@¬q®É¶¡)¡C
+ ·|«·s½sĶ¨t²Î¤º«Øªº¨CÓ binary ÀÉ¡A³o¼Ë¦bµ²§ô®É´N¥i½T©w¦³Ó¤@P¥B°®²bªºÀô¹Ò(©Ò¥Hnªá¤W¦n¤@¬q®É¶¡)¡C
¦b°õ¦æ make world ©Î
make install ®É¡A¦pªG¦³³]
DESTDIR ³oÓÀô¹ÒÅܼơA·s²£¥Íªº binary ±N·|¸Ë¦b
${DESTDIR} ¤U¦P¼Ëªº¥Ø¿ý¾ð¤¤¡C¦ý¦b¬Y¨Çקï
shared library ©M««Ø binary ªºµL¯S©w±¡ªp¤U¡A³o¼Ë°µ¥i¯à·|¨Ï
make world ¥¢±Ñ¡C
+
+
+ Why isn't cvsup.FreeBSD.org a round robin DNS entry to
+ share the load amongst the various CVSup servers?
+
+
+
+ While CVSup mirrors update from the master CVSup
+ server hourly, this update might happen at any time during
+ the hour. This means that some servers have newer code
+ than others, even though all servers have code that is
+ less than an hour old. If cvsup.FreeBSD.org was a round
+ robin DNS entry that simply redirected users to a random
+ CVSup server, running CVSup twice in a row could download
+ code older than the code already on the system.
+
+
+
¦b¨t²Î¶}¾÷®É¡A¥X²{ (bus speed defaulted)
¡C
Adaptec 1542 SCSI ¥d¤¹³\¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¥Î³nÅé½Õ¾ã¶×¬y±Æªº¦s¨ú³t«×¡C
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¨Ç¾÷¾¹¤W¤£¯à¥Î¡A©Ò¥H²{¦bn¦b kernel ³]©w¤¤¥[
TUNE_1542 ³oӿﶵ¨Ó±Ò°Ê³oÓ¥\¯à¡C¦b¤ä´©ªº¾÷¾¹
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From: Bill Paul <wpaul@skynet.ctr.columbia.edu>
Subject: Re: the fs fun never stops
To: Ben Rosengart
Date: Sun, 20 Sep 1998 15:22:50 -0400 (EDT)
Cc: current@FreeBSD.org
[Ben µoªí¤F¤U±ªº panic °T®§]
> Fatal trap 12: page fault while in kernel mode
> fault virtual address = 0x40
> fault code = supervisor read, page not present
> instruction pointer = 0x8:0xf014a7e5
^^^^^^^^^^
> stack pointer = 0x10:0xf4ed6f24
> frame pointer = 0x10:0xf4ed6f28
> code segment = base 0x0, limit 0xfffff, type 0x1b
> = DPL 0, pres 1, def32 1, gran 1
> processor eflags = interrupt enabled, resume, IOPL = 0
> current process = 80 (mount)
> interrupt mask =
> trap number = 12
> panic: page fault
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section ¦Cªí³Ì«e±ªº location counter ³]¦¨¬Û¦PªºÈ¡A¦p¤U¡G
OUTPUT_FORMAT("elf32-i386", "elf32-i386", "elf32-i386")
OUTPUT_ARCH(i386)
ENTRY(btext)
SEARCH_DIR(/usr/lib); SEARCH_DIR(/usr/obj/elf/home/src/tmp/usr/i386-unknown-freebsdelf/lib);
SECTIONS
{
/* Read-only sections, merged into text segment: */
. = 0xc0100000 + SIZEOF_HEADERS;
.interp : { *(.interp) }
µM«á«·s½sĶ±zªº kernel¡C±z¥i¯à·|¦b°õ¦æ &man.ps.1;¡B&man.top.1;
³oÃþªºµ{¦¡®É¸I¨ì°ÝÃD¡Qmake world À³¸Ó´N¥i¥H¸Ñ¨M
(©Î§â§ï¹Lªº pmap.h ½Æ»s¨ì
/usr/include/vm/ ¤U¡A¦A¤â°Ê½sĶ
libkvm ¡A&man.ps.1; ÁÙ¦³ &man.top.1;)¡C
ª`·N¡Gkernel ©Ò¯à©w§}ªºªÅ¶¡¤j¤p¥²¶·¬O 4 megabytes ªº¿¼Æ¡C
[&a.dg; ¸É¥R¡G§Ú»{¬° kernel ©w§}ªÅ¶¡¤j¤pÀ³¸Ón¬O 2
ªº¼¾¡A¦ý¤£¤j½T©w³o¤@ÂI¡Cªº±Ò°Êµ{¦¡·|°Ê¨ì
high order address bits¡A°O±o¥¦°²³]¦Ü¤Ö¦³ 256 MB¡C]
Vanilla
Shu
vanilla@FreeBSD.org
·PÁÂ
FreeBSD Core Team
°²¦p±z¦b³o¥÷ FAQ ¤¤§ä¨ì¿ù»~ªº¦a¤è¡A©Î¬O±z·Q¼W¥[¨Ç¬Æ»ò¡A
½Ð¼g«Ê«H¨ì &a.faq; ¡C§ÚÌ«D±`·PÁ±zªº«Øij¡A
¦]¬°±zªº«ØijÅý³o¥÷¤å¥óÅܱo§ó¦n¡I
&a.jkh;
¤£°±ªº§ó·s¹L®Éªº FAQ
&a.dwhite;
¸g±`¦b freebsd-questions ¤W¦^µª°ÝÃD
&a.joerg;
¸g±`¦b Usenet ¤W¦^µª°ÝÃD
&a.wollman;
Networking and formatting
Jim Lowe
Multicast information
&a.pds;
FreeBSD FAQ ³o¥÷¤å¥óªº¥´¦rW¤u
The FreeBSD Team
Kvetching, moaning, submitting data
¹ï©ó¨º¨Ç´¿¸g¹ï³o¥÷ FAQ ´£¨ÑÀ°§U¡A¦Ó§Ų́S´£¨ìªº¤HÌ¡A
§Ú̥ѰJªº·PÁ±z¡I
&bibliography;
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/see-also/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/see-also/chapter.sgml
index ab689d847c..add75bf067 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/see-also/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/see-also/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,135 +1,135 @@
- See Also
+ ¥L¤s¤§¥Û
This document is deliberately not an exhaustive discussion of SGML,
the DTDs listed, and the FreeBSD Documentation Project. For more
information about these, you are encouraged to see the following web
sites.
The FreeBSD Documentation Project
The FreeBSD
Documentation Project web pages
The FreeBSD Handbook
SGML
The SGML/XML web
page , a comprehensive SGML resource
Gentle introduction to SGML
HTML
The World Wide Web
Consortium
The HTML 4.0
specification
DocBook
The DocBook
Technical Committee , maintainers of the DocBook DTD
DocBook: The Definitive
Guide , the online documentation for the DocBook
DTD.
The DocBook Open
Repository contains DSSSL stylesheets and other resources
for people using DocBook.
The Linux Documentation Project
The Linux Documentation
Project web pages
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/translations/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/translations/chapter.sgml
index 89a2adaa66..7743dbcac0 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/translations/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/fdp-primer/translations/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,456 +1,454 @@
½Ķ®Éªº±`¨£°ÝÃD
¥»³¹¬O½Ķ FreeBSD ¤å¥ó(¥]§t¡GFAQ, Handbook, tutorials, manual pagesµ¥)ªº±`¨£°ÝÃD(FAQ)¡C
It is very heavily based on the translation FAQ
from the FreeBSD German Documentation Project, originally written by Frank
Gründer elwood@mc5sys.in-berlin.de and translated back to
English by Bernd Warken bwarken@mayn.de .
The FAQ is maintained by the &a.doceng;.
- Why a FAQ?
+ FAQ ªº¥Øªº¬O?
- More and more people are approaching the freebsd-doc mailing
- list and volunteering to translate FreeBSD documentation to other
- languages. This FAQ aims to answer their questions so they can start
- translating documentation as quickly as possible.
+ ÀHµÛ¶V¨Ó¶V¦h¤H°Ñ»P freebsd-doc ¶l»¼½×¾Â¡A¦Ó¥B§Æ±æ±N FreeBSD ¤å¥ó½Ķ¬°¦UºØ»y¨¥ª©¥»¡C
+ §Ú̧Ʊæ³o¥÷ FAQ ¯à¾¨¥i¯à¬°³o¨Ç°Ñ»P½ĶªÌ´£¨Ñ§Ö³tªº¸Ñ´b¡C
What do i18n and l10n
mean?
i18n means
internationalization and l10n
means localization . They are just a convenient
shorthand.
i18n can be read as i
followed by
18 letters, followed by n
. Similarly,
l10n is l
followed by 10 letters,
followed by n
.
Is there a mailing list for translators?
Yes. Different translation groups have their own mailing
lists. The list
of translation projects has more information about the
mailing lists and web sites run by each translation project.
Are more translators needed?
Yes. The more people work on translation the faster it gets
done, and the faster changes to the English documentation are
mirrored in the translated documents.
You do not have to be a professional translator to be able to
help.
What languages do I need to know?
Ideally, you will have a good knowledge of written English, and
obviously you will need to be fluent in the language you are
translating to.
English is not strictly necessary. For example, you could do a
Hungarian translation of the FAQ from the Spanish
translation.
What software do I need to know?
It is strongly recommended that you maintain a local copy of the
FreeBSD CVS repository (at least the documentation part) either
using CTM or
CVSup . The "Staying current with FreeBSD"
chapter in the Handbook explains how to use these
applications.
You should be comfortable using CVS .
This will allow you to see what has changed between different
versions of the files that make up the documentation.
[XXX To Do -- write a tutorial that shows how to use CVSup to
get just the documentation, check it out, and see what has changed
between two arbitrary revisions]
How do I find out who else might be translating to the same
language?
The Documentation
Project translations page lists the translation efforts
that are currently known about. If others are already working
on translating documentation to your language, please do not
duplicate their efforts. Instead, contact them to see how you can
help.
If no one is listed on that page as translating for your
language, then send a message to the &a.doc; in case someone else
is thinking of doing a translation, but has not announced it yet.
No one else is translating to my language. What do I do?
Congratulations, you have just started the FreeBSD
your-language-here Documentation
Translation Project
. Welcome aboard.
First, decide whether or not you have got the time to spare. Since
you are the only person working on your language at the moment it is
going to be your responsibility to publicize your work and
coordinate any volunteers that might want to help you.
Write an email to the Documentation Project mailing list,
announcing that you are going to translate the documentation, so the
Documentation Project translations page can be maintained.
If there is already someone in your country providing FreeBSD
mirroring services you should contact them and ask if you can
have some webspace for your project, and possibly an email
address or mailing list services.
Then pick a document and start translating. It is best to start
with something fairly small—either the FAQ, or one of the
tutorials.
I have translated some documentation, where do I send it?
That depends. If you are already working with a translation team
(such as the Japanese team, or the German team) then they will have
their own procedures for handling submitted documentation, and these
will be outlined on their web pages.
If you are the only person working on a particular language (or
you are responsible for a translation project and want to submit
your changes back to the FreeBSD project) then you should send your
translation to the FreeBSD project (see the next question).
I am the only person working on translating to this language, how
do I submit my translation?
or
We are a translation team, and want to submit documentation that
our members have translated for us?
First, make sure your translation is organized properly. This
means that it should drop into the existing documentation tree and
build straight away.
Currently, the FreeBSD documentation is stored in a top level
directory called doc/ . Directories below this
are named according to the language code they are written in, as
defined in ISO639 (/usr/share/misc/iso639 on a
version of FreeBSD newer than 20th January 1999).
If your language can be encoded in different ways (for example,
Chinese) then there should be directories below this, one for each
encoding format you have provided.
Finally, you should have directories for each document.
For example, a hypothetical Swedish translation might look
like:
doc/
sv_SE.ISO8859-1/
Makefile
books/
faq/
Makefile
book.sgml
sv_SE.ISO8859-1 is the name of the
translation, in
lang .encoding
form. Note the
two Makefiles, which will be used to build the documentation.
Use &man.tar.1; and &man.gzip.1; to compress up your
documentation, and send it to the project.
&prompt.user; cd doc
&prompt.user; tar cf swedish-docs.tar sv
&prompt.user; gzip -9 swedish-docs.tar
Put swedish-docs.tar.gz somewhere. If you
do not have access to your own webspace (perhaps your ISP does not
let you have any) then you can email &a.doceng;, and arrange to email
the files when it is convenient.
Either way, you should use &man.send-pr.1; to submit a report
indicating that you have submitted the documentation. It would be
very helpful if you could get other people to look over your
translation and double check it first, since it is unlikely that the
person committing it will be fluent in the language.
Someone (probably the Documentation Project Manager, currently
&a.doceng;) will then take your translation and confirm that it builds.
In particular, the following things will be looked at:
Do all your files use RCS strings (such as "ID")?
Does make all in the
sv_SE.ISO8859-1 directory work correctly?
Does make install work correctly?
If there are any problems then whoever is looking at the
submission will get back to you to work them out.
If there are no problems your translation will be committed
as soon as possible.
Can I include language or country specific text in my
translation?
We would prefer that you did not.
For example, suppose that you are translating the Handbook to
Korean, and want to include a section about retailers in Korea in
your Handbook.
There is no real reason why that information should not be in the
English (or German, or Spanish, or Japanese, or …) versions
as well. It is feasible that an English speaker in Korea might try
- and pick up a copy of FreeBSD whilst over there. It also helps
+ to pick up a copy of FreeBSD whilst over there. It also helps
increase FreeBSD's perceived presence around the globe, which is not
a bad thing.
If you have country specific information, please submit it as a
change to the English Handbook (using &man.send-pr.1;) and then
translate the change back to your language in the translated
Handbook.
Thanks.
How should language specific characters be included?
Non-ASCII characters in the documentation should be included
using SGML entities.
Briefly, these look like an ampersand (&), the name of the
entity, and a semi-colon (;).
The entity names are defined in ISO8879, which is in the ports
tree as textproc/iso8879 .
A few examples include:
Entity
Appearance
Description
é
é
Small e
with an acute accent
É
É
Large E
with an acute accent
ü
ü
Small u
with an umlaut
After you have installed the iso8879 port, the files in
/usr/local/share/sgml/iso8879 contain the
complete list.
Addressing the reader
In the English documents, the reader is addressed as
you
, there is no formal/informal distinction as there
is in some languages.
If you are translating to a language which does distinguish, use
whichever form is typically used in other technical documentation in
your language. If in doubt, use a mildly polite form.
Do I need to include any additional information in my
translations?
Yes.
The header of the English version of each document will look
something like this:
<!--
The FreeBSD Documentation Project
$FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/fdp-primer/translations/chapter.sgml,v 1.5 2000/07/07 18:38:38 dannyboy Exp $
-->
The exact boilerplate may change, but it will always include a
$FreeBSD$ line and the phrase The FreeBSD Documentation
Project .
Note that the $FreeBSD part is expanded automatically by
CVS, so it should be empty (just
$FreeBSD$ ) for new files.
Your translated documents should include their own
$FreeBSD$ line, and change the
FreeBSD Documentation Project line to
The FreeBSD language
Documentation Project .
In addition, you should add a third line which indicates which
revision of the English text this is based on.
So, the Spanish version of this file might start:
<!--
The FreeBSD Spanish Documentation Project
$FreeBSD: doc/es_ES.ISO8859-1/books/fdp-primer/translations/chapter.sgml,v 1.3 1999/06/24 19:12:32 jesusr Exp $
Original revision: 1.11
-->
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/Makefile b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/Makefile
index 0f4c36edbc..d7b6509d6b 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/Makefile
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/Makefile
@@ -1,255 +1,255 @@
#
-# $FreeBSD$
+# $FreeBSD$
# Original revision: 1.97
#
# Build the FreeBSD Handbook.
#
# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
#
# Handbook-specific variables
#
# WITH_PGPKEYS The print version of the handbook only prints PGP
# fingerprints by default. If you would like for the
# entire key to be displayed, then set this variable.
# This option has no affect on the HTML formats.
#
# Handbook-specific targets
#
# pgpkeyring This target will read the contents of
# pgpkeys/chapter.sgml and will extract all of
# the pgpkeys to standard out. This output can then
# be redirected into a file and distributed as a
# public keyring of FreeBSD developers that can
# easily be imported into PGP/GPG.
#
# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
.PATH: ${.CURDIR}/../../share/sgml/glossary
MAINTAINER= doc@FreeBSD.org
DOC?= book
FORMATS?= html-split
HAS_INDEX= true
USE_PS2PDF= yes
INSTALL_COMPRESSED?= gz
INSTALL_ONLY_COMPRESSED?=
IMAGES_EN = advanced-networking/isdn-bus.eps
IMAGES_EN+= advanced-networking/isdn-twisted-pair.eps
IMAGES_EN+= advanced-networking/natd.eps
IMAGES_EN+= advanced-networking/net-routing.pic
IMAGES_EN+= advanced-networking/static-routes.pic
IMAGES_EN+= geom/striping.pic
IMAGES_EN+= install/adduser1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/adduser2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/adduser3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/boot-mgr.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/console-saver1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/console-saver2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/console-saver3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/console-saver4.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/desktop.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-auto.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-ed1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-ed2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-fs.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-root1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-root2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disklabel-root3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/disk-layout.eps
IMAGES_EN+= install/dist-set.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/dist-set2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/docmenu1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/ed0-conf.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/ed0-conf2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/edit-inetd-conf.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/fdisk-drive1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/fdisk-drive2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/fdisk-edit1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/fdisk-edit2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/ftp-anon1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/ftp-anon2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/hdwrconf.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/keymap.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/main1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mainexit.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/main-std.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/main-options.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/main-doc.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/main-keymap.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/media.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mouse1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mouse2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mouse3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mouse4.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mouse5.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mouse6.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/mta-main.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/net-config-menu1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/net-config-menu2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/nfs-server-edit.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/ntp-config.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/options.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/pkg-cat.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/pkg-confirm.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/pkg-install.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/pkg-sel.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/probstart.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/routed.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/security.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/sysinstall-exit.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/timezone1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/timezone2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/timezone3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/userconfig.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/userconfig2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/xf86setup.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/mutt1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/mutt2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/mutt3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/pine1.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/pine2.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/pine3.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/pine4.scr
IMAGES_EN+= mail/pine5.scr
IMAGES_EN+= install/example-dir1.eps
IMAGES_EN+= install/example-dir2.eps
IMAGES_EN+= install/example-dir3.eps
IMAGES_EN+= install/example-dir4.eps
IMAGES_EN+= install/example-dir5.eps
IMAGES_EN+= security/ipsec-network.pic
IMAGES_EN+= security/ipsec-crypt-pkt.pic
IMAGES_EN+= security/ipsec-encap-pkt.pic
IMAGES_EN+= security/ipsec-out-pkt.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-concat.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-mirrored-vol.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-raid10-vol.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-raid5-org.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-simple-vol.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-striped-vol.pic
IMAGES_EN+= vinum/vinum-striped.pic
# Images from the cross-document image library
IMAGES_LIB= callouts/1.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/2.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/3.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/4.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/5.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/6.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/7.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/8.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/9.png
IMAGES_LIB+= callouts/10.png
#
# SRCS lists the individual SGML files that make up the document. Changes
# to any of these files will force a rebuild
#
# SGML content
SRCS+= audit/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= book.sgml
SRCS+= colophon.sgml
SRCS+= freebsd-glossary.sgml
SRCS+= advanced-networking/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= basics/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= bibliography/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= boot/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= config/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= cutting-edge/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= desktop/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= disks/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= eresources/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= firewalls/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= geom/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= install/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= introduction/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= kernelconfig/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= l10n/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= linuxemu/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= mac/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= mail/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= mirrors/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= multimedia/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= network-servers/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= pgpkeys/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= ports/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= preface/preface.sgml
SRCS+= printing/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= security/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= serialcomms/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= users/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= vinum/chapter.sgml
SRCS+= x11/chapter.sgml
# Entities
SRCS+= chapters.ent
SYMLINKS= ${DESTDIR} index.html handbook.html
# Turn on all the chapters.
CHAPTERS?= ${SRCS:M*chapter.sgml}
SGMLFLAGS+= ${CHAPTERS:S/\/chapter.sgml//:S/^/-i chap./}
SGMLFLAGS+= -i chap.freebsd-glossary
pgpkeyring: pgpkeys/chapter.sgml
@${JADE} -V nochunks ${OTHERFLAGS} ${JADEOPTS} -d ${DSLPGP} -t sgml ${MASTERDOC}
#
# Handbook-specific variables
#
.if defined(WITH_PGPKEYS)
JADEFLAGS+= -V withpgpkeys
.endif
URL_RELPREFIX?= ../../../..
DOC_PREFIX?= ${.CURDIR}/../../..
#
# rules generating lists of mirror site from XML database.
#
XMLDOCS= mirrors-ftp:::mirrors.sgml.ftp.inc.tmp \
mirrors-cvsup:::mirrors.sgml.cvsup.inc.tmp \
eresources:::eresources.sgml.www.inc.tmp
DEPENDSET.DEFAULT= transtable mirror
XSLT.DEFAULT= ${XSL_MIRRORS}
XML.DEFAULT= ${XML_MIRRORS}
NO_TIDY.DEFAULT= yes
PARAMS.mirrors-ftp+= --param 'type' "'ftp'" \
--param 'proto' "'ftp'" \
--param 'target' "'handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml'"
PARAMS.mirrors-cvsup+= --param 'type' "'cvsup'" \
--param 'proto' "'cvsup'" \
--param 'target' "'handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml'"
PARAMS.eresources+= --param 'type' "'www'" \
--param 'proto' "'http'" \
--param 'target' "'handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml'"
SRCS+= mirrors.sgml.ftp.inc \
mirrors.sgml.cvsup.inc \
eresources.sgml.www.inc
CLEANFILES+= mirrors.sgml.ftp.inc mirrors.sgml.ftp.inc.tmp \
mirrors.sgml.cvsup.inc mirrors.sgml.cvsup.inc.tmp \
eresources.sgml.www.inc eresources.sgml.www.inc.tmp
.include "${DOC_PREFIX}/share/mk/doc.project.mk"
.for p in ftp cvsup
mirrors.sgml.${p}.inc: mirrors.sgml.${p}.inc.tmp
${SED} -e 's,<\([^ >]*\)\([^>]*\)/>,<\1\2>\1>,;s,,,'\
< $@.tmp > $@ || (${RM} -f $@ && false)
.endfor
eresources.sgml.www.inc: eresources.sgml.www.inc.tmp
${SED} -e 's,<\([^ >]*\)\([^>]*\)/>,<\1\2>\1>,;s,,,'\
< $@.tmp > $@ || (${RM} -f $@ && false)
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/audit/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/audit/chapter.sgml
index ceb4525a83..36bdcef9df 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/audit/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/audit/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,531 +1,571 @@
-
-
-
Tom
Rhodes
Written by
- Kernel Event Auditing
+ Security Event Auditing
Synopsis
AUDIT
- Kernel Event Auditing
+ Security Event Auditing
MAC
- The &os; 6.0 operating system release has included
+ The &os; 7-CURRENT development branch includes
support for Event Auditing based on the &posix;.1e draft and
- the &sun; BSM implementation. Event auditing
- permits the selective logging of security-relevant system events
- for the purposes of system analysis, system monitoring, and
- security evaluation.
+ Sun's published BSM API and file format.
+ Event auditing permits the selective logging of security-relevant
+ system events for the purposes of post-mortem analysis, system
+ monitoring, and intrusion detection. After some settling time in
+ &os; 7-CURRENT, this support will be merged to &os; 6-STABLE
+ and appear in subsequent releases.
+
+
+ The audit facility in FreeBSD is considered experimental, and
+ production deployment should occur only after careful consideration
+ of the risks of deploying experimental software.
+
This chapter will focus mainly on the installation and
configuration of Event Auditing. Explanation of audit policies,
and an example configuration will be provided for the
convenience of the reader.
After reading this chapter, you will know:
What Event Auditing is and how it works.
How to configure Event Auditing on &os; for users
and processes.
Before reading this chapter, you should:
Understand &unix; and &os; basics
().
Be familiar with the basics of kernel
configuration/compilation
().
Have some familiarity with security and how it
pertains to &os; ().
Event auditing can generate a great deal of log file
- data, exceeding gigabytes a week in some configurations. An administrator
- should read this chapter in its entirety to avoid possible
- self inflicted DoS attacks due to improper
- configuration.
+ data, exceeding gigabytes a week in some configurations. An
+ administrator should read this chapter in its entirety to avoid
+ possible self-inflicted DoS attacks due to
+ improper configuration.
The implementation of Event Auditing in &os; is similar to
that of the &sun; Basic Security Module, or BSM
library. Thus, the configuration is almost completely
- interchangeable with &solaris; and Darwin operating systems.
+ interchangeable with &solaris; and Mac OS X/Darwin operating
+ systems.
Key Terms - Words to Know
Before reading this chapter, a few key terms must be
explained. This is intended to clear up any confusion that
may occur and to avoid the abrupt introduction of new terms
and information.
- class : A class specifies the category
- different actions the system are placed in. For example,
- use of &man.login.1; could be placed in a class.
+ event : An auditable event is
+ an event that can be logged using the audit subsystem. The
+ administrator can configure which events will be audited.
+ Examples of security-relevant events include the creation of
+ a file, the building of a network connection, or the logging
+ in of a user. Events are either attributable
,
+ meaning that they can be traced back to a user
+ authentication, or non-attributable
. Examples
+ of non-attributable events are any events that occur before
+ authentication has succeeded in the login process, such as
+ failed authentication attempts.
- event : An event could be considered
- an action taken on the system. Creating a file would be
- an event.
+ class : Events may be assigned to
+ one or more classes, usually based on the general category
+ of the events, such as file creation
,
+ file access
, or network
. Login
+ and logout events are assigned to the lo
+ class. The use of classes allows the administrator to
+ specify high level auditing rules without having to specify
+ whether each individual auditable operation will be logged.
- record : A record is a log or a note
- about a specific action.
+ record : A record is a log entry
+ describing a security event. Records typically have a
+ record event type, information on the subject (user) associated
+ with the event, time information, information on any objects,
+ such as files, and information on whether the event corresponded
+ to a successful operation.
+
+ trail : An audit trail, or log file,
+ consists of a series of audit records describing security
+ events. Typically, trails are in roughly chronological
+ order with respect to the time events completed. Only
+ authorized processes are allowed to commit records to the
+ audit trail.
+
prefix : A prefix is considered to
be the configuration element used to toggle auditing for
success and failed events.
Installing Audit Support
- Support for Event Auditing should have been installed with
+ Support for Event Auditing is installed with
the normal installworld process. An
administrator may confirm this by viewing the contents
of /etc/security . Files
beginning with the word audit should be present.
For example, audit_event .
In-kernel support for the framework must also exist. This
may be done by adding the following lines to the local kernel
configuration file:
options AUDIT
Rebuild and reinstall
the kernel via the normal process explained in
.
Once completed, enable the audit daemon by adding the
following line to &man.rc.conf.5;:
auditd_enable="YES"
Functionality not provided by the default may be added
here with the auditd_flags option.
Audit Configuration
- By default, all configuration is done within the realm of
- /etc/security and the
- files contained within. The following files must be present
- before the audit daemon is started:
+ All configuration files for security audit are found in
+ /etc/security . The following
+ files must be present before the audit daemon is started:
audit_class - Contains the
definitions of the audit classes.
audit_control - Controls aspects
of the audit subsystem, such as default audit classes,
minimum disk space to leave on the audit log volume,
etc.
audit_event - Defines the kernel
audit events. These map, mostly, to system calls.
audit_user - The events to audit
- for individual users. A user name does not need to appear
- in here.
+ for individual users. Users not appearing here will be
+ subject to the default configuration in the control
+ configuration file.
audit_warn - A shell script
- used by auditd to form warning messages.
+ used by auditd to generate warning messages in
+ exceptional situations, such as when space for audit
+ records is running low.
- If these files do not exist, for whatever reason, they can
- be installed easily by issuing the following commands:
-
- &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/contrib/bsm/etc && make install
-
Audit File Syntax
The configuration file syntax is rather arcane, albeit easy
to work with. One thing an administrator must be leery about
is overriding system defaults. This could create potential
openings for audit data to not be collected properly.
The audit subsystem will accept both the short name and
long name with regards to configuration syntax. A syntax
map has been included below.
The following list contains all supported audit
classes:
all - all - All
audit flags set.
ad - administrative
- Administrative actions performed on the system as a
whole.
ap - application -
Application defined action.
cl - file_close -
Audit calls to the close system
call.
ex - exec - Audit
program or utility execution.
fa - file_attr_acc
- Audit the access of object attributes such as
&man.stat.1;, &man.pathconf.2; and similar events.
fc - file_creation
- Audit events where a file is created as a result.
fd - file_deletion
- Audit events where file deletion occurs.
fm - file_attr_mod
- Audit events where file attribute modification occurs,
such as &man.chown.8;, &man.chflags.1;, &man.flock.2;,
etc.
fr - file_read
- Audit events in which data is read, files are opened for
reading, etc.
fw - file_write -
Audit events in which data is written, files are written
or modified, etc.
io - ioctl - Audit
use of the &man.ioctl.2; system call.
ip - ipc - Audit
- System V IPC operations.
+ various forms of Inter-Process Communication, including POSIX
+ pipes and System V IPC operations.
lo - login_logout -
Audit &man.login.1; and &man.logout.1; events occurring
on the system.
na - non_attrib -
Audit non-attributable events.
no - no_class -
Null class used to disable event auditing.
nt - network -
Audit events related to network actions, such as
&man.connect.2; and &man.accept.2;.
ot - other -
Audit miscellaneous events.
pc - process -
Audit process operations, such as &man.exec.3; and
&man.exit.3;.
-
-
- tf - tfm -
- I HAVE NO CLUE!
-
Following is a list of all supported audit prefixes:
none - Audit both the success
or failure of an event. For example, just listing a
class will result in the auditing of both success and
failure.
+ - Audit successful events
only.
- - Audit failed events
only.
Using the all class with either the
positive or negative prefix can generate a large amount
of data at an extremely rapid rate.
Extra prefixes used to modify the default configuration
values:
^- - Disable auditing of failed events.
^+ - Enable auditing of successful events.
^ - Disable auditing of both successful and failed
events.
Configuration Files
- Configuration is set in only two files, the first being
- audit_control and
- audit_user being the second. The first
- is system-wide, controlling every aspect of event auditing
- in the system. The latter may be used for fine grained user
- auditing.
+ In most cases, administrators will need to modify only two files
+ when configuring the audit system: audit_control
+ and audit_user . The first controls system-wide
+ audit paramaters and defaults for both attributable and
+ non-attributable events. The second may be used to tune the level
+ and nature of auditing for individual users.
The audit_control File
- The audit_control contains some basic
+ The audit_control file contains some basic
defaults that the administrator may wish to modify. Perhaps
even set some new ones. Viewing the contents of this file,
we see the following:
dir:/var/audit
-flags:lo,ad,-all,^-fa,^-fc,^-cl
+flags:lo
minfree:20
naflags:lo
- The dir is used to set the default
- directory where audit logs are stored.
-
- The flags is used to set the system-wide
- defaults. The current setting,
+ The dir option is used to set the default
+ directory where audit logs are stored. Audit is frequently
+ configured so that audit logs are stored on a dedicated file
+ system, so as to prevent interference between the audit
+ subsystem and other subsystems when file systems become full.
+
+
+ The flags option is used to set the
+ system-wide defaults. The current setting, lo
+ configures the auditing of all &man.login.1; and &man.logout.1;
+ actions. A more complex example,
lo,ad,-all,^-fa,^-fc,^-cl audits all system
&man.login.1; and &man.logout.1; actions, all administrator
- actions, all failed events in the system, and finally disable
+ actions, all failed events in the system, and finally disables
auditing of failed attempts for fa ,
fc , and cl . Even though
the -all turned on the auditing of all
failed attempts, the ^- prefix will override
that for the latter options.
Notice that the previous paragraph shows the file is
read from left to right. As such, values further on the
right side may override a previous value specified to
its left.
The minfree option defines the minimum
percentage of free space for audit file systems. This
relates to the file system where audit logs are stored.
For example, if the dir specifies
/var/audit and
minfree is set to twenty (20), warning
messages will be generated when the
/var file system grows
to eighty (80) percent full.
The naflags option specifies audit
- flags to be considered non attributable; i.e.: classes of
- events which cannot be attributed to a specific user
- on the system. This can be overridden with the
- audit_user configuration file.
+ classes to be audited for non-attributed events —
+ that is, events for which there is no authenticated user.
+
The audit_user File
- The audit_user permits the
- administrator to map audit specific events to directly
- to users. This adds a finer-grained control mechanism
- for all system users.
+ The audit_user file permits the
+ administrator to determine which classes of audit events
+ should be logged for which system users.
The following is the defaults currently placed in
the audit_user file:
root:lo:no
audit:fc:no
Notice how the default is to audit all cases of
login /logout
and disable auditing of all other actions for
root . This configuration
also audits all file creation and disables all
other auditing for the audit
user. While event auditing does not require a special
user exist, some configurations, specifically environments
- making use of MAC may require it.
+ making use of MAC , may require it.
Event Audit Administration
- Events from the auditd daemon cannot
+ Events written by the kernel audit subsystem cannot
be altered or read in plain text. Data is stored and accessed
- in a method similar to that of &man.ktrace.1; and &man.kdump.1,
+ in a method similar to that of &man.ktrace.1; and &man.kdump.1;,
that is, they may only be viewed by dumping them using the
- praudit or auditreduce
- utilities.
+ praudit command; audit trails may be reduced
+ using the auditreduce command, which selects
+ records from an audit trail based on properties of interest, such
+ as the user, time of the event, and type of operation.
- There are two utilities because of different requirements.
- For example, the praudit will dump the entire
- contents of a specified audit log in plain text. To dump an
+ For example, the praudit utility will dump the
+ entire contents of a specified audit log in plain text. To dump an
audit log in its entirety, use:
&prompt.root; praudit /var/audit/AUDITFILE
Where AUDITFILE is the audit log
of viewing choice. Since audit logs may contain enormous
amounts of data, an administrator may prefer to select records
for specific users. This is made possible with the following
command, where trhodes is the user of
choice:
- &prompt.root; auditreduce -e trhodes /var/audit/AUDITFILE
+ &prompt.root; auditreduce -e trhodes /var/audit/AUDITFILE | praudit
This will select all audit records produced by the user
trhodes stored in the
AUDITFILE file.
There are several other options available for reading audit
records, see the aforementioned command's manual pages for
a more in depth explanation.
Rotating Audit Log Files
- Manually rotating audit log files will cause great
- havoc within the system. Therefore, adding a line to
- &man.newsyslog.conf.5; will provide no usefulness. So how
- are the logs to be rotated? Sending the appropriate flag
- to the audit utility will shut down
- event auditing and safely rotate. The following command
- should handle everything for an administrator:
+ Due to log reliability requirements, audit trails
+ are written to only by the kernel, and managed only by
+ auditd . Administrators should not
+ attempt to use &man.newsyslog.conf.5; or other tools to
+ directly rotate audit logs. Instead, the audit
+ management tool should be used to shut down auditing,
+ reconfigure the audit system, and perform log rotation.
+ The following command causes the audit daemon to create a
+ new audit log and signal the kernel to switch to using the
+ new log. The old log will be terminated and renamed, at
+ which point it may then be manipulated by the administrator.
&prompt.root; audit -n
If the auditd daemon is not currently
running, the previous command will fail and an error message
will be produced.
Adding the following line to
/etc/crontab will force the rotation
every twelve hours from &man.cron.8;:
* */12 * * * root /usr/sbin/audit -n
The change will take effect once you have saved the
new /etc/crontab .
+
+
+ Delegating Audit Review Rights
+
+ By default, only the root user has the right to read system audit
+ logs. However, that right may be delegated to members of the
+ audit group, as the audit directory and audit
+ trail files are assigned to that group, and made group-readable. As
+ the ability to track audit log contents provides significant insight
+ into the behavior of users and processes, it is recommended that the
+ delegation of audit review rights be performed with caution.
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml
index 98054a02e6..e9dc78b35c 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,2547 +1,2538 @@
Chris
Shumway
Rewritten by
UNIX °ò¦·§©À
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- FreeBSD ªº¨Ï¥Î¤è¦¡¦³«Ü¦hºØ¡A¨ä¤¤¤@ºØ´N¬O¦b¤å¦r²×ºÝ¾÷¤W¥´¦r¡C
+ ¦³«Ü¦h¤èªk¥i¥H¾Þ§@ FreeBSD ¡A¨ä¤¤¤@ºØ´N¬O¦b¤å¦r²×ºÝ¾÷¤W¥´¦r¡C
¦p¦¹¨Ï¥Î FreeBSD §Y¥i»´©öªºÅé·|¨ì &unix; §@·~¨t²Îªº«Â¤O©M¼u©Ê¡C
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console
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Additional ABI support:.
Local package initialization:.
Additional TCP options:.
Fri Sep 20 13:01:06 EEST 2002
FreeBSD/i386 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0)
login:
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FreeBSD/i386 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0)
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- Multiple Consoles
-
- Running &unix; commands in one console is fine, but FreeBSD can
- run many programs at once. Having one console where commands can be
- typed would be a bit of a waste when an operating system like FreeBSD
- can run dozens of programs at the same time. This is where
- virtual consoles
can be very helpful.
-
- FreeBSD can be configured to present you with many different
- virtual consoles. You can switch from one of them to any other
- virtual console by pressing a couple of keys on your keyboard. Each
- console has its own different output channel, and FreeBSD takes care
- of properly redirecting keyboard input and monitor output as you
- switch from one virtual console to the next.
-
- Special key combinations have been reserved by FreeBSD for
- switching consoles
- A fairly technical and accurate description of all the details
- of the FreeBSD console and keyboard drivers can be found in the
- manual pages of &man.syscons.4;, &man.atkbd.4;, &man.vidcontrol.1;
- and &man.kbdcontrol.1;. We will not expand on the details here,
- but the interested reader can always consult the manual pages for
- a more detailed and thorough explanation of how things
- work.
- . You can use
- Alt F1 ,
- Alt F2 , through
- Alt F8 to switch
- to a different virtual console in FreeBSD.
-
- As you are switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD takes
- care of saving and restoring the screen output. The result is an
- illusion
of having multiple virtual
- screens and keyboards that you can use to type commands for
- FreeBSD to run. The programs that you launch on one virtual console
- do not stop running when that console is not visible. They continue
- running when you have switched to a different virtual console.
+ ¦h« Console
+
+ ¦b¤@Ó Console ¤U°õ¦æ &unix; ·íµM¬O¨S¦³°ÝÃD¡AµM¦ÓFreeBSD¬O¥i¥H¦P®É°õ¦æ«Ü¦hµ{¦¡ªº¡C
+ ¹³ FreeBSD ³o¼Ë¥i¥H¦P®É°õ¦æ¤@¤j°ïµ{¦¡ªº§@·~¨t²Î¡A¥u¦³¤@Ó console ¥i¥H¿é¤J«ü¥O¬O¦³ÂI®ö¶O¡C
+ ¦b¦¹virtual consoles
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+
+
+ FreeBSD ¥i¥H³Q³]©w¦¨¦P®É¦³«Ü¦h virtual console ¡A¥Î´XÓ«öÁ䪺²Õ¦X´N¥i¥H±q¤@Ó virtual console ¸õ¨ì§Oªº virtual console ¥h¡C ¨C¤@Ó console ³£¦³¦Û¤w¤£¦Pªº¿é¥XÀW¹D¡A ·í±q¬Y¤@Ó virtual console ¤Á´«¨ì¤U¤@Óªº®ÉÔ¡AFreeBSD ·|¾A·íªº³B²zÁä½L¿é¤J¤Î¿Ã¹õ¿é¥X¡C
+
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+
+ ¦b &man.syscons.4;¡B &man.atkbd.4;¡B &man.vidcontrol.1;¡B¥H¤Î
+ &man.kbdcontrol.1;µ¥ manual page ¤¤¡A¹ï©ó FreeBSD ªº console
+ ¤ÎÁä½LÅX°Êµ{¦¡¦³¤Q¤À§Þ³N©Ê¥B¸Ô²Óªº´yz¡C
+ §Ú̦b³o¸Ì¤£°Q½×²Ó¸`¡A¦³¿³½ìªºÅªªÌÀH®É¥i¥H¦b manual page
+ ¤¤¬d¨ìÃö©ó¹B§@¤è¦¡ªº§ó¸Ô²Ó¥B§¹¾ãªº¸ÑÄÀ
+ ¡C ±z¥i¥H¥Î
+ Alt F1 ¡B
+ Alt F2 ¡B¨ì
+ Alt F8 ¨Ó¤Á´« FreeBSD
+ ªº¤£¦P console¡C
+
+
+ ·í±z±q¤@Ó console ¤Á´«¨ì¤U¤@Óªº®ÉÔ¡A FreeBSD ·|³B²z¿Ã¹õ¿é¥XªºÀx¦s¤Î¦^´_¡C
+ ³o´N¦n¹³
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+ FreeBSD °õ¦æ¡C ¦b¬Y¤@Ó console ¤W°õ¦æªºµ{¦¡¨Ã¤£·|¦]¬°¤Á¨ì§Oªº console
+ ¦Ó°±¤î°õ¦æ¡A·í±z¤Á´«¨ì¥t¤@Ó console ªº®ÉÔ¡A¥LÌ·|Ä~Äò°õ¦æ¡C
+
The /etc/ttys File
The default configuration of FreeBSD will start up with eight
virtual consoles. This is not a hardwired setting though, and
you can easily customize your installation to boot with more
or fewer virtual consoles. The number and settings of the
virtual consoles are configured in the
/etc/ttys file.
You can use the /etc/ttys file to configure
the virtual consoles of FreeBSD. Each uncommented line in this file
(lines that do not start with a # character) contains
settings for a single terminal or virtual console. The default
version of this file that ships with FreeBSD configures nine virtual
consoles, and enables eight of them. They are the lines that start with
ttyv :
# name getty type status comments
#
ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
# Virtual terminals
ttyv1 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv2 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv4 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv5 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv6 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure
ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure
For a detailed description of every column in this file and all
the options you can use to set things up for the virtual consoles,
consult the &man.ttys.5; manual page.
Single User Mode Console
A detailed description of what single user mode
is
can be found in . It is worth noting
that there is only one console when you are running FreeBSD in single
user mode. There are no virtual consoles available. The settings of
the single user mode console can also be found in the
/etc/ttys file. Look for the line that starts
with console :
# name getty type status comments
#
# If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password
# when going to single-user mode.
console none unknown off secure
As the comments above the console line
indicate, you can edit this line and change secure to
insecure . If you do that, when FreeBSD boots
into single user mode, it will still ask for the
root password.
Be careful when changing this to
insecure . If you ever forget
the root password, booting into single user
mode is a bit involved. It is still possible, but it might be a bit
hard for someone who is not very comfortable with the FreeBSD
booting process and the programs involved.
Permissions
UNIX
FreeBSD, being a direct descendant of BSD &unix;, is based on
several key &unix; concepts. The first and
most pronounced is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system.
The system can handle several users all working simultaneously on
completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly
sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals,
memory, and CPU time fairly to each user.
Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users,
everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing who
can read, write, and execute the resource. These permissions are
stored as three octets broken into three pieces, one for the owner of
the file, one for the group that the file belongs to, and one for
everyone else. This numerical representation works like
this:
permissions
file permissions
Value
Permission
Directory Listing
0
No read, no write, no execute
---
1
No read, no write, execute
--x
2
No read, write, no execute
-w-
3
No read, write, execute
-wx
4
Read, no write, no execute
r--
5
Read, no write, execute
r-x
6
Read, write, no execute
rw-
7
Read, write, execute
rwx
ls
directories
You can use the -l command line
argument to &man.ls.1; to view a long directory listing that
includes a column with information about a file's permissions
for the owner, group, and everyone else. For example, a
ls -l in an arbitrary directory may show:
&prompt.user; ls -l
total 530
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 myfile
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 otherfile
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7680 Sep 5 12:31 email.txt
...
Here is how the first column of ls -l is
broken up:
-rw-r--r--
The first (leftmost) character
tells if this file is a regular file, a directory, a special
character device, a socket, or any other special
pseudo-file device. In this case, the -
indicates a regular file. The next three characters,
rw- in this example, give the permissions for the owner of the
file. The next three characters, r-- , give the
permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three
characters, r-- , give the permissions for the
rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off.
In the case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can
read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the
rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table
above, the permissions for this file would be
644 , where each digit represents the three parts
of the file's permission.
This is all well and good, but how does the system control
permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware
devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to
just like any other file. These special device files are stored on
the /dev directory.
Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write,
and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a
slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is
marked executable, it means it can be traversed into, that is, it is
possible to cd
(change directory) into it. This also means that
within the directory it is possible to access files whose names are
known (subject, of course, to the permissions on the files
themselves).
In particular, in order to perform a directory listing,
read permission must be set on the directory, whilst to delete a file
that one knows the name of, it is necessary to have write
and execute permissions to the directory
containing the file.
There are more permission bits, but they are primarily used in
special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky
directories. If you want more information on file permissions and
how to set them, be sure to look at the &man.chmod.1; manual
page.
Tom
Rhodes
Contributed by
Symbolic Permissions
permissions symbolic
Symbolic permissions, sometimes referred to as symbolic expressions,
use characters in place of octal values to assign permissions to files
or directories. Symbolic expressions use the syntax of (who) (action)
(permissions), where the following values are available:
Option
Letter
Represents
(who)
u
User
(who)
g
Group owner
(who)
o
Other
(who)
a
All (world
)
(action)
+
Adding permissions
(action)
-
Removing permissions
(action)
=
Explicitly set permissions
(permissions)
r
Read
(permissions)
w
Write
(permissions)
x
Execute
(permissions)
t
Sticky bit
(permissions)
s
Set UID or GID
These values are used with the &man.chmod.1; command
just like before, but with letters. For an example, you could use
the following command to block other users from accessing
FILE :
&prompt.user; chmod go= FILE
A comma separated list can be provided when more than one set
of changes to a file must be made. For example the following command
will remove the groups and world
write permission
on FILE , then it adds the execute
permissions for everyone:
&prompt.user; chmod go-w,a+x FILE
Tom
Rhodes
Contributed by
&os; File Flags
In addition to file permissions discussed previously, &os;
supports the use of file flags.
These flags
add an additional level of security and control over files, but
not directories.
These file flags add an additional level of control over
files, helping to ensure that in some cases not even the
root can remove or alter files.
File flags are altered by using the &man.chflags.1; utility,
using a simple interface. For example, to enable the system
undeletable flag on the file file1 ,
issue the following command:
&prompt.root; chflags sunlink file1
And to disable the system undeletable flag, simply
issue the previous command with no
in
front of the sunlink . Observe:
&prompt.root; chflags nosunlink file1
To view the flags of this file, use the &man.ls.1;
with the -lo flags:
&prompt.root; ls -lo file1
The output should look like the following:
-rw-r--r-- 1 trhodes trhodes sunlnk 0 Mar 1 05:54 file1
Several flags may only added or removed to files by the
root user. In other cases, the file owner
may set these flags. It is recommended an administrator read
over the &man.chflags.1; and &man.chflags.2; manual pages for
more information.
Directory Structure
directory hierarchy
The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining
an overall understanding of the system. The most important
concept to grasp is that of the root directory,
/
. This directory is the first one mounted at
boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare
the operating system for multi-user operation. The root
directory also contains mount points for every other file system
that you may want to mount.
A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can
be grafted onto the root file system.
This is further described in .
Standard mount points include
/usr , /var , /tmp ,
/mnt , and /cdrom . These
directories are usually referenced to entries in the file
/etc/fstab . /etc/fstab is
a table of various file systems and mount points for reference by the
system. Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab
are mounted automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8;
unless they contain the noauto option.
Details can be found in .
A complete description of the file system hierarchy is
available in &man.hier.7;. For now, a brief overview of the
most common directories will suffice.
Directory
Description
/
Root directory of the file system.
/bin/
User utilities fundamental to both single-user
and multi-user environments.
/boot/
Programs and configuration files used during
operating system bootstrap.
/boot/defaults/
Default bootstrapping configuration files; see
&man.loader.conf.5;.
/dev/
Device nodes; see &man.intro.4;.
/etc/
System configuration files and scripts.
/etc/defaults/
Default system configuration files; see &man.rc.8;.
/etc/mail/
Configuration files for mail transport agents such
as &man.sendmail.8;.
/etc/namedb/
named configuration files; see
&man.named.8;.
/etc/periodic/
Scripts that are run daily, weekly, and monthly,
via &man.cron.8;; see &man.periodic.8;.
/etc/ppp/
ppp configuration files; see
&man.ppp.8;.
/mnt/
Empty directory commonly used by system administrators as a
temporary mount point.
/proc/
Process file system; see &man.procfs.5;,
&man.mount.procfs.8;.
/rescue/
Statically linked programs for emergency recovery; see
&man.rescue.8;.
/root/
Home directory for the root
account.
/sbin/
System programs and administration utilities fundamental to
both single-user and multi-user environments.
/stand/
Programs used in a standalone environment.
/tmp/
Temporary files. The contents of
/tmp are usually NOT
preserved across a system reboot. A memory-based file system
is often mounted at
/tmp .
This can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of
&man.rc.conf.5; (or with an entry in
/etc/fstab ; see &man.mdmfs.8;,
or for FreeBSD 4.X, &man.mfs.8;).
/usr/
The majority of user utilities and applications.
/usr/bin/
Common utilities, programming tools, and applications.
/usr/include/
Standard C include files.
/usr/lib/
Archive libraries.
/usr/libdata/
Miscellaneous utility data files.
/usr/libexec/
System daemons & system utilities (executed by other
programs).
/usr/local/
Local executables, libraries, etc. Also used as
the default destination for the FreeBSD ports
framework. Within /usr/local ,
the general layout sketched out by &man.hier.7; for
/usr should be used. Exceptions
are the man directory, which is directly under
/usr/local rather than under
/usr/local/share , and the ports
documentation is in
share/doc/port .
/usr/obj/
Architecture-specific target tree produced by building
the /usr/src tree.
/usr/ports
The FreeBSD Ports Collection (optional).
/usr/sbin/
System daemons & system utilities (executed by users).
/usr/share/
Architecture-independent files.
/usr/src/
BSD and/or local source files.
/usr/X11R6/
X11R6 distribution executables, libraries, etc
(optional).
/var/
Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files.
A memory-based file system is sometimes mounted at
/var .
This can be automated using the varmfs-related variables of
&man.rc.conf.5 (or with an entry in
/etc/fstab ; see &man.mdmfs.8;,
or for FreeBSD 4.X, &man.mfs.8;).
/var/log/
Miscellaneous system log files.
/var/mail/
User mailbox files.
/var/spool/
Miscellaneous printer and mail system spooling directories.
/var/tmp/
Temporary files.
The files are usually preserved across a system reboot,
unless /var
is a memory-based file system.
/var/yp
NIS maps.
Disk Organization
The smallest unit of organization that FreeBSD uses to find files
is the filename. Filenames are case-sensitive, which means that
readme.txt and README.TXT
are two separate files. FreeBSD does not use the extension
(.txt ) of a file to determine whether the file is
a program, or a document, or some other form of data.
Files are stored in directories. A directory may contain no
files, or it may contain many hundreds of files. A directory can also
contain other directories, allowing you to build up a hierarchy of
directories within one another. This makes it much easier to organize
your data.
Files and directories are referenced by giving the file or
directory name, followed by a forward slash, / ,
followed by any other directory names that are necessary. If you have
directory foo , which contains directory
bar , which contains the file
readme.txt , then the full name, or
path to the file is
foo/bar/readme.txt .
Directories and files are stored in a file system. Each file system
contains exactly one directory at the very top level, called the
root directory for that file system. This root
directory can then contain other directories.
So far this is probably similar to any other operating system you
may have used. There are a few differences; for example, &ms-dos; uses
\ to separate file and directory names, while &macos;
uses : .
FreeBSD does not use drive letters, or other drive names in the
path. You would not write c:/foo/bar/readme.txt
on FreeBSD.
Instead, one file system is designated the root
file system . The root file system's root directory is
referred to as / . Every other file system is then
mounted under the root file system. No matter
how many disks you have on your FreeBSD system, every directory
appears to be part of the same disk.
Suppose you have three file systems, called A ,
B , and C . Each file system has
one root directory, which contains two other directories, called
A1 , A2 (and likewise
B1 , B2 and
C1 , C2 ).
Call A the root file system. If you used the
ls command to view the contents of this directory
you would see two subdirectories, A1 and
A2 . The directory tree looks like this:
/
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
A file system must be mounted on to a directory in another
file system. So now suppose that you mount file system
B on to the directory A1 . The
root directory of B replaces A1 ,
and the directories in B appear accordingly:
/
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- B1
| |
| `--- B2
|
`--- A2
Any files that are in the B1 or
B2 directories can be reached with the path
/A1/B1 or /A1/B2 as
necessary. Any files that were in /A1 have been
temporarily hidden. They will reappear if B is
unmounted from A.
If B had been mounted on A2
then the diagram would look like this:
/
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2
and the paths would be /A2/B1 and
/A2/B2 respectively.
File systems can be mounted on top of one another. Continuing the
last example, the C file system could be mounted on
top of the B1 directory in the B
file system, leading to this arrangement:
/
|
+--- A1
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- B2
Or C could be mounted directly on to the
A file system, under the A1
directory:
/
|
+--- A1
| |
| +--- C1
| |
| `--- C2
|
`--- A2
|
+--- B1
|
`--- B2
If you are familiar with &ms-dos;, this is similar, although not
identical, to the join command.
This is not normally something you need to concern yourself with.
Typically you create file systems when installing FreeBSD and decide
where to mount them, and then never change them unless you add a new
disk.
It is entirely possible to have one large root file system, and not
need to create any others. There are some drawbacks to this approach,
and one advantage.
Benefits of Multiple File Systems
Different file systems can have different mount
options . For example, with careful planning, the
root file system can be mounted read-only, making it impossible for
you to inadvertently delete or edit a critical file. Separating
user-writable file systems, such as /home ,
from other file systems also allows them to be mounted
nosuid ; this option prevents the
suid /guid bits on
executables stored on the file system from taking effect, possibly
improving security.
FreeBSD automatically optimizes the layout of files on a
file system, depending on how the file system is being used. So a
file system that contains many small files that are written
frequently will have a different optimization to one that contains
fewer, larger files. By having one big file system this
optimization breaks down.
FreeBSD's file systems are very robust should you lose power.
However, a power loss at a critical point could still damage the
structure of the file system. By splitting your data over multiple
file systems it is more likely that the system will still come up,
making it easier for you to restore from backup as necessary.
Benefit of a Single File System
File systems are a fixed size. If you create a file system when
you install FreeBSD and give it a specific size, you may later
discover that you need to make the partition bigger. This is not
easily accomplished without backing up, recreating the file system
with the new size, and then restoring the backed up data.
FreeBSD 4.4 and later versions feature the &man.growfs.8;
command, which makes it possible to increase the size of
file system on the fly, removing this limitation.
File systems are contained in partitions. This does not have the
same meaning as the common usage of the term partition (for example, &ms-dos;
partition), because of &os;'s &unix; heritage. Each partition is
identified by a letter from a through to
h . Each partition can contain only one file system,
which means that file systems are often described by either their
typical mount point in the file system hierarchy, or the letter of the
partition they are contained in.
FreeBSD also uses disk space for swap
space . Swap space provides FreeBSD with
virtual memory . This allows your computer to
behave as though it has much more memory than it actually does. When
FreeBSD runs out of memory it moves some of the data that is not
currently being used to the swap space, and moves it back in (moving
something else out) when it needs it.
Some partitions have certain conventions associated with
them.
Partition
Convention
a
Normally contains the root file system
b
Normally contains swap space
c
Normally the same size as the enclosing slice. This
allows utilities that need to work on the entire slice (for
example, a bad block scanner) to work on the
c partition. You would not normally create
a file system on this partition.
d
Partition d used to have a special
meaning associated with it, although that is now gone. To
this day, some tools may operate oddly if told to work on
partition d , so
sysinstall will not normally create
partition d .
Each partition-that-contains-a-file-system is stored in what
FreeBSD calls a slice . Slice is FreeBSD's term
for what the common call partitions, and again, this is because of
FreeBSD's &unix; background. Slices are numbered, starting at 1,
through to 4.
slices
partitions
dangerously dedicated
Slice numbers follow
the device name, prefixed with an s ,
starting at 1. So da0s1
is the first slice on the first SCSI drive. There can only be
four physical slices on a disk, but you can have logical
slices inside physical slices of the appropriate type. These
extended slices are numbered starting at 5, so
ad0s5
is the first
extended slice on the first IDE disk. These devices are used by file
systems that expect to occupy a slice.
Slices, dangerously dedicated
physical
drives, and other drives contain
partitions , which are represented as
letters from a to h .
This letter is appended to the device name, so
da0a
is the a partition on
the first da drive, which is dangerously dedicated
.
ad1s3e
is the fifth partition
in the third slice of the second IDE disk drive.
Finally, each disk on the system is identified. A disk name
starts with a code that indicates the type of disk, and then a number,
indicating which disk it is. Unlike slices, disk numbering starts at
0. Common codes that you will see are listed in
.
When referring to a partition FreeBSD requires that you also name
the slice and disk that contains the partition, and when referring to
a slice you should also refer to the disk name. Do this by listing
the disk name, s , the slice number, and then the
partition letter. Examples are shown in
.
shows a conceptual
model of the disk layout that should help make things clearer.
In order to install FreeBSD you must first configure the disk
slices, then create partitions within the slice you will use for
FreeBSD, and then create a file system (or swap space) in each
partition, and decide where that file system will be mounted.
Disk Device Codes
Code
Meaning
ad
ATAPI (IDE) disk
da
SCSI direct access disk
acd
ATAPI (IDE) CDROM
cd
SCSI CDROM
fd
Floppy disk
Sample Disk, Slice, and Partition Names
Name
Meaning
ad0s1a
The first partition (a ) on the first
slice (s1 ) on the first IDE disk
(ad0 ).
da1s2e
The fifth partition (e ) on the
second slice (s2 ) on the second SCSI disk
(da1 ).
Conceptual Model of a Disk
This diagram shows FreeBSD's view of the first IDE disk attached
to the system. Assume that the disk is 4 GB in size, and contains
two 2 GB slices (&ms-dos; partitions). The first slice contains a &ms-dos;
disk, C: , and the second slice contains a
FreeBSD installation. This example FreeBSD installation has three
partitions, and a swap partition.
The three partitions will each hold a file system. Partition
a will be used for the root file system,
e for the /var directory
hierarchy, and f for the
/usr directory hierarchy.
.-----------------. --.
| | |
| DOS / Windows | |
: : > First slice, ad0s1
: : |
| | |
:=================: ==: --.
| | | Partition a, mounted as / |
| | > referred to as ad0s2a |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | Partition b, used as swap |
| | > referred to as ad0s2b |
| | | |
:-----------------: ==: | Partition c, no
| | | Partition e, used as /var > file system, all
| | > referred to as ad0s2e | of FreeBSD slice,
| | | | ad0s2c
:-----------------: ==: |
| | | |
: : | Partition f, used as /usr |
: : > referred to as ad0s2f |
: : | |
| | | |
| | --' |
`-----------------' --'
Mounting and Unmounting File Systems
The file system is best visualized as a tree,
rooted, as it were, at / .
/dev , /usr , and the
other directories in the root directory are branches, which may
have their own branches, such as
/usr/local , and so on.
root file system
There are various reasons to house some of these
directories on separate file systems. /var
contains the directories log/ ,
spool/ ,
and various types of temporary files, and
as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root file system
is not a good idea, so splitting /var from
/ is often favorable.
Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on
other file systems is if they are to be housed on separate
physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM
drives.
The fstab File
file systems
mounted with fstab
During the boot process,
file systems listed in /etc/fstab are
automatically mounted (unless they are listed with the
noauto option).
The /etc/fstab file contains a list
of lines of the following format:
device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno
device
A device name (which should exist), as explained in
.
mount-point
A directory (which should exist), on which
to mount the file system.
fstype
The file system type to pass to
&man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD file system is
ufs .
options
Either rw for read-write
file systems, or ro for read-only
file systems, followed by any other options that may be
needed. A common option is noauto for
file systems not normally mounted during the boot sequence.
Other options are listed in the &man.mount.8; manual page.
dumpfreq
This is used by &man.dump.8; to determine which
file systems require dumping. If the field is missing,
a value of zero is assumed.
passno
This determines the order in which file systems should
be checked. File systems that should be skipped should have
their passno set to zero. The root
file system (which needs to be checked before everything
else) should have its passno set to
one, and other file systems' passno
should be set to values greater than one. If more than one
file systems have the same passno then
&man.fsck.8; will attempt to check file systems in parallel
if possible.
Consult the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more information
on the format of the /etc/fstab file and
the options it contains.
The mount Command
file systems
mounting
The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to
mount file systems.
In its most basic form, you use:
&prompt.root; mount device mountpoint
There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the
&man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are:
Mount Options
-a
Mount all the file systems listed in
/etc/fstab . Except those
marked as noauto
, excluded by the
-t flag, or those that are already
mounted.
-d
Do everything except for the actual mount system call.
This option is useful in conjunction with the
-v flag to determine what
&man.mount.8; is actually trying to do.
-f
Force the mount of an unclean file system
(dangerous), or forces the revocation of write access
when downgrading a file system's mount status from
read-write to read-only.
-r
Mount the file system read-only. This is identical
to using the ro (rdonly
for &os; versions older than 5.2) argument to the
-o option.
-t
fstype
Mount the given file system as the given file system
type, or mount only file systems of the given type, if
given the -a option.
ufs
is the default file system
type.
-u
Update mount options on the file system.
-v
Be verbose.
-w
Mount the file system read-write.
The -o option takes a comma-separated list of
the options, including the following:
nodev
Do not interpret special devices on the
file system. This is a useful security option.
noexec
Do not allow execution of binaries on this
file system. This is also a useful security option.
nosuid
Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the
file system. This is also a useful security option.
The umount Command
file systems
unmounting
The &man.umount.8; command takes, as a parameter, one of a
mountpoint, a device name, or the -a or
-A option.
All forms take -f to force unmounting,
and -v for verbosity. Be warned that
-f is not generally a good idea. Forcibly
unmounting file systems might crash the computer or damage data
on the file system.
-a and -A are used to
unmount all mounted file systems, possibly modified by the
file system types listed after -t .
-A , however, does not attempt to unmount the
root file system.
Processes
FreeBSD is a multi-tasking operating system. This means that it
seems as though more than one program is running at once. Each program
running at any one time is called a process .
Every command you run will start at least one new process, and there are
a number of system processes that run all the time, keeping the system
functional.
Each process is uniquely identified by a number called a
process ID , or PID , and,
like files, each process also has one owner and group. The owner and
group information is used to determine what files and devices the
process can open, using the file permissions discussed earlier. Most
processes also have a parent process. The parent process is the process
that started them. For example, if you are typing commands to the shell
then the shell is a process, and any commands you run are also
processes. Each process you run in this way will have your shell as its
parent process. The exception to this is a special process called
&man.init.8;. init is always the first
process, so its PID is always 1. init is started
automatically by the kernel when FreeBSD starts.
Two commands are particularly useful to see the processes on the
system, &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1;. The ps command is used to
show a static list of the currently running processes, and can show
their PID, how much memory they are using, the command line they were
started with, and so on. The top command displays all the
running processes, and updates the display every few seconds, so that
you can interactively see what your computer is doing.
By default, ps only shows you the commands that are running
and are owned by you. For example:
&prompt.user; ps
PID TT STAT TIME COMMAND
298 p0 Ss 0:01.10 tcsh
7078 p0 S 2:40.88 xemacs mdoc.xsl (xemacs-21.1.14)
37393 p0 I 0:03.11 xemacs freebsd.dsl (xemacs-21.1.14)
48630 p0 S 2:50.89 /usr/local/lib/netscape-linux/navigator-linux-4.77.bi
48730 p0 IW 0:00.00 (dns helper) (navigator-linux-)
72210 p0 R+ 0:00.00 ps
390 p1 Is 0:01.14 tcsh
7059 p2 Is+ 1:36.18 /usr/local/bin/mutt -y
6688 p3 IWs 0:00.00 tcsh
10735 p4 IWs 0:00.00 tcsh
20256 p5 IWs 0:00.00 tcsh
262 v0 IWs 0:00.00 -tcsh (tcsh)
270 v0 IW+ 0:00.00 /bin/sh /usr/X11R6/bin/startx -- -bpp 16
280 v0 IW+ 0:00.00 xinit /home/nik/.xinitrc -- -bpp 16
284 v0 IW 0:00.00 /bin/sh /home/nik/.xinitrc
285 v0 S 0:38.45 /usr/X11R6/bin/sawfish
As you can see in this example, the output from &man.ps.1; is
organized into a number of columns. PID is the
process ID discussed earlier. PIDs are assigned starting from 1, go up
to 99999, and wrap around back to the beginning when you run out.
The TT column shows the tty the program is running on, and can
safely be ignored for the moment. STAT shows the
program's state, and again, can be safely ignored.
TIME is the amount of time the program has been
running on the CPU—this is usually not the elapsed time since
you started the program, as most programs spend a lot of time waiting
for things to happen before they need to spend time on the CPU.
Finally, COMMAND is the command line that was used to
run the program.
&man.ps.1; supports a number of different options to change the
information that is displayed. One of the most useful sets is
auxww . a displays information
about all the running processes, not just your own. u
displays the username of the process' owner, as well as memory usage.
x displays information about daemon processes, and
ww causes &man.ps.1; to display the full command line,
rather than truncating it once it gets too long to fit on the
screen.
The output from &man.top.1; is similar. A sample session looks like
this:
&prompt.user; top
last pid: 72257; load averages: 0.13, 0.09, 0.03 up 0+13:38:33 22:39:10
47 processes: 1 running, 46 sleeping
CPU states: 12.6% user, 0.0% nice, 7.8% system, 0.0% interrupt, 79.7% idle
Mem: 36M Active, 5256K Inact, 13M Wired, 6312K Cache, 15M Buf, 408K Free
Swap: 256M Total, 38M Used, 217M Free, 15% Inuse
PID USERNAME PRI NICE SIZE RES STATE TIME WCPU CPU COMMAND
72257 nik 28 0 1960K 1044K RUN 0:00 14.86% 1.42% top
7078 nik 2 0 15280K 10960K select 2:54 0.88% 0.88% xemacs-21.1.14
281 nik 2 0 18636K 7112K select 5:36 0.73% 0.73% XF86_SVGA
296 nik 2 0 3240K 1644K select 0:12 0.05% 0.05% xterm
48630 nik 2 0 29816K 9148K select 3:18 0.00% 0.00% navigator-linu
175 root 2 0 924K 252K select 1:41 0.00% 0.00% syslogd
7059 nik 2 0 7260K 4644K poll 1:38 0.00% 0.00% mutt
...
The output is split into two sections. The header (the first five
lines) shows the PID of the last process to run, the system load averages
(which are a measure of how busy the system is), the system uptime (time
since the last reboot) and the current time. The other figures in the
header relate to how many processes are running (47 in this case), how
much memory and swap space has been taken up, and how much time the
system is spending in different CPU states.
Below that are a series of columns containing similar information
to the output from &man.ps.1;. As before you can see the PID, the
username, the amount of CPU time taken, and the command that was run.
&man.top.1; also defaults to showing you the amount of memory space
taken by the process. This is split into two columns, one for total
size, and one for resident size—total size is how much memory the
application has needed, and the resident size is how much it is actually
using at the moment. In this example you can see that &netscape; has
required almost 30 MB of RAM, but is currently only using 9 MB.
&man.top.1; automatically updates this display every two seconds;
this can be changed with the s option.
Daemons, Signals, and Killing Processes
When you run an editor it is easy to control the editor, tell it to
load files, and so on. You can do this because the editor provides
facilities to do so, and because the editor is attached to a
terminal . Some programs are not designed to be
run with continuous user input, and so they disconnect from the terminal
at the first opportunity. For example, a web server spends all day
responding to web requests, it normally does not need any input from
you. Programs that transport email from site to site are another
example of this class of application.
We call these programs daemons . Daemons were
characters in Greek mythology; neither good or evil, they were little
attendant spirits that, by and large, did useful things for mankind.
Much like the web servers and mail servers of today do useful things.
This is why the BSD mascot has, for a long time, been the cheerful
looking daemon with sneakers and a pitchfork.
There is a convention to name programs that normally run as daemons
with a trailing d
. BIND is the
Berkeley Internet Name Daemon (and the actual program that executes is called
named ), the Apache web
server program is called httpd , the line printer
spooling daemon is lpd and so on. This is a
convention, not a hard and fast rule; for example, the main mail daemon
for the Sendmail application is called
sendmail , and not maild , as you
might imagine.
Sometimes you will need to communicate with a daemon process. These
communications are called signals , and you can
communicate with a daemon (or with any other running process) by sending it a
signal. There are a number of different signals that you can
send—some of them have a specific meaning, others are interpreted
by the application, and the application's documentation will tell you
how that application interprets signals. You can only send a signal to
a process that you own. If you send a signal to someone else's
process with &man.kill.1; or &man.kill.2; permission will be denied.
The exception to this is the
root user, who can send signals to everyone's
processes.
FreeBSD will also send applications signals in some cases. If an
application is badly written, and tries to access memory that it is not
supposed to, FreeBSD sends the process the Segmentation
Violation signal (SIGSEGV ). If an
application has used the &man.alarm.3; system call to be alerted after a
period of time has elapsed then it will be sent the Alarm signal
(SIGALRM ), and so on.
Two signals can be used to stop a process,
SIGTERM and SIGKILL .
SIGTERM is the polite way to kill a process; the
process can catch the signal, realize that you want
it to shut down, close any log files it may have open, and generally
finish whatever it is doing at the time before shutting down. In some
cases a process may even ignore SIGTERM if it is in
the middle of some task that can not be interrupted.
SIGKILL can not be ignored by a process. This is
the I do not care what you are doing, stop right now
signal. If you send SIGKILL to a process then
FreeBSD will stop that process there and then
Not quite true—there are a few things that can not be
interrupted. For example, if the process is trying to read from a
file that is on another computer on the network, and the other
computer has gone away for some reason (been turned off, or the
network has a fault), then the process is said to be
uninterruptible
. Eventually the process will time
out, typically after two minutes. As soon as this time out occurs
the process will be killed.
.
The other signals you might want to use are
SIGHUP , SIGUSR1 , and
SIGUSR2 . These are general purpose signals, and
different applications will do different things when they are
sent.
Suppose that you have changed your web server's configuration
file—you would like to tell the web server to re-read its
configuration. You could stop and restart httpd , but
this would result in a brief outage period on your web server, which may
be undesirable. Most daemons are written to respond to the
SIGHUP signal by re-reading their configuration
file. So instead of killing and restarting httpd you
would send it the SIGHUP signal. Because there is no
standard way to respond to these signals, different daemons will have
different behavior, so be sure and read the documentation for the
daemon in question.
Signals are sent using the &man.kill.1; command, as this example
shows.
Sending a Signal to a Process
This example shows how to send a signal to &man.inetd.8;. The
inetd configuration file is
/etc/inetd.conf , and inetd will re-read
this configuration file when it is sent
SIGHUP .
Find the process ID of the process you want to send the signal
to. Do this using &man.ps.1; and &man.grep.1;. The &man.grep.1;
command is used to search through output, looking for the string you
specify. This command is run as a normal user, and &man.inetd.8; is
run as root , so the ax options
must be given to &man.ps.1;.
&prompt.user; ps -ax | grep inetd
198 ?? IWs 0:00.00 inetd -wW
So the &man.inetd.8; PID is 198. In some cases the
grep inetd command might also occur in this
output. This is because of the way &man.ps.1; has to find the list
of running processes.
Use &man.kill.1; to send the signal. Because &man.inetd.8; is
being run by root you must use &man.su.1; to
become root first.
&prompt.user; su
Password:
&prompt.root; /bin/kill -s HUP 198
In common with most &unix; commands, &man.kill.1; will not print any
output if it is successful. If you send a signal to a
process that you do not own then you will see kill:
PID : Operation not
permitted . If you mistype the PID you will either
send the signal to the wrong process, which could be bad, or, if
you are lucky, you will have sent the signal to a PID that is not
currently in use, and you will see kill:
PID : No such process .
Why Use /bin/kill ?
Many shells provide the kill command as a
built in command; that is, the shell will send the signal
directly, rather than running /bin/kill .
This can be very useful, but different shells have a different
syntax for specifying the name of the signal to send. Rather than
try to learn all of them, it can be simpler just to use the
/bin/kill ...
command directly.
Sending other signals is very similar, just substitute
TERM or KILL in the command line
as necessary.
Killing random process on the system can be a bad idea. In
particular, &man.init.8;, process ID 1, is very special. Running
/bin/kill -s KILL 1 is a quick way to shutdown your
system. Always double check the arguments you
run &man.kill.1; with before you press
Return .
Shells
shells
command line
In FreeBSD, a lot of everyday work is done in a command line
interface called a shell. A shell's main job is to take commands
from the input channel and execute them. A lot of shells also have
built in functions to help everyday tasks such as file management,
file globbing, command line editing, command macros, and environment
variables. FreeBSD comes with a set of shells, such as
sh , the Bourne Shell, and tcsh ,
the improved C-shell. Many other shells are available
from the FreeBSD Ports Collection, such as
zsh and bash .
Which shell do you use? It is really a matter of taste. If you
are a C programmer you might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell
such as tcsh . If you have come from Linux or are new
to a &unix; command line interface you might try bash .
The point is that each
shell has unique properties that may or may not work with your
preferred working environment, and that you have a choice of what
shell to use.
One common feature in a shell is filename completion. Given
the typing of the first few letters of a command or filename, you
can usually have the shell automatically complete the rest of the
command or filename by hitting the Tab key on the keyboard. Here is
an example. Suppose you have two files called
foobar and foo.bar . You
want to delete foo.bar . So what you would type
on the keyboard is: rm fo[Tab ].[Tab ] .
The shell would print out rm
foo[BEEP].bar .
The [BEEP] is the console bell, which is the shell telling me it
was unable to totally complete the filename because there is more
than one match. Both foobar and
foo.bar start with fo , but
it was able to complete to foo . If you type in
. , then hit Tab again, the shell would be able to
fill in the rest of the filename for you.
environment variables
Another feature of the shell is the use of environment variables.
Environment variables are a variable key pair stored in the shell's
environment space. This space can be read by any program invoked by
the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. Here
is a list of common environment variables and what they mean:
environment variables
Variable
Description
USER
Current logged in user's name.
PATH
Colon separated list of directories to search for
binaries.
DISPLAY
Network name of the X11 display to connect to, if
available.
SHELL
The current shell.
TERM
The name of the user's terminal. Used to determine the
capabilities of the terminal.
TERMCAP
Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform
various terminal functions.
OSTYPE
Type of operating system. e.g., FreeBSD.
MACHTYPE
The CPU architecture that the system is running
on.
EDITOR
The user's preferred text editor.
PAGER
The user's preferred text pager.
MANPATH
Colon separated list of directories to search for
manual pages.
Bourne shells
Setting an environment variable differs somewhat from
shell to shell. For example, in the C-Style shells such as
tcsh and csh , you would use
setenv to set environment variables.
Under Bourne shells such as sh and
bash , you would use
export to set your current environment
variables. For example, to set or modify the
EDITOR environment variable, under csh or
tcsh a
command like this would set EDITOR to
/usr/local/bin/emacs :
&prompt.user; setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs
Under Bourne shells:
&prompt.user; export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs"
You can also make most shells expand the environment variable by
placing a $ character in front of it on the
command line. For example, echo $TERM would
print out whatever $TERM is set to, because the shell
expands $TERM and passes it on to echo .
Shells treat a lot of special characters, called meta-characters
as special representations of data. The most common one is the
* character, which represents any number of
characters in a filename. These special meta-characters can be used
to do filename globbing. For example, typing in
echo * is almost the same as typing in
ls because the shell takes all the files that
match * and puts them on the command line for
echo to see.
To prevent the shell from interpreting these special characters,
they can be escaped from the shell by putting a backslash
(\ ) character in front of them. echo
$TERM prints whatever your terminal is set to.
echo \$TERM prints $TERM as
is.
Changing Your Shell
The easiest way to change your shell is to use the
chsh command. Running chsh will
place you into the editor that is in your EDITOR
environment variable; if it is not set, you will be placed in
vi . Change the Shell:
line
accordingly.
You can also give chsh the
-s option; this will set your shell for you,
without requiring you to enter an editor.
For example, if you wanted to
change your shell to bash , the following should do the
trick:
&prompt.user; chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash
The shell that you wish to use must be
present in the /etc/shells file. If you
have installed a shell from the ports
collection, then this should have been done for you
already. If you installed the shell by hand, you must do
this.
For example, if you installed bash by hand
and placed it into /usr/local/bin , you would
want to:
&prompt.root; echo "/usr/local/bin/bash" >> /etc/shells
Then rerun chsh .
Text Editors
text editors
editors
A lot of configuration in FreeBSD is done by editing text files.
Because of this, it would be a good idea to become familiar
with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base
system, and many more are available in the Ports Collection.
ee
editors
ee
The easiest and simplest editor to learn is an editor called
ee , which stands for easy editor. To
start ee , one would type at the command
line ee filename where
filename is the name of the file to be edited.
For example, to edit /etc/rc.conf , type in
ee /etc/rc.conf . Once inside of
ee , all of the
commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the
top of the display. The caret ^ character represents
the Ctrl key on the keyboard, so ^e expands to the key combination
Ctrl e . To leave
ee , hit the Esc key, then choose leave
editor. The editor will prompt you to save any changes if the file
has been modified.
vi
editors
vi
emacs
editors
emacs
FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors such as
vi as part of the base system, while other editors, like
Emacs and vim ,
are part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection (editors/emacs and editors/vim ). These editors offer much
more functionality and power at the expense of being a little more
complicated to learn. However if you plan on doing a lot of text
editing, learning a more powerful editor such as
vim or Emacs
will save you much more time in the long run.
Devices and Device Nodes
A device is a term used mostly for hardware-related
activities in a system, including disks, printers, graphics
cards, and keyboards. When FreeBSD boots, the majority
of what FreeBSD displays are devices being detected.
You can look through the boot messages again by viewing
/var/run/dmesg.boot .
For example, acd0 is the
first IDE CDROM drive, while kbd0
represents the keyboard.
Most of these devices in a &unix; operating system must be
accessed through special files called device nodes, which are
located in the /dev directory.
Creating Device Nodes
When adding a new device to your system, or compiling
in support for additional devices, you may need to create one or
more device nodes for the new devices.
MAKEDEV Script
On systems without DEVFS (this concerns all FreeBSD versions before 5.0), device nodes are created
using the &man.MAKEDEV.8; script as shown below:
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV ad1
This example would make the proper device nodes
for the second IDE drive when installed.
DEVFS (DEVice File System)
The device file system, or DEVFS , provides access to
kernel's device namespace in the global file system namespace.
Instead of having to create and modify device nodes,
DEVFS maintains this particular file system for you.
See the &man.devfs.5; manual page for more
information.
DEVFS is used by default in FreeBSD 5.0 and above.
Binary Formats
To understand why &os; uses the &man.elf.5;
format, you must first know a little about the three currently
dominant
executable formats for &unix;:
&man.a.out.5;
The oldest and classic
&unix; object
format. It uses a short and compact header with a magic
number at the beginning that is often used to characterize
the format (see &man.a.out.5; for more details). It
contains three loaded segments: .text, .data, and .bss plus
a symbol table and a string table.
COFF
The SVR3 object format. The header now comprises a
section table, so you can have more than just .text, .data,
and .bss sections.
&man.elf.5;
The successor to COFF , featuring
multiple sections and 32-bit or 64-bit possible values. One
major drawback: ELF was also designed
with the assumption that there would be only one ABI per
system architecture. That assumption is actually quite
incorrect, and not even in the commercial SYSV world (which
has at least three ABIs: SVR4, Solaris, SCO) does it hold
true.
FreeBSD tries to work around this problem somewhat by
providing a utility for branding a
known ELF executable with information
about the ABI it is compliant with. See the manual page for
&man.brandelf.1; for more information.
FreeBSD comes from the classic
camp and used
the &man.a.out.5; format, a technology tried and proven through
many generations of BSD releases, until the beginning of the 3.X
branch. Though it was possible to build and run native
ELF binaries (and kernels) on a FreeBSD
system for some time before that, FreeBSD initially resisted the
push
to switch to ELF as the
default format. Why? Well, when the Linux camp made their
painful transition to ELF , it was not so much
to flee the a.out executable format as it
was their inflexible jump-table based shared library mechanism,
which made the construction of shared libraries very difficult
for vendors and developers alike. Since the
ELF tools available offered a solution to the
shared library problem and were generally seen as the way
forward
anyway, the migration cost was accepted as
necessary and the transition made. FreeBSD's shared library
mechanism is based more closely on Sun's
&sunos; style shared library mechanism
and, as such, is very easy to use.
So, why are there so many different formats?
Back in the dim, dark past, there was simple hardware. This
simple hardware supported a simple, small system. a.out was
completely adequate for the job of representing binaries on this
simple system (a PDP-11). As people ported &unix; from this simple
system, they retained the a.out format because it was sufficient
for the early ports of &unix; to architectures like the Motorola
68k, VAXen, etc.
Then some bright hardware engineer decided that if he could
force software to do some sleazy tricks, then he would be able
to shave a few gates off the design and allow his CPU core to
run faster. While it was made to work with this new kind of
hardware (known these days as RISC ), a.out
was ill-suited for this hardware, so many formats were developed
to get to a better performance from this hardware than the
limited, simple a.out format could
offer. Things like COFF ,
ECOFF , and a few obscure others were invented
and their limitations explored before things seemed to settle on
ELF .
In addition, program sizes were getting huge and disks (and
physical memory) were still relatively small so the concept of a
shared library was born. The VM system also became more
sophisticated. While each one of these advancements was done
using the a.out format, its usefulness was
stretched more and more with each new feature. In addition,
people wanted to dynamically load things at run time, or to junk
parts of their program after the init code had run to save in
core memory and swap space. Languages became more sophisticated
and people wanted code called before main automatically. Lots of
hacks were done to the a.out format to
allow all of these things to happen, and they basically worked
for a time. In time, a.out was not up to
handling all these problems without an ever increasing overhead
in code and complexity. While ELF solved many
of these problems, it would be painful to switch from the system
that basically worked. So ELF had to wait
until it was more painful to remain with
a.out than it was to migrate to
ELF .
However, as time passed, the build tools that FreeBSD
derived their build tools from (the assembler and loader
especially) evolved in two parallel trees. The FreeBSD tree
added shared libraries and fixed some bugs. The GNU folks that
originally wrote these programs rewrote them and added simpler
support for building cross compilers, plugging in different
formats at will, and so on. Since many people wanted to build cross
compilers targeting FreeBSD, they were out of luck since the
older sources that FreeBSD had for as and ld were not up to the
task. The new GNU tools chain (binutils ) does support cross
compiling, ELF , shared libraries, C++
extensions, etc. In addition, many vendors are releasing
ELF binaries, and it is a good thing for
FreeBSD to run them.
ELF is more expressive than a.out and
allows more extensibility in the base system. The
ELF tools are better maintained, and offer
cross compilation support, which is important to many people.
ELF may be a little slower than a.out , but
trying to measure it can be difficult. There are also numerous
details that are different between the two in how they map
pages, handle init code, etc. None of these are very important,
but they are differences. In time support for
a.out will be moved out of the GENERIC
kernel, and eventually removed from the kernel once the need to
run legacy a.out programs is past.
For More Information
Manual Pages
manual pages
The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form
of manual pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a
short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various
arguments. These manuals can be viewed with the man command. Use
of the man command is simple:
&prompt.user; man command
command is the name of the command you
wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about
ls command type:
&prompt.user; man ls
The online manual is divided up into numbered sections:
User commands.
System calls and error numbers.
Functions in the C libraries.
Device drivers.
File formats.
Games and other diversions.
Miscellaneous information.
System maintenance and operation commands.
Kernel developers.
In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one
section of the online manual. For example, there is a
chmod user command and a
chmod() system call. In this case, you can
tell the man command which one you want by specifying the
section:
&prompt.user; man 1 chmod
This will display the manual page for the user command
chmod . References to a particular section of
the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in
written documentation, so &man.chmod.1; refers to the
chmod user command and &man.chmod.2; refers to
the system call.
This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply
wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the
command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the
command descriptions by using the -k
switch:
&prompt.user; man -k mail
With this command you will be presented with a list of
commands that have the keyword mail
in their
descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using
the apropos command.
So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in
/usr/bin but do not have the faintest idea
what most of them actually do? Simply do:
&prompt.user; cd /usr/bin
&prompt.user; man -f *
or
&prompt.user; cd /usr/bin
&prompt.user; whatis *
which does the same thing.
GNU Info Files
Free Software Foundation
FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by
the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to manual pages,
these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called
info files which can be viewed with the
info command or, if you installed
emacs , the info mode of
emacs .
To use the &man.info.1; command, simply type:
&prompt.user; info
For a brief introduction, type h . For a
quick command reference, type ? .
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/book.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/book.sgml
index c8968b3651..88d72fe818 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/book.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/book.sgml
@@ -1,317 +1,319 @@
%books.ent;
%chapters;
%txtfiles;
+
%pgpkeys;
]>
FreeBSD ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U
FreeBSD ¤å¥ópµe
February 1999
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
FreeBSD ¤å¥ópµe
&bookinfo.legalnotice;
&tm-attrib.freebsd;
&tm-attrib.3com;
&tm-attrib.3ware;
&tm-attrib.arm;
&tm-attrib.adaptec;
&tm-attrib.adobe;
&tm-attrib.apple;
&tm-attrib.corel;
&tm-attrib.creative;
&tm-attrib.cvsup;
&tm-attrib.heidelberger;
&tm-attrib.ibm;
&tm-attrib.ieee;
&tm-attrib.intel;
&tm-attrib.intuit;
&tm-attrib.linux;
&tm-attrib.lsilogic;
&tm-attrib.m-systems;
&tm-attrib.macromedia;
&tm-attrib.microsoft;
&tm-attrib.netscape;
&tm-attrib.nexthop;
&tm-attrib.opengroup;
&tm-attrib.oracle;
&tm-attrib.powerquest;
&tm-attrib.realnetworks;
&tm-attrib.redhat;
&tm-attrib.sap;
&tm-attrib.sun;
&tm-attrib.symantec;
&tm-attrib.themathworks;
&tm-attrib.thomson;
&tm-attrib.usrobotics;
&tm-attrib.vmware;
&tm-attrib.waterloomaple;
&tm-attrib.wolframresearch;
&tm-attrib.xfree86;
&tm-attrib.xiph;
&tm-attrib.general;
Åwªï¨Ï¥ÎFreeBSD¡I ¥»¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U²[»\½d³ò¥]¬A¤F
FreeBSD &rel2.current;-RELEASE ©M
FreeBSD &rel.current;-RELEASE ªº¦w¸Ë©M¤é±`¨Ï¥Î¡C
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³\¦h³¹¸`¤´¥¼§¹¦¨¡A¤w§¹¦¨ªº³¡¥÷¤]¦³¨Ç»Ýn§ó·s¡C
¦pªG±z¹ï¨ó§U¥»pµeªº¶i¦æ¦³¿³½ìªº¸Ü¡A½Ð±H e-mail ¨ì &a.doc;¡C
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¥i¥H§ä¨ì³o¥÷¤å¥óªº³Ì·sª©¥»(ª©¤å¥ó¥i±q ¨ú±o)¡A¤]¥i¥H±q FreeBSD FTP ¦øªA¾¹
©Î¬O²³¦h mirror ¯¸»O
¤U¸ü¤£¦P®æ¦¡¤Î¤£¦PÀ£ÁY¿ï¶µªº¸ê®Æ¡C
¦pªG¤ñ¸û°¾¦n¾Ö¦³¹êÅé®Ñ±¸ê®Æ¡A¨º¥i¥H¦b
FreeBSD Mall ÁʶR¡C
¦¹¥~¡A¤]¥i¥H¦b ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U
¤¤·j´M¸ê®Æ¡C
&chap.preface;
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³o³¡¥÷¬O´£¨Ñµ¹ªì¦¸¨Ï¥Î FreeBSD ªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ©M¨t²ÎºÞ²zªÌ¡C
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¤¶²Ð FreeBSD µ¹±z¡C
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¦V±z¤¶²Ð X¡A &unix; ªºµøµ¡¨t²Î¥H¤Î¸Ô²Óªº®à±Àô¹Ò³]©w¡AÅý±z§ó¦³¥Í²£¤O¡C
§Ú̸յ۾¨¥i¯àªºÅý³o¬q¤å¦rªº°Ñ¦Ò³sµ²¼Æ¥Ø°¨ì³Ì§C¡AÅý±z¦bŪ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥Uªº³o³¡¥÷®É¥i¥H¤£¤Ó»Ýn±`±`«e«á½¶¡C
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+
ºô¸ô³q°T
FreeBSD ¬O¤@ºØ¼sªxªº³Q¨Ï¥Î¦b°ª®Ä¯àªººô¸ô¦øªA¾¹¤¤ªº§@·~¨t²Î¡A³o¨Ç³¹¸`¥]§t¤F¡G
§Ç¦C°ð³q°T
PPP ©M PPPoE
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±z¤£»Ýn¨Ì·Ó¯S©wªº¶¶§Ç¨ÓŪ¡A¤]¤£»Ýn±N³o¨Ç³¹¸`¥þ³¡Åª¹L¤§«á¤~±N FreeBSD ¥Î¦bºô¸ôÀô¹Ò¤U¡C
ªþ¿ý
&chap.colophon;
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/chapters.ent b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/chapters.ent
index aed7f9633b..7aa1df904b 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/chapters.ent
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/chapters.ent
@@ -1,59 +1,60 @@
+
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.sgml
index 5480b8557f..b8d2912e93 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/desktop/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1108 +1,1093 @@
Christophe
Juniet
Contributed by
- Desktop Applications
+ ®à±Àô¹ÒÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡
- Synopsis
-
- FreeBSD can run a wide variety of desktop applications, such
- as browsers and word processors. Most of these are available as
- packages or can be automatically built from the ports
- collection. Many new users expect to find these kinds of
- applications on their desktop. This chapter will show you how
- to install some popular desktop applications effortlessly,
- either from their packages or from the Ports Collection.
-
- Note that when installing programs from the ports, they are
- compiled from source. This can take a very long time, depending
- on what you are compiling and the processing power of your
- machine(s). If building from source takes a prohibitively long
- amount of time for you, you can install most of the programs of
- the Ports Collection from pre-built packages.
-
- As FreeBSD features Linux binary compatibility, many
- applications originally developed for Linux are available for
- your desktop. It is strongly recommended that you read
- before installing any of the Linux
- applications. Many of the ports using the Linux binary
- compatibility start with linux-
. Remember this
- when you search for a particular port, for instance with
- &man.whereis.1;. In the following text, it is assumed that you
- have enabled Linux binary compatibility before installing any of
- the Linux applications.
-
- Here are the categories covered by this chapter:
+ ·§z
+
+ ¦b FreeBSD ¤W±¥i¥H°õ¦æ«D±`¦hºØÃþªº®à±À³¥Îµ{¦¡¡A
+ ¹³¬Oºô¶ÂsÄý¾¹©M¤å¦r³B²z³nÅéµ¥¡C
+ ³o¨Çµ{¦¡¤j³£¥i¥H³z¹L®M¥ó¨Ó¦w¸Ë©Î¬O±q ports collection ¤¤¦Û°Ê½sĶ¦w¸Ë¡C
+ ³\¦h·sªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ·|§Æ±æ¯à¦b¦b¥L̪º®à±¨t²Î¤¤§ä¨ì³o¨Çµ{¦¡¡C
+ ³o³¹±N·|§i¶D§A¦p¦ó¤£¥Î¶O¤Ó¦h¥\¤Ò¥h¦w¸Ë¤@¨Ç¼öªùªº®à±À³¥Îµ{¦¡¡A
+ ¤£ºÞ¬O±q®M¥ó©Î¬O±q ports collection ¤¤¦w¸Ë¡C
+
+ »Ýnª`·N¨ìªº¬O¡G·í±q ports ¤¤¦w¸Ëµ{¦¡ªº®ÉÔ¡A
+ ¥¦Ì¬O±q·½½X¶}©l½sĶªº¡C¨Ì·Ó§A½sĶªº ports ©M¹q¸£³t«×(µwÅéµ¥¯Å)¡A
+ ¦³¥i¯à·|ªá«Üªø¤@¬q®É¶¡¤~¯à§¹¦¨¡C
+ ¦pªG±q·½½X½sĶ¹ï§A¨Ó»¡·|ªá¤Ó¦h®É¶¡ªº¸Ü¡A
+ ¤j³¡¤Àªº ports §A³£¯à§ä¨ì¨Æ¥ý½sĶ¦nªº®M¥ó¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡C
+
+ ¦]¬° FreeBSD ¨ã¦³¬Û®e Linux ¤G¶i¨îªº¯S©Ê¡A
+ ³\¦hì¥ý¦b Linux ¤W¶}µoªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡³£¯à¦b§Aªº FreeBSD ®à±Àô¹Ò°õ¦æ¡C
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë¥ô¦ó Linux À³¥Îµ{¦¡¤§«e¡A±j¯P«Øij§A¥ý¾\Ū
+ Linux °õ¦æ¬Û®e¼Ò¦¡³oÓ³¹¸`¡C
+ ¦Ó³\¦h¥Î Linux ¤G¶i¨î¬Û®e¼Ò¦¡ªº³nÅé¦b ports ¸ÌÀY³q±`³£·|¥Î
+ linux-
¶}ÀY¡C
+ ·í§A¦b·j´M¬YÓ¯S©w³nÅé®É¡A°O¦í³oÂI¡A¨Ã¥B¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î &man.whereis.1;
+ ¨Ó§ä¡C ¦b¤U¦Cªº»¡©ú¤¤¡A
+ ³£°²³]§A¦b¦w¸Ë¥ô¦ó Linux À³¥Î³nÅ餧«e¡A
+ ¤w¸g¨Æ¥ý±Ò¥Î¤F Linux ¤G¶i¨î¬Û®e¼Ò¦¡¡C
+
+ ¤U¦C¥Ø¿ý¬O³o³¹¤¤©Ò²[»\ªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¡G
- Browsers (such as Mozilla ,
+ ÂsÄý¾¹ (¹³¬O Mozilla ,
Opera ,
Firefox ,
Konqueror )
- Productivity (such as
+ ¿ì¤½³nÅé (¹³¬O
KOffice ,
AbiWord ,
The GIMP ,
OpenOffice.org )
- Document Viewers (such as &acrobat.reader; ,
+ ¤å¥óÂsÄý³nÅé (¹³¬O &acrobat.reader; ,
gv ,
Xpdf ,
GQview )
- Finance (such as
+ °]°È³B²z³nÅé (¹³¬O
GnuCash ,
Gnumeric ,
Abacus )
- Before reading this chapter, you should:
+ ¦b¾\Ū³o³¹¤§«e¡A§A¥²¶·
- Know how to install additional third-party software
+ ª¾¹D¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë¨ä¥Lªº³nÅé(third-party software)
().
- Know how to install additional Linux software
+ ª¾¹D¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë Linux ³nÅé
().
- For information on how to get a multimedia environment, read
- . If you want to set up and use
- electronic mail, please refer to .
+ nª¾¹D§ó¦hÃö©ó¦h´CÅéÀô¹Òªº¸ê°T¡A½Ð¥ý¾\Ū
+ ¦h´CÅé³¹¸`¡C
+ ¦pªG§A·Qn³]©w©M¨Ï¥Î¹q¤l¶l¥ó¡A¤]½Ð§A¥ý¬Ý ¶l¥ó³¹¸`¡C
- Browsers
+ ÂsÄý¾¹
- browsers
- web
+ ÂsÄý¾¹
+ ºô¸ô
- FreeBSD does not come with a particular browser
- pre-installed. Instead, the
- www
- directory of the Ports Collection contains a lot of browsers
- ready to be installed. If you do not have time to compile
- everything (this can take a very long time in some cases) many
- of them are available as packages.
-
- KDE and
- GNOME already provide HTML browsers.
- Please refer to for more information on
- how to set up these complete desktops.
-
- If you are looking for light-weight browsers, you should
- investigate the Ports Collection for
+ ¦b FreeBSD ¤¤¨Ã¨S¦³¹w¥ý¦w¸Ë¦nªº¯S©wÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+ ¦ý¦b Ports Collection ¤§¤¤«o¦³³\¦hÂsÄý¾¹¥i¨Ñ§A¦w¸Ë¨Ï¥Î¡C
+ ¦pªG§A¨S¦³¨¬°÷®É¶¡¥h½sĶ©Ò¦³ªºªF¦è
+ (¦b¬Y¨Ç±¡ªp¤U³o¥i¯à·|ªá¤W«Üªøªº¤@¬q®É¶¡)¡A
+ ³o¨Ç³£¦³²{¦¨ªº®M¥ó¥i¨Ñª½±µ¦w¸Ë¡C
+
+ KDE ©M
+ GNOME ®à±Àô¹Ò³£¤w´£¨Ñ HTML ÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+ ½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¨Ó¤F¸Ñ§ó¦h¦³Ãö¦p¦ó³]©w³o¨Ç§¹¾ãªº®à±Àô¹Ò¨t²Î¸ê°T¡C
+
+ ¦pªG§A¦b´M§ä»´¶q¤ÆªºÂsÄý¾¹¡A§A¥i¥H±q Ports Collection ¤¤§ä¨ì¤U±ªº´XºØ¡G
www/dillo ,
- www/links , or
- www/w3m .
+ www/links , ©Î
+ www/w3m ¡C
- This section covers these applications:
+ ³o¸`¤¶²Ð³o¨ÇÂsÄý¾¹¡G
- Application Name
- Resources Needed
- Installation from Ports
- Major Dependencies
+ ÂsÄý¾¹¦WºÙ
+ ©Ò»Ýªº¨t²Î¸ê·½
+ ±q ports ¦w¸Ë®É¶¡
+ ¥Dn¬Û¨Ìªº³nÅé
Mozilla
- heavy
- heavy
+ ¦h
+ ªø
Gtk+
Opera
- light
- light
- FreeBSD and Linux versions available. The Linux
- version depends on the Linux Binary Compatibility and
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
+ FreeBSD ©M Linux ªºª©¥»³£¦³¡C
+ Linux ªºª©¥»»Ýn Linux ¤G¶i¨î¬Û®e¼Ò²Õ¥H¤Î
linux-openmotif .
Firefox
- medium
- heavy
+ ¤¤«×
+ ªø
Gtk+
Konqueror
- medium
- heavy
- KDE Libraries
+ ¤¤«×
+ ªø
+ KDE ¨ç¦¡®w
Mozilla
Mozilla
- Mozilla is perhaps the most
- suitable browser for your FreeBSD Desktop. It is modern,
- stable, and fully ported to FreeBSD. It features a very
- standards-compliant HTML display engine. It provides a mail
- and news reader. It even has a HTML composer if you plan to
- write some web pages yourself. Users of
- &netscape; will recognize the
- similarities with Communicator
- suite, as both browsers shared the same basis.
-
- On slow machines, with a CPU speed less than 233MHz or
- with less than 64MB of RAM, Mozilla
- can be too resource-consuming to be fully usable. You may
- want to look at the Opera browser
- instead, described a little later in this chapter.
-
- If you cannot or do not want to compile
- Mozilla for any reason, the FreeBSD
- GNOME team has already done this for you. Just install the
- package from the network by:
+ Mozilla
+ ¤]³\¬O³Ì¾A¦X FreeBSD ®à±Àô¹ÒªºÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+ ¥¦·¥¨ã²{¥N¤Æ¡Béw¥B§¹¥þ²¾´Ó¦Ü FreeBSD ¨t²Î¤W¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¨ã³Æ¦³¤Q¤À²Å¦X HTML ¼Ð·ÇªºÅã¥Ü¤ÞÀº¡A
+ ¥¦§ó´£¨Ñ¤F¶l¥ó¤Î·s»D¸s²Õªº¾\Ū¥\¯à¡C
+ ¦¹¥~¦pªG§A¥´ºân¦Û¤v¼g¤@¨Çºô¶ªº¸Ü¡A¥¦ÁÙ´£¨Ñ¤F HTML ªº½s¿è¾¹¡C
+ ¦pªG¬O &netscape; ªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¡A
+ §A¥i¯à·|»{¥X³o¸ò Communicator «Ü¹³¡A
+ ¥¦Ì¨ä¹ê¦P¼Ë¬O¨Ï¥Î¬Û¦P°ò¦ªºÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+
+ ¦b³t«×¸ûºC¡A¹³¬O CPU ³t«×¤Ö©ó 233MHz ©Î¬O¤p©ó 64MB °O¾ÐÅ骺¾÷¾¹¤W±¡A
+ §¹¥þ¨Ï¥Î Mozilla ·|¬O¥ó·¥«×¯Ó¶O¸ê·½ªº¨Æ¡C
+ ©Ò¥H¦b³o¼Ëªº¾÷¾¹¤W±¡A§A¥i¯à·|·Qn¨Ï¥Î Opera
+ ³o¼Ë»´¶q¯ÅªºÂsÄý¾¹¡A¦Ó±µ¤U¨Ó«á±·|´£¨ì¡C
+
+
+ ¦pªG§A¦³¤°»òì¦]¤£¯à©Î¬O¤£·Q½sĶ
+ Mozilla ªº¸Ü¡AFreeBSD
+ GNOME ¹Î¶¤¤w¸g¬°§A°µ¦n¤F³o¥ó¨Æ¡C
+ ¥un¥Î¤U±ªº«ü¥O³z¹Lºô¸ô¦w¸Ë®M¥ó´N¦æ¤F¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r mozilla
- If the package is not available, and you have enough time
- and disk space, you can get the source for
- Mozilla , compile it and install it
- on your system. This is accomplished by:
+ ¦pªG¨S¦³§ä¨ì®M¥ó¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¡A¦Ó§A¤]¦³¨¬°÷ªº®É¶¡©MºÏºÐªÅ¶¡¨Ó½sĶ
+ Mozilla ¨Ã¦w¸Ë¨ì§Aªº¨t²Î¤¤¡A
+ §A¥i¥H³z¹L¤U¦C¨BÆJ¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/mozilla
&prompt.root; make install clean
- The Mozilla port ensures a
- correct initialization by running the chrome registry setup
- with root privileges. However, if you
- want to fetch some add-ons like mouse gestures, you must run
- Mozilla as
- root to get them properly
- installed.
- Once you have completed the installation of
- Mozilla , you do not need to be
- root any longer. You can start
- Mozilla as a browser by typing:
+ Mozilla »Ýn¨Ï¥Î
+ root ªºÅv¨Ó°õ¦æ chrome
+ µù¥U¨Ó½T«O¥¿½Tªºªì©l¤Æ¡C
+ ¥t¥~¡A¦pªG§A»Ýn§ì¤@¨ÇÃB¥~ªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¹³¬O mouse gestures¡A
+ §A´N¥²¶·n¨Ï¥Î root ªºÅv¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡A
+ ¥H¾A·íªº¦w¸Ë³o¨Ç¥~±¾µ{¦¡¡C
+
+ ¤@¥¹§A§¹¦¨¤F Mozilla ªº¦w¸Ë¡A
+ ¡@§A´N¦A¤]¤£»Ýn root ªºÅv¤F¡C
+ ¡@§A¥i¥Hª½±µ¥´¤U±ªº«ü¥O¨Ó±Ò°Ê Mozilla ¡G
&prompt.user; mozilla
- You can start it directly as a mail and news reader as
- shown below:
+ §A¤]¥i¥Hª½±µ¥´¤U±ªº«ü¥Oª½±µ±Ò°Ê¶l¥ó©M·s»D¾\Ū¾¹¡G
&prompt.user; mozilla -mail
Tom
Rhodes
Contributed by
- Mozilla and &java; plugin
+ Mozilla and &java; ¥~±¾µ{¦¡
+
+ ¥u¦w¸Ë Mozilla «Ü²³æ¡A
+ ¦ý¦w¸Ë¹³¬O &java; ©M ¯omedia; &flash;
+ ¤§Ãþªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¤ä´©´N»Ýn¯Ó¶O®É¶¡©MµwºÐªÅ¶¡¤F¡C
- Installing Mozilla is simple, but
- unfortunately installing Mozilla with
- support for add-ons like &java; and
- ¯omedia; &flash;
- consumes both time and disk
- space.
-
- The first thing is to download the files which will be used
- with Mozilla . Take your current web
- browser up to
- and
- create an account on their website. Remember to save the username
- and password from here as it may be needed in the future. Download
- the jdk-1_5_0-bin-scsl.zip (JDK 5.0
- SCSL Binaries) and jdk-1_5_0-src-scsl.zip (JDK 5.0
- SCSL Source) files and place them in
- /usr/ports/distfiles as the port will not
- fetch them automatically. This is due to license restrictions. While
- we are here, download the java environment
from
- .
- The filename is j2sdk-1_4_2_08-linux-i586.bin .
- Like before, this file must be placed into
- /usr/ports/distfiles . Download a copy
- of the java patchkit
from
+ º¥ý¤U¸ü Mozilla ¡@©Ò»ÝnªºÀɮסC
+ ¥Î§Aªººô¶ÂsÄý¾¹³s¨ì
+
+ ¨Ãµù¥U¤@Ó±b¸¹¡C
+ °O±on«O¦s¦n³o²Õ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ±b¸¹©M±K½X¡Aº¸«á·|¦A¥Î¨ì¡C
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó¤U¸ü jdk-1_5_0-bin-scsl.zip (JDK 5.0
+ SCSL ¤G¶i¦ìÀÉ) ©M jdk-1_5_0-src-scsl.zip (JDK 5.0
+ SCSL ·½½X) ³o¨âÓÀɮרéñ¦b /usr/ports/distfiles ¥Ø¿ý¤U¡A
+ ¦]¬°±ÂÅvªº¨î¡A©Ò¥H port ¤£¯à¦Û°Ê¤U¸ü³o¨ÇÀɮסC
+ ¦P®É¤]n±q
+ ¤U¸ü¡ujava¡@Àô¹Ò¡v¡A
+ ³oÓÀɮצWºÙ¬O j2sdk-1_4_2_08-linux-i586.bin ¡C
+ ´N¹³¥ý«e´yzªº¤@¼Ë¡A³oÓÀÉ®×¥²¶·©ñ¦b
+ /usr/ports/distfiles ¥Ø¿ý©³¤U¡C
+ ¥t¥~¤]n±q
- and place it
- into /usr/ports/distfiles . Finally, install the
- java/jdk15 port
- with the standard make install clean .
+ ¤U¸ü¡ujava ׸ɵ{¦¡¶°¡v¨Ã©ñ¦b /usr/ports/distfiles ¥Ø¿ý¤¤¡C
+ ³Ì«á¥Î¼Ð·Çªº¦w¸Ë«ü¥O make install clean ±q port ¤¤¨Ó¦w¸Ë
+ java/jdk15
- Start Mozilla and access the
- About Plug-ins option from the
- Help menu. &java;
- plugin should be listed there now.
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó¶}±Ò Mozilla ¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B±q¨ó§U(Help) ¿ï³æ¤¤¿ï¨úÃö©ó¥~±¾µ{¦¡(About Plug-ins) ¡C
+ §A´N¥i¥H¬Ý¨ì &java; ªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡´N·|¥X²{¦b¸Ì±¤F¡C
- Mozilla and ¯omedia; &flash; plugin
-
- ¯omedia; &flash; plugin is not available for &os;. However,
- a software layer (wrapper) for running the Linux version of the plugin
- exists. This wrapper also supports &adobe; &acrobat; plugin,
- RealPlayer plugin and more.
-
- Install the www/linuxpluginwrapper
- port. This port requires
- emulators/linux_base which is a
- large port. Follow the instructions displayed by the port to set up
- your /etc/libmap.conf correctly! Example
- configurations are installed into
- /usr/local/share/examples/linuxpluginwrapper/
- directory.
-
- Install the www/mozilla port,
- if Mozilla is not already installed.
-
- Now just start Mozilla with:
+ Mozilla and ¯omedia; &flash; ¥~±¾µ{¦¡
+
+
+ Ķµù¡G¦b FreeBSD ¤W±¨S¦³ì¥Íªº ¯omedia; &flash; ¥~±¾µ{¦¡¡A
+ ¡@¦ý¬O¦b Ports Collection ¤¤¦³ www/mozilla-plugin
+ ³oÓ®Ú¾Ú GPL ¿W¥ßªº &flash; Mozilla ¥~±¾µ{¦¡¡C
+ ¤£¹L§Ú̱j¯P«Øij¦w¸Ë³nÅé¼hªº wrapper ¨Ó°õ¦æ Linux ª©¥»ªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¡C
+ ³oÓ wrapper ¦P®É¤]¤ä´© &adobe; &acrobat; ÁÙ¦³ RealPlayer ¥~±¾µ{¦¡µ¥¡C
+
+
+ ±q port ¦w¸Ë www/linuxpluginwrapper ¡C
+ linuxpluginwrapper »Ýn¥ý¸Ë¤@ӫܤjªº emulators/linux_base
+ port¡C µM«á®Ú¾Ú port ¤¤«ü¥Üªº§@ªk
+ Ķµù¡G¦w¸Ë§¹®ÉÅã¥Üªº»¡©ú¡A©Î°Ñ¾\ pkg_message)
+ ¥h¥¿½T¦a³]©w§Aªº /etc/libmap.conf ¡C
+ ³]©wªº½d¨ÒÀɮצì©ó /usr/local/share/examples/linuxpluginwrapper/
+ ªº¥Ø¿ý©³¤U¡C
+
+ ¦pªG Mozilla ÁÙ¨S¦w¸Ëªº¸Ü¡A
+ ±q www/mozilla port ¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡C
+
+ ²{¦b¥un¥Î¤U¦Cªº«ü¥O±Ò°Ê Mozilla ¡G
&prompt.user; mozilla &
- And access the About Plug-ins option from the
- Help menu. A list should appear with all the currently
- available plugins.
-
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó¶}±Ò Mozilla ¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B±q¨ó§U(Help) ¿ï³æ¤¤¿ï¨úÃö©ó
+ ¥~±¾µ{¦¡(About Plug-ins) ¡C
+ §A´N¥i¥H¬Ý¨ì©Ò¦³¦w¸Ë¦nªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¤§¦Cªí²M³æ¡C
+
+
+ ¤£¹L¦pªG§A¦b Mozilla
+ ©Î¤U±´£¨ìªº Firefox
+ ¤¤¨Ï¥Î¤Wzªº¤èªkÁÙ¬OµLªk¥¿±`ªº±Ò¥Î &flash; ¥~±¾µ{¦¡ªº¸Ü¡A
+ ®Ú¾Ú Beech Rintoul ¦b¶l¥ó½×¾Â¤¤ªº¸Ñ¨M¤è®×¦p¤U¡G
+
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë www/linuxpluginwrapper ¤§«e¡A
+ °õ¦æ¤U¦C¨BÆJ¡G
+
+ &prompt.root; rm -R /usr/X11R6/lib/browser_linux_plugins
+&prompt.root; ln -s /usr/X11R6/lib/browser_plugins /usr/X11R6/lib/browser_linux_plugins
+
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó¥Î¤U¦Cªº«ü¥O¨Ó½sĶ www/linuxpluginwrapper
+
+ &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/linuxpluginwrapper &prompt.root; make -DWITH_PLUGINS install clean
+
- The linuxpluginwrapper only works on
- the &i386; system architecture.
+ linuxpluginwrapper ¥u¯à¦b
+ &i386; ªº¨t²Î¬[ºc¤U¹B¦æ¡C
Opera
Opera
- Opera is a very fast,
- full-featured, and standards-compliant browser. It comes in
- two favors: a native
FreeBSD version and a
- version that runs under Linux emulation.
+ Opera ¬OÓ¨ã³Æ§¹¾ã¥\¯à¡B²Å¦X¼Ð·ÇªºÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+ ¥¦¦P®É¤]¨ã³Æ¤F¤º«Øªº¶l¥ó©M·s»D¾\Ū¾¹¡BIRC¡BRSS/Atom feeds ¾\Ū¾¹µ¥¡C
+ ¾¨ºÞ¦p¦¹¡A¬Û¹ï¦Ó¨¥ Opera ¬OÓ»´¶q¯Å¡B°õ¦æ³t«×¤S§ÖªºÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+ ¥¦¦b ports ¤¤¦³¨âºØª©¥»¡G¡uì¥Í¡vªº FreeBSD ª©¥»ÁÙ¦³¦b Linux ¼ÒÀÀ¼Ò¦¡¤Uªºª©¥»¡C
- To browse the Web with the FreeBSD version of Opera ,
- install the package:
+ n¥Î Opera ªº FreeBSD ª©¥»¨ÓÂsÄýºô¶ªº¸Ü¡A
+ ¥Î¤U±ªº«ü¥O¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r opera
- Some FTP sites do not have all the packages, but the same
- result can be obtained with the Ports Collection by
- typing:
+ ¦³¨Ç FTP ¯¸¥x¨Ã¨S¦³¥þ³¡ªº®M¥ó¡A
+ ¦ý¬O¥´¤U±ªº«ü¥O´N¯à±q Ports Collection ¤¤¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/opera
&prompt.root; make install clean
- To install the Linux version of
- Opera , substitute
- linux-opera in place of
- opera in the examples above. The Linux
- version is useful in situations requiring the use of plug-ins
- that are only available for Linux, such as Adobe
- &acrobat.reader; . In all other respects, the
- FreeBSD and Linux versions appear to be functionally
- identical.
-
+ n¦w¸Ë Opera ªº Linux ª©¥»ªº¸Ü¡A
+ ½Ð±N¤W±¨Ò¤l¤¤ªº opera ´À´«¦¨
+ linux-opera ¡C
+ ¦³¨Ç®ÉÔ¡A Linux ªºª©¥»¬O¤Q¤À¦³¥Îªº¡A
+ ¹³¬O¥u¦³ Linux ª©¥»¥~±¾µ{¦¡ªº®ÉÔ¡C
+ ¦ý¦b¨ä¥L¤è±¨Ó»¡¡A FreeBSD ©M Linux ªºª©¥»¥\¯à¤W¬O¤@¼Ëªº¡C
+
Firefox
Firefox
- Firefox is the next-generation
- browser based on the Mozilla
- codebase. Mozilla is a complete
- suite of applications, such as a browser, a mail client, a chat
- client and much more. Firefox is
- just a browser, which makes it smaller and faster.
+ Firefox ¬O«Øºc¦b
+ Mozilla ·½½X®w¤¤ªº¤U¤@¥NÂsÄý¾¹¡C
+ Mozilla ¬O¤@Ó§¹¾ãªººô¶³nÅé¾ã¦X¤è®×¡A
+ ¹³¬O¶l¥ó¦¬µoµ{¦¡¡B²á¤Ñ«Çµ{¦¡¤Î¨ä¥Lµ{¦¡µ¥¡C
+ Firefox ´N¥u¬OÓ³æ¯ÂªºÂsÄý¾¹¡A
+ ³o¤]¬OÅý¥¦µu¤pºë®«ªºì¦]¡C
- Install the package by typing:
+ §A¥i¥H¥´¥H¤Uªº«ü¥O¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r firefox
- You can also use the Ports Collection if you
- prefer to compile from source code:
-
+ ¦pªG§A¤ñ¸û³ßÅw±q·½½X¦w¸Ëªº¸Ü¡A§A¤]¥i¥H¦b Ports Collection ¤¤¥´¥H¤U«ü¥O¡G
+
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/www/firefox
&prompt.root; make install clean
Konqueror
Konqueror
- Konqueror is part of
- KDE but it can also be used outside
- of KDE by installing
- x11/kdebase3 .
- Konqueror is much more than a browser,
- it is also a file manager and a multimedia viewer.
+ Konqueror ¬O KDE
+ ®à±¨t²Îªº¤@³¡¤À¡A¦ý¬O¥¦¤]¥i¥HÂǥѦw¸Ë
+ x11/kdebase3
+ ¦b KDE Àô¹Ò¥H¥~¨Ï¥Î¡C
+ Konqueror ¤£¥u¬OÓºô¶ÂsÄý¾¹¡A
+ ¥L¦P®É¤]¬OÀɮ׺޲z¾¹©M¦h´CÅéÂsÄý¾¹¡C
- Konqueror also comes with a set of plugins,
- available in misc/konq-plugins .
+ Konqueror ¤]¦³³\¦hªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¡A
+ ³o¨Ç¥~±¾µ{¦¡¥i¥H±q misc/konq-plugins
+ ¤¤¦w¸Ë¡C
- Konqueror also supports &flash; and a How To
- is available at .
+ Konqueror ¤]¤ä´© &flash; ªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¡C
+ ¦p¦ó¦w¸Ëªº»¡©ú½Ð°Ñ¾\¡G ¡C
- Productivity
+ ¿ì¤½«Ç³nÅé
- When it comes to productivity, new users often look for a
- good office suite or a friendly word processor. While some
- desktop environments like
- KDE already provide an office suite,
- there is no default application. FreeBSD provides all that is
- needed, regardless of your desktop environment.
+ ·í¶}©l¶i¦æ¿ì¤½¡A
+ ·sªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ³q±`·|¥h§ä¦n¥Îªº¿ì¤½«Ç³nÅé©Î¬O¦n¤W¤âªº¤å¦r³B²z¾¹¡C
+ ¥Ø«e ¦³¨Ç ®à±Àô¹Ò ¹³¬O
+ KDE ¤w¸g´£¨Ñ¤F¿ì¤½³nÅé²Õ¦Xªº®M¥ó¡C
+ FreeBSD ´£¨Ñ¤F©Ò»Ýªº©Ò¦³¿ì¤½³nÅé¡A®à±Àô¹Ò¤]¤£¨Ò¥~¡C
- This section covers these applications:
+ ³o¸`²[»\¤F¤U¦Cªº³o¨Ç³nÅé¡G
- Application Name
- Resources Needed
- Installation from Ports
- Major Dependencies
+ ³nÅé¦WºÙ
+ ©Ò»Ý¨t²Î¸ê·½
+ ±q Ports ¦w¸Ëªº®É¶¡
+ ¥Dn¬Û¨Ì®M¥ó
KOffice
- light
- heavy
+ ¤Ö
+ ªø
KDE
AbiWord
- light
- light
- Gtk+ or GNOME
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
+ Gtk+ ©Î¬O GNOME
The Gimp
- light
- heavy
+ ¤Ö
+ ªø
Gtk+
OpenOffice.org
- heavy
- huge
+ ¦h
+ «Ü¤[
&jdk; 1.4 , Mozilla
KOffice
KOffice
- office suite
+ ¿ì¤½³nÅé®M¥ó
KOffice
- The KDE community has provided its desktop environment
- with an office suite which can be used outside
- KDE . It includes the four standard
- components that can be found in other office suites.
- KWord is the word processor,
- KSpread is the spreadsheet program,
- KPresenter manages slide
- presentations, and Kontour lets you
- draw graphical documents.
-
- Before installing the latest
- KOffice , make sure you have an
- up-to-date version of KDE .
-
- To install KOffice as a
- package, issue the following command:
-
+ KDE ªÀ¸s¦b¥¦ªº®à±Àô¹Ò¸ÌÀY´£¨Ñ¤F¤@Ó¥i¥H¦b KDE
+ ¥~¨Ï¥Îªº¿ì¤½³nÅé²Õ¦X¡C ¥¦¥]§t¤F¥|ºØ¼Ò²Õ¡G
+ KWord ¬O¤å¦r³B²z¾¹¡A
+ KSpread ¬O¸Õºâªíµ{¦¡¡A
+ KPresenter ¬O²³ø¼½©ñµ{¦¡¡A
+ ¥t¥~ Karbon14 Åý§A¥i¥H²£¥Í¹Ï§Î¤Æªº¤å¥ó¡C
+ Ķµù¡GKarbon14 ¬O¦V¶qø¹Ï³nÅé¡A¥H«e¥s Kontour ¡A§ó¦¤§«eºÙ¬° Killustrator¡C
+
+
+
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë³Ì·sª©ªº KOffice ¤§«e¡A
+ ½Ð¥ý½T©w§A¦³³Ì·sª©¥»ªº KDE ¡C
+
+ Yn¥Î®M¥ó¨Ó¦w¸Ë KOffice ¡A
+ ½Ð¨Ì·Ó¤U±ªº«ü¥O¡G
+
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r koffice
- If the package is not available, you can use the ports
- collection. For instance, to install
- KOffice for
- KDE3 , do:
+ ¦pªG®M¥ó¤£¦s¦bªº¸Ü¡A§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î ports
+ collection. ¨Ò¦pn¦w¸Ë KDE3 ¤¤ªº
+ KOffice ¡A½Ð¨Ï¥Î¤U¦C«ü¥O¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/koffice-kde3
&prompt.root; make install clean
AbiWord
AbiWord
- AbiWord is a free word
- processing program similar in look and feel to µsoft; Word .
- It is suitable for typing papers, letters, reports, memos, and
- so forth. It is very fast, contains many features, and is
- very user-friendly.
-
- AbiWord can import or export
- many file formats, including some proprietary ones like
- Microsoft .doc .
+ AbiWord
+ ¬O¤@Ó§K¶Oªº¤å¦r³B²z³nÅé¡A¥~Æ[©M·Pı³£ªñ¦ü©ó µsoft; Word ¡C
+ ¥¦¾A¦X³B²z¤å¥ó¡B«H¥ó¡B³ø§i¡B³Æ§Ñ¿ýµ¥µ¥¡C
+ ¥¦¤]«D±`§Ö³t¡A¥]§t¤F³\¦h¥\¯à¦Ó¥B«D±`®e©ö¤W¤â¡C
- AbiWord is available as a
- package. You can install it by:
+ AbiWord ¥i¥H¿é¤J©Î¿é¥X³\¦hÀɮ׮榡¡A
+ ¥]¬A¤@¨Ç¦³±M§Qªº®æ¦¡¡A¨Ò¦p·L³n(Microsoft)¤½¥qªº
+ .doc ®æ¦¡¡C
+ AbiWord ¤]¯à¥Î®M¥ó¦w¸Ë¡A
+ §A¥i¥H¥Î¤U¦C«ü¥O¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡G
+
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r abiword
- If the package is not available, it can be compiled from
- the Ports Collection. The Ports Collection should be more
- up to date. It can be done as follows:
+ ¦pªG§ä¤£¨ì®M¥óªº¸Ü¡A¥¦¤]¥i¥H±q Ports Collection ¤¤½sĶ¦w¸Ë¡C
+ ¦Ó Ports Collection À³¸Ón«O«ù¦b³Ì·sªºª¬ºA¡C
+ AbiWord ¥i¥H³z¹L¤U¦C¤è¦¡½sĶ¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/abiword
&prompt.root; make install clean
The GIMP
The GIMP
- For image authoring or picture retouching,
- The GIMP is a very sophisticated
- image manipulation program. It can be used as a simple paint
- program or as a quality photo retouching suite. It supports a
- large number of plug-ins and features a scripting interface.
- The GIMP can read and write a wide
- range of file formats. It supports interfaces with scanners
- and tablets.
-
- You can install the package by issuing this
- command:
+ ¹ï©ó¼v¹³ªº½s¿è¤Îקï¨Ó»¡¡AGIMP
+ ¬O«D±`ºë½oªº¼v¹³³B²z³nÅé¡C
+ ¥¦¥i¥H·í§@²³æªºÃ¸¹Ï³nÅé©Î¬O°ª«~½èªº¬Û¤ù³B²z³nÅé¡C
+ ¥¦¤ä´©¬°¼Æ²³¦hªº¥~±¾µ{¦¡¤Î«ü¥O½Z (script-fu) ¤¶±¡C
+ GIMP ¥i¥HŪ¼g³\¦hÀɮ׮榡¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¤ä´©±½´y¾¹
+
+ Ķµù¡G§A¥²¶·³z¹L sane-frontends ©Î xsane ¨Ó±½´y
+ ©M¤â¼gªO¡C
+
+ Ķµù¡GGIMP ¦b¥Ø«e¬O 2.x ª©¡A¦pªG§A·Qn¦w¸Ë
+ 1.x ª©ªº¸Ü¡A½Ð¥Î Ports Collection ¤¤ªº
+ graphics/gimp1 ¡C
+ ¥t¥~¦pªG§A¤w¸g¨Ï¥Î²ßºD Adobe Photoshop ¡A¦Ó¥B¤£²ßºD
+ GIMP ¤¶±ªº¸Ü¡A§A¤]¥i¥H¹Á¸Õ¦w¸Ë
+ graphics/gimpshop ¡A
+ ¥¦ªº¨Ï¥Î¤¶±¤Q¤ÀÃþ¦ü Adobe Photoshop¡C
+
+ §A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¤U±«ü¥O¦w¸Ë®M¥ó¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gimp
- If your FTP site does not have this package, you can use
- the Ports Collection. The
+ ¦pªGªº§Aªº FTP ¯¸¥x¨S¦³³oÓ®M¥ó¡A§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î
+ Ports Collection¡C ¦b Ports Collection ªº
graphics
- directory of the Ports Collection also contains
- The Gimp Manual . Here is how to
- get them installed:
+ ¥Ø¿ý¤U¤]¥]§t¤F
+ The Gimp Manual (GIMP ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U)¡C
+ ¤U±¥Ü½d¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë³o¨Çµ{¦¡¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/gimp
&prompt.root; make install clean
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/gimp-manual-pdf
&prompt.root; make install clean
-
- The
- graphics
- directory of the Ports Collection holds the development
- version of The GIMP in
- graphics/gimp-devel .
- An HTML version of
- The Gimp Manual is available from
- graphics/gimp-manual-html .
-
+ Ķµù¡G¥t¥~¦b Ports Collection ¤¤¤]¦³¤@¨Ç¥~±¾µ{¦¡¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¡A
+ ¨Ò¦p»¡¥i¥H³B²z¼Æ¦ì¬Û¾÷ raw Àɮ׮榡ªº gimp-ufraw ¡C
+
+
+ GIMP ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U¤]¦³ HTML ®æ¦¡ªº¡A§A¥i¥H¦b
+ graphics/gimp-manual-html
+ ¤¤¦w¸Ë¡C
+
OpenOffice.org
OpenOffice.org
office suite
OpenOffice.org
- OpenOffice.org includes all of the
- mandatory applications in a complete office productivity
- suite: a word processor, a spreadsheet, a presentation manager,
- and a drawing program. Its user interface is very similar
- to other office suites, and it can import and export in various
- popular file formats. It is available in a number of
- different languages including interfaces, spell checkers, and
- dictionaries.
-
- The word processor of
- OpenOffice.org uses a native XML
- file format for increased portability and flexibility. The
- spreadsheet program features a macro language and it can be
- interfaced with external databases.
- OpenOffice.org is already stable
- and runs natively on &windows;, &solaris;, Linux, FreeBSD,
- and &macos; X. More
- information about OpenOffice.org
- can be found on the
- OpenOffice.org web site .
- For FreeBSD specific information, and to directly
- download packages use the OpenOffice.org ¥]§t¤F©Ò¦³§¹¾ãªº¿ì¤½³nÅé²Õ¦X¡G
+ ¤å¦r³B²z¾¹¡B¸Õºâªí¡B²³ø³nÅéÁÙ¦³Ã¸¹Ï³nÅé¡C
+ °£¤F¥¦ªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¤¶±«D±`Ãþ¦ü¨ä¥Lªº¿ì¤½³nÅé¡A
+ ¥LÁÙ¯à°÷¿é¤J©M¿é¥X³\¦h¼öªùªºÀɮ׮榡¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¥]§t¤F¤£¦P»y¨¥ªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¤¶±¡B«÷¦rÀˬd©M¦r¨å¡C
+
+ OpenOffice.org
+ ªº¤å¦r³B²z¾¹¨Ï¥Î XML Àɮ׮榡¨Ó¼W¥[²¾´Ó©Ê¤Î¼u©Ê¡C
+ ¸Õºâªíµ{¦¡¤ä´©¥¨¶°(macro)¥\¯à¦Ó¥B¯à°÷¨Ï¥Î¥~¨Óªº¸ê®Æ®w¤¶±¡C
+ OpenOffice.org ¤w¸g¤Q¤Àéw¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B¯à°÷¦b &windows;, &solaris;, Linux, FreeBSD ¤Î
+ &macos; X µ¥§@·~¨t²Î¤W±°õ¦æ¡C
+ ·Qª¾¹D§ó¦hÃö©ó OpenOffice.org
+ ªº¸ê°T¥i¥H¦b
+ OpenOffice.org ºô¶
+ ¤W¬d¸ß¡C§A¤]¥i¥H¦b FreeBSD OpenOffice.org
- Porting Team 's web site.
+ ²¾´Ó¹Î¶¤
+ ªººô¶¤W¬d¸ßÃö©ó FreeBSD ¤W OpenOffice ¯S©wªº¸ê°T©Îª½±µ¤U¸ü¤w½sĶ¦nªº®M¥ó
- To install OpenOffice.org ,
- do:
+ n¦w¸Ë OpenOffice.org ¡A
+ ½Ð¥Î¥H¤U¤è¦¡¨Ó°õ¦æ¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r openoffice
- When running a -RELEASE version of &os;, this should work.
- Otherwise, you should look on the &os; OpenOffice.org Porting Team's
- web site to download and install the appropriate package
- using &man.pkg.add.1;. Both the current release and
- development version are available for download at this
- location.
+ ·í§A¦b¨Ï¥Î &os; -RELEASE ª©¥»ªº®ÉÔ¡A¤W±ªº§@ªkÀ³¸Ó¦æ±o³q¡C
+ n¬O¨ä¥Lªºª©¥»¡A§AÀ³¸Ó¬Ý¤@¤U &os; OpenOffice.org
+ ²¾´Ó¹Î¶¤ªººô¯¸¡A¨Ã¥B¥Î &man.pkg.add.1; ¦w¸Ë¦X¾Aªº®M¥ó¡C
+ ¦b³oÓ¯¸¥x³£¥i¥H¤U¸ü¨ìéwªºÄÀ¥Xª©(release)©Î¶}µo¤¤ªºª©¥»¡C
- Once the package is installed, you just have to type the
- following command to run
- OpenOffice.org :
+ ·í¤w¸g¦w¸Ë§¹¤§«á¡A§A¥unÁä¤J¤U±ªº«ü¥O´N¯à°õ¦æ
+ OpenOffice.org ¡G
&prompt.user; openoffice.org
+
+ Ķµù¡GºÝ¬Ý§Aªºª©¥»¡A¦³®ÉÔ»Ýn¿é¤J¦p openoffice.org-2.0.1 ¤§Ãþªº«ü¥O¡A
+ ¤£¹L§A¤]¥i¥H¥Î shell ¤¤ªº alias ©Î¬O¥Î symbolic link ¨Ó³B²z¡C
- During the first launch, you will be asked some
- questions and a .openoffice.org2 folder
- will be created in your home directory.
+ ¦b²Ä¤@¦¸±Ò°Êªº®ÉÔ¡AOpenOffice ·|°Ý¨ì¤@¨Ç°Ý´£¡C
+ ¦Ó¥B¦b§Aªº®a¥Ø¿ý©³¤U·|¦Û°Ê«Ø¥ß¤@Ó .openoffice.org2
+ ªº¸ê®Æ§¨¡C
- If the OpenOffice.org packages
- are not available, you still have the option to compile the
- port. However, you must bear in mind that it requires a lot of
- disk space and a fairly long time to compile.
+ ¦pªGµLªk¨ú±o OpenOffice.org
+ ªº®M¥ó¡A§A¤´µM¥i¥H¿ï¾Ü±q port ½sĶ¡C
+ ¤£¹L§A¥²¶·ÂÔ°O¦b¤ß¡G½sĶªº¹Lµ{·|»Ýn¤j¶qªººÏºÐªÅ¶¡¥B¬Û·í¯Ó®É¡C
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/editors/openoffice.org-2.0
&prompt.root; make install clean
- If you want to build a localized version, replace the
- previous command line with the following:
+ ¦pªG§A·Qn¦w¸Ë¥»¦a¤Æªºª©¥»¡A§â«e±ªº«ü¥O¥N´«¦¨¤U±ªº¡G
- &prompt.root; make LOCALIZED_LANG=your_language install clean
+ &prompt.root; make LOCALIZED_LANG=§Aªº»y¨¥ install clean
- You have to replace
- your_language with the correct
- language ISO-code. A list of supported language codes is
- available in the
- files/Makefile.localized file, located
- in the port directory.
+ §A¥²¶·§â§Aªº»y¨¥
+ ´«¦¨¥¿½Tªº»y¨¥ ISO-code Ķµù¡G¦p»OÆW¥¿Å餤¤å¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¬° zh-TW)¡C
+ ©Ò¤ä´©ªº»y¨¥¥N½X²M³æ¥i¥H¦b port ¥Ø¿ý¸Ìªºfiles/Makefile.localized
+ Àɮפ¤§ä¨ì¡C
+
- Once this is done,
- OpenOffice.org can be launched with
- the command:
+ ¤@¥¹§¹¦¨¤F¤Wz¨BÆJ¡A
+ OpenOffice.org ¥i¥Î¥H¤U«ü¥O±Ò°Ê¡G
&prompt.user; openoffice.org
+
- Document Viewers
+ ¤å¥ó¾\Äý¾¹
- Some new document formats have recently gained popularity.
- The standard viewers they require may not be available in the
- base system. We will see how to install them in this
- section.
+ ªñ¦~¨Ó¦³¨Ç¤å¥ó®æ¦¡Åܱo·U¨Ó·U¬y¦æ¡A
+ °ò¥»ªº¨t²Î¤¤¤]³\¤£·|¦³³o¨Ç®æ¦¡©Ò»Ýªº¼Ð·Ç¾\Äý¾¹¡C
+ ¦b³o¤@¸`¡A§Ų́Ӭݬݫç»ò¦w¸Ë³o¨Ç³nÅé¡C
- This section covers these applications:
+ ³o±i²[»\¤F¤U¦Cªº³nÅé
- Application Name
- Resources Needed
- Installation from Ports
- Major Dependencies
+ ³nÅé¦WºÙ
+ ©Ò»Ý¨t²Î¸ê·½
+ ±q Ports ¦w¸Ë®É¶¡
+ ¥Dn¬Û¨Ì®M¥ó
&acrobat.reader;
- light
- light
- Linux Binary Compatibility
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
+ Linux ¤G¶i¨î¬Û®e¼Ò²Õ
gv
- light
- light
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
Xaw3d
Xpdf
- light
- light
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
FreeType
GQview
- light
- light
- Gtk+ or GNOME
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
+ Gtk+ ©Î¬O GNOME
&acrobat.reader;
Acrobat Reader
PDF
- viewing
+ ¾\Äý
- Many documents are now distributed as PDF files,
- which stands for Portable Document Format
. One
- of the recommended viewers for these types of files is
- &acrobat.reader; , released by Adobe
- for Linux. As FreeBSD can run Linux binaries, it is also
- available for FreeBSD.
+ ³\¦h¤å¥ó¦b´²§Gªº®ÉÔ³£¬O¥Î PDF ªºÀɮ׮榡¡A
+ ³oӮ榡¬O°ò©ó ¥iÄ⦡¤å¥ó®æ¦¡(Portable Document Format)
¡C
+ ¨ä¤¤¤@Ó±ÀÂ˪º¾\Äý³nÅé´N¬O&acrobat.reader; ¡A
+ ¥¦¬O¥Ñ Adobe ¤½¥qµo¦æµ¹ Linux ¨Ï¥Îªºª©¥»¡C
+ ¦]¬° FreeBSD ¤]¥i¥H°õ¦æ Linux ¤G¶i¦ìÀɮסA
+ ©Ò¥H¥¦¤]¯à¦b FreeBSD ¤W±°õ¦æ¡C
- To install &acrobat.reader; 7 from
- the Ports collection, do:
+
+ n±q Ports collection ¤¤¦w¸Ë
+ &acrobat.reader; 7
+ ¥un¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/print/acroread7
&prompt.root; make install clean
- A package is not available due to licencing restrictions.
+ ¦]¬°±ÂÅvªº¨î¡A©Ò¥H¤£´£¨Ñ½sĶ¦nªº®M¥ó¡C
gv
gv
PDF
viewing
PostScript
- viewing
+ ¾\Äý
- gv is a &postscript; and PDF
- viewer. It is originally based on
- ghostview but it has a nicer look
- thanks to the Xaw3d library. It is fast and its interface is
- clean. gv has many features like
- orientation, paper size, scale, or antialias. Almost any
- operation can be done either from the keyboard or the
- mouse.
-
- To install gv as a package,
- do:
+ gv ¬O &postscript; ©M PDF ªº¾\Äý¾¹¡C
+ ¥¦«Øºc©ó ghostview ªº°ò¦¤W¡A
+ ¤£¹L¦]¬°¨Ï¥Î Xaw3d ¨ç¦¡®w¡A
+ ©Ò¥H¥~Æ[¬Ý°_¨Ó¤ñ¸ûº}«G¡C gv ³t«×§Ö¡A¤¶±Â²¼ä¨Ã¥B¦³³\¦h¥\¯à¡A
+ ¤ñ¦p»¡¤è¦V©Ê¡B¯È±i¤j¤p¡BÁY©ñ¤ñ¨Ò¡B©M¤Ï¿÷¾¦(antialias)µ¥¡C
+ ¦Ó¥B´X¥G©Ò¦³ªº¨Ï¥Î³£¥i¥H±qÁä½L©Î·Æ¹«¨Ó§¹¦¨¡C
+ ¥Î®M¥ó¨Ó¦w¸Ë gv ¡A¨Ï¥Î¤U¦C«ü¥O¡G
+
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gv
- If you cannot get the package, you can use the Ports
- collection:
+ ¦pªG§A¤£¯à¨ú±o®M¥ó¡A§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î Ports collection¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/print/gv
&prompt.root; make install clean
Xpdf
Xpdf
PDF
- viewing
+ ¾\Äý
- If you want a small FreeBSD PDF viewer,
- Xpdf is a light-weight and
- efficient viewer. It requires very few resources and is
- very stable. It uses the standard X fonts and does not
- require &motif; or any other X toolkit.
+ ¦pªG§A·Qn¤@Ó¤p«¬ªº FreeBSD PDF ¾\Äý³nÅé¡A
+ Xpdf ¬OÓ»´¶q¯Å¦Ó¥B¦³®Ä²vªº¾\Äý¾¹¡C
+ ¥¦¥u»Ýn«D±`¤Öªº¸ê·½¦Ó¥B¤Q¤Àéw¡C
+ ¥¦¥u¨Ï¥Î¼Ð·Çªº X ¦r«¬¦Ó¤£»Ýn &motif;
+ ©Î¬O¨ä¥Lªº X ¤u¨ã²Õ(toolkit)¡C
- To install the Xpdf package,
- issue this command:
+ ¥Î®M¥ó¨Ó¦w¸Ë Xpdf ¡A¨Ï¥Î¤U¦C«ü¥O¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r xpdf
- If the package is not available or you prefer to use the
- Ports Collection, do:
-
+ ¦pªG®M¥ó¤£¦s¦b©Î¬O§A°¾¦n¨Ï¥Î Ports Collection¡A
+ ¨Ï¥Î¥H¤U«ü¥O¡G
+
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/xpdf
&prompt.root; make install clean
- Once the installation is complete, you can launch
- Xpdf and use the right mouse button
- to activate the menu.
+ ¤@¥¹§¹¦¨¤F¦w¸Ë¡A§A¥i¥H±Ò°Ê Xpdf
+ ¨Ã¥B¨Ï¥Î·Æ¹«¥kÁä¥h¨Ï¥Î¿ï³æ¡C
GQview
GQview
- GQview is an image manager.
- You can view a file with a single click, launch an external
- editor, get thumbnail previews, and much more. It also
- features a slideshow mode and some basic file operations. You
- can manage image collections and easily find duplicates.
- GQview can do full screen viewing
- and supports internationalization.
-
- If you want to install the
- GQview package, do:
+ GQview ¬O¼v¹³ºÞ²z³nÅé¡C
+ §A¥i¥H¥Î³æÁä¨Ó¾\ÄýÀɮסB±Ò°ÊÃB¥~ªº½s¿è¾¹¡BÁY¹Ï¹wÄýµ¥¥\¯à¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¦³¤Û¿O¤ù¼½©ñ(slideshow)¤Î¤@¨Ç°ò¥»ªºÀÉ®×¾Þ§@¥\¯à¡C
+ §A¥i¥Î GQview ºÞ²z¼v¹³¶°¨Ã¯à»´ÃP¦a§ä¥X«½ÆªºÀɮסC
+ GQview
+ ¯à°÷¨Ï¥Î¥þ¿Ã¹õÆ[¬Ý¨Ã¤ä´©°ê»Ú¤Æ¡C
+ ¦pªG§A·Qn¦w¸Ë GQview ªº®M¥ó¡A
+ ½Ð¨Ï¥Î¤U¦C«ü¥O¡G
+
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gqview
- If the package is not available or you prefer to use the
- Ports Collection, do:
+ ¦pªG®M¥óµLªk¨ú±o¡A©Î¬O§A¤ñ¸û³ßÅw¨Ï¥Î Ports Collection¡A¥un¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/graphics/gqview
&prompt.root; make install clean
- Finance
+ °]°È
- If, for any reason, you would like to manage your personal
- finances on your FreeBSD Desktop, there are some powerful and
- easy to use applications ready to be installed. Some of them
- are compatible with widespread file formats like those of
- Quicken or Excel documents.
+ ¦pªG¦³¥ô¦ó²z¥Ñ§A·Qn¦b§Aªº FreeBSD ®à±Àô¹Ò¤WºÞ²z§AªºÓ¤H°]°È¡A
+ ³o¸Ì¦³¤@¨Ç¥\¯à±j¤j¡B¨Ï¥Î²³æªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¥i¨Ñ¦w¸Ë¡C
+ ³o¨Ç°]°ÈºÞ²z³nÅ餧¤¤¦³¨Ç¬O¬Û®e©ó¬y¦æªº
+ Quicken ©Î Excel ¤å¥ó¡C
- This section covers these applications:
+ ³o¸`²[»\¤F¤U±³o¨Ç³nÅé¡G
- Application Name
- Resources Needed
- Installation from Ports
- Major Dependencies
+ ³nÅé¦WºÙ
+ ©Ò»Ý¨t²Î¸ê·½
+ ±q Ports ¦w¸Ëªº®É¶¡
+ ¥Dnªº¬Û¨Ì®M¥ó
GnuCash
- light
- heavy
+ ¤Ö
+ ªø
GNOME
Gnumeric
- light
- heavy
+ ¤Ö
+ ªø
GNOME
Abacus
- light
- light
+ ¤Ö
+ µu
Tcl/Tk
GnuCash
GnuCash
- GnuCash is part of the
- GNOME effort to provide
- user-friendly yet powerful applications to end-users. With
- GnuCash , you can keep track of your
- income and expenses, your bank accounts, or your stocks. It
- features an intuitive interface while remaining very
- professional.
-
- GnuCash provides a smart
- register, a hierarchical system of accounts, many keyboard
- accelerators and auto-completion methods. It can split a
- single transaction into several more detailed pieces.
- GnuCash can import and merge
- Quicken QIF files. It also handles most international date
- and currency formats.
-
- To install GnuCash on your
- system, do:
+ GnuCash ¬O
+ GNOME ¹Î¶¤§V¤O¦¨ªG¤¤ªº¤@³¡¤À¡A
+ ¦Ó GNOME ¥Dn¬O´£¨Ñ²×ºÝ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ(end-users)
+ ¿Ë¤Á¦Ó±j¤jªº®à±À³¥Îµ{¦¡¡C
+ ¨Ï¥Î GnuCash ¡A
+ §A¥i¥H«ùÄò¬ö¿ý§Aªº¦¬¤J¤Îªá¶O¡B§Aªº»È¦æ±b¤á¡B©Î¬O§AªºªÑ²¼ÃҨ鵥¡C
+ ¥¦ªº¯S©Ê¬O¤¶±ª½Ä±¦ý¥\¯à¤´«D±`±M·~¡C
+
+ GnuCash ´£¨Ñ¤F¤@Ó´¼¼zªºµù¥U¾¹¡B
+ ±b¤á¼h¯Å¨t²Î¡B³\¦h§Ö³tÁä¤Î¦Û°Ê§¹¦¨(auto-completion)¼Ò¦¡¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¯à¤À¶}³æ¤@ªº³øªí¦Ü¼ÆÓ¸Ô²Óªº³¡¥÷¡C
+ GnuCash ¤]¯à°÷¿é¤J¤Î¦X¨Ö
+ Quicken QIF ÀɮסC
+ ¥¦¤]¯à³B²z¤j³¡¤À°ê»Úªº¤é´Á¤Î³q¥Î³f¹ô¤§®æ¦¡¡C
+
+ n¦w¸Ë GnuCash ¨ì§Aªº¨t²Î¤¤¡A
+ ¥un°µ¤U¦C¨BÆJ¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnucash
- If the package is not available, you can use the ports
- collection:
+ ¦pªG¤£¯à¨ú±o®M¥ó¡A§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î ports collection:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/finance/gnucash
&prompt.root; make install clean
Gnumeric
Gnumeric
- spreadsheet
+ ¸Õºâªí
Gnumeric
- Gnumeric is a spreadsheet, part
- of the GNOME desktop environment.
- It features convenient automatic guessing
of user
- input according to the cell format and an autofill system for
- many sequences. It can import files in a number of popular
- formats like those of Excel , Lotus 1-2-3 , or Quattro Pro .
- Gnumeric supports graphs through
- the math/guppi graphing
- program. It has a large number of built-in functions and
- allows all of the usual cell formats such as number, currency,
- date, time, and much more.
-
- To install Gnumeric as a
- package, type in:
+ Gnumeric ¬O
+ GNOME ®à±Àô¹Ò¤¤ªº¸Õºâªí¡C
+ ¥¦ªº¯SÂI¬O¯à°÷®Ú¾ÚÀx¦s®æ®æ¦¡(cell format)¤Î¦Û°Ê¸É»ôªº¨t²Î¡A
+ ¨Ó¤è«K¦Û°Ê¦a¡u²q¥X¡v¨Ï¥ÎªÌªº¿é¤J¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¯à°÷¿é¤J³\¦h¼öªùªºÀɮ׮榡¡A¹³¬O
+ Excel , Lotus 1-2-3 , ©Î¬O Quattro Pro ¡C
+
+ Gnumeric ¤ä´©¨Ï¥Î
+ math/guppi ø¹Ï³nÅé¨Óø¹Ï¡C
+ ¥¦¦³³\¦h¤º«Øªº¨ç¼Æ¦Ó¥B¤¹³\¤@¯ëªºÀx¦s®æ®æ¦¡¡A¹³¬O:
+ ¼Æ¦r¡B³f¹ô¡B¤é´Á¡B®É¶¡¤Î¨ä¥L®æ¦¡µ¥¡C
+
+ n¥Î®M¥ó¦w¸Ë Gnumeric ¡A¥un¥´¥H¤U«ü¥O¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnumeric
- If the package is not available, you can use the ports
- collection by doing:
+ ¦pªG®M¥ó¤£¦s¦b¡A§A¥i¥H°µ¤U±ªº¨BÆJ¨Ó¨Ï¥Î ports collection ½sĶ¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/math/gnumeric
&prompt.root; make install clean
Abacus
Abacus
- spreadsheet
+ ¸Õºâªí
Abacus
- Abacus is a small and easy to
- use spreadsheet. It includes many built-in functions useful
- in several domains such as statistics, finances, and
- mathematics. It can import and export the Excel file format.
- Abacus can produce &postscript;
- output.
+ Abacus ¬OÓ¤p¥©¤S¨Ï¥Î²³æªº¸Õºâªí¡C
+ ¥¦¥]§t¤F³\¦h¤º«Øªº¨ç¼Æ¡A¦b¬ÛÃöªº»â°ì¦p²Îp¾Ç¡B°]°È¡B¼Æ¾Ç¤¤«Ü¹ê¥Î¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¥i¥H¿é¥X¿é¤J Excel ªºÀɮ׮榡¡C
+ ¥t¥~ Abacus ¤]¯à°÷¿é¥X &postscript; ®æ¦¡¡C
- To install Abacus from its
- package, do:
+ ±q®M¥ó¦w¸Ë Abacus ¥un°µ¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r abacus
- If the package is not available, you can use the ports
- collection by doing:
+ ¦pªG®M¥ó¤£¯à¨ú±oªº¸Ü¡A§A¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î ports collection ¡A
+ ¨Ã¥Î¥H¤U«ü¥O¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/deskutils/abacus
&prompt.root; make install clean
- Summary
+ ºKn
- While FreeBSD is popular among ISPs for its performance and
- stability, it is quite ready for day-to-day use as a desktop.
- With several thousand applications available as
- packages or
+ ÁöµM FreeBSD ¬O¦]¬°®Ä¯à¤Îéw©Ê¦Ó¦b ISP ¤§¶¡«Ü¬y¦æ¡A
+ ¤£¹L¥¦¤]¥i¥H§¹¥þ·í§@®à±Àô¹Ò(desktop)¨Ó¨Ï¥Î¡A
+ ¨Ã¤£«]©ó¨Ï¥Î¦b¦øªA¾¹¤W±¡C¥Ø«e¦³¼Æ¤dºØÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡ªº
+ ®M¥ó(packages)
+ ©Î
ports ,
- you can build a perfect desktop that suits all your needs.
-
- Once you have achieved the installation of your desktop, you
- may want to go one step further with
- misc/instant-workstation .
- This meta-port
allows you to build a typical set
- of ports for a workstation. You can customize it by editing
- /usr/ports/misc/instant-workstation/Makefile .
- Follow the syntax used for the default set to add or remove
- ports, and build it with the usual procedure.
- Eventually, you will be able to create a big package that
- corresponds to your very own desktop and install it to your
- other workstations!
-
- Here is a quick review of all the desktop applications
- covered in this chapter:
+ ¥i¨Ñ¨Ï¥Î¡A§A¥i¥H®Ú¾Ú§Aªº»Ý¨D¥´³y¥X¤@Ó§¹¬üªº®à±Àô¹Ò¡C
+
+ ¤@¥¹§A§¹¦¨¤F§Aªº®à±Àô¹Òªº¦w¸Ë¡A§A¤]³\·Qn¨Ï¥Î
+ misc/instant-workstations
+ ¨Ó°µ§ó¶i¤@¨Bªº³]¸m¡C³oÓ¡umeta-port¡v¤¹³\§A¨Ï¥Î¼ÆÓ ports
+ ¨Ó«Ø³y¦Û©wªº¤u§@¯¸Àô¹Ò¡C§A¥i¥H¦Û¦æ½s¿è«È»s¤Æ
+ /usr/ports/misc/instant-workstations/Makefile
+ ³oÓÀɮסC ¿í´`¹w³]ªº»yªk¥h¼W¥[©Î´î¤Ö ports¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B¨Ï¥Î¤@¯ëªºµ{§Ç¥h°µ¡C
+ ³Ì«á¡A§A±N¯à°÷«Ø¥ß¤@Ó¾A¦X§A¦Û¤v®à±Àô¹Òªº®M¥ó¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B¥i¥H¦w¸Ë¦b§A¦Û¤v¨ä¥Lªº¤u§@¯¸¸ÌÀY¡C
+
+ ¤U±¬O³o³¹²[»\ªº©Ò¦³®à±À³¥Î³nÅ餧§Ö³t¦^ÅU¦Cªí¡G
- Application Name
- Package Name
- Ports Name
+ ³nÅé¦WºÙ
+ ®M¥ó¦WºÙ
+ Ports ¦WºÙ
Mozilla
mozilla
www/mozilla
Opera
opera
www/opera
Firefox
firefox
www/firefox
KOffice
koffice-kde3
editors/koffice-kde3
AbiWord
abiword
editors/abiword
The GIMP
gimp
graphics/gimp
OpenOffice.org
openoffice
editors/openoffice-1.1
&acrobat.reader;
acroread
print/acroread7
gv
gv
print/gv
Xpdf
xpdf
graphics/xpdf
GQview
gqview
graphics/gqview
GnuCash
gnucash
finance/gnucash
Gnumeric
gnumeric
math/gnumeric
Abacus
abacus
deskutils/abacus
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
index 27e04beb85..c6ec473169 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,4131 +1,4114 @@
Àx¦s³]³Æ½g
·§z
- ¥»³¹²[»\¦p¦ó¦b FreeBSD ¤U¨Ï¥ÎºÐ¤ù¸Ë¸m¡A¥]§t
- memory-backed disk (¥Î°O¾ÐÅé§@¬°µwºÐ¨Ï¥Î)¡B¸óºô¸ô¨Ï¥ÎªºµwºÐ¡B
+ ¥»³¹²[»\¦p¦ó¦b FreeBSD ¤U¨Ï¥ÎºÐ¤ù¸Ë¸m
+ Ķµù¡GÁöµM¦³¨Ç³]³Æ¨S¦³¡yºÐ¤ù¡z¡A¨Ò¦p USB ÀH¨ºÐ¡A
+ ¤£¹L¦b¦¹¤´§â Disk Ķ¬°¡yºÐ¤ù¸Ë¸m¡z¡C¦¹¥~¡A¬°¤è«K°_¨£¡A
+ «á¤å©Ò¦³ªº Disk ³£Ä¶¬°¡yµwºÐ¡z¡C
+ ¥]§t memory-backed disk (¥Î°O¾ÐÅé§@¬°µwºÐ¨Ï¥Î)¡B¸óºô¸ô¨Ï¥ÎªºµwºÐ¡B
¼Ð·Ç SCSI/IDE µwºÐ¡BUSB ¤¶±ªº³]³Æµ¥¡C
¾\Ū¥»³¹«á¡A±z¸Ë¾Ç·|¡G
FreeBSD ¦p¦ó´yz¸ê®Æ¦bµwºÐ¤Wªº¹º¤À±¡§Î
(partition ©M slices)¡C
¦p¦ó¦b¨t²Î¤W¥[¤JµwºÐ
¦p¦ó³]©w &os; ¨Ó¨Ï¥Î USB ¸Ë¸m¡C
¦p¦ó³]©wµêÀÀÀɮרt²Î (virtual file systems),
¨Ò¦p memory disks (¥Î°O¾ÐÅé§@¬°µwºÐ¨Ï¥Î)¡C
¦p¦ó¥Î quota ¨Ó¨îµwºÐªÅ¶¡ªº¨Ï¥Î¡C
¦p¦ó¹ïµwºÐ¥[±K¥HÀ³¥I§ðÀ»¡C
¦p¦ó¦b FreeBSD ¤U«Ø¥ß¡B¿N¿ý CD ©M DVD¡C
¦UºØ¤£¦Pªº³Æ¥÷³]³Æ¡C
¦p¦ó¨Ï¥Î FreeBSD ´£¨Ñªº³Æ¥÷¤u¨ã¡C
¦p¦ó³Æ¥÷¨ì³nºÐ¡C
¤°»ò¬O snapshots ¡A¥B¦p¦ó¦³®Ä²v¦a¨Ï¥Î¤§¡C
¦b¾\Ū¤§«e¡A±zÀ³¸Ó¡G
ª¾¹D¦p¦ó°t¸m¡B¦w¸Ë·sªº FreeBSD ®Ö¤ß¡C
().
¸Ë¸m¦WºÙ
¤U±¬O FreeBSD ¤ä´©ªºÀx¦s´CÅé¦Cªí¡A¤Î¥¦Ì¹ïÀ³ªº¸Ë¸m¦WºÙ¡C
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Originally contributed by
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Ä~Äòè¤~ªº½d¨Ò¡A·s¼WªºµwºÐ·|¬O da1 ¡A
°²³]§ÚÌ·Q±N¥¦±¾¸ü¨ì /1 ³oÓ¦ì¸m
(¦pªG±z·s¼Wªº¬O IDE µwºÐªº¸Ü¡A4.0 ¤§«eªº¨t²Î¬O
wd1 ¡A4.X ¤Î¤§«áªº¨t²Î«h¬O
ad1 )¡C
partitions
slices
fdisk
FreeBSD ¬°¤F¦b IBM-PC ¬Û®e¹q¸£¤W°õ¦æ¡A
¥²¶·°t¦X PC BIOS partition¡A¦]¦¹©M¶Ç²Îªº BSD partition ¦³«Ü¤jªº¤£¦P¡C
¦b PC ¸ÌµwºÐ³Ì¦h¥i¥H¦³¥|µ§ BIOS partition ¸ê°T(¥ç§Y³Ì¦h¥i¤À³Î¦¨¥|Ó
partition)¡C¦pªG³oÓµwºÐ¥´ºâ¥þ³¡Åý FreeBSD ¨Ï¥Î¡A¥i¿ï¾Ü
dedicated ¼Ò¦¡¡A
¤£µMªº¸Ü FreeBSD ¥²¶·¸m¨©ó¨ä¤¤¤@Ó PC BIOS partition ¤¤¡C
¦b FreeBSD ¸Ì¡APC BIOS partition ºÙ¬° slice ¡A
- ³o¬O¬°¤F¤£n©M¶Ç²Îªº BSD partition ·d²V¤F¡C
+ ³o¬O¬°¤F¤£n©M¶Ç²Îªº BSD partition ·d²V¤F
+ Ķµù¡G°ò©ó¬Û¦Pªº²z¥Ñ¡A
+ ²{¦b BSD partition ±`ºÙ¬° BSD label¡A©Î²ºÙ label¡C
¤£½×¬O§¹¥þ¥Ñ FreeBSD ¨Ï¥ÎªºµwºÐ¡AÁÙ¬O¦w¸Ë¤F¨ä¥¦§@·~¨t²ÎªºµwºÐ¡A
±z³£¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î slice¡C³o¼Ëªº¦n³B¬O¡A¨ä¥¦«D FreeBSD §@·~¨t²Îªº
fdisk ¤u¨ã¥i¥H¶¶§Q¾Þ§@¡C
¦pªG¨Ï¥Î slice¡A³oÓ·s¼WªºµwºÐ·|¬O
/dev/da1s1e ¡C¥i¥H³o¼Ë¨Ó¸ÑŪ¥¦¡GSCSI µwºÐ¡B
unit number 1(²Ä¤GÓ SCSI µwºÐ)¡Bslice 1(²Ä¤@Ó PC BIOS partition)¡B
¤Î e BSD partition¡C¦b dedicated ¼Ò¦¡ªº¸Ü¡A
·sµwºÐ«h¬O /dev/da1e ¡C
¦]¬° &man.bsdlabel.8;(¦b &os; 4.X ºÙ¬° &man.disklabel.8;)
¥Î 32-bit ¾ã¼Æ¨ÓÀx¦s sector(ºÏ°Ï) ¼Æ¡A
¦]¦¹¨î¤@ÓµwºÐ³Ì¤j¥u¯à¦³ 2^32-1 Ó sector¡A¥ç§Y 2TB ªºªÅ¶¡¡C
¦Ó &man.fdisk.8; ªº®æ¦¡®e³\°_©l sector ½s¸¹¤£¶W¹L 2^32-1¡A
ªø«×¤]¤£¶W¹L 2^32-1¡A¦]¦¹ partition ³Ì¤jªÅ¶¡¬O 2TB¡A¦ÓµwºÐ³Ì¤j¬O 4TB¡C
&man.sunlabel.8; «h¨î partition ³Ì¤j¬O 2TB¡AµwºÐ³Ì¦h¥i¦³ 8 Ó partition¡A
¦]¦¹³Ì¤j¬O 16TB¡C¦pªGn¨Ï¥Î§ó¤jªºµwºÐ¡A½Ð¨Ï¥Î &man.gpt.8;¡C
- Using &man.sysinstall.8;
+ ¨Ï¥Î &man.sysinstall.8;
sysinstall
- adding disks
+ ·s¼WµwºÐ
su
- Navigating Sysinstall
+ ¾Þ§@ Sysinstall
- You may use sysinstall
+ ³z¹L sysinstall
(/stand/sysinstall in &os; versions older
- than 5.2) to
- partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus.
- Either login as user root or use the
- su command. Run
- sysinstall and enter the
- Configure menu. Within the
- FreeBSD Configuration Menu , scroll down and
- select the Fdisk option.
+ than 5.2) ªº¿ï³æ¤¶±¡A±z¥i¥H»´©ö¬°µwºÐ¤À³Î BIOS partition(slice)
+ ©M BSD patition¡C±z¥²¶·¥H root ¨¥÷¨Ï¥Î sysinstall ¡A
+ n¹À¥Î root µn¤J¡An¹À¥Î su ¤Á´«¨ì root¡C
+ °õ¦æ sysinstall «á¡A¿ï Configure
+ ¡A¦b FreeBSD Configuration Menu ¸Ì²¾¨ì
+ Fdisk ¿ï¶µ¡A
- fdisk Partition Editor
- Once inside fdisk , typing A will
- use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to
- remain cooperative with any future possible operating
- systems
, answer YES . Write the
- changes to the disk using W . Now exit the
- FDISK editor by typing q . Next you will be
- asked about the Master Boot Record
. Since you are adding a
- disk to an already running system, choose
- None .
+ fdisk Partition ½s¿è¾¹
+ ¦b fdisk ¸Ì¡A«ö¤U
+ A ªí¥Ü¾ãÓµwºÐ³£µ¹ FreeBSD ¨Ï¥Î¡C
+ ±µµÛ·|´£¥Ü±z¡y¬O§_n¬Û®e¨ä¥¦ªº§@·~¨t²Î¡z¡A¦^µª YES ¡C
+ «ö W ·|±N³o¨Ç§ïÅܥߧY¼g¤JµwºÐ¡A
+ ¦A«ö q ¥i¥HÂ÷¶} FDISK ½s¿è¾¹¡C
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó·|°Ý±zn±N Master Boot Record
¦w¸Ë©ó¦ó³B¡A
+ ¥Ñ©ó²{¦b¬O·s¼WµwºÐ¡Aªí¥Ü§@·~¨t²Î¤w¸g¸Ë¦b§OªºµwºÐ¤W¤F¡A©Ò¥H¥i¥H
+ None ´N¦æ¤F¡C
- Disk Label Editor
+ Disk Label Editor(µwºÐ Label ½s¿è¾¹)
BSD partitions
- Next, you need to exit sysinstall
- and start it again. Follow the directions above, although this
- time choose the Label option. This will
- enter the Disk Label Editor . This
- is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A
- disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled
- a-h .
- A few of the partition labels have special uses. The
- a partition is used for the root partition
- (/ ). Thus only your system disk (e.g,
- the disk you boot from) should have an a
- partition. The b partition is used for
- swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap
- partitions. The c partition addresses the
- entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in
- slice mode. The other partitions are for general use.
-
- sysinstall 's Label editor
- favors the e
- partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the
- Label editor, create a single file system by typing
- C . When prompted if this will be a FS
- (file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a
- mount point (e.g, /mnt ). When adding a
- disk in post-install mode, sysinstall
- will not create entries
- in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point
- you specify is not important.
-
- You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and
- create a file system on it. Do this by typing
- W . Ignore any errors from
- sysinstall that
- it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor
- and sysinstall completely.
+ ±µµÛ½ÐÃö³¬ sysinstall ¡A
+ ¦A«¶}¤@¦¸¡C·ÓµÛ¤W¤@¸`ªº«ü¥Ü¡A¤£¹L³o¦¸§ï¿ï Label
+ ¶i¤J Disk Label Editor ¡A¦b¦¹±z¥i¥H½s¿è¶Ç²Îªº
+ BSD partition¡C¤@ÓµwºÐ(©ÎµÛ¤@Ó slice) ³Ì¦h¥i¤Á¤À¦¨ 8 Ó BSD partition¡A
+ ¨Ì§Ç¥Î a-h ¨Óªí¥Ü¡C
+ ¦³¨Ç¦r¥À¦³¯S§Oªº·N¸q¡Aa partition ªí¥Ü³o¬O
+ root partition(®Ú¤À³Î°Ï¡A/ )¡A
+ ¦]¦¹¥u¦³¦w¸Ë¨t²ÎªºµwºÐ(¨Ò¦p¥Î¨Ó¶}¾÷ªºµwºÐ) ¦³
+ a partition¡Cb partition
+ ªí¥Ü³o¬O swap partitions(¥æ´«¤À³Î°Ï)¡A¨CÓµwºÐ¤W³£¥i¥H¦³¥æ´«¤À³Î°Ï¡C
+ c partition
+ ¥Î¨Óªí¥Ü¾ãÓµwºÐ(¦pªG¨Ï¥Î dedicated mode ªº¸Ü)
+ ©Î¾ãÓ slice¡C¨ä¥¦ªº¦r¥À«h¥Î¨Óªí¥Ü´¶³qªº BSD partition¡C
+
+ sysinstall ªº
+ Label editor(µwºÐ Label ½s¿è¾¹) °¾¦n¥Î e
+ ¨Óªí¥Ü«D root¡B¤]«D swap ªº¤À³Î°Ï
+ Ķµù¡G¦Ñ¹ê»¡§Ú¬Ý¤£À´³o¥y«üªº¬O¤°»ò¡Hì¤å¬O
+ sysinstall Label editor
+ favors the e partition for non-root,
+ non-swap partitions. ¦b Label editor ¸Ì¡A
+ «ö C ¥i¥H·s¼W¤@ÓÀɮרt²Î(BSD label)¡A
+ ¥¦·|°Ý±z³o¬O¤@Ó FS(file system¡AÀɮרt²Î) ©Î¬O swap(¥æ´«¤À³Î°Ï)¡A
+ ¿ï¾Ü FS ±µµÛ¿é¤Jn±¾¸üªº¦ì¸m
+ (¨Ò¦p /mnt )¡C¦pªG¨t²Î¦w¸Ë§¹«á¤~·s¼WµwºÐ¡A
+ sysinstall ¤£·|À°±z§â³oµ§±¾¸ü¸ê®Æ¥[¤J
+ /etc/fstab ¡A©Ò¥H±¾¸üªº¦ì¸m¤£¤Ó«n¡C
+
+ ·í±z·Ç³Æ¦n±N·sªº label ¼g¤JµwºÐ¡B«Ø¥ßÀɮרt²Î¡A
+ «ö W §Y¥i¡C¦pªG¥X²{¦b¤°»ò¿ù»~¡A
+ sysinstall ¥i¯àµLªkÀ°±z±¾¸ü³oÓ·s¤À³Î°Ï¡C
+ µ²§ô Label Editor¡Bµ²§ô sysinstall ´N¦æ¤F¡C
- Finish
+ §¹¦¨
- The last step is to edit /etc/fstab
- to add an entry for your new disk.
+ ³Ì«án°µªº¬O½s¿è /etc/fstab ¡A
+ ¥[¤J±z·s¼Wªº¤À³Î°Ï¸ê°T¡C
- Using Command Line Utilities
+ ¨Ï¥Î©R¥O¦C¤u¨ã
- Using Slices
-
- This setup will allow your disk to work correctly with
- other operating systems that might be installed on your
- computer and will not confuse other operating systems'
- fdisk utilities. It is recommended
- to use this method for new disk installs. Only use
- dedicated mode if you have a good reason
- to do so!
-
+ ¨Ï¥Î Slices(BIOS partitions)
+
+ ³oºØ¼Ò¦¡¯àÅý±zªºµwºÐ¤À³Î°Ï»P¨ä¥¦§@·~¨t²Îªº
+ fdisk ¤u¨ã©M¥¦@³B¡A¦]¦¹§ÚÌ«Øij±z¨Ï¥Î slice ¼Ò¦¡¡C
+ ¦pªG±z¤@©wn¨Ï¥Î dedicated ¼Ò¦¡¡A
+ ±z±o¦³Ó¦n²z¥Ñ¡I
+ Ķµù¡G¦pªG±z¦Û©l¦Ü²×³£¤£¥´ºâ±N³oÓµwºÐ¥Î©ó FreeBSD
+ ¤§¥~ªº§@·~¨t²Î¡A¨º¥i¥Hºâ¬OÓ¦n²z¥Ñ¡C¤£¹L´Nºâ¦p¦¹¡A
+ ¥Î slice ¼Ò¦¡¤]¨S¤°»òÃa³B´N¬O¤F:-)¡C
+
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1
-&prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk
-&prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it.
-&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions.
+&prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 # ªì©l±zªºµwºÐ¡C
+&prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto # «Ø¥ß disklabel¡C
+&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # ½s¿è disklabel ¥H·s¼W label¡C
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
-&prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created.
-&prompt.root; mount /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s)
-&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab .
-
- If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad
- for da . On pre-4.X systems use
- wd .
+&prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # ¦pªG±z·s¼W¤F¦hÓ label¡A¹ï¨CÓ label «ÂгoÓ¨BÆJ¡C
+&prompt.root; mount /dev/da1s1e /1 # ±¾¸ü³o¨Ç·s label¡C
+&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # ¦b /etc/fstab ¥[¤J¾A·íªº¸ê°T¡C
+
+ ¦pªG±z·s¼Wªº¬O IDE µwºÐ¡A±N da
+ §ï¦¨ da §Y¥i
+ Ķµù¡Gda ¬O direct access¡Aad «h¬O ata disk¡C ¡C
+ ¦Ó¦pªG¬O 4.X ¤§«eªº¨t²Î¡A¥Î wd ¡C
Dedicated
OS/2
- If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating
- system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember
- this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage
- will be done by them. IBM's &os2; however, will
- appropriate
any partition it finds which it does not
- understand.
-
+ ¦pªG±z¤£¥´ºâ±N·sµwºÐ¥Î©ó¨ä¥¦ªº§@·~¨t²Î¡A
+ ±z¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î dedicated ¼Ò¦¡¡Cª`·N¡G
+ Microsoft ªº§@·~¨t²Î»{¤£±o³oÓ¼Ò¦¡¡A¤£¹L¤]¤£·|¥h¯}Ãa¥¦¡F
+ µM¦Ó IBM ªº &os2; ´N¨S¨º»ò¦n¤ß¤F¡A¥¦·|¥h½Õ¾ã©Ò¦³¥¦¤£»{±oªº¤À³Î°Ï
+ Ķµù¡G§Ú¹ï³o¥yªº·N«ä¨S¤°»ò«H¤ß¡Aì¤å¬O IBM's &os2; however,
+ will appropriate
any partition it finds which it does
+ not understand. ¡C
+
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto
-&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition
+&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # «Ø¥ß `e' partition¡C
&prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
-&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
+&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # ·s¼W¤@µ§ /dev/da1e ªº¸ê°T¡C
&prompt.root; mount /1
- An alternate method is:
+ ¥t¤@ºØ¤èªk¡G
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel /dev/da1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
-&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
+&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # ·s¼W¤@µ§ /dev/da1e ªº¸ê°T¡C
&prompt.root; mount /1
- Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8;
- utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With
- &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters
- have been retired; in the examples above the option
- -r should be removed with &man.bsdlabel.8;.
- For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8;
- manual page.
+ ±q &os; 5.1-RELEASE ¶}©l¡A&man.bsdlabel.8; ¨ú¥N쥻ªº
+ &man.disklabel.8; µ{¦¡¡A¬Y¨Ç«ü¥O°Ñ¼Æ¤w¸g¼o±ó¤£¥Î¡C
+ ¤W±½d¨Ò¸Ì¡A¦pªG¥Îªº¬O &man.bsdlabel.8;¡A-r
+ °Ñ¼ÆÀ³¸Ó®³±¼¡C§ó¦hªº¸ê°T½Ð°Ñ¦Ò &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page¡C
+
RAID
- Software RAID
+ ³nÅé RAID
Christopher
Shumway
Original work by
Jim
Brown
Revised by
RAID software
RAID CCD
- Concatenated Disk Driver (CCD) Configuration
- When choosing a mass storage solution the most important
- factors to consider are speed, reliability, and cost. It is
- rare to have all three in balance; normally a fast, reliable mass
- storage device is expensive, and to cut back on cost either speed
- or reliability must be sacrificed.
+ ³s±µ¦¡ºÏºÐ¸Ë¸mÅX°Êµ{¦¡(CCD, Concatenated Disk Driver) ³]©w
+ ¹ï¤j®e¶qÀx¦s³]³Æ¦Ó¨¥¡A³ÌÃöÁ䪺n¯À¤D¬O³t«×¡B¥i¾a©Ê¤Î»ù®æ¡C
+ µM¦Ó³o¤TªÌ©¹©¹Ãø¥HÝÅU¡G§Ö³t¥i¾aªº³]³Æ³q±`«Ü¶Q¡F
+ ¦Ó°§C¦¨¥»³q±`¤]Ä묹¤F³t«×©Î¥i¾a©Ê¡C
+
+ ±µ¤U¨Ón¤¶²Ðªº¨t²Î¡A»ù®æ¬O³Ì«nªº¦Ò¶q¡A±µ¤U¨Ó¬O³t«×¡A³Ì«á¤~¬O¥i¾a©Ê¡C
+ ¶¶§Ç¦p¦¹¬O¦]¬°¸ê®Æ¶Ç¿éªº³t«×³Ì²×¨ú¨M©óºô¸ô¡A¦Ó¾¨ºÞ¥i¾a©Ê¤Q¤À«n¡A
+ «o¦³Â²³æªº¨ú¥N¤è®×¡G±N¸ê®Æ§¹¾ã³Æ¥÷©ó CD-R ¤¤¡C
- In designing the system described below, cost was chosen
- as the most important factor, followed by speed, then reliability.
- Data transfer speed for this system is ultimately
- constrained by the network. And while reliability is very important,
- the CCD drive described below serves online data that is already
- fully backed up on CD-R's and can easily be replaced.
+ ¿ï¾Ü¤j®e¶qÀx¦s³]³Æ¤è®×®É¡Aº¥ýn©w¸q±zªº»Ý¨D¡C¦pªG±z«µø³t«×©Î¥i¾a©Ê
+ ¬Æ©ó»ù®æ¡A±µ¤U¨Óªº¤¶²Ð®£«D±z©Ò»Ý¡C
- Defining your own requirements is the first step
- in choosing a mass storage solution. If your requirements prefer
- speed or reliability over cost, your solution will differ from
- the system described in this section.
+
+ ¦w¸ËµwÅé
+ °£¤F¨t²ÎºÏºÐ¥~¡A¤U±¤¶²Ðªº CCD ºÏºÐ°}¦C±N¨Ï¥Î¨ì¤TÁû 30GB¡B
+ 5400 RPM ªº Western Digital IDE ºÏºÐ¡A¥H´£¨Ñ¬ù 90GB ªºÀx¦sªÅ¶¡¡C
+ ³Ì²z·Qªº±¡ªp¬O¨CӺϺХѿW¥ß¨Ï¥Îªº±Æ½u³s±µ¿W¥ß¨Ï¥Îªº IDE ±±¨î¾¹¡A
+ ¤£¹L¬°¤F°§C¦¨¥»¡A§Q¥Î jumper ³]©wºÏºÐ¡A¨Ï¨CÓ IDE ±±¨î¾¹¥i³s±µ
+ ¤@Ó¥DºÏºÐ¥[¤@ӰƺϺСA¦p¦¹¥i¤£¥²¥[¸ËÃB¥~ªº IDE ±±¨î¾¹¡C
-
- Installing the Hardware
-
- In addition to the IDE system disk, three Western
- Digital 30GB, 5400 RPM IDE disks form the core
- of the CCD disk described below providing approximately
- 90GB of online storage. Ideally,
- each IDE disk would have its own IDE controller
- and cable, but to minimize cost, additional
- IDE controllers were not used. Instead the disks were
- configured with jumpers so that each IDE controller has
- one master, and one slave.
-
- Upon reboot, the system BIOS was configured to
- automatically detect the disks attached. More importantly,
- FreeBSD detected them on reboot:
+ ¶}¾÷«á¡ABIOS À³¸Ó³]©w¦¨¦Û«°»´úºÏºÐ¡C§ó«nªº¬O FreeBSD À³¸Ó
+ n°»´ú¨ì¥¦Ì¡G
ad0: 19574MB <WDC WD205BA> [39770/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33
ad1: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata0-slave UDMA33
ad2: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-master UDMA33
ad3: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-slave UDMA33
- If FreeBSD does not detect all the disks, ensure
- that you have jumpered them correctly. Most IDE drives
- also have a Cable Select
jumper. This is
- not the jumper for the master/slave
- relationship. Consult the drive documentation for help in
- identifying the correct jumper.
-
- Next, consider how to attach them as part of the file
- system. You should research both &man.vinum.8; () and &man.ccd.4;. In this
- particular configuration, &man.ccd.4; was chosen.
+ ¦pªG FreeBSD ¨S¦³°»´ú¨ì©Ò¦³ºÏºÐ¡A½Ð½T»{ jumper ³£³]©w¥¿½T¡C
+ ³\¦h IDE ºÏºÐ¥i¥H³]©w¦¨ Cable Select
(®Ú¾Ú±Æ½u¦ì¸m¨M©w)¡A
+ ³o¨Ã«D master(¥DºÏºÐ) ©Î slave(°ÆºÏºÐ)¡C½Ð°Ñ¾\ºÏ
+ ºÐªº»¡©ú¤å¥ó¥H¥¿½T³]©w jumper¡C
+
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó¡A¦Ò¼{¦p¦ó±N¥¦ÌÅܦ¨Àɮרt²Îªº¤@³¡¥÷¡C±z¥i¥H°Ñ¦Ò
+ &man.vinum.8;() ¤Î &man.ccd.4¡C
+ ¦b¦¹§ÚÌ¿ï¾Ü &man.ccd.4; ¡C
Setting Up the CCD
The &man.ccd.4; driver allows you to take
several identical disks and concatenate them into one
logical file system. In order to use
&man.ccd.4;, you need a kernel with
&man.ccd.4; support built in.
Add this line to your kernel configuration file, rebuild, and
reinstall the kernel:
pseudo-device ccd 4
On 5.X systems, you have to use instead the following
line:
device ccd
In FreeBSD 5.X, it is not necessary to specify
a number of &man.ccd.4; devices, as the &man.ccd.4; device driver is now
self-cloning — new device instances will automatically be
created on demand.
The &man.ccd.4; support can also be
loaded as a kernel loadable module in FreeBSD 3.0 or
later.
To set up &man.ccd.4;, you must first use
&man.disklabel.8; to label the disks:
disklabel -r -w ad1 auto
disklabel -r -w ad2 auto
disklabel -r -w ad3 auto
This creates a disklabel for ad1c , ad2c and ad3c that
spans the entire disk.
Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8;
utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With
&man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters
have been retired; in the examples above the option
-r should be removed. For more
information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8;
manual page.
The next step is to change the disk label type. You
can use &man.disklabel.8; to edit the
disks:
disklabel -e ad1
disklabel -e ad2
disklabel -e ad3
This opens up the current disk label on each disk with
the editor specified by the EDITOR
environment variable, typically &man.vi.1;.
An unmodified disk label will look something like
this:
8 partitions:
# size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597)
Add a new e partition for &man.ccd.4; to use. This
can usually be copied from the c partition,
but the fstype must
be 4.2BSD . The disk label should
now look something like this:
8 partitions:
# size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg]
c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597)
e: 60074784 0 4.2BSD 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597)
Building the File System
The device node for
ccd0c may not exist yet, so to
create it, perform the following commands:
cd /dev
sh MAKEDEV ccd0
In FreeBSD 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically
manage device nodes in /dev , so use of
MAKEDEV is not necessary.
Now that you have all the disks labeled, you must
build the &man.ccd.4;. To do that,
use &man.ccdconfig.8;, with options similar to the following:
ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/ad1e /dev/ad2e /dev/ad3e
The use and meaning of each option is shown below:
The first argument is the device to configure, in this case,
/dev/ccd0c . The /dev/
portion is optional.
The interleave for the file system. The interleave
defines the size of a stripe in disk blocks, each normally 512 bytes.
So, an interleave of 32 would be 16,384 bytes.
Flags for &man.ccdconfig.8;. If you want to enable drive
mirroring, you can specify a flag here. This
configuration does not provide mirroring for
&man.ccd.4;, so it is set at 0 (zero).
The final arguments to &man.ccdconfig.8;
are the devices to place into the array. Use the complete pathname
for each device.
After running &man.ccdconfig.8; the &man.ccd.4;
is configured. A file system can be installed. Refer to &man.newfs.8;
for options, or simply run:
newfs /dev/ccd0c
Making it All Automatic
Generally, you will want to mount the
&man.ccd.4; upon each reboot. To do this, you must
configure it first. Write out your current configuration to
/etc/ccd.conf using the following command:
ccdconfig -g > /etc/ccd.conf
During reboot, the script /etc/rc
runs ccdconfig -C if /etc/ccd.conf
exists. This automatically configures the
&man.ccd.4; so it can be mounted.
If you are booting into single user mode, before you can
&man.mount.8; the &man.ccd.4;, you
need to issue the following command to configure the
array:
ccdconfig -C
To automatically mount the &man.ccd.4;,
place an entry for the &man.ccd.4; in
/etc/fstab so it will be mounted at
boot time:
/dev/ccd0c /media ufs rw 2 2
The Vinum Volume Manager
RAID software
RAID
Vinum
The Vinum Volume Manager is a block device driver which
implements virtual disk drives. It isolates disk hardware
from the block device interface and maps data in ways which
result in an increase in flexibility, performance and
reliability compared to the traditional slice view of disk
storage. &man.vinum.8; implements the RAID-0, RAID-1 and
RAID-5 models, both individually and in combination.
See for more
information about &man.vinum.8;.
Hardware RAID
RAID
hardware
FreeBSD also supports a variety of hardware RAID
controllers. These devices control a RAID subsystem
without the need for FreeBSD specific software to manage the
array.
Using an on-card BIOS , the card controls most of the disk operations
itself. The following is a brief setup description using a Promise IDE RAID
controller. When this card is installed and the system is started up, it
displays a prompt requesting information. Follow the instructions
to enter the card's setup screen. From here, you have the ability to
combine all the attached drives. After doing so, the disk(s) will look like
a single drive to FreeBSD. Other RAID levels can be set up
accordingly.
Rebuilding ATA RAID1 Arrays
FreeBSD allows you to hot-replace a failed disk in an array. This requires
that you catch it before you reboot.
You will probably see something like the following in /var/log/messages or in the &man.dmesg.8;
output:
ad6 on monster1 suffered a hard error.
ad6: READ command timeout tag=0 serv=0 - resetting
ad6: trying fallback to PIO mode
ata3: resetting devices .. done
ad6: hard error reading fsbn 1116119 of 0-7 (ad6 bn 1116119; cn 1107 tn 4 sn 11)\\
status=59 error=40
ar0: WARNING - mirror lost
Using &man.atacontrol.8;, check for further information:
&prompt.root; atacontrol list
ATA channel 0:
Master: no device present
Slave: acd0 <HL-DT-ST CD-ROM GCR-8520B/1.00> ATA/ATAPI rev 0
ATA channel 1:
Master: no device present
Slave: no device present
ATA channel 2:
Master: ad4 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5
Slave: no device present
ATA channel 3:
Master: ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5
Slave: no device present
&prompt.root; atacontrol status ar0
ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: DEGRADED
You will first need to detach the ata channel with the failed
disk so you can safely remove it:
&prompt.root; atacontrol detach ata3
Replace the disk.
Reattach the ata channel:
&prompt.root; atacontrol attach ata3
Master: ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5
Slave: no device present
Add the new disk to the array as a spare:
&prompt.root; atacontrol addspare ar0 ad6
Rebuild the array:
&prompt.root; atacontrol rebuild ar0
It is possible to check on the progress by issuing the
following command:
&prompt.root; dmesg | tail -10
[output removed]
ad6: removed from configuration
ad6: deleted from ar0 disk1
ad6: inserted into ar0 disk1 as spare
&prompt.root; atacontrol status ar0
ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: REBUILDING 0% completed
Wait until this operation completes.
Marc
Fonvieille
Contributed by
USB Storage Devices
USB
disks
A lot of external storage solutions, nowadays, use the
Universal Serial Bus (USB): hard drives, USB thumbdrives, CD-R
burners, etc. &os; provides support for these devices.
Configuration
The USB mass storage devices driver, &man.umass.4;,
provides the support for USB storage devices. If you use the
GENERIC kernel, you do not have to change
anything in your configuration. If you use a custom kernel,
be sure that the following lines are present in your kernel
configuration file:
device scbus
device da
device pass
device uhci
device ohci
device usb
device umass
The &man.umass.4; driver uses the SCSI subsystem to access
to the USB storage devices, your USB device will be seen as a
SCSI device by the system. Depending on the USB chipset on
your motherboard, you only need either device
uhci or device ohci , however
having both in the kernel configuration file is harmless. Do
not forget to compile and install the new kernel if you added
any lines.
If your USB device is a CD-R or DVD burner, the SCSI CD-ROM
driver, &man.cd.4;, must be added to the kernel via the
line:
device cd
Since the burner is seen as a SCSI drive, the driver
&man.atapicam.4; should not be used in the kernel
configuration.
Support for USB 2.0 controllers is provided on
&os; 5.X, and on the 4.X branch since &os; 4.10-RELEASE.
You have to add:
device ehci
to your configuration file for USB 2.0 support. Note
&man.uhci.4; and &man.ohci.4; drivers are still needed if you
want USB 1.X support.
On &os; 4.X, the USB daemon (&man.usbd.8;) must be
running to be able to see some USB devices. To enable it,
add usbd_enable="YES" to your
/etc/rc.conf file and reboot the
machine.
Testing the Configuration
The configuration is ready to be tested: plug in your USB
device, and in the system message buffer (&man.dmesg.8;), the
drive should appear as something like:
umass0: USB Solid state disk, rev 1.10/1.00, addr 2
GEOM: create disk da0 dp=0xc2d74850
da0 at umass-sim0 bus 0 target 0 lun 0
da0: <Generic Traveling Disk 1.11> Removable Direct Access SCSI-2 device
da0: 1.000MB/s transfers
da0: 126MB (258048 512 byte sectors: 64H 32S/T 126C)
Of course, the brand, the device node
(da0 ) and other details can differ
according to your configuration.
Since the USB device is seen as a SCSI one, the
camcontrol command can be used to list the
USB storage devices attached to the system:
&prompt.root; camcontrol devlist
<Generic Traveling Disk 1.11> at scbus0 target 0 lun 0 (da0,pass0)
If the drive comes with a file system, you should be able
to mount it. The will help you
to format and create partitions on the USB drive if
needed.
If you unplug the device (the disk must be unmounted
before), you should see, in the system message buffer,
something like the following:
umass0: at uhub0 port 1 (addr 2) disconnected
(da0:umass-sim0:0:0:0): lost device
(da0:umass-sim0:0:0:0): removing device entry
GEOM: destroy disk da0 dp=0xc2d74850
umass0: detached
Further Reading
Beside the Adding
Disks and Mounting and
Unmounting File Systems sections, reading various
manual pages may be also useful: &man.umass.4;,
&man.camcontrol.8;, and &man.usbdevs.8;.
Mike
Meyer
Contributed by
Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs)
CDROMs
creating
Introduction
CDs have a number of features that differentiate them from
conventional disks. Initially, they were not writable by the
user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without
delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier
to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the
time.
CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to
be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To
produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going
to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the
CD.
ISO 9660
file systems
ISO 9660
The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these
differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were
common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that
allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still
working with systems that do not support those extensions.
sysutils/cdrtools
The sysutils/cdrtools
port includes &man.mkisofs.8;, a program that you can use to
produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file
system. It has options that support various extensions, and is
described below.
CD burner
ATAPI
Which tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner
is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of
the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use
cdrecord from
the sysutils/cdrtools port.
burncd has a limited number of
supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see the
CD-R/RW supported
drives list.
CD burner
ATAPI/CAM driver
If you run &os; 5.X, &os; 4.8-RELEASE version or
higher, it will be possible to use cdrecord and other tools
for SCSI drives on an ATAPI hardware with the ATAPI/CAM module.
If you want a CD burning software with a graphical user
interface, you should have a look to
X-CD-Roast or
K3b . These tools are available as
packages or from the sysutils/xcdroast and sysutils/k3b ports.
X-CD-Roast and
K3b require the ATAPI/CAM module with ATAPI
hardware.
mkisofs
The &man.mkisofs.8; program, which is part of the
sysutils/cdrtools port,
produces an ISO 9660 file system
that is an image of a directory tree in the &unix; file system name
space. The simplest usage is:
&prompt.root; mkisofs -o imagefile.iso /path/to/tree
file systems
ISO 9660
This command will create an imagefile.iso
containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at
/path/to/tree . In the process, it will
map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the
standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have
names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems.
file systems
HFS
file systems
Joliet
A number of options are available to overcome those
restrictions. In particular, -R enables the
Rock Ridge extensions common to &unix; systems, -J
enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and
-hfs can be used to create HFS file systems used
by &macos;.
For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems,
-U can be used to disable all filename
restrictions. When used with -R , it produces a
file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started
from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of
ways.
CDROMs
creating bootable
The last option of general use is -b . This is
used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an
El Torito
bootable CD. This option takes an
argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the
tree being written to the CD. By default, &man.mkisofs.8; creates an
ISO image in the so-called floppy disk emulation
mode,
and thus expects the boot image to be exactly 1200, 1440 or
2880 KB in size. Some boot loaders, like the one used by the
FreeBSD distribution disks, do not use emulation mode; in this case,
the -no-emul-boot option should be used. So, if
/tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system
with the boot image in
/tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot , you could produce the
image of an ISO 9660 file system in
/tmp/bootable.iso like so:
&prompt.root; mkisofs -R -no-emul-boot -b boot/cdboot -o /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot
Having done that, if you have vn
(FreeBSD 4.X), or md
(FreeBSD 5.X)
configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with:
&prompt.root; vnconfig -e vn0c /tmp/bootable.iso
&prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt
for FreeBSD 4.X, and for FreeBSD 5.X:
&prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /tmp/bootable.iso -u 0
&prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt
At which point you can verify that /mnt
and /tmp/myboot are identical.
There are many other options you can use with
&man.mkisofs.8; to fine-tune its behavior. In particular:
modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joliet
and HFS discs. See the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for details.
burncd
CDROMs
burning
If you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the
burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a
CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed
as /usr/sbin/burncd . Usage is very simple, as
it has few options:
&prompt.root; burncd -f cddevice data imagefile.iso fixate
Will burn a copy of imagefile.iso on
cddevice . The default device is
/dev/acd0 (or /dev/acd0c under &os; 4.X). See &man.burncd.8; for options to
set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio
data.
cdrecord
If you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use
cdrecord to burn your
CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system;
you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrtools
or the appropriate
package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of
this program to fail, possibly resulting in a
coaster
. You should therefore either upgrade the
port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a
new version becomes available.
While cdrecord has many options, basic usage
is even simpler than burncd . Burning an ISO 9660
image is done with:
&prompt.root; cdrecord dev=device imagefile.iso
The tricky part of using cdrecord is finding
the dev to use. To find the proper setting, use
the -scanbus flag of cdrecord ,
which might produce results like this:
CDROMs
burning
&prompt.root; cdrecord -scanbus
Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling
Using libscg version 'schily-0.1'
scsibus0:
0,0,0 0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW ' '0004' Disk
0,1,0 1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W ' '5958' Disk
0,2,0 2) *
0,3,0 3) 'iomega ' 'jaz 1GB ' 'J.86' Removable Disk
0,4,0 4) 'NEC ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM
0,5,0 5) *
0,6,0 6) *
0,7,0 7) *
scsibus1:
1,0,0 100) *
1,1,0 101) *
1,2,0 102) *
1,3,0 103) *
1,4,0 104) *
1,5,0 105) 'YAMAHA ' 'CRW4260 ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM
1,6,0 106) 'ARTEC ' 'AM12S ' '1.06' Scanner
1,7,0 107) *
This lists the appropriate dev value for the
devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three
numbers separated by commas as the value for
dev . In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the
appropriate input would be
dev=1,5,0 . There are easier
ways to specify this value; see &man.cdrecord.1; for
details. That is also the place to look for information on writing
audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things.
Duplicating Audio CDs
You can duplicate an audio CD by extracting the audio data from
the CD to a series of files, and then writing these files to a blank
CD. The process is slightly different for ATAPI and SCSI
drives.
SCSI Drives
Use cdda2wav to extract the audio.
&prompt.user; cdda2wav -v255 -D2,0 -B -Owav
Use cdrecord to write the
.wav files.
&prompt.user; cdrecord -v dev=2,0 -dao -useinfo *.wav
Make sure that 2,0 is set
appropriately, as described in .
ATAPI Drives
The ATAPI CD driver makes each track available as
/dev/acdd tnn ,
where d is the drive number, and
nn is the track number written with two
decimal digits, prefixed with zero as needed.
So the first track on the first disk is
/dev/acd0t01 , the second is
/dev/acd0t02 , the third is
/dev/acd0t03 , and so on.
Make sure the appropriate files exist in
/dev . If the entries are missing,
force the system to retaste the media:
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0 of=/dev/null count=1
In &os; 4.X, the entries are not prefixed with
zero. If the necessary entries in /dev
are missing, use MAKEDEV to create
them:
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0t99
Extract each track using &man.dd.1;. You must also use a
specific block size when extracting the files.
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0t01 of=track1.cdr bs=2352
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0t02 of=track2.cdr bs=2352
...
Burn the extracted files to disk using
burncd . You must specify that these are audio
files, and that burncd should fixate the disk
when finished.
&prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd0 audio track1.cdr track2.cdr ... fixate
Duplicating Data CDs
You can copy a data CD to a image file that is
functionally equivalent to the image file created with
&man.mkisofs.8;, and you can use it to duplicate
any data CD. The example given here assumes that your CDROM
device is acd0 . Substitute your
correct CDROM device. Under &os; 4.X, a c must be appended
to the end of the device name to indicate the entire partition
or, in the case of CDROMs, the entire disc.
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0 of=file.iso bs=2048
Now that you have an image, you can burn it to CD as
described above.
Using Data CDs
Now that you have created a standard data CDROM, you
probably want to mount it and read the data on it. By
default, &man.mount.8; assumes that a file system is of type
ufs . If you try something like:
&prompt.root; mount /dev/cd0 /mnt
you will get a complaint about Incorrect super
block , and no mount. The CDROM is not a
UFS file system, so attempts to mount it
as such will fail. You just need to tell &man.mount.8; that
the file system is of type ISO9660 , and
everything will work. You do this by specifying the
-t cd9660 option &man.mount.8;. For
example, if you want to mount the CDROM device,
/dev/cd0 , under
/mnt , you would execute:
&prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0 /mnt
Note that your device name
(/dev/cd0 in this example) could be
different, depending on the interface your CDROM uses. Also,
the -t cd9660 option just executes
&man.mount.cd9660.8;. The above example could be shortened
to:
&prompt.root; mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0 /mnt
You can generally use data CDROMs from any vendor in this
way. Disks with certain ISO 9660 extensions might behave
oddly, however. For example, Joliet disks store all filenames
in two-byte Unicode characters. The FreeBSD kernel does not
speak Unicode (yet!), so non-English characters show up as
question marks. (If you are running FreeBSD 4.3 or later, the
CD9660 driver includes hooks to load an appropriate Unicode
conversion table on the fly. Modules for some of the common
encodings are available via the
sysutils/cd9660_unicode port.)
Occasionally, you might get Device not
configured when trying to mount a CDROM. This
usually means that the CDROM drive thinks that there is no
disk in the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus.
It can take a couple of seconds for a CDROM drive to realize
that it has been fed, so be patient.
Sometimes, a SCSI CDROM may be missed because it did not
have enough time to answer the bus reset. If you have a SCSI
CDROM please add the following option to your kernel
configuration and rebuild your kernel.
options SCSI_DELAY=15000
This tells your SCSI bus to pause 15 seconds during boot,
to give your CDROM drive every possible chance to answer the
bus reset.
Burning Raw Data CDs
You can choose to burn a file directly to CD, without
creating an ISO 9660 file system. Some people do this for
backup purposes. This runs more quickly than burning a
standard CD:
&prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd1 -s 12 data archive.tar.gz fixate
In order to retrieve the data burned to such a CD, you
must read data from the raw device node:
&prompt.root; tar xzvf /dev/acd1
You cannot mount this disk as you would a normal CDROM.
Such a CDROM cannot be read under any operating system
except FreeBSD. If you want to be able to mount the CD, or
share data with another operating system, you must use
&man.mkisofs.8; as described above.
Marc
Fonvieille
Contributed by
CD burner
ATAPI/CAM driver
Using the ATAPI/CAM Driver
This driver allows ATAPI devices (CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD
drives etc...) to be accessed through the SCSI subsystem, and
so allows the use of applications like sysutils/cdrdao or
&man.cdrecord.1;.
To use this driver, you will need to add the following
line to your kernel configuration file:
device atapicam
You also need the following lines in your kernel
configuration file:
device ata
device scbus
device cd
device pass
which should already be present.
Then rebuild, install your new kernel, and reboot your
machine. During the boot process, your burner should show up,
like so:
acd0: CD-RW <MATSHITA CD-RW/DVD-ROM UJDA740> at ata1-master PIO4
cd0 at ata1 bus 0 target 0 lun 0
cd0: <MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> Removable CD-ROM SCSI-0 device
cd0: 16.000MB/s transfers
cd0: Attempt to query device size failed: NOT READY, Medium not present - tray closed
The drive could now be accessed via the
/dev/cd0 device name, for example to
mount a CD-ROM on /mnt , just type the
following:
&prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0 /mnt
As root , you can run the following
command to get the SCSI address of the burner:
&prompt.root; camcontrol devlist
<MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> at scbus1 target 0 lun 0 (pass0,cd0)
So 1,0,0 will be the SCSI address to
use with &man.cdrecord.1; and other SCSI application.
For more information about ATAPI/CAM and SCSI system,
refer to the &man.atapicam.4; and &man.cam.4; manual
pages.
Marc
Fonvieille
Contributed by
Andy
Polyakov
With inputs from
Creating and Using Optical Media (DVDs)
DVD
burning
Introduction
Compared to the CD, the DVD is the next generation of
optical media storage technology. The DVD can hold more data
than any CD and is nowadays the standard for video
publishing.
Five physical recordable formats can be defined for what
we will call a recordable DVD:
DVD-R: This was the first DVD recordable format
available. The DVD-R standard is defined by the DVD Forum .
This format is write once.
DVD-RW: This is the rewriteable version of
the DVD-R standard. A DVD-RW can be rewritten about 1000
times.
DVD-RAM: This is also a rewriteable format
supported by the DVD Forum. A DVD-RAM can be seen as a
removable hard drive. However, this media is not
compatible with most DVD-ROM drives and DVD-Video players;
only a few DVD writers support the DVD-RAM format.
DVD+RW: This is a rewriteable format defined by
the DVD+RW
Alliance . A DVD+RW can be rewritten about 1000
times.
DVD+R: This format is the write once variation
of the DVD+RW format.
A single layer recordable DVD can hold up to
4,700,000,000 bytes which is actually 4.38 GB or
4485 MB (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes).
A distinction must be made between the physical media and
the application. For example, a DVD-Video is a specific
file layout that can be written on any recordable DVD
physical media: DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW etc. Before choosing
the type of media, you must be sure that both the burner and the
DVD-Video player (a standalone player or a DVD-ROM drive on
a computer) are compatible with the media under consideration.
Configuration
The program &man.growisofs.1; will be used to perform DVD
recording. This command is part of the
dvd+rw-tools utilities (sysutils/dvd+rw-tools ). The
dvd+rw-tools support all DVD media
types.
These tools use the SCSI subsystem to access to the
devices, therefore the ATAPI/CAM
support must be added to your kernel. If your burner
uses the USB interface this addition is useless, and you should
read the for more details on USB
devices configuration.
You also have to enable DMA access for ATAPI devices, this
can be done in adding the following line to the
/boot/loader.conf file:
hw.ata.atapi_dma="1"
Before attempting to use the
dvd+rw-tools you should consult the
dvd+rw-tools'
hardware compatibility notes for any information
related to your DVD burner.
If you want a graphical user interface, you should have
a look to K3b (sysutils/k3b ) which provides a
user friendly interface to &man.growisofs.1; and many others
burning tools.
Burning Data DVDs
The &man.growisofs.1; command is a frontend to mkisofs, it will invoke
&man.mkisofs.8; to create the file system layout and will
perform the write on the DVD. This means you do not need to
create an image of the data before the burning process.
To burn onto a DVD+R or a DVD-R the data from the /path/to/data directory, use the
following command:
&prompt.root; growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/data
The options -J -R are passed to
&man.mkisofs.8; for the file system creation (in this case: an
ISO 9660 file system with Joliet and Rock Ridge extensions),
consult the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for more
details.
The option -Z is used for the initial
session recording in any case: multiple sessions or not. The
DVD device, /dev/cd0 , must be
changed according to your configuration. The
-dvd-compat parameter will close the disk,
the recording will be unappendable. In return this should provide better
media compatibility with DVD-ROM drives.
It is also possible to burn a pre-mastered image, for
example to burn the image
imagefile.iso , we will run:
&prompt.root; growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/cd0 =imagefile.iso
The write speed should be detected and automatically set
according to the media and the drive being used. If you want
to force the write speed, use the -speed=
parameter. For more information, read the &man.growisofs.1;
manual page.
DVD
DVD-Video
Burning a DVD-Video
A DVD-Video is a specific file layout based on ISO 9660
and the micro-UDF (M-UDF) specifications. The DVD-Video also
presents a specific data structure hierarchy, it is the reason
why you need a particular program such as multimedia/dvdauthor to author the
DVD.
If you already have an image of the DVD-Video file system,
just burn it in the same way as for any image, see the
previous section for an example. If you have made the DVD
authoring and the result is in, for example, the directory
/path/to/video , the
following command should be used to burn the DVD-Video:
&prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 -dvd-video /path/to/video
The -dvd-video option will be passed down to
&man.mkisofs.8; and will instruct it to create a DVD-Video file system
layout. Beside this, the -dvd-video option
implies -dvd-compat &man.growisofs.1;
option.
DVD
DVD+RW
Using a DVD+RW
Unlike CD-RW, a virgin DVD+RW needs to be formatted before
first use. The &man.growisofs.1; program will take care of it
automatically whenever appropriate, which is the
recommended way. However you can use the
dvd+rw-format command to format the
DVD+RW:
&prompt.root; dvd+rw-format /dev/cd0
You need to perform this operation just once, keep in mind
that only virgin DVD+RW medias need to be formatted. Then you
can burn the DVD+RW in the way seen in previous
sections.
If you want to burn new data (burn a totally new file
system not append some data) onto a DVD+RW, you do not need to
blank it, you just have to write over the previous recording
(in performing a new initial session), like this:
&prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/newdata
DVD+RW format offers the possibility to easily append data
to a previous recording. The operation consists in merging a
new session to the existing one, it is not multisession
writing, &man.growisofs.1; will grow the
ISO 9660 file system present on the media.
For example, if we want to append data to our previous
DVD+RW, we have to use the following:
&prompt.root; growisofs -M /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/nextdata
The same &man.mkisofs.8; options we used to burn the
initial session should be used during next writes.
You may want to use the -dvd-compat
option if you want better media compatibility with DVD-ROM
drives. In the DVD+RW case, this will not prevent you from
adding data.
If for any reason you really want to blank the media, do
the following:
&prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 =/dev/zero
DVD
DVD-RW
Using a DVD-RW
A DVD-RW accepts two disc formats: the incremental
sequential one and the restricted overwrite. By default
DVD-RW discs are in sequential format.
A virgin DVD-RW can be directly written without the need
of a formatting operation, however a non-virgin DVD-RW in
sequential format needs to be blanked before to be able to
write a new initial session.
To blank a DVD-RW in sequential mode, run:
&prompt.root; dvd+rw-format -blank=full /dev/cd0
A full blanking (-blank=full ) will take
about one hour on a 1x media. A fast blanking can be
performed using the -blank option if the
DVD-RW will be recorded in Disk-At-Once (DAO) mode. To burn
the DVD-RW in DAO mode, use the command:
&prompt.root; growisofs -use-the-force-luke=dao -Z /dev/cd0 =imagefile.iso
The -use-the-force-luke=dao option
should not be required since &man.growisofs.1; attempts to
detect minimally (fast blanked) media and engage DAO
write.
In fact one should use restricted overwrite mode with
any DVD-RW, this format is more flexible than the default
incremental sequential one.
To write data on a sequential DVD-RW, use the same
instructions as for the other DVD formats:
&prompt.root; growisofs -Z /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/data
If you want to append some data to your previous
recording, you will have to use the &man.growisofs.1;
-M option. However, if you perform data
addition on a DVD-RW in incremental sequential mode, a new
session will be created on the disc and the result will be a
multi-session disc.
A DVD-RW in restricted overwrite format does not need to
be blanked before a new initial session, you just have to
overwrite the disc with the -Z option, this
is similar to the DVD+RW case. It is also possible to grow an
existing ISO 9660 file system written on the disc in a same
way as for a DVD+RW with the -M option. The
result will be a one-session DVD.
To put a DVD-RW in the restricted overwrite format, the
following command must be used:
&prompt.root; dvd+rw-format /dev/cd0
To change back to the sequential format use:
&prompt.root; dvd+rw-format -blank=full /dev/cd0
Multisession
Very few DVD-ROM drives support
multisession DVDs, they will most of time, hopefully, only read
the first session. DVD+R, DVD-R and DVD-RW in sequential
format can accept multiple sessions, the notion of multiple
sessions does not exist for the DVD+RW and the DVD-RW
restricted overwrite formats.
Using the following command after an initial (non-closed)
session on a DVD+R, DVD-R, or DVD-RW in sequential format,
will add a new session to the disc:
&prompt.root; growisofs -M /dev/cd0 -J -R /path/to/nextdata
Using this command line with a DVD+RW or a DVD-RW in restricted
overwrite mode, will append data in merging the new session to
the existing one. The result will be a single-session disc.
This is the way used to add data after an initial write on these
medias.
Some space on the media is used between each session for
end and start of sessions. Therefore, one should add
sessions with large amount of data to optimize media space.
The number of sessions is limited to 154 for a DVD+R,
about 2000 for a DVD-R, and 127 for a DVD+R Double
Layer.
For More Information
To obtain more information about a DVD, the
dvd+rw-mediainfo
/dev/cd0 command can be
ran with the disc in the drive.
More information about the
dvd+rw-tools can be found in
the &man.growisofs.1; manual page, on the dvd+rw-tools
web site and in the cdwrite mailing
list archives.
The dvd+rw-mediainfo output of the
resulting recording or the media with issues is mandatory
for any problem report. Without this output, it will be
quite impossible to help you.
Julio
Merino
Original work by
Martin
Karlsson
Rewritten by
Creating and Using Floppy Disks
Storing data on floppy disks is sometimes useful, for
example when one does not have any other removable storage media
or when one needs to transfer small amounts of data to another
computer.
This section will explain how to use floppy disks in
FreeBSD. It will primarily cover formatting and usage of
3.5inch DOS floppies, but the concepts are similar for other
floppy disk formats.
Formatting Floppies
The Device
Floppy disks are accessed through entries in
/dev , just like other devices. To
access the raw floppy disk in 4.X and earlier releases, one
uses
/dev/fdN ,
where N stands for the drive
number, usually 0, or
/dev/fdNX ,
where X stands for a
letter.
In 5.0 or newer releases, simply use
/dev/fdN .
The Disk Size in 4.X and Earlier Releases
There are also /dev/fdN .size
devices, where size is a floppy disk
size in kilobytes. These entries are used at low-level format
time to determine the disk size. 1440kB is the size that will be
used in the following examples.
Sometimes the entries under /dev will
have to be (re)created. To do that, issue:
&prompt.root; cd /dev && ./MAKEDEV "fd*"
The Disk Size in 5.0 and Newer Releases
In 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically
manage device nodes in /dev , so use of
MAKEDEV is not necessary.
The desired disk size is passed to &man.fdformat.1; through
the -f flag. Supported sizes are listed in
&man.fdcontrol.8;, but be advised that 1440kB is what works best.
Formatting
A floppy disk needs to be low-level formated before it
can be used. This is usually done by the vendor, but
formatting is a good way to check media integrity. Although
it is possible to force larger (or smaller) disk sizes,
1440kB is what most floppy disks are designed for.
To low-level format the floppy disk you need to use
&man.fdformat.1;. This utility expects the device name as an
argument.
Make note of any error messages, as these can help
determine if the disk is good or bad.
Formatting in 4.X and Earlier Releases
Use the
/dev/fdN .size
devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy
disk in your drive and issue:
&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat /dev/fd0.1440
Formatting in 5.0 and Newer Releases
Use the
/dev/fdN
devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy
disk in your drive and issue:
&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat -f 1440 /dev/fd0
The Disk Label
After low-level formatting the disk, you will need to
place a disk label on it. This disk label will be destroyed
later, but it is needed by the system to determine the size of
the disk and its geometry later.
The new disk label will take over the whole disk, and will
contain all the proper information about the geometry of the
floppy. The geometry values for the disk label are listed in
/etc/disktab .
You can run now &man.disklabel.8; like so:
&prompt.root; /sbin/disklabel -B -r -w /dev/fd0 fd1440
Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8;
utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With
&man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters
have been retired; in the example above the option
-r should be removed. For more
information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8;
manual page.
The File System
Now the floppy is ready to be high-level formated. This
will place a new file system on it, which will let FreeBSD read
and write to the disk. After creating the new file system, the
disk label is destroyed, so if you want to reformat the disk, you
will have to recreate the disk label.
The floppy's file system can be either UFS or FAT.
FAT is generally a better choice for floppies.
To put a new file system on the floppy, issue:
&prompt.root; /sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0
The disk is now ready for use.
Using the Floppy
To use the floppy, mount it with &man.mount.msdos.8; (in
4.X and earlier releases) or &man.mount.msdosfs.8; (in 5.0 or
newer releases). One can also use
emulators/mtools from the ports
collection.
Creating and Using Data Tapes
tape media
The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and
DLT.
4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage)
tape media
DDS (4mm) tapes
tape media
QIC tapes
4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of
choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive,
a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of
QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the
reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The
cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51
x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short
head life for the same reason, both use helical scan.
Data throughput on these drives starts ~150 kB/s, peaking at ~500 kB/s.
Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware
compression, available with most of these drives, approximately
doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6
drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library
capacities reach 240 GB.
The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12 GB (or
24 GB compressed).
4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits
and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives.
Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full
backups.
8mm (Exabyte)
tape media
Exabyte (8mm) tapes
8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best
choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an Exabyte 2 GB 8mm
tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges
are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm).
One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to
the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads.
Data throughput ranges from ~250 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data sizes start
at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with
most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These
drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries
with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed
automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB.
The Exabyte Mammoth
model supports 12 GB on one tape
(24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as
conventional tape drives.
Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are
positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The
tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The
spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a
high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the
tape from one edge to the other.
QIC
tape media
QIC-150
QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive
and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive serious
backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are
expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB
data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen
tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the
most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC
drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a
large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical)
tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before
they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading,
writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 152 x
102 x 17 mm).
Data throughput ranges from ~150 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data capacity
ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many
of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed;
they are being supplanted by DAT drives.
Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along
the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number
of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's
capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility
at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good
reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler
and more robust than for helical scan drives).
Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups.
DLT
tape media
DLT
DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types
listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool
cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a
swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive
mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader
has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to hook
the tape. The
take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape
cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have
both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge
itself.
Data throughput is approximately 1.5 MB/s, three times the throughput of
4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10 GB to 20 GB
for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers
and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900
tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50 GB to 9 TB of
storage.
With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70 GB
capacity.
Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction
of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once.
Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops
moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the
tape.
AIT
tape media
AIT
AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50 GB (with
compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an
index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the
tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of
the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software
such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries,
communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the
contents on screen, determine what files were backed up to which
tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the
tape.
Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a
little out of the hobbyist market.
Using a New Tape for the First Time
The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely
blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be
similar to:
sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1
sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready
The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0).
All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an
Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions:
mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an
Identifier Block to the tape.
Use the front panel button to eject the tape.
Re-insert the tape and dump data to
the tape.
dump will report DUMP: End of tape
detected and the console will show: HARDWARE
FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96 .
rewind the tape using: mt rewind .
Subsequent tape operations are successful.
Backups to Floppies
Can I Use Floppies for Backing Up My Data?
backup floppies
floppy disks
Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for
making backups as:
The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of
time.
Backing up and restoring is very slow.
They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up
an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since
passed).
However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then
floppy disks are better than no backup at all.
If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good
quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a
couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a
reputable manufacturer.
So How Do I Backup My Data to Floppies?
The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use
&man.tar.1; with the -M (multi
volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple
floppies.
To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory
use this (as root ):
&prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/fd0 *
When the first floppy is full &man.tar.1; will prompt you to
insert the next volume (because &man.tar.1; is media independent it
refers to volumes; in this context it means floppy disk).
Prepare volume #2 for /dev/fd0 and hit return:
This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all
the specified files have been archived.
Can I Compress My Backups?
tar
gzip
compression
Unfortunately, &man.tar.1; will not allow the
-z option to be used for multi-volume archives.
You could, of course, &man.gzip.1; all the files,
&man.tar.1; them to the floppies, then
&man.gunzip.1; the files again!
How Do I Restore My Backups?
To restore the entire archive use:
&prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0
There are two ways that you can use to restore only
specific files. First, you can start with the first floppy
and use:
&prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 filename
The utility &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it
finds the required file.
Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you
can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note
that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the
previous one then &man.tar.1; will warn you that it cannot
restore it, even if you have not asked it to!
Lowell
Gilbert
Original work by
Backup Strategies
The first requirement in devising a backup plan is to make sure that
all of the following problems are covered:
Disk failure
Accidental file deletion
Random file corruption
Complete machine destruction (e.g. fire), including destruction
of any on-site backups.
It is perfectly possible that some systems will be best served by
having each of these problems covered by a completely different
technique. Except for strictly personal systems with very low-value
data, it is unlikely that one technique would cover all of them.
Some of the techniques in the toolbox are:
Archives of the whole system, backed up onto permanent media
offsite. This actually provides protection against all of the
possible problems listed above, but is slow and inconvenient to
restore from. You can keep copies of the backups onsite and/or
online, but there will still be inconveniences in restoring files,
especially for non-privileged users.
Filesystem snapshots. This is really only helpful in the
accidental file deletion scenario, but it can be
very helpful in that case, and is quick and
easy to deal with.
Copies of whole filesystems and/or disks (e.g. periodic rsync of
the whole machine). This is generally most useful in networks with
unique requirements. For general protection against disk failure,
it is usually inferior to RAID . For restoring
accidentally deleted files, it can be comparable to
UFS snapshots, but that depends on your
preferences.
RAID . Minimizes or avoids downtime when a
disk fails. At the expense of having to deal with disk failures
more often (because you have more disks), albeit at a much lower
urgency.
Checking fingerprints of files. The &man.mtree.8; utility is
very useful for this. Although it is not a backup technique, it
helps guarantee that you will notice when you need to resort to your
backups. This is particularly important for offline backups, and
should be checked periodically.
It is quite easy to come up with even more techniques, many of them
variations on the ones listed above. Specialized requirements will
usually lead to specialized techniques (for example, backing up a live
database usually requires a method particular to the database software
as an intermediate step). The important thing is to know what dangers
you want to protect against, and how you will handle each.
Backup Basics
The three major backup programs are
&man.dump.8;,
&man.tar.1;,
and
&man.cpio.1;.
Dump and Restore
backup software
dump / restore
dump
restore
The traditional &unix; backup programs are
dump and restore . They
operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the
abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by
the file systems. dump backs up an entire
file system on a device. It is unable to backup only part of a
file system or a directory tree that spans more than one
file system. dump does not write files and
directories to tape, but rather writes the raw data blocks that
comprise files and directories.
If you use dump on your root directory, you
would not back up /home ,
/usr or many other directories since
these are typically mount points for other file systems or
symbolic links into those file systems.
dump has quirks that remain from its early days in
Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). The default
parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the
high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These
defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the
capacity of current tape drives.
.rhosts
It is also possible to backup data across the network to a
tape drive attached to another computer with rdump and
rrestore . Both programs rely upon &man.rcmd.3; and
&man.ruserok.3; to access the remote tape drive. Therefore,
the user performing the backup must be listed in the
.rhosts file on the remote computer. The
arguments to rdump and rrestore must be suitable
to use on the remote computer. When
rdump ing from a FreeBSD computer to an
Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called
komodo , use:
&prompt.root; /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nsa8 /dev/da0a 2>&1
Beware: there are security implications to
allowing .rhosts authentication. Evaluate your
situation carefully.
It is also possible to use dump and
restore in a more secure fashion over
ssh .
Using dump over ssh
&prompt.root; /sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh -c blowfish \
targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz
Or using dump 's built-in method,
setting the environment variable RSH :
Using dump over ssh with RSH set
&prompt.root; RSH=/usr/bin/ssh /sbin/dump -0uan -f targetuser@targetmachine.example.com:/dev/sa0 /usr
tar
backup software
tar
&man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T UNIX
(circa 1975). tar operates in cooperation
with the file system; it writes files and
directories to tape. tar does not support the
full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but
it does not require the unusual command
pipeline that cpio uses.
tar
On FreeBSD 5.3 and later, both GNU tar
and the default bsdtar are available. The
GNU version can be invoked with gtar . It
supports remote devices using the same syntax as
rdump . To tar to an
Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called
komodo , use:
&prompt.root; /usr/bin/gtar cf komodo:/dev/nsa8 . 2>&1
The same could be accomplished with
bsdtar by using a pipeline and
rsh to send the data to a remote tape
drive.
&prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b
If you are worried about the security of backing up over a
network you should use the ssh command
instead of rsh .
cpio
backup software
cpio
&man.cpio.1; is the original &unix; file interchange tape
program for magnetic media. cpio has options
(among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of
different archive formats, and pipe the data to other programs.
This last feature makes cpio an excellent
choice for installation media. cpio does not
know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be
provided through stdin .
cpio
cpio does not support backups across
the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh
to send the data to a remote tape drive.
&prompt.root; for f in directory_list; do
find $f >> backup.list
done
&prompt.root; cpio -v -o --format=newc < backup.list | ssh user @host "cat > backup_device "
Where directory_list is the list of
directories you want to back up,
user @host is the
user/hostname combination that will be performing the backups, and
backup_device is where the backups should
be written to (e.g., /dev/nsa0 ).
pax
backup software
pax
pax
POSIX
IEEE
&man.pax.1; is IEEE/&posix;'s answer to
tar and cpio . Over the
years the various versions of tar and
cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So
rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, &posix;
created a new archive utility. pax attempts
to read and write many of the various cpio
and tar formats, plus new formats of its own.
Its command set more resembles cpio than
tar .
Amanda
backup software
Amanda
Amanda
Amanda (Advanced Maryland
Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system,
rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to
a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda
clients and a network connection to the Amanda server. A
common problem at sites with a number of large disks is
that the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape
exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda
solves this problem. Amanda can use a holding disk
to
backup several file systems at the same time. Amanda creates
archive sets
: a group of tapes used over a period of time to
create full backups of all the file systems listed in Amanda 's
configuration file. The archive set
also contains nightly
incremental (or differential) backups of all the file systems.
Restoring a damaged file system requires the most recent full
backup and the incremental backups.
The configuration file provides fine control of backups and the
network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the
above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available
as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default.
Do Nothing
Do nothing
is not a computer program, but it is the
most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There
is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens
to your data, grin and bear it!
If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then
Do nothing
is the most suitable backup program for your
computer. But beware, &unix; is a useful tool, you may find that within
six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to
you.
Do nothing
is the correct backup method for
/usr/obj and other directory trees that can be
exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that
comprise the HTML or &postscript; version of this Handbook.
These document formats have been created from SGML input
files. Creating backups of the HTML or &postscript; files is
not necessary. The SGML files are backed up regularly.
Which Backup Program Is Best?
LISA
&man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky
torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear
choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of &unix;
file systems is dump . Elizabeth created file systems containing
a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones)
and tested each program by doing a backup and restore of those
file systems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with
holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their
names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change
size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the
backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991.
See torture-testing
Backup and Archive Programs .
Emergency Restore Procedure
Before the Disaster
There are only four steps that you need to perform in
preparation for any disaster that may occur.
disklabel
First, print the disklabel from each of your disks
(e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr ), your file system table
(/etc/fstab ) and all boot messages,
two copies of
each.
fix-it floppies
Second, determine that the boot and fix-it floppies
(boot.flp and fixit.flp )
have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your
machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot
messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to
step three.
Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable
floppies which have a kernel that can mount all of your disks
and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain:
fdisk , disklabel ,
newfs , mount , and
whichever backup program you use. These programs must be
statically linked. If you use dump , the
floppy must contain restore .
Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make
after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the
backup tapes.
Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp
and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable
floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the
procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the
printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when
restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup
tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/sa0 , you
might accidentally type tar cvf /dev/sa0 and
over-write your backup tape).
For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two
backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A
remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A
number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the
hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from
your computers and disk drives by a significant distance.
A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy
After the Disaster
The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been
doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the
software.
If the hardware has been damaged, the parts should be replaced
before attempting to use the computer.
If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using
a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s
at the boot: prompt). Skip the following
paragraph.
If you are using the boot.flp and
fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the
boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and
boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on
the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or
floppy. option. Insert the
fixit.flp when prompted.
restore and the other programs that you need are
located in /mnt2/rescue
(/mnt2/stand for
&os; versions older than 5.2).
Recover each file system separately.
mount
root partition
disklabel
newfs
Try to mount (e.g. mount /dev/da0a
/mnt ) the root partition of your first disk. If the
disklabel was damaged, use disklabel to re-partition and
label the disk to match the label that you printed and saved. Use
newfs to re-create the file systems. Re-mount the root
partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw
/mnt ). Use your backup program and backup tapes to
recover the data for this file system (e.g. restore vrf
/dev/sa0 ). Unmount the file system (e.g. umount
/mnt ). Repeat for each file system that was
damaged.
Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes.
Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. Another
hour spent now may save you from further distress later.
* I Did Not Prepare for the Disaster, What Now?
]]>
Marc
Fonvieille
Reorganized and enhanced by
Network, Memory, and File-Backed File Systems
virtual disks
disks
virtual
Aside from the disks you physically insert into your computer:
floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks
are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual
disks .
NFS
Coda
disks
memory
These include network file systems such as the Network File System and Coda, memory-based
file systems and
file-backed file systems.
According to the FreeBSD version you run, you will have to use
different tools for creation and use of file-backed and
memory-based file systems.
The FreeBSD 4.X users will have to use &man.MAKEDEV.8;
to create the required devices. FreeBSD 5.0 and later use
&man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently for the
user.
File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 4.X
disks
file-backed (4.X)
The utility &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk
devices. A vnode is a representation
of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that
&man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a
file system. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD
images kept in files.
To use &man.vnconfig.8;, you need &man.vn.4; support in your
kernel configuration file:
pseudo-device vn
To mount an existing file system image:
Using vnconfig to Mount an Existing File System
Image under FreeBSD 4.X
&prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0 c /mnt
To create a new file system image with &man.vnconfig.8;:
Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5 k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage
&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto
&prompt.root; newfs vn0 c
Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated
/dev/vn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors
5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g)
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
32
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0 c /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt
File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 5.X
disks
file-backed (5.X)
The utility &man.mdconfig.8; is used to configure and enable
memory disks, &man.md.4;, under FreeBSD 5.X. To use
&man.mdconfig.8;, you have to load &man.md.4; module or to add
the support in your kernel configuration file:
device md
The &man.mdconfig.8; command supports three kinds of
memory backed virtual disks: memory disks allocated with
&man.malloc.9;, memory disks using a file or swap space as
backing. One possible use is the mounting of floppy
or CD images kept in files.
To mount an existing file system image:
Using mdconfig to Mount an Existing File System
Image under FreeBSD 5.X
&prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f diskimage -u 0
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md0 /mnt
To create a new file system image with &man.mdconfig.8;:
Creating a New File-Backed Disk with mdconfig
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5 k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f newimage -u 0
&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w md0 auto
&prompt.root; newfs md0 c
/dev/md0c: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048
using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes.
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
32, 2624, 5216, 7808
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md0 c /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md0c 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt
If you do not specify the unit number with the
-u option, &man.mdconfig.8; will use the
&man.md.4; automatic allocation to select an unused device.
The name of the allocated unit will be output on stdout like
md4 . For more details about
&man.mdconfig.8;, please refer to the manual page.
Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8;
utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With
&man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters
have been retired; in the example above the option
-r should be removed. For more
information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8;
manual page.
The utility &man.mdconfig.8; is very useful, however it
asks many command lines to create a file-backed file system.
FreeBSD 5.0 also comes with a tool called &man.mdmfs.8;,
this program configures a &man.md.4; disk using
&man.mdconfig.8;, puts a UFS file system on it using
&man.newfs.8;, and mounts it using &man.mount.8;. For example,
if you want to create and mount the same file system image as
above, simply type the following:
Configure and Mount a File-Backed Disk with mdmfs
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5 k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; mdmfs -F newimage -s 5 m md0 /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md0 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt
If you use the option md without unit
number, &man.mdmfs.8; will use &man.md.4; auto-unit feature to
automatically select an unused device. For more details
about &man.mdmfs.8;, please refer to the manual page.
Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 4.X
disks
memory file system (4.X)
The &man.md.4; driver is a simple, efficient means to create memory
file systems under FreeBSD 4.X. &man.malloc.9; is used
to allocate the memory.
Simply take a file system you have prepared with, for
example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and:
md Memory Disk under FreeBSD 4.X
&prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt
For more details, please refer to &man.md.4; manual
page.
Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 5.X
disks
memory file system (5.X)
The same tools are used for memory-based and file-backed
file systems: &man.mdconfig.8; or &man.mdmfs.8;. The storage
for memory-based file system is allocated with
&man.malloc.9;.
Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with
mdconfig
&prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t malloc -s 5 m -u 1
&prompt.root; newfs -U md1
/dev/md1: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048
using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes.
with soft updates
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
32, 2624, 5216, 7808
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md1 /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md1 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt
Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with
mdmfs
&prompt.root; mdmfs -M -s 5 m md2 /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md2 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt
Instead of using a &man.malloc.9; backed file system, it is
possible to use swap, for that just replace
malloc with swap in the
command line of &man.mdconfig.8;. The &man.mdmfs.8; utility
by default (without -M ) creates a swap-based
disk. For more details, please refer to &man.mdconfig.8;
and &man.mdmfs.8; manual pages.
Detaching a Memory Disk from the System
disks
detaching a memory disk
When a memory-based or file-based file system
is not used, you should release all resources to the system.
The first thing to do is to unmount the file system, then use
&man.mdconfig.8; to detach the disk from the system and release
the resources.
For example to detach and free all resources used by
/dev/md4 :
&prompt.root; mdconfig -d -u 4
It is possible to list information about configured
&man.md.4; devices in using the command mdconfig
-l .
For FreeBSD 4.X, &man.vnconfig.8; is used to detach
the device. For example to detach and free all resources
used by /dev/vn4 :
&prompt.root; vnconfig -u vn4
Tom
Rhodes
Contributed by
File System Snapshots
file systems
snapshots
FreeBSD 5.0 offers a new feature in conjunction with
Soft Updates: File system snapshots.
Snapshots allow a user to create images of specified file
systems, and treat them as a file.
Snapshot files must be created in the file system that the
action is performed on, and a user may create no more than 20
snapshots per file system. Active snapshots are recorded
in the superblock so they are persistent across unmount and
remount operations along with system reboots. When a snapshot
is no longer required, it can be removed with the standard &man.rm.1;
command. Snapshots may be removed in any order,
however all the used space may not be acquired because another snapshot will
possibly claim some of the released blocks.
The un-alterable snapshot file flag is set
by &man.mksnap.ffs.8; after initial creation of a snapshot file.
The &man.unlink.1; command makes an exception for snapshot files
since it allows them to be removed.
Snapshots are created with the &man.mount.8; command. To place
a snapshot of /var in the file
/var/snapshot/snap use the following
command:
&prompt.root; mount -u -o snapshot /var/snapshot/snap /var
Alternatively, you can use &man.mksnap.ffs.8; to create
a snapshot:
&prompt.root; mksnap_ffs /var /var/snapshot/snap
One can find snapshot files on a file system (e.g. /var )
by using the &man.find.1; command:
&prompt.root; find /var -flags snapshot
Once a snapshot has been created, it has several
uses:
Some administrators will use a snapshot file for backup purposes,
because the snapshot can be transfered to CDs or tape.
File integrity, &man.fsck.8; may be ran on the snapshot.
Assuming that the file system was clean when it was mounted, you
should always get a clean (and unchanging) result.
This is essentially what the
background &man.fsck.8; process does.
Run the &man.dump.8; utility on the snapshot.
A dump will be returned that is consistent with the
file system and the timestamp of the snapshot. &man.dump.8;
can also take a snapshot, create a dump image and then
remove the snapshot in one command using the
-L flag.
&man.mount.8; the snapshot as a frozen image of the file system.
To &man.mount.8; the snapshot
/var/snapshot/snap run:
&prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /var/snapshot/snap -u 4
&prompt.root; mount -r /dev/md4 /mnt
You can now walk the hierarchy of your frozen /var
file system mounted at /mnt . Everything will
initially be in the same state it was during the snapshot creation time.
The only exception is that any earlier snapshots will appear
as zero length files. When the use of a snapshot has delimited,
it can be unmounted with:
&prompt.root; umount /mnt
&prompt.root; mdconfig -d -u 4
For more information about softupdates and
file system snapshots, including technical papers, you can visit
Marshall Kirk McKusick's website at
.
File System Quotas
accounting
disk space
disk quotas
Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that
allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of
files a user or members of a group may allocate on a per-file
system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where
it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or
group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user or group
of users from consuming all of the available disk space.
Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas
Before attempting to use disk quotas, it is necessary to make
sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by
adding the following line to your kernel configuration
file:
options QUOTA
The stock GENERIC kernel does not have
this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and
install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer
to for more information on kernel
configuration.
Next you will need to enable disk quotas in
/etc/rc.conf . This is done by adding the
line:
enable_quotas="YES"
disk quotas
checking
For finer control over your quota startup, there is an
additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup,
the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the
&man.quotacheck.8; program. The
&man.quotacheck.8; facility insures that the data in
the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system.
This is a very time consuming process that will significantly
affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to
skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf
is made available for the purpose:
check_quotas="NO"
Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab
to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where
you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your
file systems.
To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the
userquota option to the options field in the
/etc/fstab entry for the file system you want
to enable quotas on. For example:
/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2
Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the
groupquota option instead of
userquota . To enable both user and
group quotas, change the entry as follows:
/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2
By default, the quota files are stored in the root directory of
the file system with the names quota.user and
quota.group for user and group quotas
respectively. See &man.fstab.5; for more
information. Even though the &man.fstab.5; manual page says that
you can specify
an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended
because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this
properly.
At this point you should reboot your system with your new
kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the
appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of
the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab , so
there is no need to manually create any zero length quota
files.
In the normal course of operations you should not be required
to run the &man.quotacheck.8;,
&man.quotaon.8;, or &man.quotaoff.8;
commands manually. However, you may want to read their manual pages
just to be familiar with their operation.
Setting Quota Limits
disk quotas
limits
Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify
that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to
run:
&prompt.root; quota -v
You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current
quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled
on.
You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the
&man.edquota.8; command.
You have several options on how to enforce limits on the
amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many
files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk
space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a
combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down
into two categories: hard and soft limits.
hard limit
A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his
hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file
system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of
500 kbytes on a file system and is currently using 490 kbytes, the
user can only allocate an additional 10 kbytes. Attempting to
allocate an additional 11 kbytes will fail.
soft limit
Soft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited
amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period,
which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her
soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will
turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed.
When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period
will be reset.
The following is an example of what you might see when you run
the &man.edquota.8; command. When the
&man.edquota.8; command is invoked, you are placed into
the editor specified by the EDITOR environment
variable, or in the vi editor if the
EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit
the quota limits.
&prompt.root; edquota -u test
Quotas for user test:
/usr: kbytes in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
/usr/var: kbytes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
You will normally see two lines for each file system that has
quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for
inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify
the quota limit. For example, to raise this user's block limit
from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of
500 and a hard limit of 600, change:
/usr: kbytes in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
to:
/usr: kbytes in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)
The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the
editor.
Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of
UIDs. This can be done by use of the -p option
on the &man.edquota.8; command. First, assign the
desired quota limit to a user, and then run
edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid . For
example, if user test has the desired quota
limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota
limits for UIDs 10,000 through 19,999:
&prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999
For more information see &man.edquota.8; manual page.
Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage
disk quotas
checking
You can use either the &man.quota.1; or the
&man.repquota.8; commands to check quota limits and
disk usage. The &man.quota.1; command can be used to
check individual user or group quotas and disk usage. A user
may only examine his own quota, and the quota of a group he
is a member of. Only the super-user may view all user and group
quotas. The
&man.repquota.8; command can be used to get a summary
of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas
enabled.
The following is some sample output from the
quota -v command for a user that has quota
limits on two file systems.
Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002):
Filesystem usage quota limit grace files quota limit grace
/usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60
/usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60
grace period
On the /usr file system in the above
example, this user is currently 15 kbytes over the soft limit of
50 kbytes and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the
asterisk * which indicates that the user is
currently over his quota limit.
Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk
space on will not show up in the output from the
&man.quota.1; command, even if he has a quota limit
assigned for that file system. The -v option
will display those file systems, such as the
/usr/var file system in the above
example.
Quotas over NFS
NFS
Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server.
The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available
to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on
those machines to see their quota statistics.
Enable rpc.rquotad in
/etc/inetd.conf like so:
rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad
Now restart inetd :
&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`
Lucky
Green
Contributed by
shamrock@cypherpunks.to
Encrypting Disk Partitions
disks
encrypting
FreeBSD offers excellent online protections against
unauthorized data access. File permissions and Mandatory
Access Control (MAC) (see ) help prevent
unauthorized third-parties from accessing data while the operating
system is active and the computer is powered up. However,
the permissions enforced by the operating system are irrelevant if an
attacker has physical access to a computer and can simply move
the computer's hard drive to another system to copy and analyze
the sensitive data.
Regardless of how an attacker may have come into possession of
a hard drive or powered-down computer, both GEOM
Based Disk Encryption (gbde) and
geli cryptographic subsystems in &os; are able
to protect the data on the computer's file systems against even
highly-motivated attackers with significant resources. Unlike
cumbersome encryption methods that encrypt only individual files,
gbde and geli transparently
encrypt entire file systems. No cleartext ever touches the hard
drive's platter.
Disk Encryption with gbde
Become root
Configuring gbde requires
super-user privileges.
&prompt.user; su -
Password:
Verify the Operating System Version
&man.gbde.4; requires FreeBSD 5.0 or higher.
&prompt.root; uname -r
5.0-RELEASE
Add &man.gbde.4; Support to the Kernel Configuration File
Add the following line to the kernel configuration
file:
options GEOM_BDE
Rebuild the kernel as described in .
Reboot into the new kernel.
Preparing the Encrypted Hard Drive
The following example assumes that you are adding a new hard
drive to your system that will hold a single encrypted partition.
This partition will be mounted as /private .
gbde can also be used to encrypt
/home and /var/mail , but
this requires more complex instructions which exceed the scope of
this introduction.
Add the New Hard Drive
Install the new drive to the system as explained in . For the purposes of this example,
a new hard drive partition has been added as
/dev/ad4s1c . The
/dev/ad0s1*
devices represent existing standard FreeBSD partitions on
the example system.
&prompt.root; ls /dev/ad*
/dev/ad0 /dev/ad0s1b /dev/ad0s1e /dev/ad4s1
/dev/ad0s1 /dev/ad0s1c /dev/ad0s1f /dev/ad4s1c
/dev/ad0s1a /dev/ad0s1d /dev/ad4
Create a Directory to Hold gbde Lock Files
&prompt.root; mkdir /etc/gbde
The gbde lock file contains
information that gbde requires to
access encrypted partitions. Without access to the lock file,
gbde will not be able to decrypt
the data contained in the encrypted partition without
significant manual intervention which is not supported by the
software. Each encrypted partition uses a separate lock
file.
Initialize the gbde Partition
A gbde partition must be
initialized before it can be used. This initialization needs to
be performed only once:
&prompt.root; gbde init /dev/ad4s1c -i -L /etc/gbde/ad4s1c
&man.gbde.8; will open your editor, permitting you to set
various configuration options in a template. For use with UFS1
or UFS2, set the sector_size to 2048:
$FreeBSD: src/sbin/gbde/template.txt,v 1.1 2002/10/20 11:16:13 phk Exp $
#
# Sector size is the smallest unit of data which can be read or written.
# Making it too small decreases performance and decreases available space.
# Making it too large may prevent filesystems from working. 512 is the
# minimum and always safe. For UFS, use the fragment size
#
sector_size = 2048
[...]
&man.gbde.8; will ask you twice to type the passphrase that
should be used to secure the data. The passphrase must be the
same both times. gbde 's ability to
protect your data depends entirely on the quality of the
passphrase that you choose.
For tips on how to select a secure passphrase that is easy
to remember, see the Diceware
Passphrase website.
The gbde init command creates a lock
file for your gbde partition that in
this example is stored as
/etc/gbde/ad4s1c .
gbde lock files
must be backed up together with the
contents of any encrypted partitions. While deleting a lock
file alone cannot prevent a determined attacker from
decrypting a gbde partition,
without the lock file, the legitimate owner will be unable
to access the data on the encrypted partition without a
significant amount of work that is totally unsupported by
&man.gbde.8; and its designer.
Attach the Encrypted Partition to the Kernel
&prompt.root; gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c
You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you
selected during the initialization of the encrypted partition.
The new encrypted device will show up in
/dev as
/dev/device_name.bde :
&prompt.root; ls /dev/ad*
/dev/ad0 /dev/ad0s1b /dev/ad0s1e /dev/ad4s1
/dev/ad0s1 /dev/ad0s1c /dev/ad0s1f /dev/ad4s1c
/dev/ad0s1a /dev/ad0s1d /dev/ad4 /dev/ad4s1c.bde
Create a File System on the Encrypted Device
Once the encrypted device has been attached to the kernel,
you can create a file system on the device. To create a file
system on the encrypted device, use &man.newfs.8;. Since it is
much faster to initialize a new UFS2 file system than it is to
initialize the old UFS1 file system, using &man.newfs.8; with
the -O2 option is recommended.
The -O2 option is the default
with &os; 5.1-RELEASE and later.
&prompt.root; newfs -U -O2 /dev/ad4s1c.bde
The &man.newfs.8; command must be performed on an
attached gbde partition which
is identified by a
* .bde
extension to the device name.
Mount the Encrypted Partition
Create a mount point for the encrypted file system.
&prompt.root; mkdir /private
Mount the encrypted file system.
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private
Verify That the Encrypted File System is Available
The encrypted file system should now be visible to
&man.df.1; and be available for use.
&prompt.user; df -H
Filesystem Size Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/ad0s1a 1037M 72M 883M 8% /
/devfs 1.0K 1.0K 0B 100% /dev
/dev/ad0s1f 8.1G 55K 7.5G 0% /home
/dev/ad0s1e 1037M 1.1M 953M 0% /tmp
/dev/ad0s1d 6.1G 1.9G 3.7G 35% /usr
/dev/ad4s1c.bde 150G 4.1K 138G 0% /private
Mounting Existing Encrypted File Systems
After each boot, any encrypted file systems must be
re-attached to the kernel, checked for errors, and mounted, before
the file systems can be used. The required commands must be
executed as user root .
Attach the gbde Partition to the Kernel
&prompt.root; gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c
You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you
selected during initialization of the encrypted
gbde partition.
Check the File System for Errors
Since encrypted file systems cannot yet be listed in
/etc/fstab for automatic mounting, the
file systems must be checked for errors by running &man.fsck.8;
manually before mounting.
&prompt.root; fsck -p -t ffs /dev/ad4s1c.bde
Mount the Encrypted File System
&prompt.root; mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private
The encrypted file system is now available for use.
Automatically Mounting Encrypted Partitions
It is possible to create a script to automatically attach,
check, and mount an encrypted partition, but for security reasons
the script should not contain the &man.gbde.8; password. Instead,
it is recommended that such scripts be run manually while
providing the password via the console or &man.ssh.1;.
As of &os; 5.2-RELEASE, there is a new rc.d script
provided. Arguments for this script can be passed via
&man.rc.conf.5;, for example:
gbde_autoattach_all="YES"
gbde_devices="ad4s1c"
This will require that the gbde
passphrase be entered at boot time. After typing the correct
passphrase, the gbde encrypted
partition will be mounted automatically. This can be very
useful when using gbde on
notebooks.
Cryptographic Protections Employed by gbde
&man.gbde.8; encrypts the sector payload using 128-bit AES in
CBC mode. Each sector on the disk is encrypted with a different
AES key. For more information on gbde 's
cryptographic design, including how the sector keys are derived
from the user-supplied passphrase, see &man.gbde.4;.
Compatibility Issues
&man.sysinstall.8; is incompatible with
gbde -encrypted devices. All
* .bde devices must be detached from the
kernel before starting &man.sysinstall.8; or it will crash during
its initial probing for devices. To detach the encrypted device
used in our example, use the following command:
&prompt.root; gbde detach /dev/ad4s1c
Also note that, as &man.vinum.4; does not use the
&man.geom.4; subsystem, you cannot use
gbde with
vinum volumes.
Daniel
Gerzo
Contributed by
Disk Encryption with geli
A new cryptographic GEOM class is available as of &os; 6.0 -
geli . It is currently being developed by
&a.pjd;. Geli is different to
gbde ; it offers different features and uses
a different scheme for doing cryptographic work.
The most important features of &man.geli.8; are:
Utilizes the &man.crypto.9; framework — when
cryptographic hardware is available, geli
will use it automatically.
Supports multiple cryptographic algorithms (currently
AES, Blowfish, and 3DES).
Allows the root partition to be encrypted. The
passphrase used to access the encrypted root partition will
be requested during the system boot.
Allows the use of two independent keys (e.g. a
key
and a company key
).
geli is fast - performs simple
sector-to-sector encryption.
Allows backup and restore of Master Keys. When a user
has to destroy his keys, it will be possible to get access
to the data again by restoring keys from the backup.
Allows to attach a disk with a random, one-time key
— useful for swap partitions and temporary file
systems.
More geli features can be found in the
&man.geli.8; manual page.
The next steps will describe how to enable support for
geli in the &os; kernel and will explain how
to create a new geli encryption provider. At
the end it will be demonstrated how to create an encrypted swap
partition using features provided by geli .
In order to use geli , you must be running
&os; 6.0-RELEASE or later. Super-user privileges will be
required since modifications to the kernel are necessary.
Adding geli Support to the Kernel
Configuration File
Add the following lines to the kernel configuration
file:
options GEOM_ELI
device crypto
Rebuild the kernel as described in .
Alternatively, the geli module can
be loaded at boot time. Add the following line to the
/boot/loader.conf :
geom_eli_load="YES"
&man.geli.8; should now be supported by the kernel.
Generating the Master Key
The following example will describe how to generate a
key file, which will be used as part of the Master Key for
the encrypted provider mounted under
/private . The key
file will provide some random data used to encrypt the
Master Key. The Master Key will be protected by a
passphrase as well. Provider's sector size will be 4kB big.
Furthermore, the discussion will describe how to attach the
geli provider, create a file system on
it, how to mount it, how to work with it, and finally how to
detach it.
It is recommended to use a bigger sector size (like 4kB) for
better performance.
The Master Key will be protected with a passphrase and
the data source for key file will be
/dev/random . The sector size of
/dev/da2.eli , which we call provider,
will be 4kB.
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/random of=/root/da2.key bs=64 count=1
&prompt.root; geli init -s 4096 -K /root/da2.key /dev/da2
Enter new passphrase:
Reenter new passphrase:
It is not mandatory that both a passphrase and a key
file are used; either method of securing the Master Key can
be used in isolation.
If key file is given as -
, standard
input will be used. This example shows how more than one
key file can be used.
&prompt.root; cat keyfile1 keyfile2 keyfile3 | geli init -K - /dev/da2
Attaching the Provider with the generated Key
&prompt.root; geli attach -k /root/da2.key /dev/da2
Enter passphrase:
The new plaintext device will be named
/dev/da2 .eli .
&prompt.root; ls /dev/da2*
/dev/da2 /dev/da2.eli
Creating the new File System
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/random of=/dev/da2.eli bs=1m
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/da2.eli
&prompt.root; mount /dev/da2.eli /private
The encrypted file system should be visible to &man.df.1;
and be available for use now.
&prompt.root; df -H
Filesystem Size Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/ad0s1a 248M 89M 139M 38% /
/devfs 1.0K 1.0K 0B 100% /dev
/dev/ad0s1f 7.7G 2.3G 4.9G 32% /usr
/dev/ad0s1d 989M 1.5M 909M 0% /tmp
/dev/ad0s1e 3.9G 1.3G 2.3G 35% /var
/dev/da2.eli 150G 4.1K 138G 0% /private
Unmounting and Detaching the Provider
Once the work on the encrypted partition is done, and
the /private partition
is no longer needed, it is prudent to consider unmounting
and detaching the geli encrypted
partition from the kernel.
&prompt.root; umount /private
&prompt.root; geli detach da2.eli
More information about the use of &man.geli.8; can be
found in the manual page.
Encrypting a Swap Partition
The following example demonstrates how to create a
geli encrypted swap partition.
&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/random of=/dev/ad0s1b bs=1m
&prompt.root; geli onetime -d -a 3des ad0s1b
&prompt.root; swapon /dev/ad0s1b.eli
Using the geli rc.d Script
geli comes with a rc.d script which
can be used to simplify the usage of geli .
An example of configuring geli through
&man.rc.conf.5; follows:
geli_devices="da2"
geli_da2_flags="-p -k /root/da2.key"
This will configure /dev/da2 as a
geli provider of which the Master Key file
is located in /root/da2.key , and
geli will not use a passphrase when
attaching the provider (note that this can only be used if -P
was given during the geli init phase). The
system will detach the geli provider from
the kernel before the system shuts down.
More information about configuring rc.d is provided in the
rc.d section of the
Handbook.
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/firewalls/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/firewalls/chapter.sgml
index df23209f99..eae7b2e7e4 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/firewalls/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/firewalls/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,3378 +1,3307 @@
Joseph J.
Barbish
Contributed by
Brad
Davis
Converted to SGML and updated by
- Firewalls
+ ¨¾¤õÀð
- firewall
+ ¨¾¤õÀð
- security
+ ¦w¥þ
- firewalls
+ ¨¾¤õÀð
- Introduction
-
- Firewalls make it possible to filter
- incoming and outgoing traffic that flows through your system.
- A firewall can use one or more sets of rules
to
- inspect the network packets as they come in or go out of your
- network connections and either allows the traffic through or
- blocks it. The rules of a firewall can inspect one or more
- characteristics of the packets, including but not limited to the
- protocol type, the source or destination host address, and the
- source or destination port.
-
- Firewalls can greatly enhance the security of a host or a
- network. They can be used to do one or more of
- the following things:
-
+ ¤¶²Ð
+
+ ¨¾¤õÀð¯à°÷¹LÂo§Aªº¨t²Î¤¤¶i¥Xªº¬y¶q¡C
+ ¨¾¤õÀð¤]¯àÂǥѳ]¸m¤@©Î¦h²Õ¡u³W«h (rules)¡v
+ ¨ÓÀˬd§Aªººô¸ô³sµ²¤¤¶i¥Xªººô¸ô«Ê¥] (network packets)¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B¯à¤¹³\©Îªý¾×¨ä³q¹L¡C
+ ³o¨Ç¨¾¤õÀ𪺳W«h¥i¥HÀˬd«Ê¥]¤¤ªº¯S¼x¡A
+ ³o¨Ç¯S¼x²[»\¡A¦ý¤£©ó¬Y¨Ç³q°T¨ó©wÃþ«¬¡B¥D¾÷¦ì§}ªº¨Ó·½©Î¥Øªº¡A
+ ¥H¤Î³s±µ°ð (port) ªº¨Ó·½¤Î¥Øªº¡C
+
+ ¨¾¤õÀð¯à°÷¤j´T¦a¼W±j¥D¾÷©Î¬Oºô¸ôªº¦w¥þ©Ê¡C
+ ¥¦¤]¯à°÷¥Î¨Ó°õ¦æ¤U¦C¨Æ¶µ¡G
+
- To protect and insulate the applications, services and
- machines of your internal network from unwanted traffic
- coming in from the public Internet.
+ «OÅ@©Î¹jÂ÷§A¤º³¡ºô¸ôªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¡B
+ ªA°È¥H¤Î¾÷¾¹¡A§K©ó³Q¨Ó¦Û Internet ¤¤§A¤£·Qnªº¶Ç¿é©Ò¼vÅT
+
- To limit or disable access from hosts of the internal
- network to services of the public Internet.
+ ¨î©Î¸T¤î¤º³¡ºô¸ô¹ï Internet ªº¦s¨úªA°È
- To support network address translation
- (NAT ), which allows your internal network
- to use private IP addresses and share a
- single connection to the public Internet (either with a
- single IP address or by a shared pool of
- automatically assigned public addresses).
+ ¤ä´©¡uºô¸ô¦ì§}Âà´«¡v(network address translation
+ , NAT )¡A
+ ¥¦¥i¥H¤¹³\§Aªº¤º³¡ºô¸ô¨Ï¥Î¨p¦³IP
+ ¦ì§}¨Ã¥i¥H¦@¦P¤À¨É¤@Ó³æ¤@³s½u¨ìºô»Úºô¸ô¤W
+ (¥i¦P®É¥Î³æ¤@IP ¦ì§}©Î¬O¤@²Õ¤½¦@ºô§})
+
- After reading this chapter, you will know:
+ Ū§¹³o³¹¤§«á¡A§A±N·|ª¾¹D¡G
- How to properly define packet filtering rules.
+ ¦p¦ó¾A·í¦aq¥X«Ê¥]¹LÂoªº³W«h¡C
- The differences between the firewalls
- built into &os;.
+ &os; ¤¤¤º«Øªº¨¾¤õÀ𤧶¡ªº®t²§¡C
- How to use and configure the OpenBSD
- PF firewall.
+ ¦p¦ó¨Ï¥Î¤Î³]©w OpenBSD ªº
+ PF ¨¾¤õÀð¡C
- How to use and configure
- IPFILTER .
+ ¦p¦ó¨Ï¥Î¤Î³]©w
+ IPFILTER ¡C
- How to use and configure
- IPFW .
+ ¦p¦ó¨Ï¥Î¤Î³]©w
+ IPFW ¡C
- Before reading this chapter, you should:
+ ¦b¾\Ū³o³¹¤§«e¡A§A¥²¶·¡G
- Understand basic &os; and Internet concepts.
+ ¤F¸Ñ°ò¥»ªº &os; ©M Internet Æ[©À
- Firewall Concepts
+ ¨¾¤õÀ𷧩À
- firewall
+ ¨¾¤õÀð
- rulesets
+ ³W«h
- There are two basic ways to create firewall rulesets:
- inclusive
or exclusive
. An
- exclusive firewall allows all traffic through except for the
- traffic matching the ruleset. An inclusive firewall does the
- reverse. It only allows traffic matching the rules through and
- blocks everything else.
-
- Inclusive firewalls are generally safer than exclusive
- firewalls because they significantly reduce the risk of allowing
- unwanted traffic to pass through the firewall.
-
- Security can be tightened further using a stateful
- firewall
. With a stateful firewall the firewall keeps
- track of which connections are opened through the firewall and
- will only allow traffic through which either matches an existing
- connection or opens a new one. The disadvantage of a stateful
- firewall is that it can be vulnerable to Denial of Service
- (DoS ) attacks if a lot of new connections are
- opened very fast. With most firewalls it is possible to use a
- combination of stateful and non-stateful behavior to make an
- optimal firewall for the site.
+
+ ¦³¨âºØ°ò¥»ªº¤è¦¡¥i¥H«Ø¥ß¨¾¤õÀð³W«h¡G
+ ¡u¥ý®e¦¡(exclusive)¡v©Î¬O¡u«á®e¦¡(inclusive)¡v¡C
+
+ ¡u¥ý®e¦¡(exclusive)¡vÃþ¦ü¡u¶Â¦W³æ¡v¡A¥¦¥ý¤¹³\©Ò¦³«Ê¥]³q¹L¡A
+ µM«á¹H¤Ï³W«hªº«Ê¥]«h¸T¤î³q¹L¨¾¤õÀð¡C
+ ¬Û¤Ïªº¡A¡u«á®e¦¡(inclusive)¡vÃþ¦ü¡u¥Õ¦W³æ¡v¡A¥¦¥ý¾×¦í©Ò¦³«Ê¥]³q¹L¡A
+ µM«á¥u¤¹³\¦³²Å¦X³W«hªº¤~¥i³q¹L¨¾¤õÀð¡C
+
+
+ ¾ãÅé¨Ó»¡¡A¡u«á®e¦¡(inclusive)¡vªº¨¾¤õÀð·|¤ñ¡u¥ý®e¦¡(exclusive)¡vªº¨¾¤õÀð¦w¥þ¨Ç¡C
+ ¦]¬°«á®e¦¡©úÅã°§C¤F¤£¥²nªº·ÀI¡C
+
+ ¦¹¥~¡A¨Ï¥Î¡uª¬ºA¨¾¤õÀð(stateful firewall)¡v¥iÅý¦w¥þ©Ê§óÄY±K¡C
+ ¥¦·|«ùÄò°O¿ý³q¹L¨¾¤õÀð¶}©ñªº³s½u¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B¥u¤¹³\²Å¦X²{¦s©Î¶}±Ò·sªº³s½u¤~¯à³q¹L¨¾¤õÀð¡C
+ ª¬ºA¨¾¤õÀ𪺯ÊÂI¬O¦pªG¦b«D±`§Öªº³t«×¤U¶}±Ò³\¦h·s³s½u¡A´N¥i¯à·|¨ü¨ìªýµ´¦¡ªA°È§ðÀ»
+ (DoS , Denial of Service)¡C
+ ¦b¤j¦h¼Æªº¨¾¤õÀð¤è®×¤¤¡A¤]¥i¥H¥æ¤¬¹B¥Î¡uª¬ºA¡v¤Î¡u«Dª¬ºA¡v¨¾¤õÀ𪺲զX¡A
+ ¨Ï¸Ó¯¸ªº¨¾¤õÀð¹F¨ì³Ì¨Î¤Æ¡C
+
+
- Firewall Packages
-
- &os; has three different firewall packages built
- into the base system. They are: IPFILTER
- (also known as IPF ),
- IPFIREWALL (also known as IPFW ),
- and OpenBSD's PacketFilter (also known as
- PF ). &os; also has two built in packages for
- traffic shaping (basically controlling bandwidth usage):
- &man.altq.4; and &man.dummynet.4;. Dummynet has traditionally been
- closely tied with IPFW , and
- ALTQ with
- IPF /PF . IPF,
- IPFW, and PF all use rules to control the access of packets to and
- from your system, although they go about it different ways and
- have different rule syntaxes.
-
- The reason that &os; has multiple built in firewall packages
- is that different people have different requirements and
- preferences. No single firewall package is the best.
-
- The author prefers IPFILTER because its stateful rules are
- much less complicated to use in a NAT
- environment and it has a built in ftp proxy that simplifies the
- rules to allow secure outbound FTP usage.
-
- Since all firewalls are based on inspecting the values of
- selected packet control fields, the creator of the firewall
- rulesets must have an understanding of how
- TCP /IP works, what the different values in
- the packet control fields are and how these values are used in a
- normal session conversation. For a good explanation go to:
+ ¨¾¤õÀð³nÅé®M¥ó
+
+
+ ¦b &os; °ò¥»¨t²Î¤¤¤º«Ø¦³¤TºØ¤£¦Pªº¨¾¤õÀð³nÅé®M¥ó¡C
+ ¥¦Ì¤À§O¬O IPFILTER
+ (¤]´N¬O IPF )¡B
+ IPFIREWALL (¤]´N¬O IPFW )¡A
+ ¥H¤Î OpenBSD ªº PacketFilter (§Y¦³¦Wªº PF )¡C
+ &os; ¤]¦³¨âÓ¤º«Øªº¬y¶q±±ºÞ®M¥ó(°ò¥»¤W¬O±±¨îÀW¼eªº¨Ï¥Î)¡G
+ &man.altq.4; ¥H¤Î &man.dummynet.4;¡C
+ ³q±`§Ú̲ߺD§â Dummynet »P IPFW ¤@¨Ö¹B¥Î¡A
+ ¦Ó ALTQ «h¬O·f°t
+ IPF /PF ¤@¦P¨Ï¥Î¡C
+ ÁöµM IPF¡BIPFW ¥H¤Î PF ¬O¨Ï¥Î¤£¦Pªº¹ê°µ¤è¦¡¤Î³W«h»yªk¡A
+ ¦ý¬O¥¦Ì³£¨Ï¥Î³W«h¨Ó±±¨î¬O§_¤¹³\¸ê®Æ«Ê¥]¶i¥X§Aªº¨t²Î¡C
+
+ &os; ¬°¦ó·|¤º«Ø³\¦h¤£¦Pªº¨¾¤õÀð³nÅé®M¥ó¡A
+ ³o¬O¦]¬°¤£¦P¤H·|¦³¤£¦Pªº»Ý¨D¡B°¾¦n¡A«ÜÃø»¡þ¤@Ó¨¾¤õÀð³nÅé®M¥ó¬O³Ì¦nªº¡C
+
+ ¦Óµ§ªÌ°¾¦n IPFILTER ªºì¦]¡A¬O¦]¬°¹B¥Î¦b NAT
+ Àô¹Òªº®ÉÔ¡A¥¦ªºª¬ºA³W«h¬O¬Û¹ï²³æ³\¦hªº¡C
+ ¦Ó¥B¥¦¤º«Øªº FTP ¥N²z¡A¤]²¤Æ¤F¦p¦ó³]©w¦w¥þªº¹ï¥~ FTP ªA°È³W«h¡C
+
+
+ ¥¿¥Ñ©ó©Ò¦³ªº¨¾¤õÀ𳣬O¥H¡uÀˬd¡B±±¨î©Ò¿ï©w¤§«Ê¥]¡vªº¹ê§@¡A©Ò¥H¡A
+ ¨î©w¨¾¤õÀð³W«hªº¤H´N§ó¥²¶·¤F¸Ñ TCP /IP ¦p¦ó¹B§@¡A
+ ¥H¤Î¦p¦ó±±¨î«Ê¥]¦b¥¿±` session ªº¦UºØ§@¥Î¡C
+ §ó¸ÔºÉªº»¡©ú¡A½Ð°Ñ¾\¡G
.
+ url="http://www.ipprimer.com/overview.cfm">¡C
+
- The OpenBSD Packet Filter (PF) and
+ OpenBSD «Ê¥]¹LÂo¾¹ (Packet Filter, PF)¤Î
ALTQ
- firewall
+ ¨¾¤õÀð
PF
- As of July 2003 the OpenBSD firewall software application
- known as PF was ported to &os; and was made
- available in the &os; Ports Collection; the first release that
- contained PF as an integrated part of the
- base system was &os; 5.3 in November 2004.
- PF is a complete, fully featured firewall
- that has optional support for ALTQ (Alternate
- Queuing). ALTQ provides Quality of Service
- (QoS ) bandwidth shaping that allows
- guaranteeing bandwidth to different services based on filtering
- rules. The OpenBSD Project does an outstanding job of
- maintaining the PF User's Guide that it will not be made part of
- this handbook firewall section as that would just be duplicated
- effort.
-
- The availability of PF for the various &os; releases and
- versions is summarized below:
-
-
-
-
-
- &os; Version
-
- PF Availability
-
-
-
-
-
- Pre-4.X versions
-
- PF is not available for any release of &os; older
- than the 4.X branch.
-
-
-
- All versions of the 4.X branch
-
- PF is available as part of KAME.
-
-
-
- 5.X releases before 5.3-RELEASE
-
- The security/pf
- port can be used to install PF on these versions of &os;.
- These releases were targeted to developers and people who
- wanted a preview of early 5.X versions. Upgrading to
- 5.3-RELEASE or newer versions of &os; is strongly
- recommended.
-
-
-
- 5.3-RELEASE and later versions
-
- PF is part of the base system. Do
- not use the security/pf port on these
- versions of &os;. It will not work. Use the &man.pf.4;
- support of the base system instead.
-
-
-
-
-
- More info can be found at the PF for &os; web site: ¦b 2003 ¦~ 6 ¤ë¥÷¡AOpenBSD ªº¨¾¤õÀð³nÅé PF
+ ³Q²¾´Ó¨ì &os; ¤¤¡A¨Ã¥B¦¬¿ý©ó Ports Collection ¤º¡C
+ ¦Ó 2004 ¦~ 11 ¤ë¥÷©Òµo¦æªº &os; 5.3 ª©¤]¬O²Ä¤@¦¸±N PF
+ ¾ã¦X¬°°ò¦¨t²Îªº¤@³¡¤À¡C
+ PF ¬OÓ§¹³Æ¡B¥þ¥\¯àªº¨¾¤õÀð¡A
+ ¨Ã¥B¨ã¦³¿ï¾Ü©Ê ALTQ (¥æ¿ù¦î¦C¡AAlternate Queuing)
+
+ ªº¥\¯à¡C
+ ALTQ ´£¨Ñ¤F¡uªA°È«~½è¡v(QoS ¡A
+ Quality of Service)ªºÀW¼eºÞ²z¥\¯à¡A
+ ³o´£¨Ñ¤F¥H¹LÂo³W«hªº¤è¦¡¨Ó«O»Ù¦UºØ¤£¦PªA°ÈªºÀW¼e¡C
+ OpenBSD p¹º¤¤¤w¸g¹ï PF ªº¨Ï¥Î«ü«n´£¨Ñ¤F¸ÔºÉªº¸Ñ»¡¡A
+ ¦]¦¹¦b³o¥»¤â¥U¤¤§Ṳ́£·|§@«½ÆªºÂØz¡A¦Ó¥u¤¶²Ð·§n¡C
+
+
+ §ó¦hÃö©ó PF ªº¸ê°T¥i©ó¤U¦Cºô§}¬d¸ß: .
- Enabling PF
+ ±Ò¥Î PF
- PF is included in the basic &os; install for versions newer
- than 5.3 as a separate run time loadable module. The system
- will dynamically load the PF kernel loadable module when the
- rc.conf statement pf_enable="YES" is used.
- The loadable module was created with &man.pflog.4; logging
- enabled.
+ PF ¦b &os; 5.3 ¤§«áªº¨t²Î¤¤¡A¥i¥H»´ÃP¨Ï¥Î°ÊºA¼Ò²Õ¨Ó¸ü¤J¡C
+ ¦b rc.conf ¤¤¥[¤J pf_enable="YES" «á¡A
+ ¨t²Î±N·|°ÊºA¦a¸ü¤J PF ®Ö¤ß°ÊºA¼Ò²Õ¡C³oÓ¼Ò²Õ·|¦b«Ø¥ß®É¤]±Ò¥Î
+ &man.pflog.4; °O¿ý¥\¯à¡C
- The module assumes the presence of options
- INET and device bpf . Unless
- NOINET6 (for example in &man.make.conf.5;)
- was defined during the build, it also requires options
- INET6 .
+ ³oÓ¼Ò²Õ·|°²³]®Ö¤ß¤º¤w¦³ options INET ©M
+ device bpf ¡C
+ °£«D½sĶ®É¦b®Ö¤ß¤¤¦³¨Æ¥ý(¹³¬O¦b &man.make.conf.5; ¤¤)¥[¤J NOINET6 ¡A
+ &os; 6.0 ¥H«áªºª©¥»«h¬O NO_INET6
+ ³o¼Ë¤~·|ÁקK¤£¥´¶} IPv6 ¤ä´©¡A§_«h pf ¼Ò²Õ¦P®É¤]»Ýn options INET6 ¡A
+ ¤]´N¬O IPv6 ¤ä´©¡C
+
+ ¤@¥¹¸ü¤J PF ®Ö¤ß¼Ò²Õ©ÎÀRºA¦a½sĶ¤J®Ö¤ß¤¤¡A
+ ´N¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î pfctl ¨Ó±Ò°Ê©ÎÃö³¬
+ pf ¡C
- Once the kernel module is loaded or the kernel is statically
- built with PF support, it is possible to enable or disable
- pf with the pfctl
- command.
-
- This example demonstrates how to enable
+ ³oÓ¨Ò¤l¥Ü½d¤F¦p¦ó±Ò°Ê
pf :
&prompt.root; pfctl -e
- The pfctl command provides a way to work
- with the pf firewall. It is a good
- idea to check the &man.pfctl.8; manual page to find out more
- information about using it.
+ pfctl «ü¥O´£¨Ñ¤F¤@ӨϥÎpf
+ ¨¾¤õÀ𪺤覡¡C
+ n¤F¸Ñ§ó¦h¨Ï¥Î pfctl ªº¸ê°T¡A
+ ¬d¾\ &man.pfctl.8; ªº½u¤W¤â¥U·|¬OÓ¦n¤è¦¡¡C
- Kernel options
+ kernel ¿ï¶µ
- kernel options
+ kernel ¿ï¶µ
device pf
- kernel options
+ kernel ¿ï¶µ
device pflog
- kernel options
+ kernel ¿ï¶µ
device pfsync
- It is not a mandatory requirement that you enable PF by
- compiling the following options into the &os; kernel. It is
- only presented here as background information. Compiling PF
- into the kernel causes the loadable module to never be
- used.
-
- Sample kernel config PF option statements are in the
- /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES kernel source and
- are reproduced here:
-
+ ¦b½sĶ &os; kernel ®É¡A¨Ã¤£¥²§¹¥þ¥[¤J¤U¦Cªº¿ï¶µ¨Ó±Ò¥Î PF¡C
+ ¦b³o¸Ì¥u¬On¦C¥Xµ¹§A°Ñ¦Òªº¤@¨Ç¸ê°T¦Ó¤w¡C
+ ±N PF ½sĶ¤J kernel ¤¤¡A·|¾ÉPµLªk¨Ï¥Î kernel ªº°ÊºA¸ü¤J¼Ò²Õ¡C
+
+ ³]©w PF ªº®Ö¤ß¿ï¶µ½d¨Ò¦b kernel ì©l½X¤¤ªº
+ /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES ¡AÂà¶K¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
+
device pf
device pflog
device pfsync
- device pf enables support for the
- Packet Filter
firewall.
-
- device pflog enables the optional
- &man.pflog.4; pseudo network device which can be used to log
- traffic to a &man.bpf.4; descriptor. The &man.pflogd.8; daemon
- can be used to store the logging information to disk.
-
- device pfsync enables the optional
- &man.pfsync.4; pseudo network device that is used to monitor
- state changes
. As this is not part of the
- loadable module one has to build a custom kernel to use
- it.
-
- These settings will take effect only after you have built
- and installed a kernel with them set.
+ device pf ±Ò¥Î¤F
+ ¡u«Ê¥]¹LÂo(packet filter)¡v ªº¨¾¤õÀð¤ä´©.
+
+ device pflog ±Ò°Ê¤F¿ï¾Ü©Êªº &man.pflog.4;
+ µêÀÀºô¸ô³]³Æ pseudo network device)¡A¥¦¥i¥H³z¹L &man.bpf.4;
+ ªº´yz²Å¸¹¨Ó°O¿ý¬y¶q¡C
+ &man.pflogd.8; ªA°È¥i¥H¥Î¨ÓÀx¦s°T®§¡A¨Ã¥i¥H¥Î¤é»xªº§Î¦¡°O¿ý¦bµwºÐ¤W¡C
+
+
+ device pfsync ±Ò°Ê¤F¿ï¾Ü©Ê ªº&man.pfsync.4;
+ µêÀÀºô¸ô³]³Æ¡A¥¦¥i¥H¥Î¨ÓºÊ±±¡uª¬ºAªº§ïÅÜ¡v¡C
+ device pfsync ¨Ã¤£¬O¥i¸ü¤J¼Ò²Õ¡A
+ n¨Ï¥Îªº¸Ü¡A¥²¶·n½s¤J¦Ûqªº®Ö¤ß¤¤¤~¦æ¡C
+
+ ³o¨Ç³]©w±N·|¦b§A½sĶ¤Î¦w¸Ë¦n·s®Ö¤ß«á¤~·|¥Í®Ä¡C
- Available rc.conf Options
+ rc.conf ¥i¥Îªº¿ï¶µ
- You need the following statements in
- /etc/rc.conf to activate PF at boot
- time:
+ §A»Ýn¦b /etc/rc.conf
+ ¤¤¥[¤J¤U¦Cªº³]©w¥H«K¦b±Ò°Ê¨t²Î®É¦P®É±Ò¥Î PF¡G
- pf_enable="YES" # Enable PF (load module if required)
-pf_rules="/etc/pf.conf" # rules definition file for pf
-pf_flags="" # additional flags for pfctl startup
-pflog_enable="YES" # start pflogd(8)
-pflog_logfile="/var/log/pflog" # where pflogd should store the logfile
-pflog_flags="" # additional flags for pflogd startup
+ pf_enable="YES" # ±Ò¥Î PF (¦pªG»Ýnªº¸Ü¸ü¤J¼Ò²Õ)
+pf_rules="/etc/pf.conf" # PF ªº³W«h©w¸qÀÉ®×
+pf_flags="" # pfctl ±Ò°Ê®Éªþ¥[ªº¿ï¶µ
+pflog_enable="YES" # ±Ò°Ê pflogd(8)
+pflog_logfile="/var/log/pflog" # pflogd Àx¦s°O¿ýÀɮתº¦a¤è
+pflog_flags="" # pflogd ±Ò°Ê®Éªþ¥[ªº¿ï¶µ
- If you have a LAN behind this firewall and have to forward
- packets for the computers in the LAN or want to do NAT, you
- have to enable the following option as well:
+ ¦pªG¦b³oÓ¨¾¤õÀð«á¤è§A¦³Ó°Ï°ìºô¸ô¡A¨Ã³z¹L¥¦¨ÓÂà°e«Ê¥]¡A
+ §A´N¥²¶·n³]©w¤U¦C¿ï¶µ¡G
- gateway_enable="YES" # Enable as LAN gateway
+ gateway_enable="YES" # ±Ò¥Î§@¬°°Ï°ìºô¸ô¹h¹D¾¹
- Enabling ALTQ
-
- ALTQ is only available by compiling the
- options into the &os; Kernel. ALTQ is not
- supported by all of the available network card drivers. Please
- see the &man.altq.4; manual page for a list of drivers that are
- supported in your release of &os;. The following options will
- enable ALTQ and add additional
- functionality.
+ ±Ò¥Î ALTQ
+
+ ALTQ ªº¿ï¶µ¥u¦³¦b½s¤J &os; ®Ö¤ß¤¤¤~¯à¥Í®Ä¡C
+ ¤£¬O©Ò¦³ªººô¸ô¥dÅX°Êµ{¦¡³£¤ä´© ALTQ ¡C
+ ½Ð¬Ý &man.altq.4; ½u¤W¤â¥U¨Ó¤F¸Ñ§A¨Ï¥Îªº &os; ª©¥»¤¤¤ä´©ÅX°Êµ{¦¡ªº²M³æ¡C
+ ¤U±¦C¥Xªº¿ï¶µ±N·|±Ò¥Î ALTQ ¤Î¥[¤J¨ä¥Lªþ¥[ªº¥\¯à¡C
options ALTQ
options ALTQ_CBQ # Class Bases Queuing (CBQ)
options ALTQ_RED # Random Early Detection (RED)
options ALTQ_RIO # RED In/Out
options ALTQ_HFSC # Hierarchical Packet Scheduler (HFSC)
options ALTQ_PRIQ # Priority Queuing (PRIQ)
options ALTQ_NOPCC # Required for SMP build
- options ALTQ enables the
- ALTQ framework.
+ options ALTQ ±Ò¥Î¤F
+ ALTQ ¥D¬[ºc¡C
- options ALTQ_CBQ enables Class Based
- Queuing (CBQ ). CBQ
+ options ALTQ_CBQ ±Ò¥Î¡u°ò©ó¤ÀÃþªº¦î¦C¡v
+ (Class Based Queuing, CBQ )¤ä´©¡C
+ CBQ ¤¹³\§A
allows you to divide a connection's bandwidth into different
classes or queues to prioritize traffic based on filter
rules.
options ALTQ_RED enables Random Early
Detection (RED ). RED is
used to avoid network congestion. RED does
this by measuring the length of the queue and comparing it to
the minimum and maximum thresholds for the queue. If the
queue is over the maximum all new packets will be dropped.
True to its name, RED drops packets from
different connections randomly.
options ALTQ_RIO enables Random Early
Detection In and Out.
options ALTQ_HFSC enables the
Hierarchical Fair Service Curve Packet Scheduler. For more
information about HFSC see: .
options ALTQ_PRIQ enables Priority
Queuing (PRIQ ). PRIQ
will always pass traffic that is in a higher queue
first.
options ALTQ_NOPCC enables
SMP support for ALTQ .
This option is required on SMP
systems.
Creating Filtering Rules
The Packet Filter reads its configuration rules from the
&man.pf.conf.5; file and it modifies, drops or passes packets
according to the rules or definitions specified there. The &os;
installation comes with a default
/etc/pf.conf which contains useful examples
and explanations.
Although &os; has its own /etc/pf.conf
the syntax is the same as one used in OpenBSD. A great
resource for configuring the pf
firewall has been written by OpenBSD team and is available at
.
When browsing the pf user's guide, please keep in mind that
different versions of &os; contain different versions of pf. The
pf firewall in &os; 5.X is at the level
of OpenBSD version 3.5 and in &os; 6.X is at the level of OpenBSD
version 3.7.
The &a.pf; is a good place to ask questions about
configuring and running the pf
firewall. Do not forget to check the mailing list archives
before asking questions.
- The IPFILTER (IPF) Firewall
+ IPFILTER (IPF) ¨¾¤õÀð
- firewall
+ ¨¾¤õÀð
IPFILTER
- This section is work in progress. The contents might
- not be accurate at all times.
+ ¦¹¤p¸`ªº»¡©ú¤´«Ý³°Äò¸É¥R¡B§ó·s¡A©Ò¥H¥»¤º®e¥i¯à¨Ã«D§¹¥þ²Å¦X²{ªp¡C
- The author of IPFILTER is Darren Reed. IPFILTER is not
- operating system dependent: it is an open source application and
- has been ported to &os;, NetBSD, OpenBSD, &sunos;, HP/UX, and
- &solaris; operating systems. IPFILTER is actively being
- supported and maintained, with updated versions being released
- regularly.
+ IPFILTER ªº§@ªÌ¬° Darren Reed¡CIPFILTER ¨Ã«D
+ operating system dependent¡G¥¦¬OÓ open source À³¥Îµ{¦¡¡A¥B¤w³Q²¾´Ó¨ì
+ &os;¡BNetBSD¡BOpenBSD¡B&sunos;¡BHP/UX ¥H¤Î
+ &solaris; ³o¨Ç§@·~¨t²Î¤W¡C¦¹¥~¡AIPFILTER ªº¤ä´©¥H¤ÎºûÅ@¤]¬Û·í¿n·¥¡A¤]¦³©w´ÁÄÀ¥Xªº§ó·sª©¡C
IPFILTER is based on a kernel-side firewall and
NAT mechanism that can be controlled and
monitored by userland interface programs. The firewall rules can
be set or deleted with the &man.ipf.8; utility. The
NAT rules can be set or deleted with the
&man.ipnat.1; utility. The &man.ipfstat.8; utility can print
run-time statistics for the kernel parts of IPFILTER. The
&man.ipmon.8; program can log IPFILTER actions to the system log
files.
IPF was originally written using a rule processing logic of
- the last matching rule wins
and used only
+ ¡uthe last matching rule wins¡v and used only
stateless type of rules. Over time IPF has been enhanced to
- include a quick
option and a stateful keep
- state
option which drastically modernized the rules
+ include a ¡uquick¡v option and a stateful ¡ukeep
+ state¡v option which drastically modernized the rules
processing logic. IPF's official documentation covers the legacy
rule coding parameters and the legacy rule file processing
logic. The modernized functions are only included as additional
options, completely understating their benefits in producing a
far superior secure firewall.
The instructions contained in this section are based on
- using rules that contain the quick
option and the
- stateful keep state
option. This is the basic
+ using rules that contain the ¡uquick¡v option and the
+ stateful ¡ukeep state¡v option. This is the basic
framework for coding an inclusive firewall rule set.
An inclusive firewall only allows packets matching the rules
to pass through. This way you can control what services can
originate behind the firewall destined for the public Internet
and also control the services which can originate from the
public Internet accessing your private network. Everything else
is blocked and logged by default design. Inclusive firewalls are
much, much more secure than exclusive firewall rule sets and is
the only rule set type covered herein.
For detailed explanation of the legacy rules processing
method see:
and .
- The IPF FAQ is at IPF ªº FAQ ¦ì©ó .
- Enabling IPF
+ ±Ò¥Î IPF
IPFILTER
- enabling
+ ±Ò¥Î
IPF is included in the basic &os; install as a separate run
time loadable module. The system will dynamically load the IPF
kernel loadable module when the rc.conf statement
ipfilter_enable="YES" is used. The loadable
module was created with logging enabled and the
default pass all options. You do not need
to compile IPF into the &os; kernel just to change the default
to block all , you can do that by just coding
a block all rule at the end of your rule set.
- Kernel options
+ kernel ¿ï¶µ
kernel options
IPFILTER
kernel options
IPFILTER_LOG
kernel options
IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK
IPFILTER
kernel options
- It is not a mandatory requirement that you enable IPF by
- compiling the following options into the &os; kernel. It is
- only presented here as background information. Compiling IPF
- into the kernel causes the loadable module to never be
- used.
+ ¦b½sĶ &os; kernel ®É¡A¨Ã¤£¥²§¹¥þ¥[¤J¤U¦Cªº¿ï¶µ¨Ó±Ò¥Î IPF¡C
+ ¦b³o¸Ì¥u¬On¦C¥Xµ¹§A°Ñ¦Òªº¤@¨Ç¸ê°T¦Ó¤w¡C
+ ±N IPF ½sĶ¤J kernel ¤¤¡A·|¾ÉPµLªk¨Ï¥Î kernel ªº°ÊºA¸ü¤J¼Ò²Õ¡C
Sample kernel config IPF option statements are in the
/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES kernel source
(/usr/src/sys/arch /conf/LINT
for &os; 4.X) and are reproduced here:
options IPFILTER
options IPFILTER_LOG
options IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK
options IPFILTER enables support for the
- IPFILTER
firewall.
+ ¡uIPFILTER¡v firewall.
options IPFILTER_LOG enables the option
to have IPF log traffic by writing to the
ipl packet logging pseudo—device
for every rule that has the log
keyword.
options IPFILTER_DEFAULT_BLOCK changes
the default behavior so any packet not matching a firewall
pass rule gets blocked.
These settings will take effect only after you have built
and installed a kernel with them set.
- Available rc.conf Options
+ ¥i¥Îªº rc.conf ¿ï¶µ
- You need the following statements in
- /etc/rc.conf to activate IPF at boot
- time:
+ ¶·¦b /etc/rc.conf ¤º¥[¤J¤U¦C¤º®e¡A¥H«K¦b¶}¾÷®É´N·|±Ò¥Î IPF¡G
ipfilter_enable="YES" # Start ipf firewall
-ipfilter_rules="/etc/ipf.rules" # loads rules definition text file
-ipmon_enable="YES" # Start IP monitor log
-ipmon_flags="-Ds" # D = start as daemon
- # s = log to syslog
- # v = log tcp window, ack, seq
- # n = map IP & port to names
+ipfilter_rules="/etc/ipf.rules" # ¸ü¤J©w¸q³W«hªº¤å¦rÀÉ®×
+ipmon_enable="YES" # ±Ò¥Î IP ºÊ±±°O¿ý
+ipmon_flags="-Ds" # D = ¨Ï¥ÎªA°Èµ{§Ç (daemon) ±Ò°Ê
+ # s = ¨Ï¥Î syslog °O¿ý
+ # v = °O¿ý©ó tcp window, ack, seq
+ # n = ±N IP ¤Î port ¹ïÀ³¦Ü¦WºÙ¤¤
If you have a LAN behind this firewall that uses the
reserved private IP address ranges, then you need to add the
following to enable NAT
functionality:
- gateway_enable="YES" # Enable as LAN gateway
+ gateway_enable="YES" # ±Ò¥Î¬°°Ï°ìºô¸ô¹h¹D¾¹
ipnat_enable="YES" # Start ipnat function
ipnat_rules="/etc/ipnat.rules" # rules definition file for ipnat
IPF
ipf
The ipf command is used to load your rules file. Normally
you create a file containing your custom rules and use this
command to replace in mass the currently running firewall
internal rules:
&prompt.root; ipf -Fa -f /etc/ipf.rules
-Fa means flush all internal rules
tables.
-f means this is the file to read for the
rules to load.
This gives you the ability to make changes to your custom
rules file, run the above IPF command, and thus update the
running firewall with a fresh copy of all the rules without
having to reboot the system. This method is very convenient
for testing new rules as the procedure can be executed as many
times as needed.
See the &man.ipf.8; manual page for details on the other
flags available with this command.
The &man.ipf.8; command expects the rules file to be a
standard text file. It will not accept a rules file written as
a script with symbolic substitution.
There is a way to build IPF rules that utilizes the power
of script symbolic substitution. For more information, see
.
IPFSTAT
ipfstat
IPFILTER
statistics
The default behavior of &man.ipfstat.8; is to retrieve and
display the totals of the accumulated statistics gathered as a
result of applying the user coded rules against packets going
in and out of the firewall since it was last started, or since
the last time the accumulators were reset to zero by the
ipf -Z command.
See the &man.ipfstat.8; manual page for details.
The default &man.ipfstat.8; command output will look
something like this:
input packets: blocked 99286 passed 1255609 nomatch 14686 counted 0
output packets: blocked 4200 passed 1284345 nomatch 14687 counted 0
input packets logged: blocked 99286 passed 0
output packets logged: blocked 0 passed 0
packets logged: input 0 output 0
log failures: input 3898 output 0
fragment state(in): kept 0 lost 0
fragment state(out): kept 0 lost 0
packet state(in): kept 169364 lost 0
packet state(out): kept 431395 lost 0
ICMP replies: 0 TCP RSTs sent: 0
Result cache hits(in): 1215208 (out): 1098963
IN Pullups succeeded: 2 failed: 0
OUT Pullups succeeded: 0 failed: 0
Fastroute successes: 0 failures: 0
TCP cksum fails(in): 0 (out): 0
Packet log flags set: (0)
When supplied with either -i for inbound
or -o for outbound, it will retrieve and
display the appropriate list of filter rules currently
installed and in use by the kernel.
ipfstat -in displays the inbound
internal rules table with rule number.
ipfstat -on displays the outbound
internal rules table with the rule number.
The output will look something like this:
@1 pass out on xl0 from any to any
@2 block out on dc0 from any to any
@3 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any keep state
ipfstat -ih displays the inbound
internal rules table, prefixing each rule with a count of how
many times the rule was matched.
ipfstat -oh displays the outbound
internal rules table, prefixing each rule with a count of how
many times the rule was matched.
The output will look something like this:
2451423 pass out on xl0 from any to any
354727 block out on dc0 from any to any
430918 pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any keep state
One of the most important functions of the
ipfstat command is the -t
flag which displays the state table in a way similar to the way
&man.top.1; shows the &os; running process table. When your
firewall is under attack this function gives you the ability to
identify, drill down to, and see the attacking packets. The
optional sub-flags give the ability to select the destination
or source IP, port, or protocol that you want to monitor in
real time. See the &man.ipfstat.8; manual page for
details.
IPMON
ipmon
IPFILTER
logging
In order for ipmon to work properly, the
kernel option IPFILTER_LOG must be turned on. This command has
two different modes that it can be used in. Native mode is the
default mode when you type the command on the command line
without the -D flag.
Daemon mode is for when you want to have a continuous
system log file available so that you can review logging of
past events. This is how &os; and IPFILTER are configured to
work together. &os; has a built in facility to automatically
rotate system logs. That is why outputting the log information
to syslogd is better than the default of outputting to a
regular file. In the default rc.conf file
you see the ipmon_flags statement uses the -Ds
flags:
ipmon_flags="-Ds" # D = start as daemon
# s = log to syslog
# v = log tcp window, ack, seq
# n = map IP & port to names
The benefits of logging are obvious. It provides the
ability to review, after the fact, information such as which
packets had been dropped, what addresses they came from and
where they were going. These all give you a significant edge
in tracking down attackers.
Even with the logging facility enabled, IPF will not
generate any rule logging on its own. The firewall
administrator decides what rules in the rule set he wants to
log and adds the log keyword to those rules. Normally only
deny rules are logged.
It is very customary to include a default deny everything
rule with the log keyword included as your last rule in the
rule set. This way you get to see all the packets that did not
match any of the rules in the rule set.
IPMON Logging
Syslogd uses its own special
method for segregation of log data. It uses special groupings
- called facility
and level
. IPMON
+ called ¡ufacility¡v and level
. IPMON
in -Ds mode uses security
- (local0 in 4.X) as the facility
+ (local0 in 4.X) as the ¡ufacility¡v
name. All IPMON logged data goes to security
(local0 in 4.X). The following levels can be
used to further segregate the logged data if desired:
LOG_INFO - packets logged using the "log" keyword as the action rather than pass or block.
LOG_NOTICE - packets logged which are also passed
LOG_WARNING - packets logged which are also blocked
LOG_ERR - packets which have been logged and which can be considered short
To setup IPFILTER to log all data to
/var/log/ipfilter.log , you will need to
create the file. The following command will do that:
&prompt.root; touch /var/log/ipfilter.log
The syslog function is controlled by definition statements
in the /etc/syslog.conf file. The
syslog.conf file offers considerable
flexibility in how syslog will deal with system messages issued
by software applications like IPF.
Add the following statement to
/etc/syslog.conf for &os; 5.X and
later:
security.* /var/log/ipfilter.log
Or add the following statement to
/etc/syslog.conf for &os; 4.X:
local0.* /var/log/ipfilter.log
The security.* (local0
for 4.X) means to write all the logged messages to the coded
file location.
To activate the changes to /etc/syslog.conf
you can reboot or bump the syslog task into
re-reading /etc/syslog.conf by running
/etc/rc.d/syslogd reload
(killall -HUP syslogd in &os; 4.X).
Do not forget to change
/etc/newsyslog.conf to rotate the new log
you just created above.
The Format of Logged Messages
Messages generated by ipmon consist of
data fields separated by white space. Fields common to all
messages are:
The date of packet receipt.
The time of packet receipt. This is in the form
HH:MM:SS.F, for hours, minutes, seconds, and fractions of a
second (which can be several digits long).
The name of the interface the packet was processed on,
e.g. dc0 .
The group and rule number of the rule, e.g.
@0:17 .
These can be viewed with ipfstat
-in .
The action: p for passed, b for blocked, S for a short
packet, n did not match any rules, L for a log rule. The
order of precedence in showing flags is: S, p, b, n, L. A
capital P or B means that the packet has been logged due to
a global logging setting, not a particular rule.
The addresses. This is actually three fields: the
source address and port (separated by a comma), the ->
symbol, and the destination address and port.
209.53.17.22,80 -> 198.73.220.17,1722.
PR followed by the protocol name or
number, e.g. PR tcp.
len followed by the header length
and total length of the packet, e.g. len 20 40.
If the packet is a TCP packet, there
will be an additional field starting with a hyphen followed by
letters corresponding to any flags that were set. See the
&man.ipmon.8; manual page for a list of letters and their
flags.
If the packet is an ICMP packet, there will be two fields
- at the end, the first always being ICMP
, and the
+ at the end, the first always being ¡uICMP¡v, and the
next being the ICMP message and sub-message type, separated by
a slash, e.g. ICMP 3/3 for a port unreachable message.
Building the Rule Script with Symbolic
Substitution
Some experienced IPF users create a file containing the
rules and code them in a manner compatible with running them as
a script with symbolic substitution. The major benefit of
doing this is that you only have to change the value associated
with the symbolic name and when the script is run all the rules
containing the symbolic name will have the value substituted in
the rules. Being a script, you can use symbolic substitution
to code frequently used values and substitute them in multiple
rules. You will see this in the following example.
The script syntax used here is compatible with the sh, csh,
and tcsh shells.
Symbolic substitution fields are prefixed with a dollar
sign: $ .
Symbolic fields do not have the $ prefix.
The value to populate the symbolic field must be enclosed
with double quotes (" ).
Start your rule file with something like this:
- ############# Start of IPF rules script ########################
+ ############# IPF ³W«h©R¥O½Zªº¶}©l ########################
-oif="dc0" # name of the outbound interface
-odns="192.0.2.11" # ISP's DNS server IP address
-myip="192.0.2.7" # my static IP address from ISP
+oif="dc0" # ¹ï¥~ºô¸ô¸Ë¸mªº¦WºÙ
+odns="192.0.2.11" # ISP ªº DNS ¦øªA¾¹ IP ¦ì§}
+myip="192.0.2.7" # ±q§Úªº ISP ´£¨ÑªºÀRºA IP
ks="keep state"
fks="flags S keep state"
# You can choose between building /etc/ipf.rules file
# from this script or running this script "as is".
#
# Uncomment only one line and comment out another.
#
# 1) This can be used for building /etc/ipf.rules:
#cat > /etc/ipf.rules << EOF
#
# 2) This can be used to run script "as is":
/sbin/ipf -Fa -f - << EOF
# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
pass out quick on $oif proto tcp from any to $odns port = 53 $fks
pass out quick on $oif proto udp from any to $odns port = 53 $ks
# Allow out non-secure standard www function
pass out quick on $oif proto tcp from $myip to any port = 80 $fks
# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
pass out quick on $oif proto tcp from $myip to any port = 443 $fks
EOF
################## End of IPF rules script ########################
That is all there is to it. The rules are not important in
this example; how the symbolic substitution fields are
populated and used are. If the above example was in a file
named /etc/ipf.rules.script , you could
reload these rules by entering the following command:
&prompt.root; sh /etc/ipf.rules.script
There is one problem with using a rules file with embedded
symbolics: IPF does not understand symbolic substitution, and
cannot read such scripts directly.
This script can be used in one of two ways:
Uncomment the line that begins with
cat , and comment out the line that
begins with /sbin/ipf . Place
ipfilter_enable="YES" into
/etc/rc.conf as usual, and run script
once after each modification to create or update
/etc/ipf.rules .
Disable IPFILTER in system startup scripts by adding
ipfilter_enable="NO" (this is default
value) into /etc/rc.conf file.
Add a script like the following to your
/usr/local/etc/rc.d/ startup
directory. The script should have an obvious name like
ipf.loadrules.sh . The
.sh extension is mandatory.
#!/bin/sh
sh /etc/ipf.rules.script
The permissions on this script file must be read,
write, execute for owner root .
&prompt.root; chmod 700 /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ipf.loadrules.sh
- Now, when your system boots, your IPF rules will be
- loaded.
+ ±q²{¦b°_¡A·í§Aªº¨t²Î¶}¾÷®É¡A
+ §Aªº IPF ³W«h±N·|³Q¸ü¤J
- IPF Rule Sets
+ IPF ³W«h
A rule set is a group of ipf rules coded to pass or block
packets based on the values contained in the packet. The
bi-directional exchange of packets between hosts comprises a
session conversation. The firewall rule set processes the
packet two times, once on its arrival from the public Internet
host and again as it leaves for its return trip back to the
public Internet host. Each TCP/IP service (i.e. telnet, www,
mail, etc.) is predefined by its protocol, source and
destination IP address, or the source and destination port
number. This is the basic selection criteria used to create
rules which will pass or block services.
IPFILTER
rule processing order
IPF was originally written using a rules processing logic
- of the last matching rule wins
and used only
+ of ¡uthe last matching rule wins¡v and used only
stateless rules. Over time IPF has been enhanced to include a
- quick
option and a stateful keep
- state
option which drastically modernized the rule
+ ¡uquick¡v option and a stateful ¡ukeep
+ state¡v option which drastically modernized the rule
processing logic.
The instructions contained in this section are based on
- using rules that contain the quick
option and
- the stateful keep state
option. This is the
+ using rules that contain the ¡uquick¡v option and
+ the stateful ¡ukeep state¡v option. This is the
basic framework for coding an inclusive firewall rule
set.
An inclusive firewall only allows services matching the
rules through. This way you can control what services can
originate behind the firewall destined for the public Internet
and also control the services which can originate from the
public Internet accessing your private network. Everything
else is blocked and logged by default design. Inclusive
firewalls are much, much securer than exclusive firewall rule
sets and is the only rule set type covered herein.
When working with the firewall rules, be very
careful . Some configurations will
lock you out of the server. To be on the safe
side, you may wish to consider performing the initial
firewall configuration from the local console rather than
doing it remotely e.g. via
ssh .
Rule Syntax
IPFILTER
rule syntax
The rule syntax presented here has been simplified to only
- address the modern stateful rule context and first
- matching rule wins
logic. For the complete legacy rule
+ address the modern stateful rule context and ¡ufirst
+ matching rule wins¡v logic. For the complete legacy rule
syntax description see the &man.ipf.8; manual page.
A # character is used to mark the start
of a comment and may appear at the end of a rule line or on its
own line. Blank lines are ignored.
Rules contain keywords. These keywords have to be coded in
a specific order from left to right on the line. Keywords are
identified in bold type. Some keywords have sub-options which
may be keywords themselves and also include more sub-options.
Each of the headings in the below syntax has a bold section
header which expands on the content.
ACTION IN-OUT OPTIONS SELECTION STATEFUL PROTO
SRC_ADDR,DST_ADDR OBJECT PORT_NUM TCP_FLAG
STATEFUL
ACTION = block | pass
IN-OUT = in | out
OPTIONS = log | quick | on
interface-name
SELECTION = proto value |
source/destination IP | port = number | flags
flag-value
PROTO = tcp/udp | udp | tcp |
icmp
SRC_ADD,DST_ADDR = all | from
object to object
OBJECT = IP address | any
PORT_NUM = port number
TCP_FLAG = S
STATEFUL = keep state
ACTION
The action indicates what to do with the packet if it
matches the rest of the filter rule. Each rule
must have a action. The following
actions are recognized:
block indicates that the packet should
be dropped if the selection parameters match the
packet.
pass indicates that the packet should
exit the firewall if the selection parameters match the
packet.
IN-OUT
A mandatory requirement is that each filter rule
explicitly state which side of the I/O it is to be used on.
The next keyword must be either in or out and one or the
other has to be coded or the rule will not pass syntax
checks.
in means this rule is being applied
against an inbound packet which has just been received on the
interface facing the public Internet.
out means this rule is being applied
against an outbound packet destined for the interface facing
the public Internet.
OPTIONS
These options must be used in the order shown
here.
log indicates that the packet header
will be written to
the ipl log (as described in the
LOGGING section below) if the selection parameters match the
packet.
quick indicates that if the selection
parameters match the packet, this rule will be the last rule
- checked, allowing a short-circuit
path to avoid processing
+ checked, allowing a ¡ushort-circuit¡v path to avoid processing
any following rules for this packet. This option is a
mandatory requirement for the modernized rules processing
logic.
on indicates the interface name to be
incorporated into the selection parameters. Interface names
are as displayed by &man.ifconfig.8;. Using this option, the
rule will only match if the packet is going through that
interface in the specified direction (in/out). This option
is a mandatory requirement for the modernized rules
processing logic.
When a packet is logged, the headers of the packet are
written to the IPL packet logging pseudo-device.
Immediately following the log keyword, the following
qualifiers may be used (in this order):
body indicates that the first 128
bytes of the packet contents will be logged after the
headers.
first If the log
- keyword is being used in conjunction with a keep
- state
option, it is recommended that this option is
+ keyword is being used in conjunction with a ¡ukeep
+ state¡v option, it is recommended that this option is
also applied so that only the triggering packet is logged and
- not every packet which thereafter matches the keep
- state
information.
+ not every packet which thereafter matches the ¡ukeep
+ state¡v information.
SELECTION
The keywords described in this section are used to
describe attributes of the packet to be interrogated when
determining whether rules match or not. There is a
keyword subject, and it has sub-option keywords, one of
which has to be selected. The following general-purpose
attributes are provided for matching, and must be used in
this order:
PROTO
proto is the subject keyword and must
be coded along with one of its corresponding keyword
sub-option values. The value allows a specific protocol to
be matched against. This option is a mandatory requirement
for the modernized rules processing logic.
tcp/udp | udp | tcp | icmp or any
protocol names found in /etc/protocols
are recognized and may be used. The special protocol keyword
tcp/udp may be used to match either a
TCP or a UDP packet, and has been added as
a convenience to save duplication of otherwise identical
rules.
SRC_ADDR/DST_ADDR
The all keyword is essentially a
- synonym for from any to any
with no other
+ synonym for ¡ufrom any to any¡v with no other
match parameters.
from src to dst : the from and to
keywords are used to match against IP addresses. Rules must
specify BOTH source and destination parameters.
any is a special keyword that matches any
- IP address. Examples of use: from any to any
- or from 0.0.0.0/0 to any
or from any to
- 0.0.0.0/0
or from 0.0.0.0 to any
or
- from any to 0.0.0.0
.
+ IP address. Examples of use: ¡ufrom any to any¡v
+ or ¡ufrom 0.0.0.0/0 to any¡v or from any to
+ 0.0.0.0/0¡v or ¡ufrom 0.0.0.0 to any
or
+ ¡ufrom any to 0.0.0.0¡v.
IP addresses may be specified as a dotted IP address
numeric form/mask-length, or as single dotted IP address
numeric form.
There is no way to match ranges of IP addresses which
do not express themselves easily as mask-length. See this
web page for help on writing mask-length: .
PORT
If a port match is included, for either or both of source
and destination, then it is only applied to
TCP and UDP packets. When composing port
comparisons, either the service name from
/etc/services or an integer port number
may be used. When the port appears as part of the from
object, it matches the source port number; when it appears
as part of the to object, it matches the destination port
number. The use of the port option with the
to object is a mandatory requirement for
the modernized rules processing logic. Example of use:
- from any to any port = 80
+ ¡ufrom any to any port = 80¡v
Port comparisons may be done in a number of forms, with
a number of comparison operators, or port ranges may be
specified.
port "=" | "!=" | "<" | ">" | "<=" | ">=" |
"eq" | "ne" | "lt" | "gt" | "le" | "ge".
To specify port ranges, port "<>" |
"><"
Following the source and destination matching
parameters, the following two parameters are mandatory
requirements for the modernized rules processing
logic.
TCP _FLAG
Flags are only effective for TCP
filtering. The letters represents one of the possible flags
that can be interrogated in the TCP packet
header.
The modernized rules processing logic uses the
flags S parameter to identify the tcp
session start request.
STATEFUL
keep state indicates that on a pass
rule, any packets that match the rules selection parameters
should activate the stateful filtering facility.
This option is a mandatory requirement for the
modernized rules processing logic.
Stateful Filtering
IPFILTER
stateful filtering
Stateful filtering treats traffic as a bi-directional
exchange of packets comprising a session conversation. When
activated, keep-state dynamically generates internal rules for
each anticipated packet being exchanged during the
bi-directional session conversation. It has the interrogation
abilities to determine if the session conversation between the
originating sender and the destination are following the valid
procedure of bi-directional packet exchange. Any packets that
do not properly fit the session conversation template are
automatically rejected as impostors.
Keep state will also allow ICMP packets related to a
TCP or UDP session through. So if you get
ICMP type 3 code 4 in response to some web surfing allowed out
by a keep state rule, they will be automatically allowed in.
Any packet that IPF can be certain is part of an active
session, even if it is a different protocol, will be let
in.
What happens is:
Packets destined to go out the interface connected to the
public Internet are first checked against the dynamic state
table, if the packet matches the next expected packet
comprising in a active session conversation, then it exits the
firewall and the state of the session conversation flow is
updated in the dynamic state table, the remaining packets get
checked against the outbound rule set.
Packets coming in to the interface connected to the public
Internet are first checked against the dynamic state table, if
the packet matches the next expected packet comprising a
active session conversation, then it exits the firewall and
the state of the session conversation flow is updated in the
dynamic state table, the remaining packets get checked against
the inbound rule set.
When the conversation completes it is removed from the
dynamic state table.
Stateful filtering allows you to focus on blocking/passing
new sessions. If the new session is passed, all its subsequent
packets will be allowed through automatically and any impostors
automatically rejected. If a new session is blocked, none of
its subsequent packets will be allowed through. Stateful
filtering has technically advanced interrogation abilities
capable of defending against the flood of different attack
methods currently employed by attackers.
Inclusive Rule Set Example
The following rule set is an example of how to code a very
secure inclusive type of firewall. An inclusive firewall only
allows services matching pass rules through and blocks all
other by default. All firewalls have at the minimum two
interfaces which have to have rules to allow the firewall to
function.
All &unix; flavored systems including &os; are designed to
use interface lo0 and IP address
127.0.0.1 for internal
communication within the operating system. The firewall rules
must contain rules to allow free unmolested movement of these
special internally used packets.
The interface which faces the public Internet is the one
where you place your rules to authorize and control access out
to the public Internet and access requests arriving from the
public Internet. This can be your user PPP
tun0 interface or your NIC that is
connected to your DSL or cable modem.
In cases where one or more NICs are cabled to private LANs
behind the firewall, those interfaces must have a rule coded to
allow free unmolested movement of packets originating from
those LAN interfaces.
The rules should be first organized into three major
sections: all the free unmolested interfaces, the public
interface outbound, and the public interface inbound.
The rules in each of the public interface sections should
have the most frequently matched rules placed before less
commonly matched rules, with the last rule in the section
blocking and logging all packets on that interface and
direction.
The Outbound section in the following rule set only
contains 'pass' rules which contain selection values that
uniquely identify the service that is authorized for public
Internet access. All the rules have the 'quick', 'on',
'proto', 'port', and 'keep state' option coded. The 'proto
tcp' rules have the 'flag' option included to identify the
session start request as the triggering packet to activate the
stateful facility.
The Inbound section has all the blocking of undesirable
packets first, for two different reasons. The first is that
these things being blocked may be part of an otherwise valid
packet which may be allowed in by the later authorized service
rules. The second reason is that by having a rule that
explicitly blocks selected packets that I receive on an
infrequent basis and that I do not want to see in the log, they
will not be caught by the last rule in the section which blocks
and logs all packets which have fallen through the rules. The
last rule in the section which blocks and logs all packets is
how you create the legal evidence needed to prosecute the
people who are attacking your system.
Another thing you should take note of, is there is no
response returned for any of the undesirable stuff, their
packets just get dropped and vanish. This way the attacker
has no knowledge if his packets have reached your system. The
less the attackers can learn about your system, the more
time they must invest before actually doing something bad.
The inbound 'nmap OS fingerprint' attempts rule I log
the first occurrence because this is something a attacker
would do.
Any time you see log messages on a rule with 'log first'.
You should do an ipfstat -hio command to see
the number of times the rule has been matched so you know if
you are being flooded, i.e. under attack.
When you log packets with port numbers you do not
recognize, look it up in /etc/services or
go to
and do a port number lookup to find what the purpose of that
port number is.
Check out this link for port numbers used by Trojans .
The following rule set is a complete very secure
'inclusive' type of firewall rule set that I have used on my
system. You can not go wrong using this rule set for your own.
Just comment out any pass rules for services that you do not
want to authorize.
If you see messages in your log that you want to stop
seeing just add a block rule in the inbound section.
You have to change the dc0
interface name in every rule to the interface name of the Nic
card that connects your system to the public Internet. For
user PPP it would be tun0 .
Add the following statements to
/etc/ipf.rules :
#################################################################
# No restrictions on Inside LAN Interface for private network
# Not needed unless you have LAN
#################################################################
#pass out quick on xl0 all
#pass in quick on xl0 all
#################################################################
# No restrictions on Loopback Interface
#################################################################
pass in quick on lo0 all
pass out quick on lo0 all
#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Outbound Section)
# Interrogate session start requests originating from behind the
# firewall on the private network
# or from this gateway server destine for the public Internet.
#################################################################
# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
# xxx must be the IP address of your ISP's DNS.
# Dup these lines if your ISP has more than one DNS server
# Get the IP addresses from /etc/resolv.conf file
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to xxx port = 53 flags S keep state
pass out quick on dc0 proto udp from any to xxx port = 53 keep state
# Allow out access to my ISP's DHCP server for cable or DSL networks.
# This rule is not needed for 'user ppp' type connection to the
# public Internet, so you can delete this whole group.
# Use the following rule and check log for IP address.
# Then put IP address in commented out rule & delete first rule
pass out log quick on dc0 proto udp from any to any port = 67 keep state
#pass out quick on dc0 proto udp from any to z.z.z.z port = 67 keep state
# Allow out non-secure standard www function
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 80 flags S keep state
# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 443 flags S keep state
# Allow out send & get email function
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 110 flags S keep state
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 25 flags S keep state
# Allow out Time
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 37 flags S keep state
# Allow out nntp news
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 119 flags S keep state
# Allow out gateway & LAN users non-secure FTP ( both passive & active modes)
# This function uses the IPNAT built in FTP proxy function coded in
# the nat rules file to make this single rule function correctly.
# If you want to use the pkg_add command to install application packages
# on your gateway system you need this rule.
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21 flags S keep state
# Allow out secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 22 flags S keep state
# Allow out non-secure Telnet
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 23 flags S keep state
# Allow out FBSD CVSUP function
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 5999 flags S keep state
# Allow out ping to public Internet
pass out quick on dc0 proto icmp from any to any icmp-type 8 keep state
# Allow out whois for LAN PC to public Internet
pass out quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 43 flags S keep state
# Block and log only the first occurrence of everything
# else that's trying to get out.
# This rule enforces the block all by default logic.
block out log first quick on dc0 all
#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Inbound Section)
# Interrogate packets originating from the public Internet
# destine for this gateway server or the private network.
#################################################################
# Block all inbound traffic from non-routable or reserved address spaces
block in quick on dc0 from 192.168.0.0/16 to any #RFC 1918 private IP
block in quick on dc0 from 172.16.0.0/12 to any #RFC 1918 private IP
block in quick on dc0 from 10.0.0.0/8 to any #RFC 1918 private IP
block in quick on dc0 from 127.0.0.0/8 to any #loopback
block in quick on dc0 from 0.0.0.0/8 to any #loopback
block in quick on dc0 from 169.254.0.0/16 to any #DHCP auto-config
block in quick on dc0 from 192.0.2.0/24 to any #reserved for docs
block in quick on dc0 from 204.152.64.0/23 to any #Sun cluster interconnect
block in quick on dc0 from 224.0.0.0/3 to any #Class D & E multicast
##### Block a bunch of different nasty things. ############
# That I do not want to see in the log
# Block frags
block in quick on dc0 all with frags
# Block short tcp packets
block in quick on dc0 proto tcp all with short
# block source routed packets
block in quick on dc0 all with opt lsrr
block in quick on dc0 all with opt ssrr
# Block nmap OS fingerprint attempts
# Log first occurrence of these so I can get their IP address
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any flags FUP
# Block anything with special options
block in quick on dc0 all with ipopts
# Block public pings
block in quick on dc0 proto icmp all icmp-type 8
# Block ident
block in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 113
# Block all Netbios service. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
# Netbios is MS/Windows sharing services.
# Block MS/Windows hosts2 name server requests 81
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 137
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 138
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 139
block in log first quick on dc0 proto tcp/udp from any to any port = 81
# Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. This rule must contain
# the IP address of your ISP's DHCP server as it's the only
# authorized source to send this packet type. Only necessary for
# cable or DSL configurations. This rule is not needed for
# 'user ppp' type connection to the public Internet.
# This is the same IP address you captured and
# used in the outbound section.
pass in quick on dc0 proto udp from z.z.z.z to any port = 68 keep state
# Allow in standard www function because I have apache server
pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 80 flags S keep state
# Allow in non-secure Telnet session from public Internet
# labeled non-secure because ID/PW passed over public Internet as clear text.
# Delete this sample group if you do not have telnet server enabled.
#pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 23 flags S keep state
# Allow in secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP from public Internet
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
pass in quick on dc0 proto tcp from any to any port = 22 flags S keep state
# Block and log only first occurrence of all remaining traffic
# coming into the firewall. The logging of only the first
# occurrence stops a .denial of service. attack targeted
# at filling up your log file space.
# This rule enforces the block all by default logic.
block in log first quick on dc0 all
################### End of rules file #####################################
NAT
NAT
IP masquerading
NAT
network address translation
NAT
NAT stands for Network Address
Translation. To those familiar with &linux;, this concept is
called IP Masquerading; NAT and IP
Masquerading are the same thing. One of the many things the
IPF NAT function enables is the ability to
have a private Local Area Network (LAN) behind the firewall
sharing a single ISP assigned IP address on the public
Internet.
You may ask why would someone want to do this. ISPs
normally assign a dynamic IP address to their non-commercial
users. Dynamic means that the IP address can be different each
time you dial in and log on to your ISP, or for cable and DSL
modem users when you power off and then power on your modems
you can get assigned a different IP address. This IP address
is how you are known to the public Internet.
Now lets say you have five PCs at home and each one needs
Internet access. You would have to pay your ISP for an
individual Internet account for each PC and have five phone
lines.
With NAT you only need a single account
with your ISP, then cable your other four PCs to a switch and
the switch to the NIC in your &os; system which is going to
service your LAN as a gateway. NAT will
automatically translate the private LAN IP address for each
separate PC on the LAN to the single public IP address as it
exits the firewall bound for the public Internet. It also does
the reverse translation for returning packets.
NAT is most often accomplished without
the approval, or knowledge, of your ISP and in most cases is
grounds for your ISP terminating your account if found out.
Commercial users pay a lot more for their Internet connection
and usually get assigned a block of static IP address which
never change. The ISP also expects and consents to their
Commercial customers using NAT for their
internal private LANs.
There is a special range of IP addresses reserved for
NAT ed private LAN IP address. According to
RFC 1918, you can use the following IP ranges for private nets
which will never be routed directly to the public
Internet:
Start IP 10.0.0.0
-
Ending IP 10.255.255.255
Start IP 172.16.0.0
-
Ending IP 172.31.255.255
Start IP 192.168.0.0
-
Ending IP 192.168.255.255
IPNAT
NAT
and IPFILTER
ipnat
NAT rules are loaded by using the
ipnat command. Typically the
NAT rules are stored in
/etc/ipnat.rules . See &man.ipnat.1; for
details.
When changing the NAT rules after
NAT has been started, make your changes to
the file containing the NAT rules, then run ipnat command with
the -CF flags to delete the internal in use
NAT rules and flush the contents of the
translation table of all active entries.
To reload the NAT rules issue a command
like this:
&prompt.root; ipnat -CF -f /etc/ipnat.rules
To display some statistics about your
NAT , use this command:
&prompt.root; ipnat -s
To list the NAT table's current
mappings, use this command:
&prompt.root; ipnat -l
To turn verbose mode on, and display information relating
to rule processing and active rules/table entries:
&prompt.root; ipnat -v
IPNAT Rules
NAT rules are very flexible and can
accomplish many different things to fit the needs of commercial
and home users.
The rule syntax presented here has been simplified to what
is most commonly used in a non-commercial environment. For a
complete rule syntax description see the &man.ipnat.5; manual
page.
The syntax for a NAT rule looks
something like this:
map IF LAN_IP_RANGE -> PUBLIC_ADDRESS
The keyword map starts the rule.
Replace IF with the external
interface.
The LAN_IP_RANGE is what your
internal clients use for IP Addressing, usually this is
something like 192.168.1.0/24 .
The PUBLIC_ADDRESS can either
be the external IP address or the special keyword
0/32 , which means to use the IP address
assigned to IF .
How NAT works
A packet arrives at the firewall from the LAN with a public
destination. It passes through the outbound filter rules,
NAT gets his turn at the packet and applies
its rules top down, first matching rule wins.
NAT tests each of its rules against the
packets interface name and source IP address. When a packets
interface name matches a NAT rule then the
[source IP address, i.e. private LAN IP address] of the packet
is checked to see if it falls within the IP address range
specified to the left of the arrow symbol on the
NAT rule. On a match the packet has its
source IP address rewritten with the public IP address
obtained by the 0/32 keyword.
NAT posts a entry in its internal
NAT table so when the packet returns from
the public Internet it can be mapped back to its original
private IP address and then passed to the filter rules for
processing.
Enabling IPNAT
To enable IPNAT add these statements to
/etc/rc.conf .
To enable your machine to route traffic between
interfaces:
gateway_enable="YES"
To start IPNAT automatically each
time:
ipnat_enable="YES"
To specify where to load the IPNAT rules
from:
ipnat_rules="/etc/ipnat.rules"
NAT for a very large LAN
For networks that have large numbers of PC's on the LAN or
networks with more than a single LAN, the process of funneling
all those private IP addresses into a single public IP address
becomes a resource problem that may cause problems with the
same port numbers being used many times across many
NAT ed LAN PC's, causing collisions. There
are two ways to relieve this resource problem.
Assigning Ports to Use
A normal NAT rule would look like:
map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 0/32
In the above rule the packet's source port is unchanged
as the packet passes through IPNAT . By
adding the portmap keyword you can tell
IPNAT to only use source ports in a range.
For example the following rule will tell
IPNAT to modify the source port to be
within that range:
map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 0/32 portmap tcp/udp 20000:60000
Additionally we can make things even easier by using the
auto keyword to tell
IPNAT to determine by itself which ports
are available to use:
map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 0/32 portmap tcp/udp auto
Using a pool of public addresses
In very large LANs there comes a point where there are
just too many LAN addresses to fit into a single public
address. By changing the following rule:
map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 204.134.75.1
Currently this rule maps all connections through 204.134.75.1 . This can be changed
to specify a range:
map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 204.134.75.1-10
Or a subnet using CIDR notation such as:
map dc0 192.168.1.0/24 -> 204.134.75.0/24
Port Redirection
A very common practice is to have a web server, email
server, database server and DNS server each segregated to a
different PC on the LAN. In this case the traffic from these
servers still have to be NAT ed, but there
has to be some way to direct the inbound traffic to the
correct LAN PCs. IPNAT has the redirection
facilities of NAT to solve this problem.
Lets say you have your web server on LAN address 10.0.10.25 and your single public IP
address is 20.20.20.5 you would
code the rule like this:
rdr dc0 20.20.20.5/32 port 80 -> 10.0.10.25 port 80
or:
rdr dc0 0/32 port 80 -> 10.0.10.25 port 80
or for a LAN DNS Server on LAN address of 10.0.10.33 that needs to receive
public DNS requests:
rdr dc0 20.20.20.5/32 port 53 -> 10.0.10.33 port 53 udp
FTP and NAT
FTP is a dinosaur left over from the time before the
Internet as it is known today, when research universities were
leased lined together and FTP was used to share files among
research Scientists. This was a time when data security was
not a consideration. Over the years the FTP protocol became
buried into the backbone of the emerging Internet and its
username and password being sent in clear text was never
changed to address new security concerns. FTP has two flavors,
it can run in active mode or passive mode. The difference is
in how the data channel is acquired. Passive mode is more
secure as the data channel is acquired be the ordinal ftp
session requester. For a real good explanation of FTP and the
different modes see .
IPNAT Rules
IPNAT has a special built in FTP proxy
option which can be specified on the NAT
map rule. It can monitor all outbound packet traffic for FTP
active or passive start session requests and dynamically
create temporary filter rules containing only the port number
really in use for the data channel. This eliminates the
security risk FTP normally exposes the firewall to from
having large ranges of high order port numbers open.
This rule will handle all the traffic for the internal
LAN:
map dc0 10.0.10.0/29 -> 0/32 proxy port 21 ftp/tcp
This rule handles the FTP traffic from the
gateway:
map dc0 0.0.0.0/0 -> 0/32 proxy port 21 ftp/tcp
This rule handles all non-FTP traffic from the internal
LAN:
map dc0 10.0.10.0/29 -> 0/32
The FTP map rule goes before our regular map rule. All
packets are tested against the first rule from the top.
Matches on interface name, then private LAN source IP
address, and then is it a FTP packet. If all that matches
then the special FTP proxy creates temp filter rules to let
the FTP session packets pass in and out, in addition to also
NAT ing the FTP packets. All LAN packets
that are not FTP do not match the first rule and fall
through to the third rule and are tested, matching on
interface and source IP, then are
NAT ed.
IPNAT FTP Filter Rules
Only one filter rule is needed for FTP if the
NAT FTP proxy is used.
Without the FTP Proxy you will need the following three
rules:
# Allow out LAN PC client FTP to public Internet
# Active and passive modes
pass out quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21 flags S keep state
# Allow out passive mode data channel high order port numbers
pass out quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port > 1024 flags S keep state
# Active mode let data channel in from FTP server
pass in quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 20 flags S keep state
FTP NAT Proxy Bug
As of &os; 4.9 which includes IPFILTER version 3.4.31
the FTP proxy works as documented during the FTP session
until the session is told to close. When the close happens
packets returning from the remote FTP server are blocked and
logged coming in on port 21. The NAT
FTP/proxy appears to remove its temp rules prematurely,
before receiving the response from the remote FTP server
acknowledging the close. A problem report was posted to the
IPF mailing list.
The solution is to add a filter rule to get rid of these
unwanted log messages or do nothing and ignore FTP inbound
error messages in your log. Most people do not use outbound
FTP too often.
block in quick on rl0 proto tcp from any to any port = 21
IPFW
firewall
IPFW
This section is work in progress. The contents might
not be accurate at all times.
The IPFIREWALL (IPFW) is a &os; sponsored firewall software
application authored and maintained by &os; volunteer staff
members. It uses the legacy stateless rules and a legacy rule
coding technique to achieve what is referred to as Simple
Stateful logic.
The IPFW sample rule set (found in
/etc/rc.firewall ) in the standard &os;
install is rather simple and it is not expected that it used
directly without modifications. The example does not use
stateful filtering, which is beneficial in most setups, so it
will not be used as base for this section.
The IPFW stateless rule syntax is empowered with technically
sophisticated selection capabilities which far surpasses the
knowledge level of the customary firewall installer. IPFW is
targeted at the professional user or the advanced technical
computer hobbyist who have advanced packet selection
requirements. A high degree of detailed knowledge into how
different protocols use and create their unique packet header
information is necessary before the power of the IPFW rules can
be unleashed. Providing that level of explanation is out of the
scope of this section of the handbook.
IPFW is composed of seven components, the primary component
is the kernel firewall filter rule processor and its integrated
packet accounting facility, the logging facility, the 'divert'
rule which triggers the NAT facility, and the
advanced special purpose facilities, the dummynet traffic shaper
facilities, the 'fwd rule' forward facility, the bridge
facility, and the ipstealth facility.
Enabling IPFW
IPFW
enabling
IPFW is included in the basic &os; install as a separate
run time loadable module. The system will dynamically load the
kernel module when the rc.conf statement
firewall_enable="YES" is used. You do not
need to compile IPFW into the &os; kernel unless you want
NAT function enabled.
After rebooting your system with
firewall_enable="YES" in
rc.conf the following white highlighted
message is displayed on the screen as part of the boot
process:
ipfw2 initialized, divert disabled, rule-based forwarding disabled, default to deny, logging disabled
The loadable module does have logging ability
compiled in. To enable logging and set the verbose logging
limit, there is a knob you can set in
/etc/sysctl.conf by adding these
statements, logging will be enabled on future reboots:
net.inet.ip.fw.verbose=1
net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit=5
Kernel Options
kernel options
IPFIREWALL
kernel options
IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE
kernel options
IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT
IPFW
kernel options
It is not a mandatory requirement that you enable IPFW by
compiling the following options into the &os; kernel unless
you need NAT function. It is presented here
as background information.
options IPFIREWALL
This option enables IPFW as part of the kernel
options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE
Enables logging of packets that pass through IPFW and have
the 'log' keyword specified in the rule set.
options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=5
Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8;
on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in
hostile environments which you want to log firewall activity.
This will close a possible denial of service attack via syslog
flooding.
kernel options
IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT
options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT
This option will allow everything to pass through the
firewall by default, which is a good idea when you are first
setting up your firewall.
options IPV6FIREWALL
options IPV6FIREWALL_VERBOSE
options IPV6FIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT
options IPV6FIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT
These options are exactly the same as the IPv4 options but
they are for IPv6. If you do not use IPv6 you might want to
use IPV6FIREWALL without any rules to block all IPv6
kernel options
IPDIVERT
options IPDIVERT
This enables the use of NAT
functionality.
If you do not include IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT or set
your rules to allow incoming packets you will block all
packets going to and from this machine.
/etc/rc.conf Options
If you do not have IPFW compiled into your kernel you will
need to load it with the following statement in your
/etc/rc.conf :
firewall_enable="YES"
Set the script to run to activate your rules:
firewall_script="/etc/ipfw.rules"
Enable logging:
firewall_logging="YES"
The only thing that the
firewall_logging variable will do is
setting the net.inet.ip.fw.verbose sysctl
variable to the value of 1 (see ). There is no
rc.conf variable to set log limitations,
but it can be set via sysctl variable, manually or from the
/etc/sysctl.conf file:
net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit=5
If your machine is acting as a gateway, i.e. providing
Network Address Translation (NAT) via &man.natd.8;, please
refer to for information
regarding the required /etc/rc.conf
options.
The IPFW Command
ipfw
The ipfw command is the normal vehicle for making manual
single rule additions or deletions to the firewall active
internal rules while it is running. The problem with using
this method is once your system is shutdown or halted all the
rules you added or changed or deleted are lost. Writing all
your rules in a file and using that file to load the rules at
boot time, or to replace in mass the currently running firewall
rules with changes you made to the files content is the
recommended method used here.
The ipfw command is still a very useful to display the
running firewall rules to the console screen. The IPFW
accounting facility dynamically creates a counter for each
rule that counts each packet that matches the rule. During the
process of testing a rule, listing the rule with its counter
is the one of the ways of determining if the rule is
functioning.
To list all the rules in sequence:
&prompt.root; ipfw list
To list all the rules with a time stamp of when the last
time the rule was matched:
&prompt.root; ipfw -t list
To list the accounting information, packet count for
matched rules along with the rules themselves. The first
column is the rule number, followed by the number of outgoing
matched packets, followed by the number of incoming matched
packets, and then the rule itself.
&prompt.root; ipfw -a list
List the dynamic rules in addition to the static
rules:
&prompt.root; ipfw -d list
Also show the expired dynamic rules:
&prompt.root; ipfw -d -e list
Zero the counters:
&prompt.root; ipfw zero
Zero the counters for just rule
NUM :
&prompt.root; ipfw zero NUM
IPFW Rule Sets
A rule set is a group of ipfw rules coded to allow or deny
packets based on the values contained in the packet. The
bi-directional exchange of packets between hosts comprises a
session conversation. The firewall rule set processes the
packet twice: once on its arrival from the public Internet host
and again as it leaves for its return trip back to the public
Internet host. Each tcp/ip service (i.e. telnet, www, mail,
etc.) is predefined by its protocol, and port number. This is
the basic selection criteria used to create rules which will
allow or deny services.
IPFW
rule processing order
When a packet enters the firewall it is compared against
the first rule in the rule set and progress one rule at a time
moving from top to bottom of the set in ascending rule number
sequence order. When the packet matches a rule selection
parameters, the rules action field value is executed and the
search of the rule set terminates for that packet. This is
- referred to as the first match wins
search
+ referred to as ¡uthe first match wins¡v search
method. If the packet does not match any of the rules, it gets
caught by the mandatory ipfw default rule, number 65535 which
denies all packets and discards them without any reply back to
the originating destination.
The search continues after count ,
skipto and tee
rules.
The instructions contained here are based on using rules
that contain the stateful 'keep state', 'limit', 'in'/'out',
and via options. This is the basic framework for coding an
inclusive type firewall rule set.
An inclusive firewall only allows services matching the
rules through. This way you can control what services can
originate behind the firewall destine for the public Internet
and also control the services which can originate from the
public Internet accessing your private network. Everything
else is denied by default design. Inclusive firewalls are
much, much more secure than exclusive firewall rule sets and
is the only rule set type covered here in.
When working with the firewall rules be careful, you can
end up locking your self out.
Rule Syntax
IPFW
rule syntax
The rule syntax presented here has been simplified to
what is necessary to create a standard inclusive type
firewall rule set. For a complete rule syntax description
see the &man.ipfw.8; manual page.
Rules contain keywords: these keywords have to be coded
in a specific order from left to right on the line. Keywords
are identified in bold type. Some keywords have sub-options
which may be keywords them selves and also include more
sub-options.
# is used to mark the start of a
comment and may appear at the end of a rule line or on its
own lines. Blank lines are ignored.
CMD RULE_NUMBER ACTION LOGGING SELECTION
STATEFUL
CMD
Each new rule has to be prefixed with
add to add the
rule to the internal table.
RULE_NUMBER
Each rule has to have a rule number to go with
it.
ACTION
A rule can be associated with one of the following
actions, which will be executed when the packet matches
the selection criterion of the rule.
allow | accept | pass |
permit
These all mean the same thing which is to allow packets
that match the rule to exit the firewall rule processing.
The search terminates at this rule.
check-state
Checks the packet against the dynamic rules table. If
a match is found, execute the action associated with the
rule which generated this dynamic rule, otherwise move to
the next rule. The check-state rule does not have
selection criterion. If no check-state rule is present in
the rule set, the dynamic rules table is checked at the
first keep-state or limit rule.
deny | drop
Both words mean the same thing which is to discard
packets that match this rule. The search
terminates.
Logging
log or
logamount
When a packet matches a rule with the log keyword, a
message will be logged to syslogd with a facility name of
SECURITY. The logging only occurs if the number of
packets logged so far for that particular rule does not
exceed the logamount parameter. If no logamount is
specified, the limit is taken from the sysctl variable
net.inet.ip.fw.verbose_limit. In both cases, a value of
zero removes the logging limit. Once the limit is
reached, logging can be re-enabled by clearing the
logging counter or the packet counter for that rule, see
the ipfw reset log command.
Logging is done after
all other packet matching conditions have been
successfully verified, and before performing the final
action (accept, deny) on the packet. It is up to you to
decide which rules you want to enable logging on.
Selection
The keywords described in this section are used to
describe attributes of the packet to be interrogated when
determining whether rules match the packet or not.
The following general-purpose attributes are provided for
matching, and must be used in this order:
udp | tcp | icmp
or any protocol names found in
/etc/protocols are recognized and may
be used. The value specified is protocol to be matched
against. This is a mandatory requirement.
from src to dst
The from and to keywords are used to match against IP
addresses. Rules must specify BOTH source and destination
parameters. any is a special keyword
that matches any IP address. me is a
special keyword that matches any IP address configured on
an interface in your &os; system to represent the PC the
firewall is running on (i.e. this box) as in 'from me to
any' or 'from any to me' or 'from 0.0.0.0/0 to any' or
'from any to 0.0.0.0/0' or 'from 0.0.0.0 to any' or 'from
any to 0.0.0.0' or 'from me to 0.0.0.0'. IP addresses are
specified as a dotted IP address numeric form/mask-length,
or as single dotted IP address numeric form. This is a
mandatory requirement. See this link for help on writing
mask-lengths.
port number
For protocols which support port numbers (such as
TCP and UDP). It is mandatory that you
code the port number of the service you want to match
on. Service names (from
/etc/services ) may be used instead of
numeric port values.
in | out
Matches incoming or outgoing packets, respectively.
The in and out are keywords and it is mandatory that you
code one or the other as part of your rule matching
criterion.
via IF
Matches packets going through the interface specified
by exact name. The via keyword causes
the interface to always be checked as part of the match
process.
setup
This is a mandatory keyword that identifies the session
start request for TCP packets.
keep-state
This is a mandatory> keyword. Upon a match, the
firewall will create a dynamic rule, whose default behavior
is to match bidirectional traffic between source and
destination IP/port using the same protocol.
limit {src-addr | src-port | dst-addr |
dst-port}
The firewall will only allow
N connections with the same set
of parameters as specified in the rule. One or more of
source and destination addresses and ports can be
specified. The 'limit' and 'keep-state' can not be used on
same rule. Limit provides the same stateful function as
'keep-state' plus its own functions.
Stateful Rule Option
IPFW
stateful filtering
Stateful filtering treats traffic as a bi-directional
exchange of packets comprising a session conversation. It
has the interrogation abilities to determine if the session
conversation between the originating sender and the
destination are following the valid procedure of
bi-directional packet exchange. Any packets that do not
properly fit the session conversation template are
automatically rejected as impostors.
'check-state' is used to identify where in the IPFW rules
set the packet is to be tested against the dynamic rules
facility. On a match the packet exits the firewall to
continue on its way and a new rule is dynamic created for
the next anticipated packet being exchanged during this
bi-directional session conversation. On a no match the
packet advances to the next rule in the rule set for
testing.
The dynamic rules facility is vulnerable to resource
depletion from a SYN-flood attack which would open a huge
number of dynamic rules. To counter this attack, &os;
version 4.5 added another new option named limit. This
option is used to limit the number of simultaneous session
conversations by interrogating the rules source or
destinations fields as directed by the limit option and
using the packet's IP address found there, in a search of
the open dynamic rules counting the number of times this
rule and IP address combination occurred, if this count is
greater that the value specified on the limit option, the
packet is discarded.
Logging Firewall Messages
IPFW
logging
The benefits of logging are obvious: it provides the
ability to review after the fact the rules you activated
logging on which provides information like, what packets had
been dropped, what addresses they came from, where they were
going, giving you a significant edge in tracking down
attackers.
Even with the logging facility enabled, IPFW will not
generate any rule logging on it's own. The firewall
administrator decides what rules in the rule set he wants
to log and adds the log verb to those rules. Normally only
deny rules are logged, like the deny rule for incoming
ICMP pings. It is very customary to
duplicate the ipfw default deny everything rule with the
log verb included as your last rule in the rule set. This
way you get to see all the packets that did not match any
of the rules in the rule set.
Logging is a two edged sword, if you are not careful, you
can lose yourself in the over abundance of log data and fill
your disk up with growing log files. DoS attacks that fill
up disk drives is one of the oldest attacks around. These
log message are not only written to syslogd, but also are
displayed on the root console screen and soon become very
annoying.
The IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=5
kernel option limits the number of consecutive messages
sent to the system logger syslogd, concerning the packet
matching of a given rule. When this option is enabled in
the kernel, the number of consecutive messages concerning
a particular rule is capped at the number specified. There
is nothing to be gained from 200 log messages saying the
same identical thing. For instance, five consecutive
messages concerning a particular rule would be logged to
syslogd, the remainder identical consecutive messages would
be counted and posted to the syslogd with a phrase like
this:
last message repeated 45 times
All logged packets messages are written by default to
/var/log/security file, which is defined
in the /etc/syslog.conf file.
Building a Rule Script
Most experienced IPFW users create a file containing the
rules and code them in a manner compatible with running them
as a script. The major benefit of doing this is the firewall
rules can be refreshed in mass without the need of rebooting
the system to activate the new rules. This method is very
convenient in testing new rules as the procedure can be
executed as many times as needed. Being a script, you can
use symbolic substitution to code frequent used values and
substitution them in multiple rules. You will see this in
the following example.
The script syntax used here is compatible with the 'sh',
'csh', 'tcsh' shells. Symbolic substitution fields are
prefixed with a dollar sign $. Symbolic fields do not
have the $ prefix. The value to populate the Symbolic
field must be enclosed to "double quotes".
Start your rules file like this:
############### start of example ipfw rules script #############
#
ipfw -q -f flush # Delete all rules
# Set defaults
oif="tun0" # out interface
odns="192.0.2.11" # ISP's DNS server IP address
cmd="ipfw -q add " # build rule prefix
ks="keep-state" # just too lazy to key this each time
$cmd 00500 check-state
$cmd 00502 deny all from any to any frag
$cmd 00501 deny tcp from any to any established
$cmd 00600 allow tcp from any to any 80 out via $oif setup $ks
$cmd 00610 allow tcp from any to $odns 53 out via $oif setup $ks
$cmd 00611 allow udp from any to $odns 53 out via $oif $ks
################### End of example ipfw rules script ############
That is all there is to it. The rules are not important
in this example, how the Symbolic substitution field are
populated and used are.
If the above example was in
/etc/ipfw.rules file, you could reload
these rules by entering on the command line.
&prompt.root; sh /etc/ipfw.rules
The /etc/ipfw.rules file could be
located anywhere you want and the file could be named any
thing you would like.
The same thing could also be accomplished by running
these commands by hand:
&prompt.root; ipfw -q -f flush
&prompt.root; ipfw -q add check-state
&prompt.root; ipfw -q add deny all from any to any frag
&prompt.root; ipfw -q add deny tcp from any to any established
&prompt.root; ipfw -q add allow tcp from any to any 80 out via tun0 setup keep-state
&prompt.root; ipfw -q add allow tcp from any to 192.0.2.11 53 out via tun0 setup keep-state
&prompt.root; ipfw -q add 00611 allow udp from any to 192.0.2.11 53 out via tun0 keep-state
Stateful Ruleset
The following non-NAT ed rule set is an
example of how to code a very secure 'inclusive' type of
firewall. An inclusive firewall only allows services
matching pass rules through and blocks all other by default.
All firewalls have at the minimum two interfaces which have
to have rules to allow the firewall to function.
All &unix; flavored operating systems, &os; included, are
designed to use interface lo0 and IP
address 127.0.0.1 for internal
communication with in the operating system. The firewall
rules must contain rules to allow free unmolested movement of
these special internally used packets.
The interface which faces the public Internet, is the one
which you code your rules to authorize and control access out
to the public Internet and access requests arriving from the
public Internet. This can be your ppp
tun0 interface or your NIC that is
connected to your DSL or cable modem.
In cases where one or more than one NIC are connected to
a private LANs behind the firewall, those interfaces must
have rules coded to allow free unmolested movement of
packets originating from those LAN interfaces.
The rules should be first organized into three major
sections, all the free unmolested interfaces, public
interface outbound, and the public interface inbound.
The order of the rules in each of the public interface
sections should be in order of the most used rules being
placed before less often used rules with the last rule in
the section being a block log all packets on that interface
and direction.
The Outbound section in the following rule set only
contains 'allow' rules which contain selection values that
uniquely identify the service that is authorized for public
Internet access. All the rules have the, proto, port,
in/out, via and keep state option coded. The 'proto tcp'
rules have the 'setup' option included to identify the start
session request as the trigger packet to be posted to the
keep state stateful table.
The Inbound section has all the blocking of undesirable
packets first for two different reasons. First is these
things being blocked may be part of an otherwise valid packet
which may be allowed in by the later authorized service
rules. Second reason is that by having a rule that
explicitly blocks selected packets that I receive on an
infrequent bases and do not want to see in the log, this
keeps them from being caught by the last rule in the section
which blocks and logs all packets which have fallen through
the rules. The last rule in the section which blocks and
logs all packets is how you create the legal evidence needed
to prosecute the people who are attacking your system.
Another thing you should take note of, is there is no
response returned for any of the undesirable stuff, their
packets just get dropped and vanish. This way the attackers
has no knowledge if his packets have reached your system.
The less the attackers can learn about your system the more
secure it is. When you log packets with port numbers you do
not recognize, look the numbers up in
/etc/services/ or go to
and do a port number lookup to find what the purpose of that
port number is. Check out this link for port numbers used by
Trojans: .
An Example Inclusive Ruleset
The following non-NAT ed rule set is a
complete inclusive type ruleset. You can not go wrong using
this rule set for you own. Just comment out any pass rules
for services you do not want. If you see messages in your
log that you want to stop seeing just add a deny rule in the
inbound section. You have to change the 'dc0' interface name
in every rule to the interface name of the NIC that connects
your system to the public Internet. For user ppp it would be
'tun0'.
You will see a pattern in the usage of these
rules.
All statements that are a request to start a session
to the public Internet use keep-state.
All the authorized services that originate from the
public Internet have the limit option to stop
flooding.
All rules use in or out to clarify direction.
All rules use via interface name to specify the
interface the packet is traveling over.
The following rules go into
/etc/ipfw.rules .
################ Start of IPFW rules file ###############################
# Flush out the list before we begin.
ipfw -q -f flush
# Set rules command prefix
cmd="ipfw -q add"
pif="dc0" # public interface name of NIC
# facing the public Internet
#################################################################
# No restrictions on Inside LAN Interface for private network
# Not needed unless you have LAN.
# Change xl0 to your LAN NIC interface name
#################################################################
#$cmd 00005 allow all from any to any via xl0
#################################################################
# No restrictions on Loopback Interface
#################################################################
$cmd 00010 allow all from any to any via lo0
#################################################################
# Allow the packet through if it has previous been added to the
# the "dynamic" rules table by a allow keep-state statement.
#################################################################
$cmd 00015 check-state
#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Outbound Section)
# Interrogate session start requests originating from behind the
# firewall on the private network or from this gateway server
# destine for the public Internet.
#################################################################
# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
# x.x.x.x must be the IP address of your ISP.s DNS
# Dup these lines if your ISP has more than one DNS server
# Get the IP addresses from /etc/resolv.conf file
$cmd 00110 allow tcp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via $pif setup keep-state
$cmd 00111 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via $pif keep-state
# Allow out access to my ISP's DHCP server for cable/DSL configurations.
# This rule is not needed for .user ppp. connection to the public Internet.
# so you can delete this whole group.
# Use the following rule and check log for IP address.
# Then put IP address in commented out rule & delete first rule
$cmd 00120 allow log udp from any to any 67 out via $pif keep-state
#$cmd 00120 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 out via $pif keep-state
# Allow out non-secure standard www function
$cmd 00200 allow tcp from any to any 80 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
$cmd 00220 allow tcp from any to any 443 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out send & get email function
$cmd 00230 allow tcp from any to any 25 out via $pif setup keep-state
$cmd 00231 allow tcp from any to any 110 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out FBSD (make install & CVSUP) functions
# Basically give user root "GOD" privileges.
$cmd 00240 allow tcp from me to any out via $pif setup keep-state uid root
# Allow out ping
$cmd 00250 allow icmp from any to any out via $pif keep-state
# Allow out Time
$cmd 00260 allow tcp from any to any 37 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out nntp news (i.e. news groups)
$cmd 00270 allow tcp from any to any 119 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
$cmd 00280 allow tcp from any to any 22 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out whois
$cmd 00290 allow tcp from any to any 43 out via $pif setup keep-state
# deny and log everything else that.s trying to get out.
# This rule enforces the block all by default logic.
$cmd 00299 deny log all from any to any out via $pif
#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Inbound Section)
# Interrogate packets originating from the public Internet
# destine for this gateway server or the private network.
#################################################################
# Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
$cmd 00300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 00301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 00302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 00303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #loopback
$cmd 00304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #loopback
$cmd 00305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16 to any in via $pif #DHCP auto-config
$cmd 00306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24 to any in via $pif #reserved for docs
$cmd 00307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via $pif #Sun cluster interconnect
$cmd 00308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3 to any in via $pif #Class D & E multicast
# Deny public pings
$cmd 00310 deny icmp from any to any in via $pif
# Deny ident
$cmd 00315 deny tcp from any to any 113 in via $pif
# Deny all Netbios service. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
# Netbios is MS/Windows sharing services.
# Block MS/Windows hosts2 name server requests 81
$cmd 00320 deny tcp from any to any 137 in via $pif
$cmd 00321 deny tcp from any to any 138 in via $pif
$cmd 00322 deny tcp from any to any 139 in via $pif
$cmd 00323 deny tcp from any to any 81 in via $pif
# Deny any late arriving packets
$cmd 00330 deny all from any to any frag in via $pif
# Deny ACK packets that did not match the dynamic rule table
$cmd 00332 deny tcp from any to any established in via $pif
# Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. This rule must contain
# the IP address of your ISP.s DHCP server as it.s the only
# authorized source to send this packet type.
# Only necessary for cable or DSL configurations.
# This rule is not needed for .user ppp. type connection to
# the public Internet. This is the same IP address you captured
# and used in the outbound section.
#$cmd 00360 allow udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 in via $pif keep-state
# Allow in standard www function because I have apache server
$cmd 00400 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
# Allow in secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP from public Internet
$cmd 00410 allow tcp from any to me 22 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
# Allow in non-secure Telnet session from public Internet
# labeled non-secure because ID & PW are passed over public
# Internet as clear text.
# Delete this sample group if you do not have telnet server enabled.
$cmd 00420 allow tcp from any to me 23 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
# Reject & Log all incoming connections from the outside
$cmd 00499 deny log all from any to any in via $pif
# Everything else is denied by default
# deny and log all packets that fell through to see what they are
$cmd 00999 deny log all from any to any
################ End of IPFW rules file ###############################
An Example NAT and Stateful
Ruleset
NAT
and IPFW
There are some additional configuration statements that
need to be enabled to activate the NAT
function of IPFW. The kernel source needs 'option divert'
statement added to the other IPFIREWALL statements compiled
into a custom kernel.
In addition to the normal IPFW options in
/etc/rc.conf , the following are
needed.
natd_enable="YES" # Enable NAT D function
natd_interface="rl0" # interface name of public Internet NIC
natd_flags="-dynamic -m" # -m = preserve port numbers if possible
Utilizing stateful rules with divert natd rule (Network
Address Translation) greatly complicates the rule set coding
logic. The positioning of the check-state, and 'divert natd'
rules in the rule set becomes very critical. This is no
longer a simple fall-through logic flow. A new action type
is used, called 'skipto'. To use the skipto command it is
mandatory that you number each rule so you know exactly
where the skipto rule number is you are really jumping
to.
The following is an uncommented example of one coding
method, selected here to explain the sequence of the packet
flow through the rule sets.
The processing flow starts with the first rule from the
top of the rule file and progress one rule at a time deeper
into the file until the end is reach or the packet being
tested to the selection criteria matches and the packet is
released out of the firewall. It is important to take notice
of the location of rule numbers 100 101, 450, 500, and 510.
These rules control the translation of the outbound and
inbound packets so their entries in the keep-state dynamic
table always register the private LAN IP address. Next
notice that all the allow and deny rules specified the
direction the packet is going (IE outbound or inbound) and
the interface. Also notice that all the start outbound
session requests all skipto rule 500 for the network address
translation.
Lets say a LAN user uses their web browser to get a web
page. Web pages use port 80 to communicate over. So the
packet enters the firewall, It does not match 100 because it
is headed out not in. It passes rule 101 because this is the
first packet so it has not been posted to the keep-state
dynamic table yet. The packet finally comes to rule 125 a
matches. It is outbound through the NIC facing the public
Internet. The packet still has it's source IP address as a
private LAN IP address. On the match to this rule, two
actions take place. The keep-state option will post this
rule into the keep-state dynamic rules table and the
specified action is executed. The action is part of the info
posted to the dynamic table. In this case it is "skipto rule
500". Rule 500 NAT s the packet IP address
and out it goes. Remember this, this is very important.
This packet makes its way to the destination and returns and
enters the top of the rule set. This time it does match rule
100 and has it destination IP address mapped back to its
corresponding LAN IP address. It then is processed by the
check-state rule, it's found in the table as an existing
session conversation and released to the LAN. It goes to the
LAN PC that sent it and a new packet is sent requesting
another segment of the data from the remote server. This
time it gets checked by the check-state rule and its outbound
entry is found, the associated action, 'skipto 500', is
executed. The packet jumps to rule 500 gets
NAT ed and released on it's way out.
On the inbound side, everything coming in that is part
of an existing session conversation is being automatically
handled by the check-state rule and the properly placed
divert natd rules. All we have to address is denying all the
bad packets and only allowing in the authorized services.
Lets say there is a apache server running on the firewall box
and we want people on the public Internet to be able to
access the local web site. The new inbound start request
packet matches rule 100 and its IP address is mapped to LAN
IP for the firewall box. The packet is them matched against
all the nasty things we want to check for and finally matches
against rule 425. On a match two things occur. The packet
rule is posted to the keep-state dynamic table but this time
any new session requests originating from that source IP
address is limited to 2. This defends against DoS attacks of
service running on the specified port number. The action is
allow so the packet is released to the LAN. On return the
check-state rule recognizes the packet as belonging to an
existing session conversation sends it to rule 500 for
NAT ing and released to outbound
interface.
Example Ruleset #1:
#!/bin/sh
cmd="ipfw -q add"
skip="skipto 500"
pif=rl0
ks="keep-state"
good_tcpo="22,25,37,43,53,80,443,110,119"
ipfw -q -f flush
$cmd 002 allow all from any to any via xl0 # exclude LAN traffic
$cmd 003 allow all from any to any via lo0 # exclude loopback traffic
$cmd 100 divert natd ip from any to any in via $pif
$cmd 101 check-state
# Authorized outbound packets
$cmd 120 $skip udp from any to xx.168.240.2 53 out via $pif $ks
$cmd 121 $skip udp from any to xx.168.240.5 53 out via $pif $ks
$cmd 125 $skip tcp from any to any $good_tcpo out via $pif setup $ks
$cmd 130 $skip icmp from any to any out via $pif $ks
$cmd 135 $skip udp from any to any 123 out via $pif $ks
# Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
$cmd 300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #loopback
$cmd 304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #loopback
$cmd 305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16 to any in via $pif #DHCP auto-config
$cmd 306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24 to any in via $pif #reserved for docs
$cmd 307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via $pif #Sun cluster
$cmd 308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3 to any in via $pif #Class D & E multicast
# Authorized inbound packets
$cmd 400 allow udp from xx.70.207.54 to any 68 in $ks
$cmd 420 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 1
$cmd 450 deny log ip from any to any
# This is skipto location for outbound stateful rules
$cmd 500 divert natd ip from any to any out via $pif
$cmd 510 allow ip from any to any
######################## end of rules ##################
The following is pretty much the same as above, but uses
a self documenting coding style full of description comments
to help the inexperienced IPFW rule writer to better
understand what the rules are doing.
Example Ruleset #2:
#!/bin/sh
################ Start of IPFW rules file ###############################
# Flush out the list before we begin.
ipfw -q -f flush
# Set rules command prefix
cmd="ipfw -q add"
skip="skipto 800"
pif="rl0" # public interface name of NIC
# facing the public Internet
#################################################################
# No restrictions on Inside LAN Interface for private network
# Change xl0 to your LAN NIC interface name
#################################################################
$cmd 005 allow all from any to any via xl0
#################################################################
# No restrictions on Loopback Interface
#################################################################
$cmd 010 allow all from any to any via lo0
#################################################################
# check if packet is inbound and nat address if it is
#################################################################
$cmd 014 divert natd ip from any to any in via $pif
#################################################################
# Allow the packet through if it has previous been added to the
# the "dynamic" rules table by a allow keep-state statement.
#################################################################
$cmd 015 check-state
#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Outbound Section)
# Interrogate session start requests originating from behind the
# firewall on the private network or from this gateway server
# destine for the public Internet.
#################################################################
# Allow out access to my ISP's Domain name server.
# x.x.x.x must be the IP address of your ISP's DNS
# Dup these lines if your ISP has more than one DNS server
# Get the IP addresses from /etc/resolv.conf file
$cmd 020 $skip tcp from any to x.x.x.x 53 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out access to my ISP's DHCP server for cable/DSL configurations.
$cmd 030 $skip udp from any to x.x.x.x 67 out via $pif keep-state
# Allow out non-secure standard www function
$cmd 040 $skip tcp from any to any 80 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out secure www function https over TLS SSL
$cmd 050 $skip tcp from any to any 443 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out send & get email function
$cmd 060 $skip tcp from any to any 25 out via $pif setup keep-state
$cmd 061 $skip tcp from any to any 110 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out FreeBSD (make install & CVSUP) functions
# Basically give user root "GOD" privileges.
$cmd 070 $skip tcp from me to any out via $pif setup keep-state uid root
# Allow out ping
$cmd 080 $skip icmp from any to any out via $pif keep-state
# Allow out Time
$cmd 090 $skip tcp from any to any 37 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out nntp news (i.e. news groups)
$cmd 100 $skip tcp from any to any 119 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP
# This function is using SSH (secure shell)
$cmd 110 $skip tcp from any to any 22 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow out whois
$cmd 120 $skip tcp from any to any 43 out via $pif setup keep-state
# Allow ntp time server
$cmd 130 $skip udp from any to any 123 out via $pif keep-state
#################################################################
# Interface facing Public Internet (Inbound Section)
# Interrogate packets originating from the public Internet
# destine for this gateway server or the private network.
#################################################################
# Deny all inbound traffic from non-routable reserved address spaces
$cmd 300 deny all from 192.168.0.0/16 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 301 deny all from 172.16.0.0/12 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 302 deny all from 10.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #RFC 1918 private IP
$cmd 303 deny all from 127.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #loopback
$cmd 304 deny all from 0.0.0.0/8 to any in via $pif #loopback
$cmd 305 deny all from 169.254.0.0/16 to any in via $pif #DHCP auto-config
$cmd 306 deny all from 192.0.2.0/24 to any in via $pif #reserved for docs
$cmd 307 deny all from 204.152.64.0/23 to any in via $pif #Sun cluster
$cmd 308 deny all from 224.0.0.0/3 to any in via $pif #Class D & E multicast
-# Deny ident
+# ©Úµ´ ident
$cmd 315 deny tcp from any to any 113 in via $pif
-# Deny all Netbios service. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
-# Netbios is MS/Windows sharing services.
-# Block MS/Windows hosts2 name server requests 81
+# ©Úµ´©Ò¦³ªº Netbios ªA°È. 137=name, 138=datagram, 139=session
+# Netbios ¬O MS/Windows ºô¸ô¤À¨ÉªA°È
+# ªý¾×©Ò¦³ªº MS/Windows ¥D¾÷¦WºÙ¦øªA¾¹hosts2 name server requests 81
$cmd 320 deny tcp from any to any 137 in via $pif
$cmd 321 deny tcp from any to any 138 in via $pif
$cmd 322 deny tcp from any to any 139 in via $pif
$cmd 323 deny tcp from any to any 81 in via $pif
-# Deny any late arriving packets
+# ©Úµ´¥ô¦óªº©µ¿ð¨ì¹F¤§«Ê¥]
$cmd 330 deny all from any to any frag in via $pif
# Deny ACK packets that did not match the dynamic rule table
$cmd 332 deny tcp from any to any established in via $pif
# Allow traffic in from ISP's DHCP server. This rule must contain
# the IP address of your ISP's DHCP server as it's the only
# authorized source to send this packet type.
# Only necessary for cable or DSL configurations.
# This rule is not needed for 'user ppp' type connection to
# the public Internet. This is the same IP address you captured
# and used in the outbound section.
$cmd 360 allow udp from x.x.x.x to any 68 in via $pif keep-state
# Allow in standard www function because I have Apache server
$cmd 370 allow tcp from any to me 80 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
# Allow in secure FTP, Telnet, and SCP from public Internet
$cmd 380 allow tcp from any to me 22 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
# Allow in non-secure Telnet session from public Internet
# labeled non-secure because ID & PW are passed over public
# Internet as clear text.
# Delete this sample group if you do not have telnet server enabled.
$cmd 390 allow tcp from any to me 23 in via $pif setup limit src-addr 2
# Reject & Log all unauthorized incoming connections from the public Internet
$cmd 400 deny log all from any to any in via $pif
# Reject & Log all unauthorized out going connections to the public Internet
$cmd 450 deny log all from any to any out via $pif
# This is skipto location for outbound stateful rules
$cmd 800 divert natd ip from any to any out via $pif
$cmd 801 allow ip from any to any
# Everything else is denied by default
# deny and log all packets that fell through to see what they are
$cmd 999 deny log all from any to any
################ End of IPFW rules file ###############################
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
index d69e529b00..874ef49286 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,5523 +1,5488 @@
Jim
Mock
Restructured, reorganized, and parts
rewritten by
Randy
Pratt
The sysinstall walkthrough, screenshots, and general
copy by
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Last Chance: Are you SURE you want continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!
¦b¬Ý¨ì³o³Ì«áªºÄµ§i°T®§«e¡A±z³£¥i¥HÀH®ÉÂ÷¶}¦w¸Ëµ{¦¡¦Ó¤£·|Åܧó±zªºµwºÐ¡C
¦pªG±zµo²{¦³¥ô¦ó³]©w¿ù»~¡A³o®É±z¥i¥Hª½±µ±N¹q·½Ãö±¼¦Ó¤£·|³y¦¨¥ô¦ó¶Ë®`¡C
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Del ©Î
Alt
S
¡C(«öÁä½Ð¨Ì¾Ú¹ê»Ú±¡ªp¨M©w)¤£½×¬On«öþÓÁä¡A½Ð«ö¥¦¶i¤J BIOS
³]©wµe±¡C¦³®É±zªº¹q¸£¥i¯à·|Åã¥Ü¤@ӹϧεe±¡A³q±`°µªk¬O«ö Esc
Áä±NÂ÷¶}³oӹϧεe±¡A¥H¨Ï±z¯à°÷¬Ý¨ì¥²nªº³]©w°T®§¡C
§ä¥X¥i¥H³]©w¡y¶}¾÷¶¶§Ç(Boot Order)¡zªº¿ï¶µ¡A³q±`¸Ó¿ï¶µ·|¦C¥X¤@¨Ç³]³ÆÅý±z¿ï¾Ü¡A¨Ò¦p¡J
Floppy , CDROM ,
First Hard Disk µ¥µ¥¡C
¦pªGn¥Î³nºÐ¦w¸Ë¡A½Ð½T©w floppy disk n¦C¬°¶}¾÷¶¶§Çªº²Ä¤@Ó¡FYn¥Î¥úºÐ¦w¸Ë¡A°O±o CDROM
n¦C¬°¶}¾÷¶¶§Çªº²Ä¤@Ó¡C¬°¤FÁקKºÃ´b¡A½Ð°Ñ¦Ò¾÷¾¹¡B¥D¾÷ªO»¡©ú¤â¥U¡C
Àx¦s³]©w¨ÃÂ÷¶}¡A¨t²ÎÀ³¸Ó·|«·s±Ò°Ê¡C
- ¥ÎºÏ¤ù¦w¸Ë¡A½Ð§â¦b
+ Yn¥ÎºÏ¤ù¦w¸Ë¡A½Ð§â¦b
¤@¸`¤¤»s§@¦nªº kern.flp ¨º±i¦w¸ËºÏ¤ù©ñ¨ì²Ä¤@¥x³nºÐ¾÷¤¤¡C
¦pªG¬O±q¥úºÐ¦w¸Ë¡A¨º»ò¶}¾÷«á½Ð±N FreeBSD ¥úºÐ©ñ¤J¥úºÐ¾÷¤¤¡C
¦pªG¡A¶}¾÷«á¦p©¹±`¤@¼Ë¦Ó¨S¦³±q³nºÐ©Î¥úºÐ¶}¾÷¡A½ÐÀˬd¡J
¬O¤£¬OºÏ¤ù©Î¥úºÐ¤Ó±ß©ñ¤J¦Ó¿ù¥¢¶}¾÷®É¶¡¡C¦pªG¬O¡A½Ð±N¥¦Ì©ñ¤J¡AµM«á«·s¶}¾÷¡C
BIOS ³]©w¤£¹ï©Î§Ñ¤FÀx¦s³]©w¡A½Ð«·sÀˬd BIOS ªº³]©w¡C
±zªº¹q¸£ BIOS ¤£¤ä´©±q¥úºÐ¶}¾÷¡C
¦¹®É¡AFreeBSD ´N¶}©l±Ò°Ê¤F¡C¦pªG¬O±q¥úºÐ¶}¾÷¡A·|¨£¨ìÃþ¦ü¤U±ªºµe±(ª©¥»³¡¤À¬Ù²¤)¡G:
Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
Boot from ATAPI CD-ROM :
1. FD 2.88MB System Type-(00)
Uncompressing ... done
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive B: is disk1
BIOS drive C: is disk2
BIOS drive D: is disk3
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
/kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 |
|
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _
¦pªG±z±q³nºÐ¶}¾÷¡A·|¬Ý¨ìÃþ¦ü¤U±ªºµe±(ª©¥»³¡¤À¬Ù²¤)¡G
Verifying DMI Pool Data ........
BTX loader 1.00 BTX version is 1.01
Console: internal video/keyboard
BIOS drive A: is disk0
BIOS drive C: is disk1
BIOS 639kB/261120kB available memory
FreeBSD/i386 bootstrap loader, Revision 0.8
/kernel text=0x277391 data=0x3268c+0x332a8 |
Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:
½Ð®Ú¾Ú´£¥Ü±N kern.flp ºÏ¤ù¨ú¥X¡A ¨Ã©ñ¤J mfsroot.flp
³o±iºÏ¤ù¡AµM«á«ö Enter Áä¡CY¬O &os; 5.3
(§t¤§«á)ªº¸Ü¡AÁÙ¦³¥t¥~¤@±iºÏ¤ù(¦b «e¤@¸`¤w¸g¤¶²Ð¹L¤F)¡C
Á`¤§¡A±z¥u»Ý±q²Ä¤@±iºÏ¤ù±Ò°Ê¡A µM«á®Ú¾Ú´£¥Ü¡A¦A©ñ¤J¬ÛÃöºÏ¤ù§Y¥i¡C
- ¤£½×±q³nºÐ©Î¥úºÐ¶}¾÷¡A±z³£·|¬Ý¨ì¤U±³o¬q°T®§¡G
+ µL½×±q³nºÐ©Î¥úºÐ¶}¾÷¡A±z³£·|¬Ý¨ì¤U±³o¬q°T®§¡G
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _
±z¥i¥Hµ¥«Ý 10 ¬í¡A©Î¬O«ö Enter Áä¡C
(Y¬O &os; 4.X ªº¸Ü¡A«h±N¥X²{ kernel configuration ¿ï³æµe±)
Alpha ¥¥xªº¶}¾÷¬yµ{
Alpha
- Start with your computer turned off.
+ ¦b¤@¶}©l¡A¹q¸£¹q·½¶}Ãö¬OÃö³¬ªº¡C
- Turn on the computer and wait for a boot monitor
- prompt.
+ ¥´¶}¹q¸£¹q·½¶}Ãö¡AµM«áµ¥¶}¾÷µe±¥X²{¡C
- If you needed to prepare boot floppies, as described in
- then one of them will be the
- first boot disc, probably the one containing
- kern.flp . Put this disc in your floppy
- drive and type the following command to boot the disk
- (substituting the name of your floppy drive if
- necessary):
+ Yn¥ÎºÏ¤ù¦w¸Ë¡A½Ð§â¦b
+ ¤@¸`¤¤»s§@¦nªº kern.flp ¨º±i¦w¸ËºÏ¤ù©ñ¨ì²Ä¤@¥x³nºÐ¾÷¤¤¡C
+ µM«á¡A¥´¤U¦C«ü¥O¨Ó±qºÏ¤ù¶}¾÷(½Ð§â¤U¦C³nºÐ¾÷¥N¸¹§ï¬°§A¹q¸£ªº³nºÐ¾÷¥N¸¹)¡G
>>>BOOT DVA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''
- If you are booting from CDROM, insert the CDROM into
- the drive and type the following command to start the
- installation (substituting the name of the appropriate
- CDROM drive if necessary):
+ Yn¥Î¥úºÐ¦w¸Ë¡A½Ð§â°µ¦nªº¦w¸Ë¤ù©ñ¤J¥úºÐ¾÷¡AµM«á¥´¤U¦C«ü¥O¨Ó±q¥úºÐ¶}¾÷(½Ð§â¤U¦C¥úºÐ¾÷¥N¸¹§ï¬°§A¹q¸£ªº¥úºÐ¾÷¥N¸¹)¡G
>>>BOOT DKA0 -FLAGS '' -FILE ''
- FreeBSD will start to boot. If you are booting from a
- floppy disc, at some point you will see the message:
+ ±µµÛ FreeBSD ¶}¾÷¤ù´N·|¶}©l¤F¡CY¬O¥Ñ³nºÐ¶}¾÷ªº¸Ü¡A³o®É·|¬Ý¨ì¥H¤U°T®§¡G
Please insert MFS root floppy and press enter:
- Follow these instructions by removing the
- kern.flp disc, insert the
- mfsroot.flp disc, and press
- Enter .
+ ½Ð·Ó«ü¥Ü¡A®³¨« kern.flp ¤ù¡A§ï©ñ
+ mfsroot.flp ¤ù¡AµM«á«ö Enter ¡C
- Whether you booted from floppy or CDROM, the
- boot process will then get to this point:
+ µL½×±q³nºÐ©Î¥úºÐ¶}¾÷¡A±z³£·|¬Ý¨ì¤U±³o¬q°T®§¡G
Hit [Enter] to boot immediately, or any other key for command prompt.
Booting [kernel] in 9 seconds... _
- Either wait ten seconds, or press Enter . This
- will then launch the kernel configuration menu.
+ ±z¥i¥Hµ¥«Ý 10 ¬í¡A©Î¬O«ö Enter Áä¡C±µ¤U¨Ó´N·|¶i¤Jkernel configuration ¿ï³æ¡C
Kernel ªº³]©w
±q FreeBSD 5.0 ª©¶}©l¡A§ï¥Î·sªº &man.device.hints.5; ¤è¦¡¡A¦Ó²^¨Oªº userconfig ¤è¦¡¡C
Ãö©ó &man.device.hints.5; ¾÷¨îªº²Ó¸`¤¶²Ð¡A½Ð°Ñ¾\ ¡C
- The kernel is the core of the operating
- system. It is responsible for many things, including access to all
- the devices you may have on your system, such as hard disks, network
- cards, sound cards, and so on. Each piece of hardware supported by
- the FreeBSD kernel has a driver associated with it. Each driver has a
- two or three letter name, such as sa for the
- SCSI sequential access driver, or sio for the
- Serial I/O driver (which manages COM ports).
-
- When the kernel starts, each driver checks the system to see
- whether or not the hardware it supports exists on your system. If it
- does, then the driver configures the hardware and makes it available
- to the rest of the kernel.
-
- This checking is commonly referred to as device
- probing . Unfortunately, it is not always possible to do
- this in a safe way. Some hardware drivers do not co-exist well,
- and probing for one piece of hardware can sometimes leave
- another in an inconsistent state. This is a basic
- limitation of the PC design.
+ kernel ¤D¬O§@·~¨t²Î¤¤ªº®Ö¤ß¡At³d³\¦h¨Æ±¡¡A¹³¬O¡G±±¨î¨t²Î¤W©Ò¦³³]³Æ¡A¤ñ¦pµwºÐ¡Bºô¸ô¥d¡Bµ®Ä¥dµ¥¡C
+ ¨C¶µ FreeBSD ©Ò¤ä´©ªºµwÅé³£¦³¬Û¹ïÀ³ªºÅX°Êµ{¦¡¡C
+ ¨CÓÅX°Êµ{¦¡¦WºÙ³£¦³ 2 ¨ì 3 Ó¦r¥À©Ò²Õ¦¨¡A¹³¬O sa ¥Nªí SCSI ÅX°Êµ{¦¡¡A¦Ó
+ sio ¥Nªí Serial I/O ÅX°Êµ{¦¡(ºÞ COM ports ¥Îªº)¡C
+
+ ·í kernel ¶}©l±Ò°Ê®É¡A¨CÓÅX°Êµ{¦¡´N·|¥hÀˬd¨t²Î¤W¬O§_¦³¤ä´©ªºµwÅé¦s¦b¡A
+ Y¦³ªº¸Ü¡AÅX°Êµ{¦¡´N·|§@¬ÛÃöµwÅé³]©w¡A¥H«KÅý kernel ¨Ï¥Î¸ÓµwÅé¡C
+
+ ¤WzªºÀˬd°Ê§@¡A§Ú̺٬° device probing(°»´úµwÅé) ¡C
+ ¦ý¬O¡A³o¼Ë¤lªº¤è¦¡¨Ã¤£¬O¥Ã»·³£¨º»ò¶¶§Q¡C
+ ¦³¨ÇµwÅéÅX°Êµ{¦¡µLªk¦P®É¦@¦s¡A¦Ó¦³®ÉÔ°»´ú¬YµwÅé®É¡A¤S·|³y¦¨¥t¤@µwÅ餣åXºl¡C
+ ³o°ÝÃD¡A¤D¬O¥Ñ©ó PC ¥»¨³]p¤W¤Ñ¥Íªº¨î©ÒP¡C
Many older devices are called ISA devices—as opposed
to PCI devices. The ISA specification requires each device to have
some information hard coded into it, typically the Interrupt Request
Line number (IRQ) and IO port address that the driver uses. This
information is commonly set by using physical
jumpers on the card, or by using a DOS based
utility.
This was often a source of problems, because it was not possible
to have two devices that shared the same IRQ or port address.
Newer devices follow the PCI specification, which does not require
this, as the devices are supposed to cooperate with the BIOS, and are
told which IRQ and IO port addresses to use.
If you have any ISA devices in your computer then FreeBSD's
driver for that device will need to be configured with the IRQ and
port address that you have set the card to. This is why carrying out
an inventory of your hardware (see ) can be useful.
Unfortunately, the default IRQs and memory ports used by some
drivers clash. This is because some ISA devices are shipped with IRQs
or memory ports that clash. The defaults in FreeBSD's drivers are
deliberately set to mirror the manufacturer's defaults, so that, out
of the box, as many devices as possible will work.
This is almost never an issue when running FreeBSD day-to-day.
Your computer will not normally contain two pieces of hardware that
clash, because one of them would not work (irrespective of the
operating system you are using).
It becomes an issue when you are installing FreeBSD for the first
time because the kernel used to carry out the install has to contain
as many drivers as possible, so that many different hardware
configurations can be supported. This means that some of
those drivers will have conflicting configurations. The devices are
probed in a strict order, and if you own a device that is probed late
in the process, but conflicted with an earlier probe, then your
hardware might not function or be probed correctly when you install
FreeBSD.
Because of this, the first thing you have the opportunity to do
when installing FreeBSD is look at the list of drivers that are
configured into the kernel, and either disable some of them, if you
do not own that device, or confirm (and alter) the driver's
configuration if you do own the device but the defaults are
wrong.
This probably sounds much more complicated than it actually
is.
shows the first kernel
configuration menu. We recommend that you choose the
Start kernel configuration in full-screen visual
mode option, as it presents the easiest interface for
the new user.
Kernel ³]©wµe±
&txt.install.userconfig;
The kernel configuration screen ()
is then divided into four sections:
A collapsible list of all the drivers that are currently
marked as active
, subdivided into groups such as
Storage , and Network . Each
driver is shown as a description, its two or three letter driver
name, and the IRQ and memory port used by that driver. In
addition, if an active driver conflicts with another active driver
then CONF is shown next to the driver name.
This section also shows the total number of conflicting drivers
that are currently active.
Drivers that have been marked inactive. They remain in the
kernel, but they will not probe for their device when the kernel
starts. These are subdivided into groups in the same way as the
active driver list.
More detail about the currently selected driver, including its
IRQ and memory port address.
Information about the keystrokes that are valid at this point
in time.
Kernel Device ªº³]©wµe±
&txt.install.userconfig2;
Do not worry if any conflicts are listed,
it is to be expected; all the drivers are enabled, and
as has already been explained, some of them will conflict with one
another.
You now have to work through the list of drivers, resolving the
conflicts.
¸Ñ°£¬Û½ÄªºÅX°Êµ{¦¡
Press X . This will completely expand the
list of drivers, so you can see all of them. You will need to use
the arrow keys to scroll back and forth through the active driver
list.
shows the result of
pressing X .
®i¶}ÅX°Êµ{¦¡¤@Äýªí
Disable all the drivers for devices that you do not have. To
disable a driver, highlight it with the arrow keys and press
Del . The driver will be moved to the
Inactive Drivers list.
If you inadvertently disable a device that you need then press
Tab to switch to the Inactive
Drivers list, select the driver that you disabled, and
press Enter to move it back to the active
list.
Do not disable sc0 . This controls
the screen, and you will need this unless you are installing
over a serial cable.
Only disable atkbd0 if you are
using a USB keyboard. If you have a normal keyboard then you
must keep atkbd0 .
If there are no conflicts listed then you can skip this step.
Otherwise, the remaining conflicts need to be examined. If they
do not have the indication of an allowed conflict
in the message area, then either the IRQ/address for device probe
will need to be changed, or the IRQ/address
on the hardware will need to be changed.
To change the driver's configuration for IRQ and IO port
address, select the device and press Enter . The
cursor will move to the third section of the screen, and you can
change the values. You should enter the values for IRQ and port
address that you discovered when you made your hardware inventory.
Press Q to finish editing the device's
configuration and return to the active driver list.
If you are not sure what these figures should be then you can
try using -1 . Some FreeBSD drivers can safely
probe the hardware to discover what the correct value should be,
and a value of -1 configures them to do
this.
The procedure for changing the address on the hardware varies
from device to device. For some devices you may need to
physically remove the card from your computer and adjust jumper
settings or DIP switches. Other cards may have come with a DOS
floppy that contains the programs used to reconfigure the card.
In any case, you should refer to the documentation that came with
the device. This will obviously entail restarting your computer,
so you will need to boot back into the FreeBSD installation
routine when you have reconfigured the card.
When all the conflicts have been resolved the screen will look
similar to .
¨S¦³½Ä¬ðªºÅX°Êµ{¦¡³]©w
As you can see, the active driver list is now much smaller,
with only drivers for the hardware that actually exists being
listed.
You can now save these changes, and move on to the next step
of the install. Press Q to quit the device
configuration interface. This message will appear:
Save these parameters before exiting? ([Y]es/[N]o/[C]ancel)
Answer Y to save the parameters to memory
(it will be saved to disk if you finish the install) and the
probing will start. After displaying the probe results in white
on black text sysinstall will start
and display its main menu
().
Sysinstall ¥D¿ï³æ
¨ºn«ç»ò¥h½¾\°»´úµwÅ骺µ²ªG©O¡H
¥ý«e¦b¿Ã¹õ¤W©ÒÅã¥Üªº³Ì«á´X¦Ê¦æ¦r¡A·|¦s¦b¼È¦s°Ï(buffer)¥H«K±z½¾\¡C
Yn½¾\¼È¦s°Ï¡A½Ð«ö Scroll Lock Áä¡A³o·|¶}±Ò±²°Êµe±¥\¯à¡C
µM«á´N¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¤è¦VÁä¡A©Î¬O PageUp ¡BPageDown
Áä¨Ó¤W¤U½¾\¡C¦A«ö¤@¦¸ Scroll Lock Áä¡A´N·|°±¤îµe±±²°Ê¡C
Do this now, to review the text that scrolled off the screen when
the kernel was carrying out the device probes. You will see text
similar to , although the precise
text will differ depending on the devices that you have in your
computer.
°»´úµwÅ骺¨Ò¤l
avail memory = 253050880 (247120K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0817000.
Preloaded mfs_root "/mfsroot" at 0xc0817084.
md0: Preloaded image </mfsroot> 4423680 bytes at 0xc03ddcd4
md1: Malloc disk
Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1:<VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <iSA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0 <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci
0
usb0: <VIA 83572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
pci0: <unknown card> (vendor=0x1106, dev=0x3040) at 7.3
dc0: <ADMtek AN985 10/100BaseTX> port 0xe800-0xe8ff mem 0xdb000000-0xeb0003ff ir
q 11 at device 8.0 on pci0
dc0: Ethernet address: 00:04:5a:74:6b:b5
miibus0: <MII bus> on dc0
ukphy0: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus0
ukphy0: 10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xec00-0xec1f irq 9 at device 10.
0 on pci0
ed0 address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
orm0: <Option ROM> at iomem 0xc0000-0xc7fff on isa0
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <Keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60,0x64 on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/@ mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x100 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
pppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33
acd0: CD-RW <LITE-ON LTR-1210B> at ata1-slave PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/md0c
/stand/sysinstall running as init on vty0
Check the probe results carefully to make sure that FreeBSD found
all the devices you expected. If a device was not found, then it will
not be listed. If the device's driver required configuring
with the IRQ and port address then you should check that you entered
them correctly.
If you need to make changes to the UserConfig device probing,
it is easy to exit the sysinstall program
and start over again. It is also a good way to become more familiar
with the process.
Â÷¶} Sysinstall µ{¦¡
Use the arrow keys to select
Exit Install from the Main
Install Screen menu. The following message will display:
User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot
(be sure to remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] No
The install program will start again if the CDROM is left
in the drive and &gui.yes; is selected.
If you are booting from floppies it will be necessary to remove
the mfsroot.flp floppy and replace it with
kern.flp before rebooting.
¤¶²Ð Sysinstall
The sysinstall utility is the installation
application provided by the FreeBSD Project. It is console based and is
divided into a number of menus and screens that you can use to
configure and control the installation process.
The sysinstall menu system is controlled
by the arrow keys, Enter , Space , and
other keys. A detailed description of these keys and what they do is
contained in sysinstall 's usage
information.
To review this information, ensure that the
Usage entry is highlighted and that the
[Select] button is selected, as shown in , then press Enter .
The instructions for using the menu system will be displayed. After
reviewing them, press Enter to return to the Main
Menu.
¿ï¾Ü Sysinstall ¥D¿ï³æªº¡yUsage(§Ö³t»¡©ú)¡z
¿ï¾Ü¡y Documentation(»¡©ú¤å¥ó)¡z¿ï³æ
From the Main Menu, select Doc with
the arrow keys and
press Enter .
¿ï¾Ü¡yDocumentation(»¡©ú¤å¥ó)¡z¿ï³æ
This will display the Documentation Menu.
It is important to read the documents provided.
To view a document, select it with the arrow keys and
press Enter . When finished reading a document,
pressing Enter will return to the Documentation
Menu.
To return to the Main Installation Menu, select
Exit with the
arrow keys and press Enter .
¿ï¾Ü¡yÁä½L¹ïÀ³¡z¿ï³æ
To change the keyboard mapping, use the arrow keys to select
Keymap from the menu and press
Enter . This is only required if you are
using a non-standard or non-US keyboard.
Sysinstall ¥D¿ï³æ
A different keyboard mapping may be chosen by selecting the
menu item using up/down arrow keys and pressing Space .
Pressing Space again will unselect the item.
When finished, choose the &gui.ok; using the arrow keys and press
Enter .
Only a partial list is shown in this screen representation.
Selecting &gui.cancel; by pressing Tab will use the default
keymap and return to the Main Install Menu.
¦w¸Ë¿ï¶µªº³]©wµe±
Select Options and press
Enter .
Sysinstall ¥D¿ï³æ
Sysinstall ¿ï¶µ³]©w
The default values are usually fine for most users and do
not need to be changed. The release name will vary according
to the version being installed.
The description of the selected item will appear at the
bottom of the screen highlighted in blue. Notice that one of the
options is Use Defaults to reset all
values to startup defaults.
Press F1 to read the help screen about the
various options.
Pressing Q will return to the Main Install
menu.
¶}©l¶i¦æ¼Ð·Ç¦w¸Ë
Standard(¼Ð·Ç) ¦w¸Ë¾A¥Î©ó¨º¨Çªì±´ &unix;
©Î FreeBSD ªº¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¡C¥Î¤è¦VÁä¿ï¾Ü Standard
µM«á«ö Enter §Y¥i¶}©l¶i¤J¼Ð·Ç¦w¸Ë¡C
¶}©l¶i¦æ¼Ð·Ç¦w¸Ë
µwºÐªÅ¶¡ªº¤À°t
Your first task is to allocate disk space for FreeBSD, and label
that space so that sysinstall can prepare
it. In order to do this you need to know how FreeBSD expects to find
information on the disk.
BIOS ºÏºÐ¾÷½s¸¹
Before you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an
important subject that you should be aware of, especially if you have
multiple hard drives.
DOS
Microsoft Windows
In a PC running a BIOS-dependent operating system such as
&ms-dos; or µsoft.windows;, the BIOS is able to abstract the
normal disk drive order, and
the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user
to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary
master
. This is especially convenient for some users who have
found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to
buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the
first drive to the second drive using
Ghost or XCOPY
. Then, if the
first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an
operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS
to logically swap the drives. It is like switching the cables on the
drives, but without having to open the case.
SCSI
BIOS
More expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS
extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar
fashion for up to seven drives.
A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may
become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected.
FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS
drive mapping
. This can lead to very perplexing situations,
especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have
also been made as data clones of one another.
When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive
numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you
need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and
open the case and move the jumpers and cables.
½d¨Ò¡GBill ¤Î Fred ªº¦w¸Ë¾úÀI
Bill breaks-down an older Wintel box to make another FreeBSD box
for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero and
installs FreeBSD on it.
Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that
the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors and reports
this fact to Bill.
After several more days, Bill decides it is time to address the
situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive
archive
in the back room. An initial surface scan
indicates that
this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI
unit four and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now
that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides
that it is a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the
SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from
SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine.
Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred
decide that it is time for a new adventure — time to upgrade to a
newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was
a bit flaky and replaces it with another identical disk drive from
the archive
. Bill then installs the new version of
FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic Internet FTP
floppies. The installation goes well.
Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies
that it is good enough for use in the engineering department. It is
time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts
SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred
is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI
unit four.
Where did the data go?
When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto
SCSI unit four, unit four became the new clone
.
When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from
SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself.
FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero.
Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and
Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the
FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be
ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering.
In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the
original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI
unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI
unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations.
We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or
harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI
unit zero was retrieved from the bone pile, and all of Fred's work was
returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as
zero).
Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts
apply equally to IDE drives.
¥H FDisk ¨Ó«Ø¥ß¤À³ÎºÏ°Ï(Slices)
No changes you make at this point will be written to the disk.
If you think you have made a mistake and want to start again you can
use the menus to exit sysinstall and try
again or press U to use the Undo option.
If you get confused and can not see how to exit you can
always turn your computer off.
After choosing to begin a standard installation in
sysinstall you will be shown this
message:
Message
In the next menu, you will need to set up a DOS-style ("fdisk")
partitioning scheme for your hard disk. If you simply wish to devote
all disk space to FreeBSD (overwriting anything else that might be on
the disk(s) selected) then use the (A)ll command to select the default
partitioning scheme followed by a (Q)uit. If you wish to allocate only
free space to FreeBSD, move to a partition marked "unused" and use the
(C)reate command.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter or space ]
Press Enter as instructed. You will then be
shown a list of all the hard drives that the kernel found when it
carried out the device probes.
shows an example from a
system with two IDE disks. They have been called
ad0 and ad2 .
¿ï¾Ü FDisk n¤À³ÎªºµwºÐ
You might be wondering why ad1 is not
listed here. Why has it been missed?
Consider what would happen if you had two IDE hard disks, one
as the master on the first IDE controller, and one as the master on
the second IDE controller. If FreeBSD numbered these as it found
them, as ad0 and
ad1 then everything would work.
But if you then added a third disk, as the slave device on the
first IDE controller, it would now be ad1 ,
and the previous ad1 would become
ad2 . Because device names (such as
ad1s1a ) are used to find filesystems, you
may suddenly discover that some of your filesystems no longer
appear correctly, and you would need to change your FreeBSD
configuration.
To work around this, the kernel can be configured to name IDE
disks based on where they are, and not the order in which they were
found. With this scheme the master disk on the second IDE
controller will always be
ad2 , even if there are no
ad0 or ad1
devices.
This configuration is the default for the FreeBSD kernel, which
is why this display shows ad0 and
ad2 . The machine on which this screenshot
was taken had IDE disks on both master channels of the IDE
controllers, and no disks on the slave channels.
You should select the disk on which you want to install FreeBSD,
and then press &gui.ok;.
FDisk will start, with a display similar to
that shown in .
The FDisk display is broken into three
sections.
The first section, covering the first two lines of the display,
shows details about the currently selected disk, including its FreeBSD
name, the disk geometry, and the total size of the disk.
The second section shows the slices that are currently on the
disk, where they start and end, how large they are, the name FreeBSD
gives them, and their description and sub-type. This example shows two
small unused slices, which are artifacts of disk layout schemes on the
PC. It also shows one large FAT slice, which almost certainly appears
as C: in &ms-dos; / &windows;, and an extended
slice, which may contain other drive letters for &ms-dos; / &windows;.
The third section shows the commands that are available in
FDisk .
(Á|¨Ò)¥¼½s¿è«eªº Fdisk ¤À³Î°Ï(Partition)
What you do now will depend on how you want to slice up your
disk.
If you want to use FreeBSD for the entire disk (which will delete
all the other data on this disk when you confirm that you want
sysinstall to continue later in the
installation process) then you can press A , which
corresponds to the Use Entire Disk option.
The existing slices will be removed, and replaced with a small area
flagged as unused (again, an artifact of PC disk
layout), and then one large slice for FreeBSD. If you do this, then
you should select the newly created FreeBSD slice using the arrow
keys, and press S to mark the slice as being
bootable. The screen will then look very similar to
. Note the
A in the Flags column, which
indicates that this slice is active , and will be
booted from.
If you will be deleting an existing slice to make space for
FreeBSD then you should select the slice using the arrow keys, and
then press D . You can then press C ,
and be prompted for size of slice you want to create. Enter the
appropriate figure and press Enter . The default
value in this box represents the largest possible slice you can
make, which could be the largest contiguous block of unallocated
space or the size of the entire hard disk.
If you have already made space for FreeBSD (perhaps by using a
tool such as &partitionmagic; ) then you can
press C to create a new slice. Again, you will be
prompted for the size of slice you would like to create.
Fdisk ±Ä¥Î¾ãÁûµwºÐ§@¤À³Î°Ï(Partition)
When finished, press Q . Your changes will be
saved in sysinstall , but will not yet be
written to disk.
¦w¸Ë Boot Manager
You now have the option to install a boot manager. In general,
you should choose to install the FreeBSD boot manager if:
You have more than one drive, and have installed FreeBSD onto
a drive other than the first one.
You have installed FreeBSD alongside another operating system
on the same disk, and you want to choose whether to start FreeBSD
or the other operating system when you start the computer.
If FreeBSD is going to be the only operating system on
this machine, installed on the first hard disk, then the
Standard boot manager will suffice.
Choose None if you are using a
third-party boot manager capable of booting FreeBSD.
Make your choice and press Enter .
Sysinstall ªº Boot Manager ¿ï³æ
The help screen, reached by pressing F1 ,
discusses the problems that can be encountered when trying to share
the hard disk between operating systems.
¦b¨ä¥LµwºÐ¤W«Ø¥ß¤À³ÎºÏ°Ï(Slices)
If there is more than one drive, it will return to the
Select Drives screen after the boot manager selection. If you wish to
install FreeBSD on to more than one disk, then you can select another
disk here and repeat the slice process using
FDisk .
If you are installing FreeBSD on a drive other than your
first, then the FreeBSD boot manager needs to be installed on
both drives.
Â÷¶}¡y¿ï¾ÜµwºÐ¡zµe±
The Tab key toggles between the last drive
selected, &gui.ok;, and
&gui.cancel;.
Press the Tab once to toggle to the
&gui.ok;, then
press Enter
to continue with the installation.
¥H Disklabel ¨Ó«Ø¥ß¤À³Î°Ï(Partitions)
You must now create some partitions inside each slice that you
have just created. Remember that each partition is lettered, from
a through to h , and that
partitions b , c , and
d have conventional meanings that you should adhere
to.
Certain applications can benefit from particular partition
schemes, especially if you are laying out partitions across more than
one disk. However, for this, your first FreeBSD installation, you do
not need to give too much thought to how you partition the disk. It
is more important that you install FreeBSD and start learning how to
use it. You can always re-install FreeBSD to change your partition
scheme when you are more familiar with the operating system.
This scheme features four partitions—one for swap space, and
three for filesystems.
²Ä¤@ÁûµwºÐªº¤À³Î°Ï(Partition)°t¸m
Partition
Filesystem
Size
Description
a
/
100 MB
This is the root filesystem. Every other filesystem
will be mounted somewhere under this one. 100 MB is a
reasonable size for this filesystem. You will not be storing
too much data on it, as a regular FreeBSD install will put
about 40 MB of data here. The remaining space is for temporary
data, and also leaves expansion space if future versions of
FreeBSD need more space in / .
b
N/A
2-3 x RAM
The system's swap space is kept on this partition.
Choosing the right amount of swap space can be a bit of an
art. A good rule of thumb is that your swap
space should be two or three times as much as the
available physical memory (RAM).
You should also have at least 64 MB of swap, so if you have
less than 32 MB of RAM in your computer then set the swap
amount to 64 MB.
If you have more than one disk then you can put swap
space on each disk. FreeBSD will then use each disk for
swap, which effectively speeds up the act of swapping. In
this case, calculate the total amount of swap you need
(e.g., 128 MB), and then divide this by the number of disks
you have (e.g., two disks) to give the amount of swap you
should put on each disk, in this example, 64 MB of swap per
disk.
e
/var
50 MB
The /var directory contains
files that are constantly varying;
log files, and other administrative files. Many
of these files are read-from or written-to extensively during
FreeBSD's day-to-day running. Putting these files on another
filesystem allows FreeBSD to optimize the access of these
files without affecting other files in other directories that
do not have the same access pattern.
f
/usr
Rest of disk
All your other files will typically be stored in
/usr and its subdirectories.
If you will be installing FreeBSD on to more than one disk then
you must also create partitions in the other slices that you
configured. The easiest way to do this is to create two partitions on
each disk, one for the swap space, and one for a filesystem.
¨ä¥LµwºÐªº¤À³Î°Ï(Partition)°t¸m
Partition
Filesystem
Size
Description
b
N/A
See description
As already discussed, you can split swap space across
each disk. Even though the a partition is
free, convention dictates that swap space stays on the
b partition.
e
/diskn
Rest of disk
The rest of the disk is taken up with one big partition.
This could easily be put on the a
partition, instead of the e partition.
However, convention says that the a
partition on a slice is reserved for the filesystem that will
be the root (/ ) filesystem. You do not
have to follow this convention, but
sysinstall does, so following it
yourself makes the installation slightly cleaner. You can
choose to mount this filesystem anywhere; this example
suggests that you mount them as directories
/diskn , where
n is a number that changes for each
disk. But you can use another scheme if you prefer.
Having chosen your partition layout you can now create it using
sysinstall . You will see this
message:
Message
Now, you need to create BSD partitions inside of the fdisk
partition(s) just created. If you have a reasonable amount of disk
space (200MB or more) and don't have any special requirements, simply
use the (A)uto command to allocate space automatically. If you have
more specific needs or just don't care for the layout chosen by
(A)uto, press F1 for more information on manual layout.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter or space ]
Press Enter to start the FreeBSD partition
editor, called Disklabel .
shows the display when you first
start Disklabel . The display is divided in
to three sections.
The first few lines show the name of the disk you are currently
working on, and the slice that contains the partitions you are
creating (at this point Disklabel calls
this the Partition name rather than slice name).
This display also shows the amount of free space within the slice;
that is, space that was set aside in the slice, but that has not yet
been assigned to a partition.
The middle of the display shows the partitions that have been
created, the name of the filesystem that each partition contains,
their size, and some options pertaining to the creation of the
filesystem.
The bottom third of the screen shows the keystrokes that are valid
in Disklabel .
Sysinstall ªº Disklabel ½s¿è¾¹
Disklabel can automatically create
partitions for you and assign them default sizes. Try this now, by
Pressing A . You will see a display similar to that
shown in . Depending on the size of
the disk you are using, the defaults may or may not be appropriate.
This does not matter, as you do not have to accept the
defaults.
Beginning with FreeBSD 4.5, the default partitioning assigns
the /tmp directory its own partition instead
of being part of the / partition. This
helps avoid filling the / partition with
temporary files.
Sysinstall ªº Disklabel ½s¿è¾¹ ¡X ¨Ï¥Î¦Û°Ê¤À°t
If you choose to not use the default partitions and wish to
replace them with your
own, use the arrow keys to select the first partition, and press
D to delete it. Repeat this to delete all the
suggested partitions.
To create the first partition (a , mounted as
/ — root), make sure the proper disk slice at the top of
the screen is selected and press C . A dialog box
will appear prompting you for the size of the new partition (as shown
in ). You can enter the size as
the number of disk blocks you want to use, or as a
number followed by either M for megabytes,
G for gigabytes, or C for
cylinders.
Beginning with FreeBSD 5.X, users can: select
UFS2 (which is default on &os; 5.1 and
above) using the Custom Newfs
(Z ) option, create labels with
Auto Defaults and modify them with the Custom Newfs option or
add -O 2 during the regular creation period.
Do not forget to add -U for SoftUpdates if you use the Custom Newfs
option!
Free Space for Root Partition
The default size shown will create a partition that takes up the
rest of the slice. If you are using the partition sizes described
in the earlier example, then delete the existing figure using
Backspace , and then type in
64M , as shown in
. Then press
&gui.ok;.
Edit Root Partition Size
Having chosen the partition's size you will then be asked whether
this partition will contain a filesystem or swap space. The dialog
box is shown in . This first
partition will contain a filesystem, so check that
FS is selected and press
Enter .
Choose the Root Partition Type
Finally, because you are creating a filesystem, you must tell
Disklabel where the filesystem is to be
mounted. The dialog box is shown in
. The root filesystem's mount
point is / , so type / , and
then press Enter .
Choose the Root Mount Point
The display will then update to show you the newly created
partition. You should repeat this procedure for the other
partitions. When you create the swap partition, you will not be
prompted for the filesystem mount point, as swap partitions are never
mounted. When you create the final partition,
/usr , you can leave the suggested size as is, to
use the rest of the slice.
Your final FreeBSD DiskLabel Editor screen will appear similar to
, although your values chosen may
be different. Press Q to finish.
Sysinstall Disklabel Editor
¿ï¾Ü·Qn¦w¸Ëªº
¿ï¾Ün¦w¸Ëªº®M¥ó¶°(Distribution Set)
Deciding which distribution set to install will depend largely
on the intended use of the system and the amount of disk space
available. The predefined options range from installing the
smallest possible configuration to everything. Those who are
new to &unix; and/or FreeBSD should almost certainly select one
of these canned options. Customizing a distribution set is
typically for the more experienced user.
Press F1 for more information on the
distribution set options and what they contain. When finished
reviewing the help, pressing Enter will return
to the Select Distributions Menu.
If a graphical user interface is desired then a distribution
set that is preceded by an X should be
chosen. The configuration of the X server and selection of a default
desktop must be done after the installation of &os;. More
information regarding the configuration of a X server can be
found in .
The default version of X11 that is installed depends on the
version of FreeBSD that you are installing. For FreeBSD versions
prior to 5.3, &xfree86; 4.X is installed. For &os; 5.3 and later,
&xorg; is the default.
If compiling a custom kernel is anticipated, select an option
which includes the source code. For more information on why a
custom kernel should be built or how to build a custom kernel, see
.
Obviously, the most versatile system is one that includes
everything. If there is adequate disk space, select
All as shown in
by using the arrow keys and
press Enter . If there is a concern about disk
space consider using an option that is more suitable for the
situation.
Do not fret over the perfect choice, as other distributions can be
added after installation.
¿ï¾Ü®M¥ó(Distributions)
¦w¸Ë Ports Collection
After selecting the desired distribution, an opportunity to
install the FreeBSD Ports Collection is presented. The ports
collection is an easy and convenient way to install software.
The Ports Collection does not contain the source code necessary
to compile the software. Instead, it is a collection of files which
automates the downloading, compiling and installation
of third-party software packages.
discusses how to use the ports
collection.
The installation program does not check to see if you have
adequate space. Select this option only if you have
adequate hard disk space. As of FreeBSD &rel.current;, the FreeBSD
Ports Collection takes up about &ports.size; of disk space.
You can safely assume a larger value for more recent versions
of FreeBSD.
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to install the FreeBSD ports collection?
This will give you ready access to over &os.numports; ported software packages,
at a cost of around &ports.size; of disk space when "clean" and possibly much
more than that if a lot of the distribution tarballs are loaded
(unless you have the extra CDs from a FreeBSD CD/DVD distribution
available and can mount it on /cdrom, in which case this is far less
of a problem).
The Ports Collection is a very valuable resource and well worth having
on your /usr partition, so it is advisable to say Yes to this option.
For more information on the Ports Collection & the latest ports,
visit:
http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports
[ Yes ] No
Select &gui.yes; with the arrow keys to
install the Ports Collection or &gui.no; to
skip this option. Press Enter to continue.
The Choose Distributions menu will redisplay.
Confirm Distributions
If satisfied with the options, select
Exit with the arrow keys, ensure that
&gui.ok; is highlighted, and pressing
Enter to continue.
¿ï¾Ü¦w¸Ë¨Ó·½
- If Installing from a CDROM or DVD, use the arrow keys to highlight
- Install from a FreeBSD CD/DVD . Ensure
- that &gui.ok; is highlighted, then press
- Enter to proceed with the installation.
+ Yn±q CDROM ©Î DVD ¦w¸Ë¡A¥Î¤è¦VÁä±N´å¼Ð²¾¨ì Install from a FreeBSD CD/DVD ¡A¨Ã½T©w
+ ¿ï &gui.ok; «á«ö¤U Enter ´N·|¶}©l¸Ë¤F¡C
- For other methods of installation, select the appropriate
- option and follow the instructions.
+ Y¬On¥Î¨ä¥Lªº¤è¦¡¦w¸Ëªº¸Ü¡A½Ð¿ï¾Ü¾A·íªº¦w¸Ë¨Ó·½¡AµM«á¿í·Ó¿Ã¹õ«ü¥Ü¶i¦æ¦w¸Ë§Y¥i¡C
- Press F1 to display the Online Help for
- installation media. Press Enter to return
- to the media selection menu.
+ «ö F1 ¥i¥HÅã¥Ü°w¹ï¦¹³¡¤À(¦w¸Ë¨Ó·½)ªº½u¤W»¡©ú¡C«ö¤@¤U Enter
+ ´N·|¦^¨ì¡y¿ï¾Ü¦w¸Ë¨Ó·½¡zªºµe±¤F¡C
¿ï¾Ü¦w¸Ë¨Ó·½
FTP ¦w¸Ë¼Ò¦¡
installation
network
FTP
- There are three FTP installation modes you can choose from:
- active FTP, passive FTP, or via a HTTP proxy.
+ ¨Ï¥Î FTP ¦w¸Ëªº¸Ü¡A¦³¤À¤TºØ¼Ò¦¡¡J¥D°Ê¦¡(active)FTP¡B³Q°Ê¦¡(passive)FTP ©Î¬O³z¹L HTTP proxy server¡C
FTP Active: Install from an FTP
server
This option will make all FTP transfers
use Active
mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will
often work with older FTP servers that do not support
passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive
mode (the default), try active!
FTP Passive: Install from an FTP server through a
firewall
FTP
passive mode
This option instructs sysinstall to use
Passive
mode for all FTP operations.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow incoming connections on random TCP ports.
FTP via a HTTP proxy: Install from an FTP server
through a http proxy
FTP
via a HTTP proxy
This option instructs sysinstall to use the HTTP
protocol (like a web browser) to connect to a proxy
for all FTP operations. The proxy will translate
the requests and send them to the FTP server.
This allows the user to pass through firewalls
that do not allow FTP at all, but offer a HTTP
proxy.
In this case, you have to specify the proxy in
addition to the FTP server.
For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the
server you really want as a part of the username, after an
@
sign. The proxy server then fakes
the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from
ftp.FreeBSD.org , using the proxy FTP
server foo.example.com , listening on port
1024.
In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username
to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org , and the password to your
email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or
passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL
ftp://foo.example.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD .
Since /pub/FreeBSD from
ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under
foo.example.com , you are able to install
from that machine (which will fetch the files
from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your
installation requests them).
¶}©l¶i¦æ¦w¸Ë
¨ì¦¹¬°¤î¡A¥i¥H¶}©l¶i¦æ¦w¸Ë¤F¡A³o¤]¬O±zÁקK§ó°Ê¨ìµwºÐªº³Ì«á¾÷·|¡C
User Confirmation Requested
Last Chance! Are you SURE you want to continue the installation?
If you're running this on a disk with data you wish to save then WE
STRONGLY ENCOURAGE YOU TO MAKE PROPER BACKUPS before proceeding!
We can take no responsibility for lost disk contents!
[ Yes ] No
¿ï¾Ü &gui.yes; ¨Ã«ö¤U
Enter ¥H½T»{¯uªºn¶}©l¦w¸Ë
¦w¸Ë©Ò»Ý®É¶¡·|¨Ì¾Ú©Ò¿ï¾Ü¦w¸Ëªº®M¥ó¶°(distribution)
¡B¦w¸Ë¨Ó·½¥H¤Î¹q¸£³t«×¦Ó¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡C
¦b¦w¸Ëªº¹Lµ{¤¤¡A·|¦³¤@¨Ç°T®§Åã¥Ü¥Ø«eªº¦w¸Ë¶i«×¡C
·í±z¬Ý¨ì¤U±ªº°T®§ªí¥Ü¤w¸g¦w¸Ë§¹¦¨¤F¡J
Message
Congratulations! You now have FreeBSD installed on your system.
We will now move on to the final configuration questions.
For any option you do not wish to configure, simply select No.
If you wish to re-enter this utility after the system is up, you may
do so by typing: /stand/sysinstall .
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]
- Press Enter to proceed with post-installation
- configurations.
+ ½Ð«ö Enter Áä¨Ó¶i¦æ¬ÛÃöªº«áÄò³]©w¡C
- Selecting &gui.no; and pressing
- Enter will abort
- the installation so no changes will be made to your system. The
- following message will appear:
+ ¦pªGè¿ïªº¬O &gui.no; ¨Ã«ö¤U
+ Enter Áä¡A¨º»ò·|¤¤Â_¦w¸Ë(´N¤£·|°Ê¨ì§Aªºì¦³¨t²Î)¡C
+ ±µµÛ¡A·|¥X²{¥H¤U°T®§¡G
Message
Installation complete with some errors. You may wish to scroll
through the debugging messages on VTY1 with the scroll-lock feature.
You can also choose "No" at the next prompt and go back into the
installation menus to retry whichever operations have failed.
[ OK ]
- This message is generated because nothing was installed.
- Pressing Enter will return to the
- Main Installation Menu to exit the installation.
+ ³o¬q°T®§¤D¬O¦]¬°³£¨S¸Ë¥ô¦óªF¦è¤§¬G¡A½Ð«ö Enter ¥H¸õ¦^¥Dµe±¡C
«áÄò¦w¸Ë
¦w¸Ë¨t²Î¦¨¥\¤§«á¡A¥i¥H¦b·s¸Ë¦nªº FreeBSD
«¶}¾÷¤§«e¡A©ÎªÌ¬O¨Æ«á¦A³z¹L sysinstall
(&os; 5.2 ¤§«eª©¥»«h¬O /stand/sysinstall ) µM«á¿ï¾Ü
Configure ¿ï¶µ¥H¶i¦æ«áÄò³]©w¡C
- Network Device Configuration
+ ³]©wºô¸ô
- If you previously configured PPP for an FTP install, this screen
- will not display and can be configured later as described
- above.
+ ¦pªG±z¤§«e¦³³]©w¥Î PPP ³s½u³z¹L FTP ¦w¸Ë¡A¨º»ò³oÓµe±±N¤£·|¥X²{¡F
+ ¥¿¦p¤W±è©Ò»¡ªº¡A±z¥i¥Hµy«á¦A°µ§ó§ï¡C
- For detailed information on Local Area Networks and
- configuring FreeBSD as a gateway/router refer to the
- Advanced Networking
- chapter.
+ ¦³Ãö LAN ©Î§â FreeBSD ³]©w¬° gateway ©Î router ½Ð°Ñ¾\¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U¤¤¦³Ãö
+ ºô¸ô¶i¶¥¹B¥Î ªº³¹¸`¡C
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure any Ethernet or SLIP/PPP network devices?
[ Yes ] No
- To configure a network device, select
- &gui.yes; and press Enter .
- Otherwise, select &gui.no; to continue.
+ ¦pªGn³]©wºô¸ô¥d¡A½Ð¿ï¾Ü &gui.yes; µM«á«ö Enter ¡C
+ §_«h½Ð¿ï &gui.no; ¥HÄ~Äò¡C
- Selecting an Ethernet Device
+ ¿ï¾Üºô¸ô¥d
- Select the interface to be configured with the arrow keys and press
- Enter .
+ ¥Î¤è¦VÁä¿ï¾Ü±zn³]©wªººô¸ô¥d¡AµM«á«ö Enter ¡C
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try IPv6 configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]
In this private local area network, the current Internet
type protocol (IPv4 ) was sufficient and &gui.no;
was selected with the arrow keys and Enter
pressed.
If you are connected to an existing IPv6 network
with an RA server, then choose
&gui.yes; and press Enter .
It will take several seconds to scan for RA servers.
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to try DHCP configuration of the interface?
Yes [ No ]
If DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is not required
select &gui.no; with the arrow keys and press
Enter .
Selecting &gui.yes; will execute
dhclient , and if successful, will fill
in the network configuration information automatically. Refer to
for more information.
The following Network Configuration screen shows the
configuration of the Ethernet device for a system that will act
as the gateway for a Local Area Network.
Set Network Configuration for ed0
Use Tab to select the information fields and
fill in appropriate information:
Host
The fully-qualified hostname, such as k6-2.example.com in
this case.
Domain
The name of the domain that your machine is
in, such as example.com for this case.
IPv4 Gateway
IP address of host forwarding packets to non-local
destinations. You must fill this in if the machine is a node
on the network. Leave this field blank
if the machine is the gateway to the Internet for the
network. The IPv4 Gateway is also known as the default
gateway or default route.
Name server
IP address of your local DNS server. There is no local
DNS server on this private local area network so the IP
address of the provider's DNS server
(208.163.10.2 ) was used.
IPv4 address
The IP address to be used for this interface was
192.168.0.1
Netmask
The address block being used for this local area
network is a Class C block
(192.168.0.0 -
192.168.255.255 ).
The default netmask is for a Class C network
(255.255.255.0 ).
Extra options to ifconfig
Any interface-specific options to ifconfig
you would like to add. There were none in this case.
Use Tab to select &gui.ok;
when finished and press Enter .
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to Bring Up the ed0 interface right now?
[ Yes ] No
Choosing &gui.yes; and pressing
Enter will bring
the machine up on the network and be ready for use. However,
this does not accomplish much during installation, since
the machine still needs to be rebooted.
Configure Gateway
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want this machine to function as a network gateway?
[ Yes ] No
If the machine will be acting as the gateway for a local area
network and forwarding packets between other machines then select
&gui.yes; and press Enter .
If the machine is a node on a network then
select &gui.no; and press
Enter to continue.
Configure Internet Services
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure inetd and the network services that it provides?
Yes [ No ]
If &gui.no; is selected, various services
such telnetd will not be enabled. This
means that remote users will not be able to
telnet into this machine. Local users
will be still be able to access remote machines with
telnet .
These services can be enabled after installation by editing
/etc/inetd.conf with your favorite text editor.
See for more information.
Select &gui.yes; if you wish to
configure these services during install. An additional
confirmation will display:
User Confirmation Requested
The Internet Super Server (inetd) allows a number of simple Internet
services to be enabled, including finger, ftp and telnetd. Enabling
these services may increase risk of security problems by increasing
the exposure of your system.
With this in mind, do you wish to enable inetd?
[ Yes ] No
Select &gui.yes; to continue.
User Confirmation Requested
inetd(8) relies on its configuration file, /etc/inetd.conf, to determine
which of its Internet services will be available. The default FreeBSD
inetd.conf(5) leaves all services disabled by default, so they must be
specifically enabled in the configuration file before they will
function, even once inetd(8) is enabled. Note that services for
IPv6 must be separately enabled from IPv4 services.
Select [Yes] now to invoke an editor on /etc/inetd.conf, or [No] to
use the current settings.
[ Yes ] No
Selecting &gui.yes; will allow adding
services by deleting the # at the beginning
of a line.
Editing inetd.conf
After adding the desired services, pressing Esc
will display a menu which will allow exiting and saving
the changes.
Anonymous FTP
FTP
anonymous
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to have anonymous FTP access to this machine?
Yes [ No ]
Deny Anonymous FTP
Selecting the default &gui.no; and pressing
Enter will still allow users who have accounts
with passwords to use FTP to access the machine.
Allow Anonymous FTP
Anyone can access your machine if you elect to allow
anonymous FTP connections. The security implications should be
considered before enabling this option. For more information
about security see .
To allow anonymous FTP, use the arrow keys to select
&gui.yes; and press Enter .
The following screen (or similar) will display:
Default Anonymous FTP Configuration
Pressing F1 will display the help:
This screen allows you to configure the anonymous FTP user.
The following configuration values are editable:
UID: The user ID you wish to assign to the anonymous FTP user.
All files uploaded will be owned by this ID.
Group: Which group you wish the anonymous FTP user to be in.
Comment: String describing this user in /etc/passwd
FTP Root Directory:
Where files available for anonymous FTP will be kept.
Upload subdirectory:
Where files uploaded by anonymous FTP users will go.
The ftp root directory will be put in /var
by default. If you do not have enough room there for the
anticipated FTP needs, the /usr directory
could be used by setting the FTP Root Directory to
/usr/ftp .
When you are satisfied with the values, press
Enter to continue.
User Confirmation Requested
Create a welcome message file for anonymous FTP users?
[ Yes ] No
If you select &gui.yes; and press
Enter , an editor will automatically start
allowing you to edit the message.
Edit the FTP Welcome Message
This is a text editor called ee . Use the
instructions to change the message or change the message later
using a text editor of your choice. Note the file name/location
at the bottom of the editor screen.
Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default
to a) leave editor . Press
Enter to exit and continue. Press
Enter again to save changes if you made
any.
Configure Network File System
Network File System (NFS) allows sharing of files across a
network. A machine can be configured as a server, a client, or
both. Refer to for a more information.
NFS Server
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS server?
Yes [ No ]
If there is no need for a Network File System server,
select &gui.no; and press
Enter .
If &gui.yes; is chosen, a message will
pop-up indicating that the exports file must be
created.
Message
Operating as an NFS server means that you must first configure an
/etc/exports file to indicate which hosts are allowed certain kinds of
access to your local filesystems.
Press [Enter] now to invoke an editor on /etc/exports
[ OK ]
Press Enter to continue. A text editor will
start allowing the exports file to be created
and edited.
Editing exports
Use the instructions to add the actual exported filesystems
now or later using a text editor of your choice. Note the
file name/location at the bottom of the editor screen.
Press Esc and a pop-up menu will default to
a) leave editor . Press
Enter to exit and continue.
NFS Client
The NFS client allows your machine to access NFS servers.
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to configure this machine as an NFS client?
Yes [ No ]
With the arrow keys, select &gui.yes;
or &gui.no; as appropriate and
press Enter .
Security Profile
A security profile
is a set of
configuration options that attempts to achieve the desired
ratio of security to convenience by enabling and disabling
certain programs and other settings. The more severe the
security profile, the fewer programs will be enabled by
default. This is one of the basic principles of security: do
not run anything except what you must.
Please note that the security profile is just a default
setting. All programs can be enabled and disabled after you
have installed FreeBSD by editing or adding the appropriate
line(s) to /etc/rc.conf . For more
information, please see the &man.rc.conf.5; manual
page.
The following table describes what each of the security
profiles does. The columns are the choices you have for a
security profile, and the rows are the program or feature that
the profile enables or disables.
Possible Security Profiles
Extreme
Moderate
&man.sendmail.8;
NO
YES
&man.sshd.8;
NO
YES
&man.portmap.8;
NO
MAYBE
The portmapper is enabled if the machine has
been configured as an NFS client or server earlier
in the installation.
NFS server
NO
YES
&man.securelevel.8;
YES
If you choose a security profile that sets the
securelevel to Extreme
or
High
, you must be aware of the
implications. Please read the &man.init.8;
manual page and pay particular attention to the
meanings of the security levels, or you may have
significant trouble later!
NO
User Confirmation Requested
Do you want to select a default security profile for this host (select
No for "medium" security)?
[ Yes ] No
Selecting &gui.no; and pressing
Enter will set the security profile to medium.
Selecting &gui.yes; and pressing
Enter will allow selecting a different security
profile.
Security Profile Options
Press F1 to display the help. Press
Enter to return to selection menu.
Use the arrow keys to choose Medium
unless your are sure that another level is required for your needs.
With &gui.ok; highlighted, press
Enter .
An appropriate confirmation message will display depending on
which security setting was chosen.
Message
Moderate security settings have been selected.
Sendmail and SSHd have been enabled, securelevels are
disabled, and NFS server setting have been left intact.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a standard set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK]
Message
Extreme security settings have been selected.
Sendmail, SSHd, and NFS services have been disabled, and
securelevels have been enabled.
PLEASE NOTE that this still does not save you from having
to properly secure your system in other ways or exercise
due diligence in your administration, this simply picks
a more secure set of out-of-box defaults to start with.
To change any of these settings later, edit /etc/rc.conf
[OK]
Press Enter to continue with the
post-installation configuration.
The security profile is not a silver bullet! Even if
you use the extreme setting, you need to keep up with
security issues by reading an appropriate mailing
list (),
using good passwords and passphrases, and
generally adhering to good security practices. It simply
sets up the desired security to convenience ratio out of the
box.
System Console Settings
There are several options available to customize the system
console.
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to customize your system console settings?
[ Yes ] No
To view and configure the options, select
&gui.yes; and press
Enter .
System Console Configuration Options
A commonly used option is the screen saver. Use the arrow keys
to select Saver and then press
Enter .
Screen Saver Options
Select the desired screen saver using the arrow keys
and then press Enter . The System Console
Configuration menu will redisplay.
The default time interval is 300 seconds. To change the time
interval, select Saver again. At the
Screen Saver Options menu, select Timeout
using the arrow keys and press Enter . A pop-up
menu will appear:
Screen Saver Timeout
The value can be changed, then select &gui.ok;
and press Enter to return to the System Console
Configuration menu.
System Console Configuration Exit
Selecting Exit and pressing
Enter will continue with the post-installation
configurations.
Setting the Time Zone
Setting the time zone for your machine will allow it to
automatically correct for any regional time changes and perform
other time zone related functions properly.
The example shown is for a machine located in the Eastern
time zone of the United States. Your selections will vary according
to your geographical location.
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to set this machine's time zone now?
[ Yes ] No
Select &gui.yes; and press
Enter to set the time zone.
User Confirmation Requested
Is this machine's CMOS clock set to UTC? If it is set to local time
or you don't know, please choose NO here!
Yes [ No ]
Select &gui.yes;
or &gui.no; according to how the machine's
clock is configured and press Enter .
Select Your Region
The appropriate region is selected using the arrow keys
and then pressing Enter .
Select Your Country
Select the appropriate country using the arrow keys
and press Enter .
Select Your Time Zone
The appropriate time zone is selected using the arrow
keys and pressing Enter .
Confirmation
Does the abbreviation 'EDT' look reasonable?
[ Yes ] No
Confirm the abbreviation for the time zone is correct.
If it looks okay, press Enter to continue with
the post-installation configuration.
Linux Compatibility
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to enable Linux binary compatibility?
[ Yes ] No
Selecting &gui.yes; and pressing
Enter will allow
running Linux software on FreeBSD. The install will add
the appropriate packages for Linux compatibility.
If installing by FTP, the machine will need to be connected to
the Internet. Sometimes a remote ftp site will not have all the
distributions like the Linux binary compatibility. This can
be installed later if necessary.
Mouse Settings
This option will allow you to cut and paste text in the
console and user programs with a 3-button mouse. If using a 2-button
mouse, refer to manual page, &man.moused.8;, after installation for
details on emulating the 3-button style. This example depicts a
non-USB mouse configuration (such as a PS/2 or COM port mouse):
User Confirmation Requested
Does this system have a non-USB mouse attached to it?
[ Yes ] No
Select &gui.yes; for a non-USB mouse or
&gui.no; for a USB mouse and press
Enter .
Select Mouse Protocol Type
Use the arrow keys to select Type and
press Enter .
Set Mouse Protocol
The mouse used in this example is a PS/2 type, so the default
Auto was appropriate. To change protocol,
use the arrow keys to select another option. Ensure that &gui.ok; is
highlighted and press Enter to exit this menu.
Configure Mouse Port
Use the arrow keys to select Port and
press Enter .
Setting the Mouse Port
This system had a PS/2 mouse, so the default
PS/2 was appropriate. To change the port,
use the arrow keys and then press Enter .
Enable the Mouse Daemon
Last, use the arrow keys to select
Enable , and press
Enter to enable and test the mouse
daemon.
Test the Mouse Daemon
Move the mouse around the screen and verify the cursor
shown responds properly. If it does, select
&gui.yes; and press Enter . If
not, the mouse has not been configured correctly — select
&gui.no; and try using different configuration
options.
Select Exit with the arrow keys
and press Enter to return to continue with the
post-installation configuration.
Tom
Rhodes
Contributed by
Configure Additional Network Services
Configuring network services can be a daunting
task for new users if they lack previous
knowledge in this area. Networking, including the Internet,
is critical to all modern operating systems including &os;;
as a result, it is very useful to have some understanding
&os;'s extensive networking capabilities. Doing this
during the installation will ensure users have some
understanding of the various services available to them.
Network services are programs that accept input from
anywhere on the network. Every effort is made to make sure
these programs will not do anything harmful
.
Unfortunately, programmers are not perfect and through time
there have been cases where bugs in network services have been
exploited by attackers to do bad things. It is important that
you only enable the network services you know that you need. If
in doubt it is best if you do not enable a network service until
you find out that you do need it. You can always enable it
later by re-running sysinstall or by
using the features provided by the
/etc/rc.conf file.
Selecting the Networking option will display
a menu similar to the one below:
Network Configuration Upper-level
The first option, Interfaces , was previously covered during
the , thus this option can
safely be ignored.
Selecting the AMD option adds
support for the BSD automatic mount utility.
This is usually used in conjunction with the
NFS protocol (see below)
for automatically mounting remote file systems.
No special configuration is required here.
Next in line is the AMD Flags
option. When selected, a menu will pop up for you
to enter specific AMD flags.
The menu already contains a set of default options:
-a /.amd_mnt -l syslog /host /etc/amd.map /net /etc/amd.map
The -a option sets the default mount
location which is specified here as
/.amd_mnt . The -l
option specifies the default log file;
however, when syslogd is used all log
activity will be sent to the system log daemon. The
/host directory is used
to mount an exported file system from a remote
host, while /net
directory is used to mount an exported file system from an
IP address. The
/etc/amd.map file defines the default
options for AMD exports.
FTP
anonymous
The Anon FTP option permits anonymous
FTP connections. Select this option to
make this machine an anonymous FTP server.
Be aware of the security risks involved with this option.
Another menu will be displayed to explain the security risks
and configuration in depth.
The Gateway configuration menu will set
the machine up to be a gateway as explained previously. This
can be used to unset the Gateway option if you accidentally
selected it during the installation process.
The Inetd option can be used to configure
or completely disable the &man.inetd.8; daemon as discussed
above.
The Mail option is used to configure the system's
default MTA or Mail Transfer Agent.
Selecting this option will bring up the following menu:
Select a default MTA
Here you are offered a choice as to which
MTA to install
and set as the default. An MTA is nothing
more than a mail server which delivers email to users on the
system or the Internet.
Selecting Sendmail will install
the popular sendmail server which
is the &os; default. The Sendmail local option
will set sendmail to be the default
MTA , but disable its ability to receive
incoming email from the Internet. The other options here,
Postfix and
Exim act similar to
Sendmail . They both deliver
email; however, some users prefer these alternatives to the
sendmail
MTA .
After selecting an MTA , or choosing
not to select an MTA, the network configuration menu will appear
with the next option being NFS client .
The NFS client option will
configure the system to communicate with a server via
NFS . An NFS server
makes file systems available to other machines on the
network via the NFS protocol. If this is
a stand alone machine, this option can remain unselected.
The system may require more configuration later; see
for more
information about client and server configuration.
Below that option is the NFS server
option, permitting you to set the system up as an
NFS server. This adds the required
information to start up the RPC remote
procedure call services. RPC is used to
coordinate connections between hosts and programs.
Next in line is the Ntpdate option,
which deals with time synchronization. When selected, a menu
like the one below shows up:
Ntpdate Configuration
From this menu, select the server which is the closest
to your location. Selecting a close one will make the time
synchronization more accurate as a server further from your
location may have more connection latency.
The next option is the PCNFSD selection.
This option will install the
net/pcnfsd package from
the Ports Collection. This is a useful utility which provides
NFS authentication services for systems which
are unable to provide their own, such as Microsoft's
&ms-dos; operating system.
Now you must scroll down a bit to see the other
options:
Network Configuration Lower-level
The &man.rpcbind.8;, &man.rpc.statd.8;, and
&man.rpc.lockd.8; utilities are all used for Remote Procedure
Calls (RPC ).
The rpcbind utility manages communication
between NFS servers and clients, and is
required for NFS servers to operate
correctly. The rpc.statd daemon interacts
with the rpc.statd daemon on other hosts to
provide status monitoring. The reported status is usually held
in the /var/db/statd.status file. The
next option listed here is the rpc.lockd
option, which, when selected, will provide file locking
services. This is usually used with
rpc.statd to monitor what hosts are
requesting locks and how frequently they request them.
While these last two options are marvelous for debugging, they
are not required for NFS servers and clients
to operate correctly.
As you progress down the list the next item here is
Routed , which is the routing daemon. The
&man.routed.8; utility manages network routing tables,
discovers multicast routers, and supplies a copy of the routing
tables to any physically connected host on the network upon
request. This is mainly used for machines which act as a
gateway for the local network. When selected, a menu will be
presented requesting the default location of the utility.
The default location is already defined for you and can be
selected with the Enter key. You will then
be presented with yet another menu, this time asking for the
flags you wish to pass on to routed . The
default is -q and it should already appear
on the screen.
Next in line is the Rwhod option which,
when selected, will start the &man.rwhod.8; daemon
during system initialization. The rwhod
utility broadcasts system messages across the network
periodically, or collects them when in consumer
mode. More information can be found in the &man.ruptime.1; and
&man.rwho.1; manual pages.
The next to the last option in the list is for the
&man.sshd.8; daemon. This is the secure shell server for
OpenSSH and it is highly recommended
over the standard telnet and
FTP servers. The sshd
server is used to create a secure connection from one host to
another by using encrypted connections.
Finally there is the TCP Extensions
option. This enables the TCP Extensions
defined in RFC 1323 and
RFC 1644. While on many hosts this can
speed up connections, it can also cause some connections to be
dropped. It is not recommended for servers, but may be
beneficial for stand alone machines.
Now that you have configured the network services, you can
scroll up to the very top item which is Exit
and continue on to the next configuration section.
Configure X Server
As of &os; 5.3-RELEASE, the X server configuration
facility has been removed from
sysinstall , you have to install
and configure the X server after the installation of &os;.
More information regarding the installation and the
configuration of a X server can be found in . You can skip this section if you are not
installing a &os; version prior to 5.3-RELEASE.
In order to use a graphical user interface such as
KDE , GNOME ,
or others, the X server will need to be configured.
In order to run &xfree86; as a
non root user you will need to
have x11/wrapper installed.
This is installed by default beginning with FreeBSD 4.7. For
earlier versions this can be added
from the Package Selection menu.
To see whether your video card is supported, check the
&xfree86; web site.
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to configure your X server at this time?
[ Yes ] No
It is necessary to know your monitor specifications and
video card information. Equipment damage can occur if settings
are incorrect. If you do not have this information, select
&gui.no; and perform the configuration
after installation when you have the information using
sysinstall (/stand/sysinstall
in &os; versions older than 5.2), selecting
Configure and then
XFree86 . Improper configuration
of the X server at this time can leave the machine in a
frozen state. It is often advised to configure the X server
once the installation has completed.
If you have graphics card and monitor information, select
&gui.yes; and press Enter
to proceed with configuring the X server.
Select Configuration Method Menu
There are several ways to configure the X server.
Use the arrow keys to select one of the methods and press
Enter . Be sure to read all instructions
carefully.
The xf86cfg and
xf86cfg -textmode methods may make the screen
go dark and take a few seconds to start. Be patient.
The following will illustrate the use of the
xf86config configuration tool. The
configuration choices you make will depend on the hardware in the
system so your choices will probably be different than those
shown:
Message
You have configured and been running the mouse daemon.
Choose "/dev/sysmouse" as the mouse port and "SysMouse" or
"MouseSystems" as the mouse protocol in the X configuration utility.
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]
This indicates that the mouse daemon previously configured has been
detected.
Press Enter to continue.
Starting xf86config will display
a brief introduction:
This program will create a basic XF86Config file, based on menu selections you
make.
The XF86Config file usually resides in /usr/X11R6/etc/X11 or /etc/X11. A sample
XF86Config file is supplied with XFree86; it is configured for a standard
VGA card and monitor with 640x480 resolution. This program will ask for a
pathname when it is ready to write the file.
You can either take the sample XF86Config as a base and edit it for your
configuration, or let this program produce a base XF86Config file for your
configuration and fine-tune it.
Before continuing with this program, make sure you know what video card
you have, and preferably also the chipset it uses and the amount of video
memory on your video card. SuperProbe may be able to help with this.
Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.
Pressing Enter will start the mouse
configuration. Be sure to follow the instructions and use
Mouse Systems
as the mouse protocol and
/dev/sysmouse as the mouse port even if
using a PS/2 mouse is shown as an illustration.
First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list:
1. Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol)
2. Mouse Systems (3-button protocol) & FreeBSD moused protocol
3. Bus Mouse
4. PS/2 Mouse
5. Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol)
6. Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible)
7. MM Series
8. MM HitTablet
9. Microsoft IntelliMouse
If you have a two-button mouse, it is most likely of type 1, and if you have
a three-button mouse, it can probably support both protocol 1 and 2. There are
two main varieties of the latter type: mice with a switch to select the
protocol, and mice that default to 1 and require a button to be held at
boot-time to select protocol 2. Some mice can be convinced to do 2 by sending
a special sequence to the serial port (see the ClearDTR/ClearRTS options).
Enter a protocol number: 2
You have selected a Mouse Systems protocol mouse. If your mouse is normally
in Microsoft-compatible mode, enabling the ClearDTR and ClearRTS options
may cause it to switch to Mouse Systems mode when the server starts.
Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable ClearDTR and ClearRTS? n
You have selected a three-button mouse protocol. It is recommended that you
do not enable Emulate3Buttons, unless the third button doesn't work.
Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons? y
Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example
/dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse.
On FreeBSD, the default is /dev/sysmouse.
Mouse device: /dev/sysmouse
The keyboard is the next item to be configured. A generic
101-key model is shown for illustration. Any name may be used
for the variant or simply press Enter to accept
the default value.
Please select one of the following keyboard types that is the better
description of your keyboard. If nothing really matches,
choose 1 (Generic 101-key PC)
1 Generic 101-key PC
2 Generic 102-key (Intl) PC
3 Generic 104-key PC
4 Generic 105-key (Intl) PC
5 Dell 101-key PC
6 Everex STEPnote
7 Keytronic FlexPro
8 Microsoft Natural
9 Northgate OmniKey 101
10 Winbook Model XP5
11 Japanese 106-key
12 PC-98xx Series
13 Brazilian ABNT2
14 HP Internet
15 Logitech iTouch
16 Logitech Cordless Desktop Pro
17 Logitech Internet Keyboard
18 Logitech Internet Navigator Keyboard
19 Compaq Internet
20 Microsoft Natural Pro
21 Genius Comfy KB-16M
22 IBM Rapid Access
23 IBM Rapid Access II
24 Chicony Internet Keyboard
25 Dell Internet Keyboard
Enter a number to choose the keyboard.
1
Please select the layout corresponding to your keyboard
1 U.S. English
2 U.S. English w/ ISO9995-3
3 U.S. English w/ deadkeys
4 Albanian
5 Arabic
6 Armenian
7 Azerbaidjani
8 Belarusian
9 Belgian
10 Bengali
11 Brazilian
12 Bulgarian
13 Burmese
14 Canadian
15 Croatian
16 Czech
17 Czech (qwerty)
18 Danish
Enter a number to choose the country.
Press enter for the next page
1
Please enter a variant name for 'us' layout. Or just press enter
for default variant
us
Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want to select additional XKB options (group switcher,
group indicator, etc.)? n
Next, we proceed to the configuration for the monitor. Do not
exceed the ratings of your monitor. Damage could occur. If you
have any doubts, do the configuration after you have the
information.
Now we want to set the specifications of the monitor. The two critical
parameters are the vertical refresh rate, which is the rate at which the
whole screen is refreshed, and most importantly the horizontal sync rate,
which is the rate at which scanlines are displayed.
The valid range for horizontal sync and vertical sync should be documented
in the manual of your monitor. If in doubt, check the monitor database
/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors to see if your monitor is there.
Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.
You must indicate the horizontal sync range of your monitor. You can either
select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-
standard monitor types, or give a specific range.
It is VERY IMPORTANT that you do not specify a monitor type with a horizontal
sync range that is beyond the capabilities of your monitor. If in doubt,
choose a conservative setting.
hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes
1 31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @ 60 Hz
2 31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @ 56 Hz
3 31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600)
4 31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @ 56 Hz
5 31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @ 60 Hz, 640x480 @ 72 Hz
6 31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @ 60 Hz, 800x600 @ 72 Hz
7 31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @ 70 Hz
8 31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 60 Hz
9 31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 74 Hz
10 31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @ 76 Hz
11 Enter your own horizontal sync range
Enter your choice (1-11): 6
You must indicate the vertical sync range of your monitor. You can either
select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-
standard monitor types, or give a specific range. For interlaced modes,
the number that counts is the high one (e.g. 87 Hz rather than 43 Hz).
1 50-70
2 50-90
3 50-100
4 40-150
5 Enter your own vertical sync range
Enter your choice: 2
You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an
identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill
in default names.
The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed.
Enter an identifier for your monitor definition: Hitachi
The selection of a video card driver from a list is
next. If you pass your card on the list, continue to press
Enter and the list will repeat. Only an
excerpt from the list is shown:
Now we must configure video card specific settings. At this point you can
choose to make a selection out of a database of video card definitions.
Because there can be variation in Ramdacs and clock generators even
between cards of the same model, it is not sensible to blindly copy
the settings (e.g. a Device section). For this reason, after you make a
selection, you will still be asked about the components of the card, with
the settings from the chosen database entry presented as a strong hint.
The database entries include information about the chipset, what driver to
run, the Ramdac and ClockChip, and comments that will be included in the
Device section. However, a lot of definitions only hint about what driver
to run (based on the chipset the card uses) and are untested.
If you can't find your card in the database, there's nothing to worry about.
You should only choose a database entry that is exactly the same model as
your card; choosing one that looks similar is just a bad idea (e.g. a
GemStone Snail 64 may be as different from a GemStone Snail 64+ in terms of
hardware as can be).
Do you want to look at the card database? y
288 Matrox Millennium G200 8MB mgag200
289 Matrox Millennium G200 SD 16MB mgag200
290 Matrox Millennium G200 SD 4MB mgag200
291 Matrox Millennium G200 SD 8MB mgag200
292 Matrox Millennium G400 mgag400
293 Matrox Millennium II 16MB mga2164w
294 Matrox Millennium II 4MB mga2164w
295 Matrox Millennium II 8MB mga2164w
296 Matrox Mystique mga1064sg
297 Matrox Mystique G200 16MB mgag200
298 Matrox Mystique G200 4MB mgag200
299 Matrox Mystique G200 8MB mgag200
300 Matrox Productiva G100 4MB mgag100
301 Matrox Productiva G100 8MB mgag100
302 MediaGX mediagx
303 MediaVision Proaxcel 128 ET6000
304 Mirage Z-128 ET6000
305 Miro CRYSTAL VRX Verite 1000
Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition.
Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration.
288
Your selected card definition:
Identifier: Matrox Millennium G200 8MB
Chipset: mgag200
Driver: mga
Do NOT probe clocks or use any Clocks line.
Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.
Now you must give information about your video card. This will be used for
the "Device" section of your video card in XF86Config.
You must indicate how much video memory you have. It is probably a good
idea to use the same approximate amount as that detected by the server you
intend to use. If you encounter problems that are due to the used server
not supporting the amount memory you have (e.g. ATI Mach64 is limited to
1024K with the SVGA server), specify the maximum amount supported by the
server.
How much video memory do you have on your video card:
1 256K
2 512K
3 1024K
4 2048K
5 4096K
6 Other
Enter your choice: 6
Amount of video memory in Kbytes: 8192
You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an
identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill
in default names (possibly from a card definition).
Your card definition is Matrox Millennium G200 8MB.
The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed.
Enter an identifier for your video card definition:
Next, the video modes are set for the resolutions
desired. Typically, useful ranges are 640x480, 800x600, and 1024x768
but those are a function of video card capability, monitor size,
and eye comfort. When selecting a color depth, select the highest
mode that your card will support.
For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default
resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed
mode that can be supported by the monitor and card.
Currently it is set to:
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8-bit
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 16-bit
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24-bit
Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will
be automatically skipped by the server.
1 Change the modes for 8-bit (256 colors)
2 Change the modes for 16-bit (32K/64K colors)
3 Change the modes for 24-bit (24-bit color)
4 The modes are OK, continue.
Enter your choice: 2
Select modes from the following list:
1 "640x400"
2 "640x480"
3 "800x600"
4 "1024x768"
5 "1280x1024"
6 "320x200"
7 "320x240"
8 "400x300"
9 "1152x864"
a "1600x1200"
b "1800x1400"
c "512x384"
Please type the digits corresponding to the modes that you want to select.
For example, 432 selects "1024x768" "800x600" "640x480", with a
default mode of 1024x768.
Which modes? 432
You can have a virtual screen (desktop), which is screen area that is larger
than the physical screen and which is panned by moving the mouse to the edge
of the screen. If you don't want virtual desktop at a certain resolution,
you cannot have modes listed that are larger. Each color depth can have a
differently-sized virtual screen
Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'.
Do you want a virtual screen that is larger than the physical screen? n
For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default
resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed
mode that can be supported by the monitor and card.
Currently it is set to:
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 8-bit
"1024x768" "800x600" "640x480" for 16-bit
"640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" "1280x1024" for 24-bit
Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will
be automatically skipped by the server.
1 Change the modes for 8-bit (256 colors)
2 Change the modes for 16-bit (32K/64K colors)
3 Change the modes for 24-bit (24-bit color)
4 The modes are OK, continue.
Enter your choice: 4
Please specify which color depth you want to use by default:
1 1 bit (monochrome)
2 4 bits (16 colors)
3 8 bits (256 colors)
4 16 bits (65536 colors)
5 24 bits (16 million colors)
Enter a number to choose the default depth.
4
Finally, the configuration needs to be saved. Be sure
to enter /etc/X11/XF86Config as the location
for saving the configuration.
I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently
overwrite a previously configured one.
Shall I write it to /etc/X11/XF86Config? y
If the configuration fails, you can try the configuration again
by selecting &gui.yes; when the following
message appears:
User Confirmation Requested
The XFree86 configuration process seems to have
failed. Would you like to try again?
[ Yes ] No
If you have trouble configuring &xfree86; , select
&gui.no; and press Enter
and continue with the installation process. After installation
you can use xf86cfg -textmode or
xf86config to access the command line
configuration utilities as root . There is
an additional method for configuring &xfree86; described in
. If you choose not to configure
&xfree86; at this time the next menu will be for package
selection.
The default setting which allows the server to be killed
is the hotkey sequence
Ctrl Alt
Backspace . This
can be executed if something is wrong with the server settings and
prevent hardware damage.
The default setting that allows video mode switching will
permit changing of the mode while running X with the hotkey
sequence
Ctrl Alt +
or
Ctrl Alt -
.
After you have &xfree86;
running, the display can be adjusted for height, width,
or centering by using xvidtune .
There are warnings that improper settings can
damage your equipment. Heed them. If in doubt, do not do
it. Instead, use the monitor controls to adjust the display for
X Window. There may be some display differences when switching
back to text mode, but it is better than damaging equipment.
Read the &man.xvidtune.1; manual page before making
any adjustments.
Following a successful &xfree86; configuration, it will proceed
to the selection of a default desktop.
Select Default X Desktop
As of &os; 5.3-RELEASE, the X desktop selection
facility has been removed from
sysinstall , you have to configure
the X desktop after the installation of &os;. More
information regarding the installation and the configuration
of a X desktop can be found in . You
can skip this section if you are not installing a &os;
version prior to 5.3-RELEASE.
There are a variety of window managers available. They range
from very basic environments to full desktop environments with a
large suite of software. Some require only minimal disk space and
low memory while others with more features require much more. The
best way to determine which is most suitable for you is to try a few
different ones. Those are available from the Ports Collection or as
packages and can be added after installation.
You can select one of the popular desktops to be installed
and configured as the default desktop. This will allow you
to start it right after installation.
Select Default Desktop
Use the arrow keys to select a desktop and press
Enter . Installation of the selected desktop will
proceed.
Install Packages
Packages are pre-compiled binaries and are a convenient
way to install software.
Installation of one package is shown for purposes of
illustration. Additional packages can also be added at this
time if desired. After installation
sysinstall (/stand/sysinstall
in &os; versions older than 5.2) can be used to add additional
packages.
User Confirmation Requested
The FreeBSD package collection is a collection of hundreds of
ready-to-run applications, from text editors to games to WEB servers
and more. Would you like to browse the collection now?
[ Yes ] No
Selecting &gui.yes; and pressing
Enter will be
followed by the Package Selection screens:
Select Package Category
Only packages on the current installation media are
available for installation at any given time.
All packages available will be displayed if
All is selected or you can select a
particular category. Highlight your selection with the arrow
keys and press Enter .
A menu will display showing all the packages available for
the selection made:
Select Packages
The bash shell is shown selected.
Select as many as desired by highlighting the package and pressing the
Space key. A short description of each package will
appear in the lower left corner of the screen.
Pressing the Tab key will toggle between the last
selected package, &gui.ok;, and &gui.cancel;.
When you have finished marking the packages for installation,
press Tab once to toggle to the &gui.ok; and press
Enter to return to the Package Selection menu.
The left and right arrow keys will also toggle between &gui.ok;
and &gui.cancel;. This method can also be used to select &gui.ok; and
press Enter to return to the Package Selection
menu.
Install Packages
Use the Tab and arrow keys to select [ Install ]
and press Enter . You will then need to confirm
that you want to install the packages:
Confirm Package Installation
Selecting &gui.ok; and pressing Enter will start
the package installation. Installing messages will appear until
completed. Make note if there are any error messages.
The final configuration continues after packages are
installed. If you end up not selecting any packages, and wish
to return to the final configuration, select
Install anyways.
Add Users/Groups
You should add at least one user during the installation so
that you can use the system without being logged in as
root . The root partition is generally small
and running applications as root can quickly
fill it. A bigger danger is noted below:
User Confirmation Requested
Would you like to add any initial user accounts to the system? Adding
at least one account for yourself at this stage is suggested since
working as the "root" user is dangerous (it is easy to do things which
adversely affect the entire system).
[ Yes ] No
Select &gui.yes; and press
Enter to continue with adding a user.
Select User
Select User with the arrow keys
and press Enter .
Add User Information
The following descriptions will appear in the lower part of
the screen as the items are selected with Tab
to assist with entering the required information:
Login ID
The login name of the new user (mandatory).
UID
The numerical ID for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice).
Group
The login group name for this user (leave blank for
automatic choice).
Password
The password for this user (enter this field with
care!).
Full name
The user's full name (comment).
Member groups
The groups this user belongs to (i.e. gets access
rights for).
Home directory
The user's home directory (leave blank for
default).
Login shell
The user's login shell (leave blank for
default, e.g. /bin/sh ).
The login shell was changed from /bin/sh to
/usr/local/bin/bash to use the
bash shell that was previously installed as
a package. Do not try to use a shell that does not exist or you will
not be able to login. The most common shell used in the
BSD-world is the C shell, which can be indicated as
/bin/tcsh .
The user was also added to the wheel group
to be able to become a superuser with root
privileges.
When you are satisfied, press &gui.ok; and
the User and Group Management menu will redisplay:
Exit User and Group Management
Groups can also be added at this time if specific needs
are known. Otherwise, this may be accessed through using
sysinstall (/stand/sysinstall
in &os; versions older than 5.2) after installation is
completed.
When you are finished adding users, select
Exit with the arrow keys and press
Enter to continue the installation.
Set the root Password
Message
Now you must set the system manager's password.
This is the password you'll use to log in as "root".
[ OK ]
[ Press enter to continue ]
Press Enter to set the root
password.
The password will need to be typed in twice correctly. Needless to
say, make sure you have a way of finding the password if you
forget. Notice that the password you type in is not echoed, nor
are asterisks displayed.
Changing local password for root.
New password :
Retype new password :
The installation will continue after the password is
successfully entered.
Exiting Install
If you need to configure additional network devices or
any other configuration, you can do it at this point or
after installation with sysinstall
(/stand/sysinstall in &os; versions older
than 5.2).
User Confirmation Requested
Visit the general configuration menu for a chance to set any last
options?
Yes [ No ]
Select &gui.no; with the arrow keys
and press Enter to return to the Main
Installation Menu.
Exit Install
Select [X Exit Install] with the arrow
keys and press Enter . You will be asked to
confirm exiting the installation:
User Confirmation Requested
Are you sure you wish to exit? The system will reboot (be sure to
remove any floppies from the drives).
[ Yes ] No
Select &gui.yes; and remove the floppy if
booting from the floppy. The CDROM drive is locked until the machine
starts to reboot. The CDROM drive is then unlocked and the disk can
be removed from drive (quickly).
The system will reboot so watch for any error messages that
may appear.
FreeBSD Bootup
FreeBSD Bootup on the &i386;
If everything went well, you will see messages scroll
off the screen and you will arrive at a login prompt. You can view
the content of the messages by pressing Scroll-Lock
and using PgUp and PgDn .
Pressing Scroll-Lock again will return
to the prompt.
The entire message may not display (buffer limitation) but
it can be viewed from the command line after logging in by typing
dmesg at the prompt.
Login using the username/password you set during installation
(rpratt , in this example). Avoid logging in as
root except when necessary.
Typical boot messages (version information omitted):
Copyright (c) 1992-2002 The FreeBSD Project.
Copyright (c) 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994
The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz
CPU: AMD-K6(tm) 3D processor (300.68-MHz 586-class CPU)
Origin = "AuthenticAMD" Id = 0x580 Stepping = 0
Features=0x8001bf<FPU,VME,DE,PSE,TSC,MSR,MCE,CX8,MMX>
AMD Features=0x80000800<SYSCALL,3DNow!>
real memory = 268435456 (262144K bytes)
config> di sn0
config> di lnc0
config> di le0
config> di ie0
config> di fe0
config> di cs0
config> di bt0
config> di aic0
config> di aha0
config> di adv0
config> q
avail memory = 256311296 (250304K bytes)
Preloaded elf kernel "kernel" at 0xc0491000.
Preloaded userconfig_script "/boot/kernel.conf" at 0xc049109c.
md0: Malloc disk
Using $PIR table, 4 entries at 0xc00fde60
npx0: <math processor> on motherboard
npx0: INT 16 interface
pcib0: <Host to PCI bridge> on motherboard
pci0: <PCI bus> on pcib0
pcib1: <VIA 82C598MVP (Apollo MVP3) PCI-PCI (AGP) bridge> at device 1.0 on pci0
pci1: <PCI bus> on pcib1
pci1: <Matrox MGA G200 AGP graphics accelerator> at 0.0 irq 11
isab0: <VIA 82C586 PCI-ISA bridge> at device 7.0 on pci0
isa0: <ISA bus> on isab0
atapci0: <VIA 82C586 ATA33 controller> port 0xe000-0xe00f at device 7.1 on pci0
ata0: at 0x1f0 irq 14 on atapci0
ata1: at 0x170 irq 15 on atapci0
uhci0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> port 0xe400-0xe41f irq 10 at device 7.2 on pci0
usb0: <VIA 83C572 USB controller> on uhci0
usb0: USB revision 1.0
uhub0: VIA UHCI root hub, class 9/0, rev 1.00/1.00, addr 1
uhub0: 2 ports with 2 removable, self powered
chip1: <VIA 82C586B ACPI interface> at device 7.3 on pci0
ed0: <NE2000 PCI Ethernet (RealTek 8029)> port 0xe800-0xe81f irq 9 at
device 10.0 on pci0
ed0: address 52:54:05:de:73:1b, type NE2000 (16 bit)
isa0: too many dependant configs (8)
isa0: unexpected small tag 14
fdc0: <NEC 72065B or clone> at port 0x3f0-0x3f5,0x3f7 irq 6 drq 2 on isa0
fdc0: FIFO enabled, 8 bytes threshold
fd0: <1440-KB 3.5" drive> on fdc0 drive 0
atkbdc0: <keyboard controller (i8042)> at port 0x60-0x64 on isa0
atkbd0: <AT Keyboard> flags 0x1 irq 1 on atkbdc0
kbd0 at atkbd0
psm0: <PS/2 Mouse> irq 12 on atkbdc0
psm0: model Generic PS/2 mouse, device ID 0
vga0: <Generic ISA VGA> at port 0x3c0-0x3df iomem 0xa0000-0xbffff on isa0
sc0: <System console> at flags 0x1 on isa0
sc0: VGA <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x300>
sio0 at port 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa0
sio0: type 16550A
sio1 at port 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa0
sio1: type 16550A
ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0
ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode
ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/15 bytes threshold
ppbus0: IEEE1284 device found /NIBBLE
Probing for PnP devices on ppbus0:
plip0: <PLIP network interface> on ppbus0
lpt0: <Printer> on ppbus0
lpt0: Interrupt-driven port
ppi0: <Parallel I/O> on ppbus0
ad0: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata0-master using UDMA33
ad2: 8063MB <IBM-DHEA-38451> [16383/16/63] at ata1-master using UDMA33
acd0: CDROM <DELTA OTC-H101/ST3 F/W by OIPD> at ata0-slave using PIO4
Mounting root from ufs:/dev/ad0s1a
swapon: adding /dev/ad0s1b as swap device
Automatic boot in progress...
/dev/ad0s1a: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1a: clean, 48752 free (552 frags, 6025 blocks, 0.9% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1f: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1f: clean, 128997 free (21 frags, 16122 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1g: FILESYSTEM CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1g: clean, 3036299 free (43175 frags, 374073 blocks, 1.3% fragmentation)
/dev/ad0s1e: filesystem CLEAN; SKIPPING CHECKS
/dev/ad0s1e: clean, 128193 free (17 frags, 16022 blocks, 0.0% fragmentation)
Doing initial network setup: hostname.
ed0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500
inet 192.168.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.0.255
inet6 fe80::5054::5ff::fede:731b%ed0 prefixlen 64 tentative scopeid 0x1
ether 52:54:05:de:73:1b
lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384
inet6 fe80::1%lo0 prefixlen 64 scopeid 0x8
inet6 ::1 prefixlen 128
inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000
Additional routing options: IP gateway=YES TCP keepalive=YES
routing daemons:.
additional daemons: syslogd.
Doing additional network setup:.
Starting final network daemons: creating ssh RSA host key
Generating public/private rsa1 key pair.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
cd:76:89:16:69:0e:d0:6e:f8:66:d0:07:26:3c:7e:2d root@k6-2.example.com
creating ssh DSA host key
Generating public/private dsa key pair.
Your identification has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.
Your public key has been saved in /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub.
The key fingerprint is:
f9:a1:a9:47:c4:ad:f9:8d:52:b8:b8:ff:8c:ad:2d:e6 root@k6-2.example.com.
setting ELF ldconfig path: /usr/lib /usr/lib/compat /usr/X11R6/lib
/usr/local/lib
a.out ldconfig path: /usr/lib/aout /usr/lib/compat/aout /usr/X11R6/lib/aout
starting standard daemons: inetd cron sshd usbd sendmail.
Initial rc.i386 initialization:.
rc.i386 configuring syscons: blank_time screensaver moused.
Additional ABI support: linux.
Local package initialization:.
Additional TCP options:.
FreeBSD/i386 (k6-2.example.com) (ttyv0)
login: rpratt
Password:
Generating the RSA and DSA keys may take some time on slower
machines. This happens only on the initial boot-up of a new
installation. Subsequent boots will be faster.
If the X server has been configured and a Default Desktop
chosen, it can be started by typing startx at
the command line.
Bootup of FreeBSD on the Alpha
Alpha
Once the install procedure has finished, you will be
able to start FreeBSD by typing something like this to the
SRM prompt:
>>>BOOT DKC0
This instructs the firmware to boot the specified
disk. To make FreeBSD boot automatically in the future, use
these commands:
>>> SET BOOT_OSFLAGS A
>>> SET BOOT_FILE ''
>>> SET BOOTDEF_DEV DKC0
>>> SET AUTO_ACTION BOOT
The boot messages will be similar (but not identical) to
those produced by FreeBSD booting on the &i386;.
FreeBSD Shutdown
It is important to properly shutdown the operating
system. Do not just turn off power. First, become a superuser by
typing su at the command line and entering the
root password. This will work only if the user
is a member of the wheel group.
Otherwise, login as root and use
shutdown -h now .
The operating system has halted.
Please press any key to reboot.
It is safe to turn off the power after the shutdown command
has been issued and the message Please press any key to reboot
appears. If any key is pressed instead of turning off the power
switch, the system will reboot.
You could also use the
Ctrl
Alt
Del
key combination to reboot the system, however this is not recommended
during normal operation.
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hardware
FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and PCI
bus-based PCs with Intel, AMD, Cyrix, or NexGen x86
processors, as well as a number of machines based on the Compaq Alpha
processor. Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations,
various SCSI controllers, PCMCIA cards, USB devices, and network and
serial cards is also provided. FreeBSD also supports IBM's microchannel
(MCA) bus.
A list of supported hardware is provided with each FreeBSD release
in the FreeBSD Hardware Notes. This document can usually be found in a
file named HARDWARE.TXT , in the top-level directory
of a CDROM or FTP distribution or in
sysinstall 's documentation menu. It lists,
for a given architecture, what hardware devices are known to be
supported by each release of FreeBSD. Copies of the supported
hardware list for various releases and architectures can also be
found on the Release
Information page of the FreeBSD Web site.
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installation
troubleshooting
The following section covers basic installation troubleshooting,
such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few
questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with
&ms-dos;.
What to Do If Something Goes Wrong
Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is
impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a
few things you can do if it fails.
Check the Hardware Notes document for your version of
FreeBSD to make sure your hardware is
supported.
If your hardware is supported and you still experience
lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the
visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will
allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the
system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured
assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default
configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If
your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to
use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find
things.
It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will
cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In
that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be
disabled.
Some installation problems can be avoided or alleviated
by updating the firmware on various hardware components, most notably
the motherboard. The motherboard firmware may also be referred to
as BIOS and most of the motherboard or computer
manufactures have a website where the upgrades and upgrade information
may be located.
Most manufacturers strongly advise against upgrading the motherboard
BIOS unless there is a good reason for doing so, which
could possibly be a critical update of sorts. The upgrade process
can go wrong, causing permanent damage to the
BIOS chip.
Do not disable any drivers you will need during the
installation, such as your screen (sc0 ).
If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving
the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed
something you should not have. Reboot and try again.
In configuration mode, you can:
List the device drivers installed in the kernel.
Disable device drivers for hardware that is not present in
your system.
Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device
driver.
After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware
configuration, type Q to boot with the new
settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you
made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have
to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that
you will eventually want to build a custom kernel.
Dealing with Existing &ms-dos; Partitions
DOS
Many users wish to install &os; on PC s inhabited by
µsoft; based operating systems. For those instances, &os; has a
utility known as FIPS . This utility can be found
in the tools directory on the install CD-ROM, or downloaded
from one of various &os; mirrors.
The FIPS utility allows you to split an
existing &ms-dos; partition into two pieces, preserving the original
partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece.
You first need to defragment your &ms-dos; partition using the &windows;
Disk Defragmenter utility (go into Explorer, right-click on
the hard drive, and choose to defrag your hard drive), or use
Norton Disk Tools . Now you can run the
FIPS utility. It will prompt you for the rest of
the information, just follow the on screen instructions. Afterwards, you can
reboot and install &os; on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu
for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the kind of
installation you want.
There is also a very useful product from PowerQuest
(http://www.powerquest.com ) called
&partitionmagic; . This application has far more
functionality than FIPS , and is highly recommended
if you plan to add/remove operating systems often. It does cost money, so if you
plan to install &os; and keep it installed, FIPS
will probably be fine for you.
Using &ms-dos; and &windows; File Systems
At this time, &os; does not support file systems compressed with the
Double Space™ application. Therefore the file
system will need to be uncompressed before &os; can access the data. This
can be done by running the Compression Agent
located in the Start > Programs >
System Tools menu.
&os; can support &ms-dos; based file systems. This requires you use
the &man.mount.msdos.8; command (in &os; 5.X, the command is &man.mount.msdosfs.8;)
with the required parameters. The utilities most common usage is:
&prompt.root; mount_msdos /dev/ad0s1 /mnt
In this example, the &ms-dos; file system is located on the first partition of
the primary hard disk. Your situation may be different, check the output from
the dmesg , and mount commands. They should
produce enough information to give an idea of the partition layout.
Extended &ms-dos; file systems are usually mapped after the &os;
partitions. In other words, the slice number may be higher than the ones
&os; is using. For instance, the first &ms-dos; partition may be
/dev/ad0s1 , the &os; partition may be
/dev/ad0s2 , with the extended &ms-dos; partition being
located on /dev/ad0s3 . To some, this can be confusing
at first.
NTFS partitions can also be mounted in a similar manner
using the &man.mount.ntfs.8; command.
Alpha User's Questions and Answers
Alpha
This section answers some commonly asked questions about
installing FreeBSD on Alpha systems.
Can I boot from the ARC or Alpha BIOS Console?
ARC
Alpha BIOS
SRM
No. &os;, like Compaq Tru64 and VMS, will only boot
from the SRM console.
Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete
everything first?
Unfortunately, yes.
Can I mount my Compaq Tru64 or VMS filesystems?
No, not at this time.
Valentino
Vaschetto
Contributed by
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This section describes how to install FreeBSD in exceptional
cases.
Installing FreeBSD on a System without a Monitor or
Keyboard
installation
headless (serial console)
serial console
This type of installation is called a headless
install
, because the machine that you are trying to install
FreeBSD on either does not have a monitor attached to it, or does not
even have a VGA output. How is this possible you ask? Using a
serial console. A serial console is basically using another
machine to act as the main display and keyboard for a
system. To do this, just follow the steps to create
installation floppies, explained in .
To modify these floppies to boot into a serial console, follow
these steps:
Enabling the Boot Floppies to Boot into a Serial Console
mount
If you were to boot into the floppies that you just
made, FreeBSD would boot into its normal install mode. We
want FreeBSD to boot into a serial console for our
install. To do this, you have to mount the
kern.flp floppy onto your FreeBSD
system using the &man.mount.8; command.
&prompt.root; mount /dev/fd0 /mnt
Now that you have the floppy mounted, you must
change into the /mnt directory:
&prompt.root; cd /mnt
Here is where you must set the floppy to boot into a
serial console. You have to make a file called
boot.config containing
/boot/loader -h . All this does is pass a flag to the bootloader to
boot into a serial console.
&prompt.root; echo "/boot/loader -h" > boot.config
Now that you have your floppy configured correctly,
you must unmount the floppy using the &man.umount.8;
command:
&prompt.root; cd /
&prompt.root; umount /mnt
Now you can remove the floppy from the floppy
drive.
Connecting Your Null-modem Cable
null-modem cable
You now need to connect a
null-modem cable between
the two machines. Just connect the cable to the serial
ports of the 2 machines. A normal serial cable
will not work here , you need a null-modem
cable because it has some of the wires inside crossed
over.
Booting Up for the Install
It is now time to go ahead and start the install. Put
the kern.flp floppy in the floppy
drive of the machine you are doing the headless install
on, and power on the machine.
Connecting to Your Headless Machine
cu
Now you have to connect to that machine with
&man.cu.1;:
&prompt.root; cu -l /dev/cuaa0
That's it! You should now be able to control the headless machine
through your cu session. It will ask you to
put in the mfsroot.flp , and then it will come up
with a selection of what kind of terminal to use. Select the
FreeBSD color console and proceed with your install!
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There may be some situations in which you need to create your own
FreeBSD installation media and/or source. This might be physical media,
such as a tape, or a source that sysinstall
can use to retrieve the files, such as a local FTP site, or an &ms-dos;
partition.
For example:
You have many machines connected to your local network, and one
FreeBSD disc. You want to create a local FTP site using the
contents of the FreeBSD disc, and then have your machines use this
local FTP site instead of needing to connect to the Internet.
You have a FreeBSD disc, and FreeBSD does not recognize your CD/DVD
drive, but &ms-dos;/&windows; does. You want to copy the FreeBSD
installation files to a DOS partition on the same computer, and
then install FreeBSD using those files.
The computer you want to install on does not have a CD/DVD
drive or a network card, but you can connect a
Laplink-style
serial or parallel cable to a computer
that does.
You want to create a tape that can be used to install
FreeBSD.
Creating an Installation CDROM
As part of each release, the FreeBSD project makes available two
CDROM images (ISO images
). These images can be written
(burned
) to CDs if you have a CD writer, and then used
to install FreeBSD. If you have a CD writer, and bandwidth is cheap,
then this is the easiest way to install FreeBSD.
Download the Correct ISO Images
The ISO images for each release can be downloaded from ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ISO-IMAGES-arch /version or the closest mirror.
Substitute arch and
version as appropriate.
That directory will normally contain the following images:
FreeBSD 4.X ISO Image Names and Meanings
Filename
Contains
version -RELEASE-arch -miniinst.iso
Everything you need to install FreeBSD.
version -RELEASE-arch -disc1.iso
Everything you need to install FreeBSD, and as many
additional third party packages as would fit on the
disc.
version -RELEASE-arch -disc2.iso
A live filesystem
, which is used in
conjunction with the Repair
facility in
sysinstall . A copy of the
FreeBSD CVS tree. As many additional third party packages
as would fit on the disc.
FreeBSD 5.X ISO Image Names and Meanings
Filename
Contains
version -RELEASE-arch -bootonly.iso
Everything you need to boot into a FreeBSD
kernel and start the installation interface.
The installable files have to be pulled over FTP
or some other supported source.
version -RELEASE-arch -miniinst.iso
Everything you need to install FreeBSD.
version -RELEASE-arch -disc1.iso
Everything you need to install &os; and a
live filesystem
, which is used in
conjunction with the Repair
facility
in sysinstall .
version -RELEASE-arch -disc2.iso
&os; documentation and as many third party packages as
would fit on the disc.
You must download one of either the miniinst
ISO image, or the image of disc one. Do not download both of them,
since the disc one image contains everything that the miniinst ISO
image contains.
The miniinst ISO image is only available for releases prior
to 5.4-RELEASE.
Use the miniinst ISO if Internet access is cheap for you. It will
let you install FreeBSD, and you can then install third party
packages by downloading them using the ports/packages system (see
) as
necessary.
Use the image of disc one if you want to install a
&os; 4.X release and want
a reasonable selection of third party packages on the disc
as well.
The additional disc images are useful, but not essential,
especially if you have high-speed access to the Internet.
Write the CDs
You must then write the CD images to disc. If you will be
doing this on another FreeBSD system then see
for more information (in
particular, and
).
If you will be doing this on another platform then you will
need to use whatever utilities exist to control your CD writer on
that platform. The images provided are in the standard ISO format,
which many CD writing applications support.
If you are interested in building a customized
release of FreeBSD, please see the Release Engineering
Article .
Creating a Local FTP Site with a FreeBSD Disc
installation
network
FTP
FreeBSD discs are laid out in the same way as the FTP site. This
makes it very easy for you to create a local FTP site that can be used
by other machines on your network when installing FreeBSD.
On the FreeBSD computer that will host the FTP site, ensure
that the CDROM is in the drive, and mounted on
/cdrom .
&prompt.root; mount /cdrom
Create an account for anonymous FTP in
/etc/passwd . Do this by editing
/etc/passwd using &man.vipw.8; and adding
this line:
ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent
Ensure that the FTP service is enabled in
/etc/inetd.conf .
Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now
chose a media type of FTP and type in
ftp://your machine
after picking Other
in the FTP sites menu during
the install.
If the boot media (floppy disks, usually) for your FTP
clients is not precisely the same version as that provided
by the local FTP site, then sysinstall will not let you
complete the installation. If the versions are not similar and
you want to override this, you must go into the Options menu
and change distribution name to
any .
This approach is OK for a machine that is on your local network,
and that is protected by your firewall. Offering up FTP services to
other machines over the Internet (and not your local network)
exposes your computer to the attention of crackers and other
undesirables. We strongly recommend that you follow good security
practices if you do this.
Creating Installation Floppies
installation
floppies
If you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you
do not do), either due to unsupported
hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard
way, you must first prepare some floppies for the installation.
At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44 MB or 1.2 MB floppies
as it takes to hold all the files in the
bin (binary distribution) directory. If
you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they
must be formatted using the &ms-dos;
FORMAT command. If you are using &windows;,
use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the
A: drive, and select Format
).
Do not trust factory pre-formatted
floppies. Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many
problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from
the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are
making a point of it now.
If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine,
a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put
a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the
disklabel and newfs
commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the
following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44 MB floppy)
illustrates:
&prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440
&prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3
&prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/fd0
Use fd0.1200 and
floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2 MB disks.
Then you can mount and write to them like any other
filesystem.
After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy
the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks
conveniently sized so that five of them will fit on a conventional
1.44 MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many
files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the
distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each
distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.:
a:\bin\bin.aa ,
a:\bin\bin.ab , and so on.
Once you come to the Media screen during the install
process, select Floppy and you
will be prompted for the rest.
Installing from an &ms-dos; Partition
installation
from MS-DOS
To prepare for an installation from an &ms-dos; partition,
copy the files from the distribution into a directory
called freebsd in the root directory of the
partition. For example, c:\freebsd . The
directory structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially
reproduced within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS
xcopy command if you are copying it from a CD.
For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of
FreeBSD:
C:\> md c:\freebsd
C:\> xcopy e:\bin c:\freebsd\bin\ /s
C:\> xcopy e:\manpages c:\freebsd\manpages\ /s
Assuming that C: is where you have
free space and E: is where your CDROM
is mounted.
If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the
distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org .
Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the
base distribution can be found in the &rel.current;/base/
directory.
In the 4.X and older releases of &os; the base
distribution is called bin
. Adjust the sample
commands and URLs above accordingly, if you are using one of these
versions.
For as many distributions you wish to install from an &ms-dos;
partition (and you have the free space for), install each one
under c:\freebsd — the
BIN distribution is the only one required for
a minimum installation.
Creating an Installation Tape
installation
from QIC/SCSI Tape
Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short
of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation
program expects the files to be simply tarred onto the tape.
After getting all of the distribution files you are interested
in, simply tar them onto the tape:
&prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir
&prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2
When you perform the installation, you should make
sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory
(which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the
full contents of the tape you have created.
Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of
installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage.
When starting the installation, the tape must be in the
drive before booting from the boot
floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find
it.
Before Installing over a Network
installation
network
serial (SLIP or PPP)
installation
network
parallel (PLIP)
installation
network
Ethernet
There are three types of network installations available.
Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)),
or Ethernet (a standard Ethernet controller (includes some
PCMCIA)).
The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily
to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a
laptop computer and another computer. The link should be
hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a
dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP
utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever
possible.
If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly
your only choice. Make sure that you have your service
provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly
early in the installation process.
If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other words, if
you can connect to the ISP in &windows; without using a script), then
all you will need to do is type in dial at the
ppp prompt. Otherwise, you will need to
know how to dial your ISP using the AT commands
specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very
simple terminal emulator. Please refer to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further information.
If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using
the command set log local ... .
If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or
later) machine is available, you might also consider installing
over a laplink
parallel port cable. The data rate
over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically
possible over a serial line (up to 50 kbytes/sec), thus resulting
in a quicker installation.
Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an
Ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most
common PC Ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their
required settings) is provided in the Hardware Notes for each
release of FreeBSD. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA
Ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in
before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does
not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards
during installation.
You will also need to know your IP address on the network,
the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your
machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not
have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically
assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you
which values to use for your particular network setup. If you
will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address,
you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a
gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address)
to use in talking to it. If you want to install by FTP via a
HTTP proxy, you will also need the proxy's address.
If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions,
then you should really probably talk to your system administrator
or ISP before trying this type of
installation.
Before Installing via NFS
installation
network
NFS
The NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply
copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto an NFS server
and then point the NFS media selection at it.
If this server supports only privileged port
(as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will
need to set the option NFS Secure in the
Options menu before installation can proceed.
If you have a poor quality Ethernet card which suffers
from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the
NFS Slow flag.
In order for NFS installation to work, the server must
support subdir mounts, for example, if your FreeBSD &rel.current; distribution
directory lives on:
ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD , then
ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting
of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD , not just
/usr or
/usr/archive/stuff .
In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this
is controlled by the -alldirs options. Other NFS
servers may have different conventions. If you are getting
permission denied messages from the
server, then it is likely that you do not have this enabled
properly.
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml
index 3f0c083c59..d2ccd9ed9a 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,825 +1,826 @@
Jim
Mock
Restructured, reorganized, and parts
rewritten by
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¦b 2000/03/13 ¤S¦³¤F¤@Ó·sªº¤À¤ä¡A ¤]´N¬O 4.X-STABLE
¡C³oÓ¤À¤ä¤§«áµo§G¤F³\¦hªºµo¦æª©¥»¡J 4.0-RELEASE ¦b 2000 ¦~ 3 ¤ëµo¦æ¡A
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´Á«Ý¤w¤[ªº 5.0-RELEASE ¦b 2003/01/19 ¥¿¦¡µo¦æ¡C³o¬O±Nªñ¶}µo¤T¦~ªºÅq®p¤§§@¡A¦P®É
¤]¶}©l¥[±j¦hÁûCPU(SMPng)ªº¤ä´©¡Bkernel thread(KSE) ªº¤ä´©¡BÀɮרt²Î±Ä¥Î UFS2 ¥H¤Î¤ä´© snapshot
µ¥¡A ¨Ã¤ä´© &ultrasparc; ©M
ia64 ¥¥x¡B¤ä´©ÂŪޡB32 bit ªº PCMCIA µ¥¡C¤§«á©ó 2003 ¦~ 6 ¤ëµo¦æ¤F 5.1¡C
¦Ó -CURRENT ³oÓµo®i¥D¶b¤À¤äªº³Ì«á 5.X ª©¥»¬O¦b 2004 ¦~ 2 ¤ë¥¿¦¡µo¦æªº 5.2.1-RELEASE¡A¦b 5.X
¨t¦C¶i¤J -STABLE (RELENG_5¤À¤ä)¤§«á¡A-CURRENT ´NÂಾ¬° 6.X ¨t¦C¡C
RELENG_5 ¤À¤ä©ó 2004 ¦~ 8 ¤ë¥¿¦¡¶}¶]¡A¤§«á¬O 5.3-RELEASE
- ¡A¥¦¬O 5-STABLE ¤À¤äªº²Ä¤@Óµo¦æª©¥»¡C5-STABLE ªº³Ì·sµoªí¬O¦b &rel2.current.date; µo¦æªº &rel2.current;-RELEASE¡A·íµMÅo¡ARELENG_5 ¤À¤äÁÙ±N¦³«áÄòªºµo¦æª©¡C
+ ¡A¥¦¬O 5-STABLE ¤À¤äªº²Ä¤@Óµo¦æª©¥»¡C&rel2.current;-RELEASE ªº³Ì·sµoªí¬O¦b &rel2.current.date; µo¦æªº &rel2.current;-RELEASE¡A·Ó©¹¨Ò RELENG_5 ¤À¤äÁÙ±N¦³«áÄòªºµo¦æª©¡C
- RELENG_6 ¤À¤ä©ó 2005 ¦~ 11 ¤ë¶}¶]¡A³Ì·sªº &rel.current;-RELEASE ¬O¦b &rel.current.date; µo¦æ¡C
+ RELENG_6 ¤À¤ä©ó 2005 ¦~ 7 ¤ë¶}¶]¡A¦Ó 6.X ¤À¤äªº²Ä¤@Ó release(6.0-RELEASE) ¬O¦b 2005 ¦~ 11 ¤ë¥Xªº¡C
+ ³Ì·sªº &rel.current;-RELEASE ¬O¦b &rel.current.date; µo¦æ¡C·íµMÅo¡ARELENG_6 ¤À¤äÁÙ±N¦³«áÄòªºµo¦æª©¡C
¥Ø«e¡Aªø´Áªº¶}µopµeÄ~Äò¦b 7.X-CURRENT (trunk) ¤À¤ä¤¤¶i¦æ¡A¦Ó 7.X ªº CDROM
(·íµM¡A¤]¥i¥H¥Îºô¸ô§ì) snapshot ª©¥»¥i¥H¦b FreeBSD snapshot server
¨ú±o¡C
Jordan
Hubbard
Contributed by
FreeBSD p¹ºªº¥Ø¼Ð
FreeBSD Project
goals
FreeBSD p¹ºªº¥Ø¼Ð¦b©ó´£¨Ñ¥i§@¥ô·N¥Î³~ªº³nÅé¦Ó¤£ªþ±a¥ô¦ó¨î±ø¤å¡C
§Ṳ́§¤¤³\¦h¤H¹ïµ{¦¡½X (¥H¤Îpµe¥»¨) ³£¦³«D±`¤jªº§ë¤J¡A
¦]¦¹¡A·íµM¤£¤¶·N°¸º¸¦³¤@¨Ç¸êª÷¤Wªº¸ÉÀv¡A¦ý§Ų́èS¥´ºâ°í¨M¦an¨D±o¨ì³oÃþ¸ê§U¡C
§ÚÌ»{¬°§Ú̪ººn¡y¨Ï©R(mission)¡z¬O¬°¥ô¦ó¤H´£¨Ñµ{¦¡½X¡A
¤£ºÞ¥LÌ¥´ºâ¥Î³o¨Çµ{¦¡½X°µ¤°»ò¡A ¦]¬°³o¼Ëµ{¦¡½X±N¯à°÷³Q§ó¼sªx¦a¨Ï¥Î¡A±q¦Óµo´§¨ä»ùÈ¡C
§Ú»{¬°³o¬O¦Û¥Ñ³nÅé³Ì°ò¥»ªº¡A¦P®É¤]¬O§ÚÌ©ÒҾɪº¤@ӥؼСC
GNU General Public License (GPL)
GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL)
BSD Copyright
§Ú̵{¦¡½X¾ð¤¤¡A¦³Y¤z¬O¥H GNU GPL ©ÎªÌ LGPL
µo§Gªº¨º¨Çµ{¦¡½X±a¦³¤Ö³\ªºªþ¥[¨î¡AÁÙ¦n¥u¬O±j¨î©Êªºn¨D¶}©ñµ{¦¡½X¦Ó¤£¬O§Oªº¡C
¥Ñ©ó¨Ï¥Î GPL ªº³nÅé¦b°Ó·~¥Î³~¤W·|¼W¥[Y¤z½ÆÂø©Ê¡A¦]¦¹¡A¦pªG¥i¥H¿ï¾Üªº¸Ü¡A
§ÚÌ·|¤ñ¸û³ßÅw¨Ï¥Î¨î¬Û¹ï§ó¼eÃPªº BSD ª©Åv¨Óµo§G³nÅé¡C
Satoshi
Asami
Contributed by
FreeBSD ªº¶}µo¼Ò¦¡
FreeBSD Project
development model
FreeBSD ªº¶}µo¬O¤@Ó«D±`¶}©ñ¥B¨ã¼u©Êªº¹Lµ{¡A´N¹³±q °^ÄmªÌ¦W³æ
©Ò¬Ý¨ìªº¡A¬O¥Ñ¥þ¥@¬É¤W¤d¤W¸Uªº°^ÄmªÌµo®i°_¨Óªº¡C
FreeBSD ªº¶}µo°ò¦¬[ºc¤¹³\¼Æ¥H¦Êpªº¶}µoªÌ³z¹Lºô»Úºô¸ô¨ó¦P¤u§@¡C
§Ṳ́]¸g±`Ãöª`µÛ¨º¨Ç¹ï§Ú̪ºpµe·P¿³½ìªº·s¶}µoªÌ©M·sªº³Ð·N¡A
¨º¨Ç¦³¿³½ì§ó¶i¤@¨B°Ñ»Pp¹ºªº¤H¥u»Ýn¦b &a.hackers; ³sô§ÚÌ¡C
&a.announce; ¹ï¨º¨Ç§Æ±æ¤F¸Ñ§Ú̶i«×ªº¤H¤]¬O¬Û·í¦³¥Îªº¡C
µL½×¬O³æ¿W¶}µoªÌ©ÎªÌ«Ê³¬¦¡ªº¹Î¶¤¦X§@¡AY¯à¤F¸Ñ FreeBSD p¹º©M¥¦ªº¶}µo¹Lµ{³£¬O¦³¥Îªº¡J
The CVS repository
CVS
repository
Concurrent Versions System
CVS
The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by
- CVS
+ CVS
(Concurrent Versions System), a freely available source code
control tool that comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary
CVS
repository resides on a machine in Santa Clara CA, USA
from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines
throughout the world. The CVS tree, which contains the -CURRENT and -STABLE trees,
can all be easily replicated to your own machine as well.
Please refer to the Synchronizing
your source tree section for more information on
doing this.
The committers list
committers
The committers
are the people who have write access to
the CVS tree, and are authorized to make modifications
to the FreeBSD source (the term committer
comes from the &man.cvs.1; commit
command, which is used to bring new changes into the CVS
repository). The best way of making submissions for review
by the committers list is to use the &man.send-pr.1;
command. If something appears to be jammed in the
system, then you may also reach them by sending mail to
the &a.committers;.
The FreeBSD core team
core team
FreeBSD core team
´Nµ¥©ó¸³¨Æ·| -- ¦pªG§â FreeBSD ¬Ý¦¨¬O¤@®a¤½¥qªº¸Ü¡C
core team ªº¥Dn¾³d¦b©ó½T«O¦¹p¹º¦³¨}¦nªº¬[ºc¡A¥H´ÂµÛ¥¿½Tªº¤è¦Vµo®i¡C
¦¹¥~¡AÁܽмö¦å¥Bt³dªº³nÅé¶}µoªÌ¥[¤J committers ¦æ¦C¡A¥H¦bY¤z¦¨ûÂ÷¥h®É±o¥H¸É¥R·s¦å¡C
¥Ø«eªº core team ¬O¦b 2004 ¦~ 6 ¤ë committers Ô¿ï¤H¤¤¿ï¥X¨Óªº¡A¨C¨â¦~·|Á|¿ì¤@¦¸¿ïÁ|
Some core team members also have specific areas of
responsibility, meaning that they are committed to
ensuring that some large portion of the system works as
advertised. For a complete list of FreeBSD developers
and their areas of responsibility, please see the Contributors
List
Most members of the core team are volunteers when it
comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the
project financially, so commitment
should
also not be misconstrued as meaning guaranteed
support.
The board of directors
analogy above is not very accurate, and it may be
more suitable to say that these are the people who gave up
their lives in favor of FreeBSD against their better
judgment!
Outside contributors
contributors
Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of
developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and
bug fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary
way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized
development is to subscribe to the &a.hackers; where such
things are discussed. See for more information about
the various FreeBSD mailing lists.
The
FreeBSD Contributors List is a long
and growing one, so why not join it by contributing
something back to FreeBSD today?
Providing code is not the only way of contributing to
the project; for a more complete list of things that need
doing, please refer to the FreeBSD Project web
site .
In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set
of concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the
convenience of the users of FreeBSD, who are
provided with an easy way of tracking one central code
base, not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to
present a stable operating system with a large set of coherent
application programs that the users
can easily install and use — this model works very well in
accomplishing that.
All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is
some of the same dedication its current people have to its
continued success!
³Ì·sªº FreeBSD µo¦æª©¥»
NetBSD
OpenBSD
386BSD
Free Software Foundation
U.C. Berkeley
Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG)
FreeBSD ¬O§K¶O¨Ï¥Î¥B±a¦³§¹¾ãì©lµ{¦¡½Xªº¥H 4.4BSD-Lite ¬°°ò¦ªº¨t²Î¡A¥i¥H¦b
Intel &i386;, &i486;, &pentium;,
&pentium; Pro,
&celeron;,
&pentium; II,
&pentium; III,
&pentium; 4 (©ÎªÌ¬Û®e«¬¸¹),
&xeon;, DEC Alpha
©M Sun &ultrasparc; ¬°°ò¦ªº¹q¸£¤W°õ¦æªº§@·~¨t²Î¡C
¥¦¥Dn¥H¥[¦{¤j¾Ç¤Úº¸§J§Q¤À®Õ ªº CSRG ¬ã¨s¤p²Õªº³nÅ鬰°ò¦¡A¨Ã¥[¤J¤F
NetBSD¡BOpenBSD¡B386BSD ¥H¤Î¦Û¥Ñ³nÅé°òª÷·|ªº¤@¨ÇªF¦è¡C
¦Û±q 1994 ¦~¥½¡A§Ú̵o§G¤F FreeBSD 2.0 ¤§«á¡A¨t²Îªº°õ¦æ®Ä²v¡B
¥\¯à¡Béw©Ê³£¦³¤F¥O¤Hª`¥Øªº´£¤É¡C
³Ì¤jªº§ïÅÜ´N¬O§Ú̱N°O¾ÐÅé»PÀɮרt²Îªº cache ¾÷¨îµ²¦X¦b¤@°_¡C
³o¤£¥u¨Ï±o¨t²Îªºªí²{Åܱo§ó¦n, ¨Ã¥B¨Ï±o FreeBSD
¨t²Î³Ì¤Öªº°O¾ÐÅé»Ý¨D´î¤Ö¨ì 5 MB¡C
¨ä¥¦ªº§ï¶i¥]¬A§¹¾ãªº NIS cilent and server ¥\¯à¤ä´©¡A
¤ä´© transaction TCP¡BPPP ¼·±µ³s½u¡B¾ã¦Xªº DHCP ¤ä´©¡B
SCSI ¤l¨t²Îªº§ï¶i¡BISDN ªº¤ä´©¡AATM¡BFDDI ¥H¤Î¤A¤Óºô¸ô (Ethernet¡B¥]¬A
100 Mbit ©M Gigabit) ªº¤ä´©¡A´£¤É¤F³Ì·sªº Adaptec
±±¨î¥dÅX°Êµ{¦¡ªº§ïµ½¡A¥H¤Î¼Æ¥H¤dpªº bug ×¥¿¡C
°£¤F³Ì°ò¥»ªº¨t²Î³nÅé¡AFreeBSD ÁÙ´£¨Ñ¤F¼s¨üÅwªïªº®M¥ó³nÅéºÞ²z¾÷¨î¡G Ports Collection¡C
¨ì¥»®Ñ¥I¦L®É¡A¤w¦³¶W¹L &os.numports; Ó ports¡A¨ä¤¤½dÃ¥¥]¬A±q http(WWW)
¦øªA¾¹¨ì¹CÀ¸¡Bµ{¦¡»y¨¥¡B½s¿è¾¹¥H¤Î±z¯à·Q¨ìªº´X¥G©Ò¦³ªºªF¦è¡C
§¹¾ãªº Ports Collection »Ýn¬ù &ports.size; ªºµwºÐªÅ¶¡¡A°£¤F
port °ò¥»¬[ºcÀÉ®×¥~¡A³£¥uÀx¦s»P¸Ó port ³nÅ骺ì©l½X¦³¡y¶·nÅܧó¡zªº³¡¥÷¡C
¦p¦¹¤@¨Ó¡A§ÚÌ¥i¥H§ó®e©ö§ó·s³o¨Ç ports¡A
¤]¤j¶qªº´î¤Ö¦pªº 1.0 ª© Ports Collection ¹ï©óµwºÐªÅ¶¡ªº»Ý¨D¡C
n¦w¸Ë¤@Ó port ªº¸Ü¡A¥u»Ýn¶i¤J¸Ó port ªº¥Ø¿ý¡A¿é¤J make install
¡A³o¼Ë¤l¨t²Î´N·|À°§A¸Ë¦n¤F¡C±zn½sĶªº¨CÓµ{¦¡ªº§¹¾ãì©lµ{¦¡¡A
³£¥i±q FTP ©Î CDROM ¤¤Àò±o¡A©Ò¥H±z¥u»Ý·Ç³Æ¨¬°÷ªºµwºÐªÅ¶¡¨Ó½sĶ§Anªº port ³nÅé¡C
´X¥G¨C¤@Ó port ³£¦³¤w¨Æ¥ý½sĶ¦nªº package
¥H¤è«K¦w¸Ë¡A
¦pªG¤£·Q±q½sĶ port ªº¤H¡A¥un¥ÎÓ²³æ«ü¥O(pkg_add )´N¥i¥H¦w¸Ë¡C
¦³Ãö packages ©M ports ªº²Ó¸`¡A¥i¥H°Ñ¾\ ¡C
FreeBSD ¥D¾÷ªº /usr/share/doc ¥Ø¿ý¤U§ä¨ì³\¦h¦³¥Îªº¤å¥ó¡A
¨ÓÀ°§U±z¦w¸Ë¡B¨Ï¥Î FreeBSD¡C¤]¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¤U±ªººô§}¡A¥HÂsÄý¾¹¨Ó½¾\¥»¾÷¤W¦w¸Ëªº¤â¥U¡J
FreeBSD ¨Ï¥Î¤â¥U
/usr/share/doc/handbook/index.html
FreeBSD ±`¨£°Ýµª¶°
/usr/share/doc/faq/index.html
¦¹¥~¡A¥i¦b¤U¦Cºô§}§ä¨ì³Ì·sª© (¤]¬O§ó·s³ÌÀWÁcªºª©¥»)¡G ¡C
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml
index f81768c10d..5615d71d15 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1694 +1,1669 @@
Jim
Mock
- Updated and restructured by
+ §ó·s¡B«±Æ¡G
Jake
Hamby
- Originally contributed by
+ ì§@¬°¡G
- Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel
+ ³]©w FreeBSD Kernel
- Synopsis
+ ·§z
kernel
building a custom kernel
- The kernel is the core of the &os; operating system. It is
- responsible for managing memory, enforcing security controls,
- networking, disk access, and much more. While more and more of &os;
- becomes dynamically configurable it is still occasionally necessary to
- reconfigure and recompile your kernel.
+ kernel ¬O¾ãÓ &os; §@·~¨t²Îªº®Ö¤ß¡C
+ ¥¦±±¨î¤F¨t²Îªº¾ãÅé¹B§@¡A¥]§t©M°O¾ÐÅéºÞ²z¡B¦w¥þ±±ºÞ¡Bºô¸ô¡BµwºÐ¦s¨úµ¥µ¥¡C
+ ¾¨ºÞ¥Ø«e &os; ¤j¦h¥i¥H¥Î°ÊºA module ¨Ó¸ü¤J¡B¨ø¸ü©Ò»Ý¥\¯à¡A¦ý¦³®ÉÔ¤´¦³¥²n¾Ç·|«·s½Õ°t kernel¡C
- After reading this chapter, you will know:
+ Ū§¹³o³¹¡A±z±N¤F¸Ñ¡J
- Why you might need to build a custom kernel.
+ ¬°¦ó»Ýn«·s½Õ°t¡B½sĶ kernel¡H
- How to write a kernel configuration file, or alter an existing
- configuration file.
+ n«ç»òקï kernel ³]©wÀÉ¡H
- How to use the kernel configuration file to create and build a
- new kernel.
+ ¦p¦ó¥H kernel ³]©wÀɨӫإߡB½sĶ·sªº kernel ©O¡H
- How to install the new kernel.
+ ¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë·sªº kernel¡C
- How to create any entries in /dev that may
- be required.
+ ¦p¦ó¦b /dev ¤U¨Ó¦w¸Ë·sªºµwÅé¡C
- How to troubleshoot if things go wrong.
+ ¦p¦ó³B²z kernel ¿ù»~µLªk¶}¾÷ªº±¡§Î¡C
- All of the commands listed within this chapter by way of example
- should be executed as root in order to
- succeed.
+ ¥»³¹©ÒÁ|¨Òªº¬ÛÃö«ü¥O³£¬O¥H root Åv¨Ó¶i¦æ¡C
- Why Build a Custom Kernel?
-
- Traditionally, &os; has had what is called a
- monolithic
kernel. This means that the kernel was one
- large program, supported a fixed list of devices, and if you wanted to
- change the kernel's behavior then you had to compile a new kernel, and
- then reboot your computer with the new kernel.
-
- Today, &os; is rapidly moving to a model where much of the
- kernel's functionality is contained in modules which can be
- dynamically loaded and unloaded from the kernel as necessary.
- This allows the kernel to adapt to new hardware suddenly
- becoming available (such as PCMCIA cards in a laptop), or for
- new functionality to be brought into the kernel that was not
- necessary when the kernel was originally compiled. This is
- known as a modular kernel.
-
- Despite this, it is still necessary to carry out some static kernel
- configuration. In some cases this is because the functionality is so
- tied to the kernel that it can not be made dynamically loadable. In
- others it may simply be because no one has yet taken the time to write a
- dynamic loadable kernel module for that functionality.
-
- Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of
- passage nearly every BSD user must endure. This process, while
- time consuming, will provide many benefits to your &os; system.
- Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a
- wide range of hardware, a custom kernel only contains support for
- your PC's hardware. This has a number of
- benefits, such as:
+ ¬°¦ó»Ýn«·s½Õ°t¡B½sĶ kernel¡H
+
+ ¦´Áªº &os; ªº kernel ³QÀ¸ºÙ¬° monolithic
kernel¡C
+ ³o·N«ä¬O»¡·í®Éªº kernel ¬OÓ¤j¶ôÀYµ{¦¡¡A¥B¥u¤ä´©©T©wªºµwÅé¦Ó¤w¡C
+ ¦pªG±z·Q§ïÅÜ kernel ªº³]©w¡A¨º»ò¥²¶·½sĶ¤@Ó·sªº¨Ã«·s¶}¾÷¡A¤~¯à±Ò¥Î¡C
+
+ ²{¦bªº &os; ¤w§Ö³t¦¨ªø¨ì·s«¬ºAªººÞ²z¼Ò¦¡¡A¨ä«n¯S¦â¬O¡G
+ kernel ¥\¯à¥i¥HÀH®É¨Ì¾Ú»Ý¨D¡A¦Ó¥H°ÊºA¸ü¤J©Î¨ø¸ü¬ÛÃöªº kernel module¡C
+ ³o¨Ï±o kernel ¯à°÷§Ö³t¦]À³·sªºÀô¹Ò¦Ó§@½Õ¾ã(¦³ÂI¹³¬O¡Gµ§°O«¬¹q¸£¤Wªº PCMCIA ¥d¤@¼Ë§Y´¡§Y¥Î)
+ ¡A©Î¬O¼W¥[¨ä¥L쥻ªº¹w³] kernel(GENERIC ) ©Ò¨S¦³ªº¥\¯à¡C
+ ³oºØ¼Ò¦¡¡A´N¥s°µ modular kernel(®Ö¤ß¼Ò²Õ)¡C
+
+ ¾¨ºÞ¦p¦¹¡AÁÙ¬O¦³¤@¨Ç¥\¯à¤´¶·½sĶ¦b kernel ¤º¤~¦æ¡C¦]¬°¦³®ÉÔ¬O¦]¬°³o¨Ç¥\¯à»P kernel
+ µ²¦Xªº¬Û·í½ÆÂøºò±K¡A¦ÓµLªk±N¥¦Ì§Ë¦¨¥i°ÊºA¸ü¤Jªº module
+ ¡F¦Ó¦³®ÉÔ¡A«h¬O¦]¬°¨S¦³¤H¦³ªÅ¨Ó§Ë¨º¨Ç kernel module ªº¹ê§@¡C
+
+ «·s½Õ°t¡B½sĶ kernel ´X¥G¬O¨C¦ì BSD ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ©Ò¥²¶·¸g¾úªº¹Lµ{¡C
+ ¾¨ºÞ³o¶µ¤u§@¥i¯à¤ñ¸û¯Ó®É¡A¦ý¦b &os; ªº¨Ï¥Î¤W·|¦³³\¦h¦n³B¡C
+ ¸ò¥²¶·¤ä´©¤j¦h¼Æ¦U¦¡µwÅ骺 GENERIC kernel ¬Û¤ñªº¸Ü¡A¦Û¦æ½Õ°t kernel ¤£¦P³B¦b©ó¡G¥i¥H§ó¡yÅé¶K¡z¡A¥u¤ä´©¡y¦Û¤vµwÅé¡zªº³¡¤À´N¦n¡C
+ ¦n³B¦b©ó¡AÄ´¦p¡J
- Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the
- hardware you have on your system, the time it takes your system to
- boot can decrease dramatically.
+ ¶}¾÷³t«×§ó§Ö¡G¦]¬°¦Û¦æ½Õ°tªº kernel ¥u»Ýn°»´ú±z¨t²Î¤WªºµwÅé¡A©Ò¥HÅý±Ò°Ê©Òªáªº¹Lµ{§ó¬yºZ§Ö³t¡C
- Lower memory usage. A custom kernel often uses less memory
- than the GENERIC kernel, which is important
- because the kernel must always be present in real
- memory. For this reason, a custom kernel is especially useful
- on a system with a small amount of RAM.
+ ¦û¥Îªº°O¾ÐÅé§ó¤Ö¡G¦Û¦æ½Õ°tªº kernel ³q±`·|¤ñ GENERIC ®Ö¤ß¨Ï¥Î§ó¤Öªº°O¾ÐÅé¡A
+ ¥Ñ©ó kernel ¥²¶·¤@ª½¦s©ñ¦b°O¾ÐÅ餺¡A¦]¦¹³o´NÅã±o§ó¥[«n¡C¦]¦¹¡A¹ï©ó°O¾ÐÅé¸û¤pªº¨t²Î¨Ó»¡¡A¦Û¦æ½Õ°tªº kernel ´N¥iµo´§§ó¦hªº§@¥Î¡B´§ÅxªÅ¶¡¡C
- Additional hardware support. A custom kernel allows you to
- add in support for devices which are not
- present in the GENERIC kernel, such as
- sound cards.
+ ¥i¤ä´©§ó¦hµwÅé¡G±z¥i¦b¦Û¦æ½Õ°tªº kernel ¼W¥[¤@¨Ç쥻 GENERIC ®Ö¤ß¨S¦³´£¨ÑªºµwÅé¤ä´©¡A¹³¬Oµ®Ä¥d¤§Ãþªº¡C
- Building and Installing a Custom Kernel
+ «·s½Õ°t¡B½sĶ kernel
kernel
building / installing
First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory.
All directories mentioned will be relative to the main
/usr/src/sys directory, which is also
accessible through the path name /sys . There are a number of
subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but
the most important for our purposes are
arch /conf , where you
will edit your custom kernel configuration, and
compile , which is the staging area where your
kernel will be built. arch represents
one of i386 , alpha ,
amd64 , ia64 ,
powerpc , sparc64 , or
pc98 (an alternative development branch of PC
hardware, popular in Japan). Everything inside a particular
architecture's directory deals with that architecture only; the rest
of the code is machine independent code common to all platforms to which &os; could
potentially be ported. Notice the logical organization of the
directory structure, with each supported device, file system, and
option in its own subdirectory. Versions of &os; prior to 5.X
support only the i386 , alpha
and pc98 architectures.
This chapter assumes that you are using the i386 architecture
in the examples. If this is not the case for your situation,
make appropriate adjustments to the path names for your system's
architecture.
If there is not a
/usr/src/sys directory on your system,
then the kernel source has not been installed. The easiest
way to do this is by running
sysinstall (/stand/sysinstall
in &os; versions older than 5.2) as
root , choosing
Configure , then
Distributions , then
src , then
sys . If you have an aversion to
sysinstall and you have access to
an official
&os; CDROM, then you can also
install the source from the command line:
&prompt.root; mount /cdrom
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/src/sys
&prompt.root; ln -s /usr/src/sys /sys
&prompt.root; cat /cdrom/src/ssys.[a-d]* | tar -xzvf -
Next, move to the
arch /conf directory
and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the
name you want to give your kernel. For example:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386 /conf
&prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL
Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you
are maintaining multiple &os; machines with different hardware,
it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will
call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this
example.
Storing your kernel configuration file directly under
/usr/src can be a bad idea. If you are
experiencing problems it can be tempting to just delete
/usr/src and start again. After doing this,
it usually only takes a few seconds for
you to realize that you have deleted your custom kernel
configuration file. Also, do not edit GENERIC
directly, as it may get overwritten the next time you
update your source tree, and
your kernel modifications will be lost.
You might want to keep your kernel configuration file
elsewhere, and then create a symbolic link to the file in
the i386
directory.
For example:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386 /conf
&prompt.root; mkdir /root/kernels
&prompt.root; cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL
&prompt.root; ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL
Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text
editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available
will probably be vi , which is too complex to
explain here, but is covered well in many books in the bibliography. However, &os; does
offer an easier editor called ee which, if
you are a beginner, should be your editor of choice. Feel free to
change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or
the changes you have made to differentiate it from
GENERIC .
SunOS
If you have built a kernel under &sunos; or some other BSD
operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you.
If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on
the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file
might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the
Configuration File
section slowly and carefully.
If you sync your source tree with the
latest sources of the &os; project,
be sure to always check the file
/usr/src/UPDATING before you perform any update
steps. This file describes any important issues or areas
requiring special attention within the updated source code.
/usr/src/UPDATING always matches
your version of the &os; source, and is therefore more up to date
with new information than this handbook.
You must now compile the source code for the kernel. There are two
procedures you can use to do this, and the one you will use depends on
why you are rebuilding the kernel and the version of &os; that you are
running.
If you have installed only the kernel
source code, use procedure 1.
If you are running a &os; version prior to 4.0, and you are
not upgrading to &os; 4.0 or higher using
the make buildworld procedure, use procedure 1.
If you are building a new kernel without updating the source
code (perhaps just to add a new option, such as
IPFIREWALL ) you can use either procedure.
If you are rebuilding the kernel as part of a
make buildworld process, use procedure 2.
cvsup
CTM
CVS
anonymous
If you have not upgraded your source
tree in any way since the last time you successfully completed
a buildworld -installworld cycle
(you have not run CVSup ,
CTM , or used
anoncvs ), then it is safe to use the
config , make depend ,
make , make install sequence.
Procedure 1. Building a Kernel the Traditional
Way
Run &man.config.8; to generate the kernel source code.
&prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL
Change into the build directory. &man.config.8; will print
the name of this directory after being run as above.
&prompt.root; cd ../compile/MYKERNEL
For &os; versions prior to 5.0, use the following form instead:
&prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL
Compile the kernel.
&prompt.root; make depend
&prompt.root; make
Install the new kernel.
&prompt.root; make install
Procedure 2. Building a Kernel the New
Way
Change to the /usr/src directory.
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src
Compile the kernel.
&prompt.root; make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL
Install the new kernel.
&prompt.root; make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL
This method of kernel building requires full source files. If you
only installed the kernel source, use the traditional method, as
described above.
By default, when you build a custom kernel,
- all kernel modules also will be rebuilded.
+ all kernel modules will be rebuilt as well.
If you want to update a kernel faster or to build only custom
modules, you should edit /etc/make.conf
before starting to build the kernel:
MODULES_OVERRIDE = linux acpi sound/sound sound/driver/ds1 ntfs
This variable sets up a list of modules to build instead
of all of them. For other variables which you may find useful
in the process of building kernel, refer to &man.make.conf.5;
manual page.
In &os; 4.2 and older you must replace
KERNCONF= with KERNEL= .
4.2-STABLE that was fetched before Feb 2nd, 2001 does not
recognize KERNCONF= .
/boot/kernel.old
The new kernel will be copied to the /boot/kernel directory as
/boot/kernel/kernel and the old kernel will be moved to
/boot/kernel.old/kernel . Now, shutdown the system and
reboot to use your new kernel. If something goes wrong, there are
some troubleshooting
instructions at the end of this chapter that you may find useful. Be sure to read the
section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel does not boot.
In &os; 4.X and earlier, kernels are installed
in /kernel , modules in /modules , and old kernels
are backed up in /kernel.old .
Other files relating to the boot process, such as the boot
&man.loader.8; and configuration are stored in
/boot . Third party or custom modules
can be placed in /modules , although
users should be aware that keeping modules in sync with the
compiled kernel is very important. Modules not intended
to run with the compiled kernel may result in instability
or incorrectness.
If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards)
and you are running &os; 4.X or previous versions, you
may have to add some device nodes to your
/dev directory before
you can use them. For more information, take a look at Making Device Nodes
section later on in this chapter.
Joel
Dahl
Updated for &os; 5.X by
The Configuration File
kernel
NOTES
kernel
LINT
NOTES
LINT
kernel
configuration file
The general format of a configuration file is quite simple.
Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For
simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything
following a # is considered a comment and
ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, in
the order they are listed in GENERIC .
For an exhaustive list of architecture
dependent options and devices, see the NOTES
file in the same directory as GENERIC . For
architecture independent options, see
/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES .
NOTES does not exist in &os; 4.X.
Instead, see the LINT file for detailed
explanations of options and devices in GENERIC .
LINT served two purposes in 4.X: to provide a
reference for choosing kernel options when building a custom
kernel, and to provide a kernel configuration with as many
tweakable options tweaked to non-default values as possible. The
reason behind this was that such a configuration helped (and still
does) a lot when testing new code and changes to existing code that
may cause conflicts with other parts of the kernel. However,
the kernel configuration framework went through some heavy changes
in 5.X; one example of this is that the driver configuration options were moved
to a hints file so that they could be changed
and loaded dynamically at boot time, and LINT
could not contain those hints anymore. For this and other
reasons, the LINT file was renamed to
NOTES and retained mostly the first reason for
its existence: documenting the available options for user
convenience.
In &os; 5.X and later versions you can still generate a buildable
LINT file by typing:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386 /conf && make LINT
kernel
configuration file
The following is an example of the GENERIC kernel
configuration file with various additional comments where needed for
clarity. This example should match your copy in
/usr/src/sys/i386 /conf/GENERIC
fairly closely.
kernel options
machine
machine i386
This is the machine architecture. It must be either
alpha , amd64 ,
i386 , ia64 ,
pc98 , powerpc , or
sparc64 .
kernel options
cpu
cpu I486_CPU
cpu I586_CPU
cpu I686_CPU
The above option specifies the type of CPU you have in your
system. You may have multiple instances of the CPU line (if, for
example, you are not sure whether you should use
I586_CPU or I686_CPU ),
but for a custom kernel it is best to specify only the CPU
you have. If you are unsure of your CPU type, you can check the
/var/run/dmesg.boot file to view your boot
messages.
kernel options
cpu type
Support for I386_CPU is still provided in the
source of &os;, but it is disabled by default in both -STABLE and
-CURRENT. This means that to install &os; with a 386-class cpu, you now
have the following options:
Install an older &os; release and rebuild from source as
described in .
Build the userland and kernel on a newer machine and install on
the 386 using the precompiled /usr/obj
files (see for details).
Roll your own release of &os; which includes
I386_CPU support in the kernels of the
installation CD-ROM.
The first of these options is probably the easiest of all, but you
will need a lot of disk space which, on a 386-class machine, may be
difficult to find.
kernel options
ident
ident GENERIC
This is the identification of the kernel. You should change
this to whatever you named your kernel,
i.e. MYKERNEL if you have followed the
instructions of the previous examples. The value you put in the
ident string will print when you boot up the
kernel, so it is useful to give the new kernel a different name if you
want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (e.g., you want to
build an experimental kernel).
#To statically compile in device wiring instead of /boot/device.hints
#hints "GENERIC.hints" # Default places to look for devices.
In &os; 5.X and newer versions the &man.device.hints.5; is
used to configure options of the device drivers. The default
location that &man.loader.8; will check at boot time is
/boot/device.hints . Using the
hints option you can compile these hints
statically into your kernel. Then there is no need to create a
device.hints file in
/boot .
#makeoptions DEBUG=-g # Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols
The normal build process of &os; does not include
debugging information when building the kernel and strips most
symbols after the resulting kernel is linked, to save some space
at the install location. If you are going to do tests of kernels
in the -CURRENT branch or develop changes of your own for the &os;
kernel, you might want to uncomment this line. It will enable the
use of the -g option which enables debugging
information when passed to &man.gcc.1;. The same can be
accomplished by the &man.config.8; -g option, if
you are using the traditional
way for building your
kernels (see
for more information).
options SCHED_4BSD # 4BSD scheduler
The traditional scheduler for &os;. Depending on your system's
workload, you may gain performance by using the new ULE scheduler for
&os; that has been designed specially for SMP, but works just fine on UP
systems too. If you wish to try it out, replace SCHED_4BSD
with SCHED_ULE in your configuration file.
options INET # InterNETworking
Networking support. Leave this in, even if you do not plan to
be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback
networking (i.e., making network connections within your PC), so
this is essentially mandatory.
options INET6 # IPv6 communications protocols
This enables the IPv6 communication protocols.
options FFS # Berkeley Fast Filesystem
This is the basic hard drive file system. Leave it in if you
boot from the hard disk.
options SOFTUPDATES # Enable FFS Soft Updates support
This option enables Soft Updates in the kernel, this will
help speed up write access on the disks. Even when this
functionality is provided by the kernel, it must be turned on
for specific disks. Review the output from &man.mount.8; to see
if Soft Updates is enabled for your system disks. If you do not
see the soft-updates option then you will
need to activate it using the &man.tunefs.8; (for existing
file systems) or &man.newfs.8; (for new file systems)
commands.
options UFS_ACL # Support for access control lists
This option, present only in &os; 5.X, enables kernel support
for access control lists. This relies on the use of extended
attributes and UFS2 , and the feature is described
in detail in . ACL s are
enabled by default and should not be
disabled in the kernel if they have been used previously on a file
system, as this will remove the access control lists, changing the
way files are protected in unpredictable ways.
options UFS_DIRHASH # Improve performance on big directories
This option includes functionality to speed up disk
operations on large directories, at the expense of using
additional memory. You would normally keep this for a large
server, or interactive workstation, and remove it if you are
using &os; on a smaller system where memory is at a premium and
disk access speed is less important, such as a firewall.
options MD_ROOT # MD is a potential root device
This option enables support for a memory backed virtual disk
used as a root device.
kernel options
NFS
kernel options
NFS_ROOT
options NFSCLIENT # Network Filesystem Client
options NFSSERVER # Network Filesystem Server
options NFS_ROOT # NFS usable as /, requires NFSCLIENT
The network file system. Unless you plan to mount partitions
from a &unix; file server over TCP/IP, you can comment these
out.
kernel options
MSDOSFS
options MSDOSFS # MSDOS Filesystem
The &ms-dos; file system. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted
hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out.
It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS
partition, as described above. Also, the excellent
emulators/mtools software
allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and
unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at
all).
options CD9660 # ISO 9660 Filesystem
The ISO 9660 file system for CDROMs. Comment it out if you do
not have a CDROM drive or only mount data CDs occasionally (since it
will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD).
Audio CDs do not need this file system.
options PROCFS # Process filesystem
The process file system. This is a pretend
file system mounted on /proc which allows
programs like &man.ps.1; to give you more information on what
processes are running. In &os; 5.X and above, use of PROCFS
is not required under most circumstances, as most
debugging and monitoring tools have been adapted to run without
PROCFS : unlike in &os; 4.X, new installations of
&os; 5.X will not mount the process file system by default.
In addition, 6.X-CURRENT kernels
making use of PROCFS must now also include
support for PSEUDOFS :
options PSEUDOFS # Pseudo-filesystem framework
PSEUDOFS is not available in &os; 4.X.
options GEOM_GPT # GUID Partition Tables.
This option brings the ability to have a large number of
partitions on a single disk.
options COMPAT_43 # Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!]
Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will
act strangely if you comment this out.
options COMPAT_FREEBSD4 # Compatible with &os;4
This option is required on &os; 5.X &i386; and Alpha systems
to support applications compiled on older versions of &os;
that use older system call interfaces. It is recommended that
this option be used on all &i386; and Alpha systems that may
run older applications; platforms that gained support only in
5.X, such as ia64 and &sparc64;, do not require this option.
options SCSI_DELAY=15000 # Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI
This causes the kernel to pause for 15 seconds before probing
each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives,
you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this
number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course, if
you do this and &os; has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices,
you will have to raise it again.
options KTRACE # ktrace(1) support
This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in
debugging.
options SYSVSHM # SYSV-style shared memory
This option provides for System V shared memory. The most
common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many
graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of for
extra speed. If you use X, you will definitely want to include
this.
options SYSVMSG # SYSV-style message queues
Support for System V messages. This option only adds
a few hundred bytes to the kernel.
options SYSVSEM # SYSV-style semaphores
Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only
adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel.
The -p option of the &man.ipcs.1; command will
list any processes using each of these System V facilities.
options _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING # POSIX P1003_1B real-time extensions
Real-time extensions added in the 1993 &posix;. Certain
applications in the Ports Collection use these
(such as &staroffice; ).
options KBD_INSTALL_CDEV # install a CDEV entry in /dev
This option is related to the keyboard. It installs a CDEV entry
in /dev .
options AHC_REG_PRETTY_PRINT # Print register bitfields in debug
# output. Adds ~128k to driver.
options AHD_REG_PRETTY_PRINT # Print register bitfields in debug
# output. Adds ~215k to driver.
This helps debugging by printing easier register definitions for
reading.
options ADAPTIVE_GIANT # Giant mutex is adaptive.
Giant is the name of a mutual exclusion mechanism (a sleep mutex)
that protects a large set of kernel resources. Today, this is an
unacceptable performance bottleneck which is actively being replaced
with locks that protect individual resources. The
ADAPTIVE_GIANT option causes Giant to be included
in the set of mutexes adaptively spun on. That is, when a thread
wants to lock the Giant mutex, but it is already locked by a thread
on another CPU, the first thread will keep running and wait for the
lock to be released. Normally, the thread would instead go back to
sleep and wait for its next chance to run. If you are not sure,
leave this in.
kernel options
SMP
device apic # I/O APIC
The apic device enables the use of the I/O APIC for interrupt
delivery. The apic device can be used in both UP and SMP kernels, but
is required for SMP kernels. Add options SMP to
include support for multiple processors.
device isa
All PCs supported by &os; have one of these. Do not remove this,
even if you have no ISA slots. If you have an
IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture) system, &os; provides only
limited support at this time. For more information about the
MCA support, see
/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/NOTES .
device eisa
Include this if you have an EISA motherboard. This enables
auto-detection and configuration support for all devices on the EISA
bus.
device pci
Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables
auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to ISA
bus.
# Floppy drives
device fdc
This is the floppy drive controller.
# ATA and ATAPI devices
device ata
This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices. You only need
one device ata line for the kernel to detect all
PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines.
device atadisk # ATA disk drives
This is needed along with device ata for
ATA disk drives.
device ataraid # ATA RAID drives
This is needed along with device ata for ATA
RAID drives.
device atapicd # ATAPI CDROM drives
This is needed along with device ata for
ATAPI CDROM drives.
device atapifd # ATAPI floppy drives
This is needed along with device ata for
ATAPI floppy drives.
device atapist # ATAPI tape drives
This is needed along with device ata for
ATAPI tape drives.
options ATA_STATIC_ID # Static device numbering
This makes the controller number static; without this,
the device numbers are dynamically allocated.
# SCSI Controllers
device ahb # EISA AHA1742 family
device ahc # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices
device ahd # AHA39320/29320 and onboard AIC79xx devices
device amd # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T))
device isp # Qlogic family
device mpt # LSI-Logic MPT-Fusion
#device ncr # NCR/Symbios Logic
device sym # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets)
device trm # Tekram DC395U/UW/F DC315U adapters
device adv # Advansys SCSI adapters
device adw # Advansys wide SCSI adapters
device aha # Adaptec 154x SCSI adapters
device aic # Adaptec 15[012]x SCSI adapters, AIC-6[23]60.
device bt # Buslogic/Mylex MultiMaster SCSI adapters
device ncv # NCR 53C500
device nsp # Workbit Ninja SCSI-3
device stg # TMC 18C30/18C50
SCSI controllers. Comment out any you do not have in your
system. If you have an IDE only system, you can remove these
altogether.
# SCSI peripherals
device scbus # SCSI bus (required for SCSI)
device ch # SCSI media changers
device da # Direct Access (disks)
device sa # Sequential Access (tape etc)
device cd # CD
device pass # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access)
device ses # SCSI Environmental Services (and SAF-TE)
SCSI peripherals. Again, comment out any you do not have, or if
you have only IDE hardware, you can remove them completely.
The USB &man.umass.4; driver and a few other drivers use
the SCSI subsystem even though they are not real SCSI devices.
Therefore make sure not to remove SCSI support, if any such
drivers are included in the kernel configuration.
# RAID controllers interfaced to the SCSI subsystem
device amr # AMI MegaRAID
device arcmsr # Areca SATA II RAID
device asr # DPT SmartRAID V, VI and Adaptec SCSI RAID
device ciss # Compaq Smart RAID 5*
device dpt # DPT Smartcache III, IV - See NOTES for options
device hptmv # Highpoint RocketRAID 182x
device iir # Intel Integrated RAID
device ips # IBM (Adaptec) ServeRAID
device mly # Mylex AcceleRAID/eXtremeRAID
device twa # 3ware 9000 series PATA/SATA RAID
# RAID controllers
device aac # Adaptec FSA RAID
device aacp # SCSI passthrough for aac (requires CAM)
device ida # Compaq Smart RAID
device mlx # Mylex DAC960 family
device pst # Promise Supertrak SX6000
device twe # 3ware ATA RAID
Supported RAID controllers. If you do not have any of these,
you can comment them out or remove them.
# atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse
device atkbdc # AT keyboard controller
The keyboard controller (atkbdc ) provides I/O
services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing devices. This
controller is required by the keyboard driver
(atkbd ) and the PS/2 pointing device driver
(psm ).
device atkbd # AT keyboard
The atkbd driver, together with
atkbdc controller, provides access to the AT 84
keyboard or the AT enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT
keyboard controller.
device psm # PS/2 mouse
Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse
port.
device vga # VGA video card driver
The video card driver.
# splash screen/screen saver
device splash # Splash screen and screen saver support
Splash screen at start up! Screen savers require this
too. Use the line pseudo-device splash with
&os; 4.X.
# syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console
device sc
sc is the default console driver and
resembles a SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the
console through a terminal database library like
termcap , it should not matter whether you use
this or vt , the VT220
compatible console driver. When you log in, set your
TERM variable to scoansi if
full-screen programs have trouble running under this console.
# Enable this for the pcvt (VT220 compatible) console driver
#device vt
#options XSERVER # support for X server on a vt console
#options FAT_CURSOR # start with block cursor
This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward compatible to
VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware
incompatibilities with sc . Also set your
TERM variable to vt100 or
vt220 when you log in. This driver might also
prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines
over the network, where termcap or
terminfo entries for the sc
device are often not available — vt100
should be available on virtually any platform.
device agp
Include this if you have an AGP card in the system. This
will enable support for AGP, and AGP GART for boards which
have these features.
# Floating point support - do not disable.
device npx
npx is the interface to the floating point
math unit in &os;, which is either the hardware co-processor or
the software math emulator. This is not
optional.
APM
# Power management support (see NOTES for more options)
#device apm
Advanced Power Management support. Useful for laptops,
although in &os; 5.X and above this is disabled in
GENERIC by default.
# Add suspend/resume support for the i8254.
device pmtimer
Timer device driver for power management events, such as APM and
ACPI.
# PCCARD (PCMCIA) support
# PCMCIA and cardbus bridge support
device cbb # cardbus (yenta) bridge
device pccard # PC Card (16-bit) bus
device cardbus # CardBus (32-bit) bus
PCMCIA support. You want this if you are using a
laptop.
# Serial (COM) ports
device sio # 8250, 16[45]50 based serial ports
These are the serial ports referred to as
COM ports in the &ms-dos;/&windows;
world.
If you have an internal modem on COM4
and a serial port at COM2 , you will have
to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons,
IRQ2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it
from &os;. If you have a multiport serial card, check the
manual page for &man.sio.4; for more information on the proper
values to add to your /boot/device.hints .
Some video cards (notably those based on
S3 chips) use IO addresses in the form of
0x*2e8 , and since many cheap serial cards do
not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with
these cards making the COM4 port
practically unavailable.
Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you
are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are
supported), so the default IRQs for COM3
and COM4 cannot be used.
# Parallel port
device ppc
This is the ISA-bus parallel port interface.
device ppbus # Parallel port bus (required)
Provides support for the parallel port bus.
device lpt # Printer
Support for parallel port printers.
All three of the above are required to enable parallel printer
support.
device plip # TCP/IP over parallel
This is the driver for the parallel network interface.
device ppi # Parallel port interface device
The general-purpose I/O (geek port
) + IEEE1284
I/O.
#device vpo # Requires scbus and da
zip drive
This is for an Iomega Zip drive. It requires
scbus and da support. Best
performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode.
#device puc
Uncomment this device if you have a dumb
serial
or parallel PCI card that is supported by the &man.puc.4; glue
driver.
# PCI Ethernet NICs.
device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (Tulip
)
device em # Intel PRO/1000 adapter Gigabit Ethernet Card
device ixgb # Intel PRO/10GbE Ethernet Card
device txp # 3Com 3cR990 (Typhoon
)
device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (Vortex
)
Various PCI network card drivers. Comment out or remove any of
these not present in your system.
# PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code.
# NOTE: Be sure to keep the 'device miibus' line in order to use these NICs!
device miibus # MII bus support
MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 Ethernet NICs,
namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or implement
transceiver control interfaces that operate like an MII. Adding
device miibus to the kernel config pulls in
support for the generic miibus API and all of the PHY drivers,
including a generic one for PHYs that are not specifically handled
by an individual driver.
device bfe # Broadcom BCM440x 10/100 Ethernet
device bge # Broadcom BCM570xx Gigabit Ethernet
device dc # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes
device fxp # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558)
device lge # Level 1 LXT1001 gigabit ethernet
device nge # NatSemi DP83820 gigabit ethernet
device pcn # AMD Am79C97x PCI 10/100 (precedence over 'lnc')
device re # RealTek 8139C+/8169/8169S/8110S
device rl # RealTek 8129/8139
device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (Starfire
)
device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016
device sk # SysKonnect SK-984x & SK-982x gigabit Ethernet
device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX)
device ti # Alteon Networks Tigon I/II gigabit Ethernet
device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN
device tx # SMC EtherPower II (83c170 EPIC
)
device vge # VIA VT612x gigabit ethernet
device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II
device wb # Winbond W89C840F
device xl # 3Com 3c90x (Boomerang
, Cyclone
)
Drivers that use the MII bus controller code.
# ISA Ethernet NICs. pccard NICs included.
device cs # Crystal Semiconductor CS89x0 NIC
# 'device ed' requires 'device miibus'
device ed # NE[12]000, SMC Ultra, 3c503, DS8390 cards
device ex # Intel EtherExpress Pro/10 and Pro/10+
device ep # Etherlink III based cards
device fe # Fujitsu MB8696x based cards
device ie # EtherExpress 8/16, 3C507, StarLAN 10 etc.
device lnc # NE2100, NE32-VL Lance Ethernet cards
device sn # SMC's 9000 series of Ethernet chips
device xe # Xircom pccard Ethernet
# ISA devices that use the old ISA shims
#device le
ISA Ethernet drivers. See
/usr/src/sys/i386 /conf/NOTES for details
of which cards are
supported by which driver.
# Wireless NIC cards
device wlan # 802.11 support
device an # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs.
device awi # BayStack 660 and others
device wi # WaveLAN/Intersil/Symbol 802.11 wireless NICs.
#device wl # Older non 802.11 Wavelan wireless NIC.
Support for various wireless cards.
# Pseudo devices
device loop # Network loopback
This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet
or FTP to localhost (a.k.a. 127.0.0.1 ) it will come back at you through
this device. This is mandatory . Under
&os; 4.X you have to use the line pseudo-device
loop .
device mem # Memory and kernel memory devices
The system memory devices.
device io # I/O device
This option allows a process to gain I/O privileges. This is
useful in order to write userland programs that can handle hardware
directly. This is required to run the X Window system.
device random # Entropy device
Cryptographically secure random number generator.
device ether # Ethernet support
ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet
card. It includes generic Ethernet protocol code. Under
&os; 4.X use the line pseudo-device
ether .
device sl # Kernel SLIP
sl is for SLIP support. This has been almost
entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited
for modem-to-modem connection, and more powerful.
With &os; 4.X use the line pseudo-device
sl .
device ppp # Kernel PPP
This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections. There
is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland application that
uses tun and offers more flexibility and features
such as demand dialing.
With &os; 4.X use the line
pseudo-device ppp .
device tun # Packet tunnel.
This is used by the userland PPP software.
See
the PPP section of this book for more
information. With &os; 4.X use the line pseudo-device
tun .
device pty # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc)
This is a pseudo-terminal
or simulated login port.
It is used by incoming telnet and
rlogin sessions,
xterm , and some other applications such
as Emacs .
Under &os; 4.X, you
have to use the line pseudo-device pty
number . The
number after pty
indicates the number of
pty s to create. If you need more than the
default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows
and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly,
up to a maximum of 256.
device md # Memory disks
Memory disk pseudo-devices. With &os; 4.X use the
line pseudo-device md .
device gif # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling
This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling,
IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6 tunneling. Beginning with
&os; 4.4 the gif device is
auto-cloning
, and you should use the line
pseudo-device gif .
Earlier versions of &os; 4.X require a number, for example
pseudo-device gif 4 .
device faith # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation)
This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and
diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon. With
&os; 4.X use the line
pseudo-device faith 1 .
# The `bpf' device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter.
# Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this!
# Note that 'bpf' is required for DHCP.
device bpf # Berkeley packet filter
This is the Berkeley Packet Filter. This pseudo-device allows
network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every
packet on a broadcast network (e.g., an Ethernet). These packets
can be captured to disk and or examined with the &man.tcpdump.1;
program. With &os; 4.X use the line
pseudo-device bpf .
The &man.bpf.4; device is also used by
&man.dhclient.8; to obtain the IP address of the default router
(gateway) and so on. If you use DHCP, leave this
uncommented.
# USB support
device uhci # UHCI PCI->USB interface
device ohci # OHCI PCI->USB interface
#device ehci # EHCI PCI->USB interface (USB 2.0)
device usb # USB Bus (required)
#device udbp # USB Double Bulk Pipe devices
device ugen # Generic
device uhid # Human Interface Devices
device ukbd # Keyboard
device ulpt # Printer
device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da
device ums # Mouse
device urio # Diamond Rio 500 MP3 player
device uscanner # Scanners
# USB Ethernet, requires mii
device aue # ADMtek USB Ethernet
device axe # ASIX Electronics USB Ethernet
device cdce # Generic USB over Ethernet
device cue # CATC USB Ethernet
device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB Ethernet
device rue # RealTek RTL8150 USB Ethernet
Support for various USB devices.
# FireWire support
device firewire # FireWire bus code
device sbp # SCSI over FireWire (Requires scbus and da)
device fwe # Ethernet over FireWire (non-standard!)
Support for various Firewire devices.
For more information and additional devices supported by
&os;, see
/usr/src/sys/i386 /conf/NOTES .
Large Memory Configurations (PAE )
Physical Address Extensions
(PAE )
large memory
Large memory configuration machines require access to
more than the 4 gigabyte limit on User+Kernel Virtual
Address (KVA ) space. Due to this
limitation, Intel added support for 36-bit physical address
space access in the &pentium; Pro and later line of CPUs.
The Physical Address Extension (PAE )
capability of the &intel; &pentium; Pro and later CPUs
allows memory configurations of up to 64 gigabytes.
&os; provides support for this capability via the
PAE kernel configuration option, available
in the 4.X series of &os; beginning with 4.9-RELEASE and
in the 5.X series of &os; beginning with 5.1-RELEASE. Due to
the limitations of the Intel memory architecture, no distinction
is made for memory above or below 4 gigabytes. Memory allocated
above 4 gigabytes is simply added to the pool of available
memory.
To enable PAE support in the kernel,
simply add the following line to your kernel configuration
file:
options PAE
The PAE support in &os; is only
available for &intel; IA-32 processors. It should also be
noted, that the PAE support in &os; has
not received wide testing, and should be considered beta
quality compared to other stable features of &os;.
PAE support in &os; has a few limitations:
A process is not able to access more than 4
gigabytes of VM space.
KLD modules cannot be loaded into
a PAE enabled kernel, due to the
differences in the build framework of a module and the
kernel.
Device drivers that do not use the &man.bus.dma.9;
interface will cause data corruption in a
PAE enabled kernel and are not
recommended for use. For this reason, the
PAE kernel
configuration file is provided in &os; 5.X, which
excludes all drivers not known to work in a PAE enabled
kernel.
Some system tunables determine memory resource usage
by the amount of available physical memory. Such
tunables can unnecessarily over-allocate due to the
large memory nature of a PAE system.
One such example is the kern.maxvnodes
sysctl, which controls the maximum number of vnodes allowed
in the kernel. It is advised to adjust this and other
such tunables to a reasonable value.
It might be necessary to increase the kernel virtual
address (KVA ) space or to reduce the
amount of specific kernel resource that is heavily used
(see above) in order to avoid KVA
exhaustion. The KVA_PAGES kernel option
can be used for increasing the
KVA space.
For performance and stability concerns, it is advised to
consult the &man.tuning.7; manual page. The &man.pae.4;
manual page contains up-to-date information on &os;'s
PAE support.
Making Device Nodes
device nodes
MAKEDEV
If you are running &os; 5.0 or later
you can safely skip this section. These versions use
&man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently for
the user.
Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding
node
entry in the /dev directory.
These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special
entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device.
The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV , which is
executed when you first install the operating system, creates
nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not
create all of them, so when you add support for
a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are
in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple
example:
Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line
to add is:
device acd0
This means that you should look for some entries that start with
acd0 in the /dev
directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as
c , or preceded by the letter
r , which means a raw
device. It
turns out that those files are not there, so you must change to the
/dev directory and type:
MAKEDEV
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0
When this script finishes, you will find that there are now
acd0c and racd0c entries
in /dev so you know that it executed
correctly.
For sound cards, the following command creates the appropriate
entries:
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0
When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if
other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to
protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the
/etc/fbtab file. See &man.fbtab.5; for more
information.
Follow this simple procedure for any other
non-GENERIC devices which do not have
entries.
All SCSI controllers use the same set of
/dev entries, so you do not need to create
these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not
have entries in /dev at all, so you do not
have to worry about these either.
If Something Goes Wrong
There are five categories of trouble that can occur when
building a custom kernel. They are:
config fails:
If the &man.config.8; command fails when you
give it your kernel description, you have probably made a
simple error somewhere. Fortunately,
&man.config.8; will print the line number that it
had trouble with, so that you can quickly locate the line
containing the error. For example, if you see:
config: line 17: syntax error
Make sure the
keyword is typed correctly by comparing it to the
GENERIC kernel or another
reference.
make fails:
If the make command fails, it usually
signals an error in your kernel description which is not severe
enough for &man.config.8; to catch. Again, look
over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the
problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel
configuration, and it should be diagnosed quickly.
Installing the new kernel fails:
If the kernel compiled fine, but failed to install
(the make install or
make installkernel command failed),
the first thing to check is if your system is running at
securelevel 1 or higher (see &man.init.8;). The kernel
installation tries to remove the immutable flag from
your kernel and set the immutable flag on the new one.
Since securelevel 1 or higher prevents unsetting the immutable
flag for any files on the system, the kernel installation needs
to be performed at securelevel 0 or lower.
The above only applies to &os; 4.X and earlier versions.
&os; 5.X, along with later versions, does not set the
immutable flag on the kernel and a failure to install a
kernel probably indicates a more fundamental problem.
The kernel does not boot:
If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to
recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, &os; has
an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible
kernels. Simply choose the kernel you want to boot from at
the &os; boot loader. You can access this when the system
counts down from 10 at the boot menu. Hit any key except for the
Enter key, type unload
and then type
boot /boot/kernel.old /kernel ,
or the filename of any other kernel that will boot properly.
When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep
a kernel that is known to work on hand.
After booting with a good kernel you can check over your
configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful
resource is the /var/log/messages file
which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages
from every successful boot. Also, the &man.dmesg.8; command
will print the kernel messages from the current boot.
If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure
to keep a GENERIC , or some other kernel
that is known to work on hand as a different name that will
not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on
kernel.old because when installing a
new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten
with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional.
Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the
proper /boot/kernel
location or commands such
as &man.ps.1; may not work properly. To do this, simply
rename the directory containing the good kernel:
&prompt.root; mv /boot/kernel /boot/kernel.bad
&prompt.root; mv /boot/kernel.good /boot/kernel
For versions of &os; prior to 5.X, the proper command to
unlock
the kernel file that
make installs (in order to move another
kernel back permanently) is:
&prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel
If you find you cannot do this, you are probably running
at a &man.securelevel.8; greater than zero. Edit
kern_securelevel in
/etc/rc.conf and set it to
-1 , then reboot. You can change it back
to its previous setting when you are happy with your new
kernel.
And, if you want to lock
your new kernel
into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot
be moved or tampered with:
&prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel
The kernel works, but &man.ps.1; does not work
any more:
If you have installed a different version of the kernel
from the one that the system utilities have been built with,
for example, a 5.X kernel on a 4.X system, many system-status
commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work any
more. You should recompile and install
a world built with the same version of the source tree as
your kernel. This is one reason it is
not normally a good idea to use a different version of the
kernel from the rest of the operating system.
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml
index 36e2aa63ff..b937b7d4ad 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,972 +1,972 @@
Andrey
Chernov
Contributed by
Michael C.
Wu
Rewritten by
- Localization - I18N/L10N Usage and Setup
+ ¦a°Ï¡B»y¨t - I18N/L10N ¥Îªk»P³]©w
- Synopsis
+ ·§z
FreeBSD is a very distributed project with users and
contributors located all over the world. This chapter discusses
the internationalization and localization features of FreeBSD
that allow non-English speaking users to get real work done.
There are many aspects of the i18n implementation in both the system
and application levels, so where applicable we refer the reader
to more specific sources of documentation.
After reading this chapter, you will know:
How different languages and locales are encoded
on modern operating systems.
How to set the locale for your login
shell.
How to configure your console for non-English
languages.
How to use X Window System effectively with different
languages.
Where to find more information about writing
i18n-compliant applications.
Before reading this chapter, you should:
Know how to install additional third-party
applications ().
The Basics
- What Is I18N/L10N?
+ Ô£¬O I18N/L10N¡H
internationalization
localization
localization
Developers shortened internationalization into the term I18N,
counting the number of letters between the first and the last
letters of internationalization. L10N uses the same naming
scheme, coming from localization
. Combined
together, I18N/L10N methods, protocols, and applications allow
users to use languages of their choice.
I18N applications are programmed using I18N kits under
libraries. It allows for developers to write a simple file and
translate displayed menus and texts to each language. We strongly
encourage programmers to follow this convention.
Why Should I Use I18N/L10N?
I18N/L10N is used whenever you wish to either view, input, or
process data in non-English languages.
What Languages Are Supported in the I18N Effort?
I18N and L10N are not FreeBSD specific. Currently, one can
choose from most of the major languages of the World, including
but not limited to: Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, French,
Russian, Vietnamese and others.
Using Localization
In all its splendor, I18N is not FreeBSD-specific and is a
convention. We encourage you to help FreeBSD in following this
convention.
locale
Localization settings are based on three main terms:
Language Code, Country Code, and Encoding. Locale names are
constructed from these parts as follows:
LanguageCode _CountryCode .Encoding
Language and Country Codes
language codes
country codes
In order to localize a FreeBSD system to a specific language
(or any other I18N-supporting &unix; like systems), the user needs to find out
the codes for the specify country and language (country
codes tell applications what variation of given
language to use). In addition, web
browsers, SMTP/POP servers, web servers, etc. make decisions based on
them. The following are examples of language/country codes:
Language/Country Code
Description
en_US
English - United States
ru_RU
Russian for Russia
zh_TW
Traditional Chinese for Taiwan
Encodings
encodings
ASCII
Some languages use non-ASCII encodings that are 8-bit, wide
or multibyte characters, see &man.multibyte.3; for more
details. Older applications do not recognize them
and mistake them for control characters. Newer applications
usually do recognize 8-bit characters. Depending on the
implementation, users may be required to compile an application
with wide or multibyte characters support, or configure it correctly.
To be able to input and process wide or multibyte characters, the FreeBSD Ports Collection has provided
each language with different programs. Refer to the I18N
documentation in the respective FreeBSD Port.
Specifically, the user needs to look at the application
documentation to decide on how to configure it correctly or to
pass correct values into the configure/Makefile/compiler.
Some things to keep in mind are:
Language specific single C chars character sets
(see &man.multibyte.3;), e.g.
ISO-8859-1, ISO-8859-15, KOI8-R, CP437.
Wide or multibyte encodings, e.g. EUC, Big5.
You can check the active list of character sets at the
IANA Registry .
FreeBSD versions 4.5 and up use X11-compatible locale
encodings instead.
I18N Applications
In the FreeBSD Ports and Package system, I18N applications
have been named with I18N in their names for
easy identification. However, they do not always support the
language needed.
Setting Locale
Usually it is sufficient to export the value of the locale name
as LANG in the login shell. This could be done in
the user's ~/.login_conf file or in the
startup file of the user's shell (~/.profile ,
~/.bashrc , ~/.cshrc ).
There is no need to set the locale subsets such as
LC_CTYPE , LC_CTIME . Please
refer to language-specific FreeBSD documentation for more
information.
You should set the following two environment variables in your configuration
files:
POSIX
LANG for &posix; &man.setlocale.3; family
functions
MIME
MM_CHARSET for applications' MIME character
set
This includes the user shell configuration, the specific application
configuration, and the X11 configuration.
Setting Locale Methods
locale
login class
There are two methods for setting locale, and both are
described below. The first (recommended one) is by assigning
the environment variables in login
class, and the second is by adding the environment
variable assignments to the system's shell startup file.
Login Classes Method
This method allows environment variables needed for locale
name and MIME character sets to be assigned once for every
possible shell instead of adding specific shell assignments to
each shell's startup file. User
Level Setup can be done by an user himself and Administrator Level Setup require
superuser privileges.
User Level Setup
Here is a minimal example of a
.login_conf file in user's home
directory which has both variables set for Latin-1
encoding:
me:\
:charset=ISO-8859-1:\
:lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:
Traditional Chinese BIG-5 encoding
Here is an example of a
.login_conf that sets the variables
for Traditional Chinese in BIG-5 encoding. Notice the many
more variables set because some software does not respect
locale variables correctly for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.
#Users who do not wish to use monetary units or time formats
#of Taiwan can manually change each variable
me:\
:lang=zh_TW.Big5:\
:lc_all=zh_TW.Big:\
:lc_collate=zh_TW.Big5:\
:lc_ctype=zh_TW.Big5:\
:lc_messages=zh_TW.Big5:\
:lc_monetary=zh_TW.Big5:\
:lc_numeric=zh_TW.Big5:\
:lc_time=zh_TW.Big5:\
:charset=big5:\
:xmodifiers="@im=xcin": #Setting the XIM Input Server
See Administrator Level
Setup and &man.login.conf.5; for more details.
Administrator Level Setup
Verify that the user's login class in
/etc/login.conf sets the correct
language. Make sure these settings
appear in /etc/login.conf :
language_name :accounts_title :\
:charset=MIME_charset :\
:lang=locale_name :\
:tc=default:
So sticking with our previous example using Latin-1, it
would look like this:
german:German Users Accounts:\
:charset=ISO-8859-1:\
:lang=de_DE.ISO8859-1:\
:tc=default:
Changing Login Classes with &man.vipw.8;
vipw
Use vipw to add new users, and make
the entry look like this:
user:password:1111:11:language :0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh
Changing Login Classes with &man.adduser.8;
adduser
login class
Use adduser to add new users, and do
the following:
Set defaultclass =
language in
/etc/adduser.conf . Keep in mind
you must enter a default class for
all users of other languages in this case.
An alternative variant is answering the specified
language each time that
Enter login class: default []:
appears from &man.adduser.8;.
Another alternative is to use the following for each
user of a different language that you wish to
add:
&prompt.root; adduser -class language
Changing Login Classes with &man.pw.8;
pw
If you use &man.pw.8; for adding new users, call it in
this form:
&prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L language
Shell Startup File Method
This method is not recommended because it requires a
different setup for each possible shell program chosen. Use
the Login Class Method
instead.
MIME
locale
To add the locale name and MIME character set, just set
the two environment variables shown below in the
/etc/profile and/or
/etc/csh.login shell startup files. We
will use the German language as an example below:
In /etc/profile :
LANG=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export LANG
MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET
Or in /etc/csh.login :
setenv LANG de_DE.ISO8859-1
setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1
Alternatively, you can add the above instructions to
/usr/share/skel/dot.profile (similar to
what was used in /etc/profile above), or
/usr/share/skel/dot.login (similar to
what was used in /etc/csh.login
above).
For X11:
In $HOME/.xinitrc :
LANG=de_DE.ISO8859-1; export LANG
Or:
setenv LANG de_DE.ISO8859-1
Depending on your shell (see above).
Console Setup
For all single C chars character sets, set the correct
console fonts in /etc/rc.conf for the
language in question with:
font8x16=font_name
font8x14=font_name
font8x8=font_name
The font_name here is taken from
the /usr/share/syscons/fonts directory,
without the .fnt suffix.
sysinstall
keymap
screenmap
Also be sure to set the correct keymap and screenmap for your
single C chars character set through
sysinstall (/stand/sysinstall
in &os; versions older than 5.2).
Once inside sysinstall , choose Configure , then
Console . Alternatively, you can add the
following to /etc/rc.conf :
scrnmap=screenmap_name
keymap=keymap_name
keychange="fkey_number sequence "
The screenmap_name here is taken
from the /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps
directory, without the .scm suffix. A
screenmap with a corresponding mapped font is usually needed as a
workaround for expanding bit 8 to bit 9 on a VGA adapter's font
character matrix in pseudographics area, i.e., to move letters out
of that area if screen font uses a bit 8 column.
If you have the moused daemon
enabled by setting the following
in your /etc/rc.conf :
moused_enable="YES"
then examine the mouse cursor information in the next
paragraph.
moused
By default the mouse cursor of the &man.syscons.4; driver occupies the
0xd0-0xd3 range in the character set. If your language uses this
range, you need to move the cursor's range outside of it. To enable
the workaround for FreeBSD versions before 5.0, insert the following
line into your kernel configuration:
options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03
For FreeBSD versions 4.4 and up insert the following line
into /etc/rc.conf :
mousechar_start=3
The keymap_name here is taken from
the /usr/share/syscons/keymaps directory,
without the .kbd suffix. If you are
uncertain which keymap to use, you use can &man.kbdmap.1; to test
keymaps without rebooting.
The keychange is usually needed to program
function keys to match the selected terminal type because
function key sequences cannot be defined in the key map.
Also be sure to set the correct console terminal type in
/etc/ttys for all ttyv*
entries. Current pre-defined correspondences are:
Character Set
Terminal Type
ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15
cons25l1
ISO-8859-2
cons25l2
ISO-8859-7
cons25l7
KOI8-R
cons25r
KOI8-U
cons25u
CP437 (VGA default)
cons25
US-ASCII
cons25w
For wide or multibyte characters languages, use the correct
FreeBSD port in your
/usr/ports/language
directory. Some ports appear as console while the system sees it
as serial vtty's, hence you must reserve enough vtty's for both
X11 and the pseudo-serial console. Here is a partial list of
applications for using other languages in console:
Language
Location
Traditional Chinese (BIG-5)
chinese/big5con
Japanese
japanese/kon2-16dot or
japanese/mule-freewnn
Korean
korean/han
X11 Setup
Although X11 is not part of the FreeBSD Project, we have
included some information here for FreeBSD users. For more
details, refer to the &xorg;
web site or whichever X11 Server you use.
In ~/.Xresources , you can additionally
tune application specific I18N settings (e.g., fonts, menus,
etc.).
Displaying Fonts
X11 True Type font server
Install &xorg; server
(x11-servers/xorg-server )
or &xfree86; server
(x11-servers/XFree86-4-Server ),
then install the language &truetype; fonts. Setting the correct
locale should allow you to view your selected language in menus
and such.
Inputting Non-English Characters
X11 Input Method (XIM)
The X11 Input Method (XIM) Protocol is a new standard for
all X11 clients. All X11 applications should be written as XIM
clients that take input from XIM Input servers. There are
several XIM servers available for different languages.
Printer Setup
Some single C chars character sets are usually hardware
coded into printers. Wide or multibyte
character sets require special setup and we recommend using
apsfilter . You may also convert the
document to &postscript; or PDF formats using language specific
converters.
Kernel and File Systems
The FreeBSD fast filesystem (FFS) is 8-bit clean, so it can be used
with any single C chars character set (see &man.multibyte.3;),
but there is no character set
name stored in the filesystem; i.e., it is raw 8-bit and does not
know anything about encoding order. Officially, FFS does not
support any form of wide or multibyte character sets yet. However, some
wide or multibyte character sets have independent patches for FFS
enabling such support. They are only temporary unportable
solutions or hacks and we have decided to not include them in the
source tree. Refer to respective languages' web sites for more
information and the patch files.
DOS
Unicode
The FreeBSD &ms-dos; filesystem has the configurable ability to
convert between &ms-dos;, Unicode character sets and chosen
FreeBSD filesystem character sets. See &man.mount.msdos.8; for
details.
Compiling I18N Programs
Many FreeBSD Ports have been ported with I18N support. Some
of them are marked with -I18N in the port name. These and many
other programs have built in support for I18N and need no special
consideration.
MySQL
However, some applications such as
MySQL need to be have the
Makefile configured with the specific
charset. This is usually done in the
Makefile or done by passing a value to
configure in the source.
Localizing FreeBSD to Specific Languages
Andrey
Chernov
Originally contributed by
Russian Language (KOI8-R Encoding)
localization
Russian
For more information about KOI8-R encoding, see the KOI8-R References
(Russian Net Character Set) .
Locale Setup
Put the following lines into your
~/.login_conf file:
me:My Account:\
:charset=KOI8-R:\
:lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R:
See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the
locale.
Console Setup
For the FreeBSD versions before 5.0 add the following line
to your kernel configuration file:
options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03
For FreeBSD versions 4.4 and up insert the following
line into /etc/rc.conf :
mousechar_start=3
Use following settings in
/etc/rc.conf :
keymap="ru.koi8-r"
scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866"
font8x16="cp866b-8x16"
font8x14="cp866-8x14"
font8x8="cp866-8x8"
For each ttyv* entry in
/etc/ttys , use
cons25r as the terminal type.
See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the
console.
Printer Setup
printers
Since most printers with Russian characters come with
hardware code page CP866, a special output filter is needed
to convert from KOI8-R to CP866. Such a filter is installed by
default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt .
A Russian printer /etc/printcap entry
should look like:
lp|Russian local line printer:\
:sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\
:lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs:
See &man.printcap.5; for a detailed description.
&ms-dos; FS and Russian Filenames
The following example &man.fstab.5; entry enables support
for Russian filenames in mounted &ms-dos; filesystems:
/dev/ad0s2 /dos/c msdos rw,-Wkoi2dos,-Lru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0
The option -L selects the locale name
used, and -W sets the character conversion
table. To use the -W option, be sure to
mount /usr before the &ms-dos; partition
because the conversion tables are located in
/usr/libdata/msdosfs . For more
information, see the &man.mount.msdos.8; manual
page.
X11 Setup
Do non-X locale
setup first as described.
The Russian KOI8-R locale
may not work with old &xfree86; releases (lower than 3.3).
&xorg; is now the default
version of the X Window System on FreeBSD.
This should not be an
issue unless you are using an old version of
FreeBSD.
If you use &xorg; ,
install
x11-fonts/xorg-fonts-cyrillic
package.
Check the "Files" section
in your /etc/X11/xorg.conf file.
The following
lines must be added before any other
FontPath entries:
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc"
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi"
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi"
If you use a high resolution video mode, swap the 75 dpi
and 100 dpi lines.
To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the
"Keyboard" section of your
XF86Config file.
For &xfree86; 3.X :
XkbLayout "ru"
XkbOptions "grp:caps_toggle"
For &xorg; (or
&xfree86; 4.X ):
Option "XkbLayout" "us,ru"
Option "XkbOptions" "grp:toggle"
Also make sure that XkbDisable is
turned off (commented out) there.
For grp:caps_toggle
the RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock .
The old CapsLock function is still
available via Shift CapsLock (in LAT mode
only). For grp:toggle
the RUS/LAT switch will be Right Alt .
grp:caps_toggle does not work in
&xorg; for unknown reason.
If you have &windows;
keys on your keyboard,
and notice that some non-alphabetical keys are mapped
incorrectly in RUS mode, add the following line in your
XF86Config file.
For &xfree86; 3.X :
XkbVariant "winkeys"
For &xorg; (or
&xfree86; 4.X ):
Option "XkbVariant" ",winkeys"
The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old &xfree86;
versions, see the above
note for more information. The Russian XKB
keyboard may also not work with non-localized
applications as well.
Minimally localized applications
should call a XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL,
NULL); function early in the program.
See
KOI8-R for X Window for more instructions on
localizing X11 applications.
Traditional Chinese Localization for Taiwan
localization
Traditional Chinese
The FreeBSD-Taiwan Project has an Chinese HOWTO for
FreeBSD at
using many Chinese ports.
Current editor for the FreeBSD Chinese HOWTO is
Shen Chuan-Hsing statue@freebsd.sinica.edu.tw .
Chuan-Hsing Shen statue@freebsd.sinica.edu.tw has
created the
Chinese FreeBSD Collection (CFC) using FreeBSD-Taiwan's
zh-L10N-tut . The packages and the script files
are available at .
German Language Localization (for All ISO 8859-1
Languages)
localization
German
Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de wrote a
tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial
is written in German and available at
.
Japanese and Korean Language Localization
localization
Japanese
localization
Korean
For Japanese, refer to
,
and for Korean, refer to
.
Non-English FreeBSD Documentation
Some FreeBSD contributors have translated parts of FreeBSD to
other languages. They are available through links on the main site or in
/usr/share/doc .
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml
index 4ae6c6af8d..0f48824b55 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/mirrors/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,3178 +1,3188 @@
¨ú±o FreeBSD
CDROM ¤Î DVD Publishers
Retail Boxed Products
FreeBSD is available as a boxed product (FreeBSD CDs,
additional software, and printed documentation) from several
retailers:
CompUSA
WWW:
Frys Electronics
WWW:
CD and DVD Sets
FreeBSD CD and DVD sets are available from many online
retailers:
BSD Mall by Daemon News
PO Box 161
Nauvoo , IL 62354
USA
Phone: +1 866 273-6255
Fax: +1 217 453-9956
Email: sales@bsdmall.com
WWW:
BSD-Systems
Email: info@bsd-systems.co.uk
WWW:
fastdiscs.com
6 Eltham Close
Leeds , LS6 2TY
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 870 1995 171
Email: sales@fastdiscs.com
WWW:
FreeBSD Mall, Inc.
3623 Sanford Street
Concord , CA 94520-1405
USA
Phone: +1 925 674-0783
Fax: +1 925 674-0821
Email: info@freebsdmall.com
WWW:
Hinner EDV
St. Augustinus-Str. 10
D-81825 München
Germany
Phone: (089) 428 419
WWW:
Ikarios
22-24 rue Voltaire
92000 Nanterre
France
WWW:
JMC Software
Ireland
Phone: 353 1 6291282
WWW:
Linux CD Mall
Private Bag MBE N348
Auckland 1030
New Zealand
Phone: +64 21 866529
WWW:
The Linux Emporium
Hilliard House, Lester Way
Wallingford
OX10 9TA
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 1491 837010
Fax: +44 1491 837016
WWW:
Linux+ DVD Magazine
Lewartowskiego 6
Warsaw
00-190
Poland
Phone: +48 22 860 18 18
Email: editors@lpmagazine.org
WWW:
Linux System Labs Australia
21 Ray Drive
Balwyn North
VIC - 3104
Australia
Phone: +61 3 9857 5918
Fax: +61 3 9857 8974
WWW:
LinuxCenter.Ru
Galernaya Street, 55
Saint-Petersburg
190000
Russia
Phone: +7-812-3125208
Email: info@linuxcenter.ru
WWW:
Distributors
If you are a reseller and want to carry FreeBSD CDROM products,
please contact a distributor:
Cylogistics
809B Cuesta Dr., #2149
Mountain View , CA 94040
USA
Phone: +1 650 694-4949
Fax: +1 650 694-4953
Email: sales@cylogistics.com
WWW:
Ingram Micro
1600 E. St. Andrew Place
Santa Ana , CA 92705-4926
USA
Phone: 1 (800) 456-8000
WWW:
Kudzu, LLC
7375 Washington Ave. S.
Edina , MN 55439
USA
Phone: +1 952 947-0822
Fax: +1 952 947-0876
Email: sales@kudzuenterprises.com
LinuxCenter.Ru
Galernaya Street, 55
Saint-Petersburg
190000
Russia
Phone: +7-812-3125208
Email: info@linuxcenter.ru
WWW:
Navarre Corp
7400 49th Ave South
New Hope , MN 55428
USA
Phone: +1 763 535-8333
Fax: +1 763 535-0341
WWW:
FTP Sites
The official sources for FreeBSD are available via anonymous FTP
from a worldwide set of mirror sites. The site
is well
connected and allows a large number of connections to it, but
you are probably better off finding a closer
mirror site (especially if you decide to set up some sort of
mirror site).
The FreeBSD mirror
sites database is more accurate than the mirror listing in the
Handbook, as it gets its information from the DNS rather than relying on
static lists of hosts.
Additionally, FreeBSD is available via anonymous FTP from the
following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain FreeBSD via anonymous
FTP, please try to use a site near you. The mirror sites listed as
Primary Mirror Sites
typically have the entire FreeBSD archive (all
the currently available versions for each of the architectures) but
you will probably have faster download times from a site that is
in your country or region. The regional sites carry the most recent
versions for the most popular architecture(s) but might not carry
the entire FreeBSD archive. All sites provide access via anonymous
FTP but some sites also provide access via other methods. The access
methods available for each site are provided in parentheses
after the hostname.
&chap.mirrors.ftp.inc;
Anonymous CVS
Introduction
CVS
anonymous
Anonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known,
anoncvs ) is a feature provided by the CVS
utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote
CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD
to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations
against one of the FreeBSD project's official anoncvs servers.
To use it, one simply sets the CVSROOT
environment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server,
provides the well-known password anoncvs
with the
cvs login command, and then uses the
&man.cvs.1; command to access it like any local
repository.
The cvs login command, stores the passwords
that are used for authenticating to the CVS server in a file
called .cvspass in your
HOME directory. If this file does not exist,
you might get an error when trying to use cvs
login for the first time. Just make an empty
.cvspass file, and retry to login.
While it can also be said that the CVSup and anoncvs
services both perform essentially the same function, there are
various trade-offs which can influence the user's choice of
synchronization methods. In a nutshell,
CVSup is much more efficient in its
usage of network resources and is by far the most technically
sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use
CVSup , a special client must first be
installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and
then only in the fairly large chunks which
CVSup calls
collections .
Anoncvs , by contrast, can be used
to examine anything from an individual file to a specific
program (like ls or grep )
by referencing the CVS module name. Of course,
anoncvs is also only good for
read-only operations on the CVS repository, so if it is your
intention to support local development in one repository shared
with the FreeBSD project bits then
CVSup is really your only
option.
Using Anonymous CVS
Configuring &man.cvs.1; to use an Anonymous CVS repository
is a simple matter of setting the CVSROOT
environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD project's
anoncvs servers. At the time of this
writing, the following servers are available:
Austria :
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.at.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(Use cvs login and enter any
password when prompted.)
France :
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.fr.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(pserver (password anoncvs
), ssh (no password))
Germany :
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(Use cvs login and enter the password
anoncvs
when prompted.)
Germany :
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs2.de.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(rsh, pserver, ssh, ssh/2022)
Japan :
:pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
(Use cvs login and enter the password
anoncvs
when prompted.)
-
USA :
anoncvs@anoncvs1.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (ssh only - no
password)
- SSH HostKey: 1024 4b:83:b6:c5:70:75:6c:5b:18:8e:3a:7a:88:a0:43:bb root@ender.liquidneon.com
-SSH2 HostKey: 1024 80:a7:87:fa:61:d9:25:5c:33:d5:48:51:aa:8f:b6:12 ssh_host_dsa_key.pub
+ SSH HostKey: 1024 8b:c4:6f:9a:7e:65:8a:eb:50:50:29:7c:a1:47:03:bc root@ender.liquidneon.com
+SSH2 HostKey: 2048 4d:59:19:7b:ea:9b:76:0b:ca:ee:da:26:e2:3a:83:b8 ssh_host_dsa_key.pub
Since CVS allows one to check out
virtually
any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in
some cases, will exist), you need to be
familiar with the revision (-r ) flag to
&man.cvs.1; and what some of the permissible values for it in
the FreeBSD Project repository are.
There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags.
A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays
the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand,
refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at
any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a
specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than
it means today.
contains revision tags that users
might be interested
in. Again, none of these are valid for the Ports Collection
since the Ports Collection does not have multiple
revisions.
When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the
latest versions of the files on that line of development. If
you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by
specifying a date with the -D date flag.
See the &man.cvs.1; manual page for more details.
Examples
While it really is recommended that you read the manual page
for &man.cvs.1; thoroughly before doing anything, here are some
quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous
CVS:
Checking Out Something from -CURRENT (&man.ls.1;):
&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs
.
&prompt.user; cvs co ls
Using SSH to check out the src/
tree:
&prompt.user; cvs -d freebsdanoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs co src
The authenticity of host 'anoncvs.freebsd.org (128.46.156.46)' can't be established.
DSA key fingerprint is 52:02:38:1a:2f:a8:71:d3:f5:83:93:8d:aa:00:6f:65.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Warning: Permanently added 'anoncvs.freebsd.org' (DSA) to the list of known hosts.
Checking Out the Version of &man.ls.1; in the 6-STABLE
Branch:
&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs
.
&prompt.user; cvs co -rRELENG_6 ls
Creating a List of Changes (as Unified Diffs) to &man.ls.1;
&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs
.
&prompt.user; cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_5_3_0_RELEASE -rRELENG_5_4_0_RELEASE ls
Finding Out What Other Module Names Can Be Used:
&prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.jp.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs
&prompt.user; cvs login
At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs
.
&prompt.user; cvs co modules
&prompt.user; more modules/modules
Other Resources
The following additional resources may be helpful in learning
CVS:
CVS Tutorial from Cal Poly.
- CVS Home ,
+ CVS Home ,
the CVS development and support community.
CVSweb is
the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS.
Using CTM
CTM
CTM is a method for keeping a
remote directory tree in sync with a central one. It has been
developed for usage with FreeBSD's source trees, though other
people may find it useful for other purposes as time goes by.
Little, if any, documentation currently exists at this time on the
process of creating deltas, so contact the &a.ctm-users.name; mailing list for more
information and if you wish to use CTM
for other things.
Why Should I Use CTM ?
CTM will give you a local copy of
the FreeBSD source trees. There are a number of
flavors
of the tree available. Whether you wish
to track the entire CVS tree or just one of the branches,
CTM can provide you the information.
If you are an active developer on FreeBSD, but have lousy or
non-existent TCP/IP connectivity, or simply wish to have the
changes automatically sent to you,
CTM was made for you. You will need
to obtain up to three deltas per day for the most active
branches. However, you should consider having them sent by
automatic email. The sizes of the updates are always kept as
small as possible. This is typically less than 5K, with an
occasional (one in ten) being 10-50K and every now and then a
large 100K+ or more coming around.
You will also need to make yourself aware of the various
caveats related to working directly from the development sources
rather than a pre-packaged release. This is particularly true
if you choose the current
sources. It is
recommended that you read Staying
current with FreeBSD.
What Do I Need to Use
CTM ?
You will need two things: The CTM
program, and the initial deltas to feed it (to get up to
current
levels).
The CTM program has been part of
FreeBSD ever since version 2.0 was released, and lives in
/usr/src/usr.sbin/ctm if you have a copy
of the source available.
The deltas
you feed
CTM can be had two ways, FTP or
email. If you have general FTP access to the Internet then the
following FTP sites support access to
CTM :
or see section mirrors.
FTP the relevant directory and fetch the
README file, starting from there.
If you wish to get your deltas via email:
Subscribe to one of the
CTM distribution lists.
&a.ctm-cvs-cur.name; supports the entire CVS tree.
&a.ctm-src-cur.name; supports the head of the development
branch. &a.ctm-src-4.name; supports the 4.X release
branch, etc.. (If you do not know how to subscribe yourself
to a list, click on the list name above or go to
&a.mailman.lists.link; and click on the list that you
wish to subscribe to. The list page should contain all of
the necessary subscription instructions.)
When you begin receiving your CTM
updates in the mail, you may use the
ctm_rmail program to unpack and apply them.
You can actually use the ctm_rmail program
directly from a entry in /etc/aliases if
you want to have the process run in a fully automated fashion.
Check the ctm_rmail manual page for more
details.
No matter what method you use to get the
CTM deltas, you should subscribe to
the &a.ctm-announce.name; mailing list. In
the future, this will be the only place where announcements
concerning the operations of the
CTM system will be posted. Click
on the list name above and follow the instructions
to subscribe to the
list.
Using CTM for the First
Time
Before you can start using CTM
deltas, you will need to get to a starting point for the deltas
produced subsequently to it.
First you should determine what you already have. Everyone
can start from an empty
directory. You must use
an initial Empty
delta to start off your
CTM supported tree. At some point it
is intended that one of these started
deltas be
distributed on the CD for your convenience, however, this does
not currently happen.
Since the trees are many tens of megabytes, you should
prefer to start from something already at hand. If you have a
-RELEASE CD, you can copy or extract an initial source from it.
This will save a significant transfer of data.
You can recognize these starter
deltas by the
X appended to the number
(src-cur.3210XEmpty.gz for instance). The
designation following the X corresponds to
the origin of your initial seed
.
Empty is an empty directory. As a rule a
base transition from Empty is produced
every 100 deltas. By the way, they are large! 70 to 80
Megabytes of gzip 'd data is common for the
XEmpty deltas.
Once you have picked a base delta to start from, you will also
need all deltas with higher numbers following it.
Using CTM in Your Daily
Life
To apply the deltas, simply say:
&prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/the/stuff
&prompt.root; ctm -v -v /where/you/store/your/deltas/src-xxx.*
CTM understands deltas which have
been put through gzip , so you do not need to
gunzip them first, this saves disk space.
Unless it feels very secure about the entire process,
CTM will not touch your tree. To
verify a delta you can also use the -c flag and
CTM will not actually touch your
tree; it will merely verify the integrity of the delta and see
if it would apply cleanly to your current tree.
There are other options to CTM
as well, see the manual pages or look in the sources for more
information.
That is really all there is to it. Every time you get a new
delta, just run it through CTM to
keep your sources up to date.
Do not remove the deltas if they are hard to download again.
You just might want to keep them around in case something bad
happens. Even if you only have floppy disks, consider using
fdwrite to make a copy.
Keeping Your Local Changes
As a developer one would like to experiment with and change
files in the source tree. CTM
supports local modifications in a limited way: before checking
for the presence of a file foo , it first
looks for foo.ctm . If this file exists,
CTM will operate on it instead of
foo .
This behavior gives us a simple way to maintain local
changes: simply copy the files you plan to modify to the
corresponding file names with a .ctm
suffix. Then you can freely hack the code, while CTM keeps the
.ctm file up-to-date.
Other Interesting CTM Options
Finding Out Exactly What Would Be Touched by an
Update
You can determine the list of changes that
CTM will make on your source
repository using the -l option to
CTM .
This is useful if you would like to keep logs of the
changes, pre- or post- process the modified files in any
manner, or just are feeling a tad paranoid.
Making Backups Before Updating
Sometimes you may want to backup all the files that would
be changed by a CTM update.
Specifying the -B backup-file option
causes CTM to backup all files that
would be touched by a given CTM
delta to backup-file .
Restricting the Files Touched by an Update
Sometimes you would be interested in restricting the scope
of a given CTM update, or may be
interested in extracting just a few files from a sequence of
deltas.
You can control the list of files that
CTM would operate on by specifying
filtering regular expressions using the -e
and -x options.
For example, to extract an up-to-date copy of
lib/libc/Makefile from your collection of
saved CTM deltas, run the commands:
&prompt.root; cd /where/ever/you/want/to/extract/it/
&prompt.root; ctm -e '^lib/libc/Makefile' ~ctm/src-xxx.*
For every file specified in a
CTM delta, the -e
and -x options are applied in the order given
on the command line. The file is processed by
CTM only if it is marked as
eligible after all the -e and
-x options are applied to it.
Future Plans for CTM
Tons of them:
Use some kind of authentication into the CTM system, so
as to allow detection of spoofed CTM updates.
Clean up the options to CTM ,
they became confusing and counter intuitive.
Miscellaneous Stuff
There is a sequence of deltas for the
ports collection too, but interest has not
been all that high yet.
CTM Mirrors
CTM/FreeBSD is available via anonymous
FTP from the following mirror sites. If you choose to obtain CTM via
anonymous FTP, please try to use a site near you.
In case of problems, please contact the &a.ctm-users.name;
mailing list.
California, Bay Area, official source
South Africa, backup server for old deltas
Taiwan/R.O.C.
If you did not find a mirror near to you or the mirror is
incomplete, try to use a search engine such as
alltheweb .
Using CVSup
Introduction
CVSup is a software package for
distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS
repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are
maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine
in California. With CVSup , FreeBSD
users can easily keep their own source trees up to date.
CVSup uses the so-called
pull model of updating. Under the pull
model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they
are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from
its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client.
The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either
run the CVSup client manually to get
an update, or they must set up a cron job to
run it automatically on a regular basis.
The term CVSup , capitalized just
so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components
are the client cvsup which runs on each
user's machine, and the server cvsupd which
runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites.
As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you
may see references to sup .
Sup was the predecessor of
CVSup , and it served a similar
purpose. CVSup is used much in the
same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are
backward-compatible with sup 's.
Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD
project, because CVSup is both faster
and more flexible.
Installation
The easiest way to install CVSup
is to use the precompiled net/cvsup package
from the FreeBSD packages collection.
If you prefer to build CVSup from
source, you can use the net/cvsup
port instead. But be forewarned: the
net/cvsup port depends on the Modula-3
system, which takes a substantial amount of time and
disk space to download and build.
If you are going to be using
CVSup on a machine which will not have
&xfree86; or &xorg; installed, such as a server, be
sure to use the port which does not include the
CVSup GUI ,
net/cvsup-without-gui .
CVSup Configuration
CVSup 's operation is controlled
by a configuration file called the supfile .
There are some sample supfiles in the
directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ .
The information in a supfile answers
the following questions for CVSup :
Which files do you
want to receive?
Which versions of them
do you want?
Where do you want to
get them from?
Where do you want to
put them on your own machine?
Where do you want to
put your status files?
In the following sections, we will construct a typical
supfile by answering each of these
questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of
a supfile .
A supfile is a text file. Comments
begin with # and extend to the end of the
line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only
comments are ignored.
Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user
wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a
collection
, a logical grouping of files defined by
the server. The name of the collection tells the server which
files you want. After the collection name come zero or more
fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the
questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag
fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword
standing alone, e.g., delete or
compress . A value field also begins with a
keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white
space by = and a second word. For example,
release=cvs is a value field.
A supfile typically specifies more than
one collection to receive. One way to structure a
supfile is to specify all of the relevant
fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to
make the supfile lines quite long, and it
is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the
collections in a supfile .
CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism
to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special
pseudo-collection name *default can be used
to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the
subsequent collections in the supfile . A
default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by
specifying a different value with the collection itself.
Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by
additional *default lines.
With this background, we will now proceed to construct a
supfile for receiving and updating the main
source tree of FreeBSD-CURRENT.
Which files do you want
to receive?
The files available via CVSup
are organized into named groups called
collections
. The collections that are
available are described in the following section. In this
example, we
wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD
system. There is a single large collection
src-all which will give us all of that.
As a first step toward constructing our
supfile , we
simply list the collections, one per line (in this case,
only one line):
src-all
Which version(s) of them
do you want?
With CVSup , you can receive
virtually any version of the sources that ever existed.
That is possible because the
cvsupd server works directly from
the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You
specify which one of them you want using the
tag= and date= value
fields.
Be very careful to specify any tag=
fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain
collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or
misspelled tag, CVSup
will delete files which you probably
do not want deleted. In particular, use only
tag=. for the
ports-* collections.
The tag= field names a symbolic tag
in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision
tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific
revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A
branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision
on a given line of development, at any given time. Because
a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may
mean something different tomorrow than it means
today.
contains branch tags that
users might be interested in. When specifying a tag in
CVSup 's configuration file, it
must be preceded with tag=
(RELENG_4 will become
tag=RELENG_4 ).
Keep in mind that only the tag=. is
relevant for the Ports Collection.
Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown.
CVSup cannot distinguish
between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag,
CVSup will behave as though you
had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no
files at all. It will delete your existing sources in
that case.
When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the
latest versions of the files on that line of development.
If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by
specifying a date with the date= value
field. The &man.cvsup.1; manual page explains how to do
that.
For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-CURRENT. We
add this line at the beginning of our
supfile :
*default tag=.
There is an important special case that comes into play
if you specify neither a tag= field nor a
date= field. In that case, you receive
the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS
repository, rather than receiving a particular version.
Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By
maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their
systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision
histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is
achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space,
however.
Where do you want to get
them from?
We use the host= field to tell
cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any
of the CVSup mirror
sites will do, though you should try to select one
that is close to you in cyberspace. In this example we will
use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site,
cvsup99.FreeBSD.org :
*default host=cvsup99.FreeBSD.org
You will need to change the host to one that actually
exists before running CVSup .
On any particular run of
cvsup , you can override the host setting
on the command line, with -h
hostname .
Where do you want to put
them on your own machine?
The prefix= field tells
cvsup where to put the files it receives.
In this example, we will put the source files directly into
our main source tree, /usr/src . The
src directory is already implicit in
the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the
correct specification:
*default prefix=/usr
Where should
cvsup maintain its status files?
The CVSup client maintains
certain status files in what
is called the base
directory. These files
help CVSup to work more
efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have
already received. We will use the standard base directory,
/var/db :
*default base=/var/db
If your base directory does not already exist, now would
be a good time to create it. The cvsup
client will refuse to run if the base directory does not
exist.
Miscellaneous supfile
settings:
There is one more line of boiler plate that normally
needs to be present in the
supfile :
*default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress
release=cvs indicates that the server
should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS
repository. This is virtually always the case, but there
are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this
discussion.
delete gives
CVSup permission to delete files.
You should always specify this, so that
CVSup can keep your source tree
fully up-to-date. CVSup is
careful to delete only those files for which it is
responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be
left strictly alone.
use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you
really want to know about it, see the &man.cvsup.1; manual
page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about
it.
compress enables the use of
gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If
your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should
not use compression. Otherwise, it helps
substantially.
Putting it all together:
Here is the entire supfile for our
example:
*default tag=.
*default host=cvsup99.FreeBSD.org
*default prefix=/usr
*default base=/var/db
*default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress
src-all
The refuse File
As mentioned above, CVSup uses
a pull method . Basically, this means that
you connect to the CVSup server, and
it says, Here is what you can download from
me...
, and your client responds OK, I will take
this, this, this, and this.
In the default
configuration, the CVSup client will
take every file associated with the collection and tag you
chose in the configuration file. However, this is not always
what you want, especially if you are synching the doc , ports , or
www trees — most people cannot read four or five
languages, and therefore they do not need to download the
language-specific files. If you are
CVSup ing the Ports Collection, you
can get around this by specifying each collection individually
(e.g., ports-astrology ,
ports-biology , etc instead of simply
saying ports-all ). However, since the doc
and www trees do not have language-specific collections, you
must use one of CVSup 's many nifty
features: the refuse file.
The refuse file essentially tells
CVSup that it should not take every
single file from a collection; in other words, it tells the
client to refuse certain files from the
server. The refuse file can be found (or, if you do not yet
have one, should be placed) in
base /sup/ .
base is defined in your supfile ;
our defined base is
/var/db ,
which means that by default the refuse file is
/var/db/sup/refuse .
The refuse file has a very simple format; it simply
contains the names of files or directories that you do not wish
to download. For example, if you cannot speak any languages other
than English and some German, and you do not feel the need to read
the German translation of documentation, you can put the following in your
refuse file:
doc/bn_*
doc/da_*
doc/de_*
doc/el_*
doc/es_*
doc/fr_*
doc/it_*
doc/ja_*
doc/nl_*
doc/no_*
doc/pl_*
doc/pt_*
doc/ru_*
doc/sr_*
doc/tr_*
doc/zh_*
and so forth for the other languages (you can find the
full list by browsing the FreeBSD
CVS repository ).
With this very useful feature, those users who are on
slow links or pay by the minute for their Internet connection
will be able to save valuable time as they will no longer need
to download files that they will never use. For more
information on refuse files and other neat
features of CVSup , please view its
manual page.
Running CVSup
You are now ready to try an update. The command line for
doing this is quite simple:
&prompt.root; cvsup supfile
where supfile
is of course the name of the supfile you have just created.
Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup
will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual
things. Press the go button, and watch it
run.
Since you are updating your actual
/usr/src tree in this example, you will
need to run the program as root so that
cvsup has the permissions it needs to update
your files. Having just created your configuration file, and
having never used this program before, that might
understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a
trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an
empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra
argument on the command line:
&prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/dest
&prompt.root; cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest
The directory you specify will be used as the destination
directory for all file updates.
CVSup will examine your usual files
in /usr/src , but it will not modify or
delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in
/var/tmp/dest/usr/src .
CVSup will also leave its base
directory status files untouched when run this way. The new
versions of those files will be written into the specified
directory. As long as you have read access to
/usr/src , you do not even need to be
root to perform this kind of trial run.
If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs,
you should add a couple of options to the command line when you
run cvsup :
&prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 supfile
The -g tells
CVSup not to use its GUI. This is
automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to
specify it.
The -L 2 tells
CVSup to print out the
details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three
levels of verbosity, from -L 0 to
-L 2 . The default is 0, which means total
silence except for error messages.
There are plenty of other options available. For a brief
list of them, type cvsup -H . For more
detailed descriptions, see the manual page.
Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you
can arrange for regular runs of CVSup
using &man.cron.8;.
Obviously, you should not let CVSup
use its GUI when running it from &man.cron.8;.
CVSup File Collections
The file collections available via
CVSup are organized hierarchically.
There are a few large collections, and they are divided into
smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is
equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The
hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by
the use of indentation in the list below.
The most commonly used collections are
src-all , and
ports-all . The other collections are used
only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and
some mirror sites may not carry all of them.
cvs-all release=cvs
The main FreeBSD CVS repository, including the
cryptography code.
distrib release=cvs
Files related to the distribution and mirroring
of FreeBSD.
doc-all release=cvs
Sources for the FreeBSD Handbook and other
documentation. This does not include files for
the FreeBSD web site.
ports-all release=cvs
The FreeBSD Ports Collection.
If you do not want to update the whole of
ports-all (the whole ports tree),
but use one of the subcollections listed below,
make sure that you always update
the ports-base subcollection!
Whenever something changes in the ports build
infrastructure represented by
ports-base , it is virtually certain
that those changes will be used by real
ports real soon. Thus, if you only update the
real
ports and they use some of the new
features, there is a very high chance that their build
will fail with some mysterious error message. The
very first thing to do in this
case is to make sure that your
ports-base subcollection is up to
date.
If you are going to be building your own local
copy of ports/INDEX , you
must accept
ports-all (the whole ports tree).
Building ports/INDEX with
a partial tree is not supported. See the
FAQ .
ports-accessibility
release=cvs
Software to help disabled users.
ports-arabic
release=cvs
Arabic language support.
ports-archivers
release=cvs
Archiving tools.
ports-astro
release=cvs
Astronomical ports.
ports-audio
release=cvs
Sound support.
ports-base
release=cvs
The Ports Collection build infrastructure -
various files located in the
Mk/ and
Tools/ subdirectories of
/usr/ports .
Please see the important
warning above: you should
always update this
subcollection, whenever you update any part of
the FreeBSD Ports Collection!
ports-benchmarks
release=cvs
Benchmarks.
ports-biology
release=cvs
Biology.
ports-cad
release=cvs
Computer aided design tools.
ports-chinese
release=cvs
Chinese language support.
ports-comms
release=cvs
Communication software.
ports-converters
release=cvs
character code converters.
ports-databases
release=cvs
Databases.
ports-deskutils
release=cvs
Things that used to be on the desktop
before computers were invented.
ports-devel
release=cvs
Development utilities.
ports-dns
release=cvs
DNS related software.
ports-editors
release=cvs
Editors.
ports-emulators
release=cvs
Emulators for other operating
systems.
ports-finance
release=cvs
Monetary, financial and related applications.
ports-ftp
release=cvs
FTP client and server utilities.
ports-games
release=cvs
Games.
ports-german
release=cvs
German language support.
ports-graphics
release=cvs
Graphics utilities.
ports-hebrew
release=cvs
Hebrew language support.
ports-hungarian
release=cvs
Hungarian language support.
ports-irc
release=cvs
Internet Relay Chat utilities.
ports-japanese
release=cvs
Japanese language support.
ports-java
release=cvs
&java; utilities.
ports-korean
release=cvs
Korean language support.
ports-lang
release=cvs
Programming languages.
ports-mail
release=cvs
Mail software.
ports-math
release=cvs
Numerical computation software.
ports-mbone
release=cvs
MBone applications.
ports-misc
release=cvs
Miscellaneous utilities.
ports-multimedia
release=cvs
Multimedia software.
ports-net
release=cvs
Networking software.
ports-net-im
release=cvs
Instant messaging software.
ports-net-mgmt
release=cvs
Network management software.
ports-net-p2p
release=cvs
Peer to peer networking.
ports-news
release=cvs
USENET news software.
ports-palm
release=cvs
Software support for Palm
series.
ports-polish
release=cvs
Polish language support.
ports-portuguese
release=cvs
Portuguese language support.
ports-print
release=cvs
Printing software.
ports-russian
release=cvs
Russian language support.
ports-science
release=cvs
Science.
ports-security
release=cvs
Security utilities.
ports-shells
release=cvs
Command line shells.
ports-sysutils
release=cvs
System utilities.
ports-textproc
release=cvs
text processing utilities (does not
include desktop publishing).
ports-ukrainian
release=cvs
Ukrainian language support.
ports-vietnamese
release=cvs
Vietnamese language support.
ports-www
release=cvs
Software related to the World Wide
Web.
ports-x11
release=cvs
Ports to support the X window
system.
ports-x11-clocks
release=cvs
X11 clocks.
ports-x11-fm
release=cvs
X11 file managers.
ports-x11-fonts
release=cvs
X11 fonts and font utilities.
ports-x11-toolkits
release=cvs
X11 toolkits.
ports-x11-servers
release=cvs
X11 servers.
ports-x11-themes
release=cvs
X11 themes.
ports-x11-wm
release=cvs
X11 window managers.
src-all release=cvs
The main FreeBSD sources, including the
cryptography code.
src-base
release=cvs
Miscellaneous files at the top of
/usr/src .
src-bin
release=cvs
User utilities that may be needed in
single-user mode
(/usr/src/bin ).
src-contrib
release=cvs
Utilities and libraries from outside the
FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified
(/usr/src/contrib ).
src-crypto release=cvs
Cryptography utilities and libraries from
outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively
unmodified
(/usr/src/crypto ).
src-eBones release=cvs
Kerberos and DES
(/usr/src/eBones ). Not
used in current releases of FreeBSD.
src-etc
release=cvs
System configuration files
(/usr/src/etc ).
src-games
release=cvs
Games
(/usr/src/games ).
src-gnu
release=cvs
Utilities covered by the GNU Public
License (/usr/src/gnu ).
src-include
release=cvs
Header files
(/usr/src/include ).
src-kerberos5
release=cvs
Kerberos5 security package
(/usr/src/kerberos5 ).
src-kerberosIV
release=cvs
KerberosIV security package
(/usr/src/kerberosIV ).
src-lib
release=cvs
Libraries
(/usr/src/lib ).
src-libexec
release=cvs
System programs normally executed by other
programs
(/usr/src/libexec ).
src-release
release=cvs
Files required to produce a FreeBSD
release
(/usr/src/release ).
src-sbin release=cvs
System utilities for single-user mode
(/usr/src/sbin ).
src-secure
release=cvs
Cryptographic libraries and commands
(/usr/src/secure ).
src-share
release=cvs
Files that can be shared across multiple
systems
(/usr/src/share ).
src-sys
release=cvs
The kernel
(/usr/src/sys ).
src-sys-crypto
release=cvs
Kernel cryptography code
(/usr/src/sys/crypto ).
src-tools
release=cvs
Various tools for the maintenance of
FreeBSD
(/usr/src/tools ).
src-usrbin
release=cvs
User utilities
(/usr/src/usr.bin ).
src-usrsbin
release=cvs
System utilities
(/usr/src/usr.sbin ).
www release=cvs
The sources for the FreeBSD WWW site.
distrib release=self
The CVSup server's own
configuration files. Used by CVSup
mirror sites.
gnats release=current
The GNATS bug-tracking database.
mail-archive release=current
FreeBSD mailing list archive.
www release=current
The pre-processed FreeBSD WWW site files (not the
source files). Used by WWW mirror sites.
For More Information
For the CVSup FAQ and other
information about CVSup , see
The
CVSup Home Page .
Most FreeBSD-related discussion of
CVSup takes place on the
&a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there,
as well as on the &a.announce;.
Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author
of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com .
CVSup Sites
CVSup servers for FreeBSD are running
at the following sites:
&chap.mirrors.cvsup.inc;
Using Portsnap
Introduction
Portsnap is a system for securely
distributing the &os; ports tree. Approximately once an hour,
a snapshot
of the ports tree is generated,
repackaged, and cryptographically signed. The resulting files
are then distributed via HTTP.
Like CVSup ,
Portsnap uses a
pull model of updating: The packaged and
signed ports trees are placed on a web server which waits
passively for clients to request files. Users must either run
&man.portsnap.8; manually to download updates
or set up a &man.cron.8; job to download updates
automatically on a regular basis.
For technical reasons, Portsnap
does not update the live
ports tree in
/usr/ports/ directly; instead, it works
via a compressed copy of the ports tree stored in
/var/db/portsnap/ by default. This
compressed copy is then used to update the live ports tree.
If Portsnap is installed from
the &os; Ports Collection, then the default location for its
compressed snapshot will be /usr/local/portsnap/
instead of /var/db/portsnap/ .
Installation
On &os; 6.0 and more recent versions,
Portsnap is contained in the &os;
base system. On older versions of &os;, it can be installed
using the sysutils/portsnap
port.
Portsnap Configuration
Portsnap 's operation is controlled
by the /etc/portsnap.conf configuration
file. For most users, the default configuration file will
suffice; for more details, consult the &man.portsnap.conf.5;
manual page.
If Portsnap is installed from
the &os; Ports Collection, it will use the configuration file
/usr/local/etc/portsnap.conf instead of
/etc/portsnap.conf . This configuration
file is not created when the port is installed, but a sample
configuration file is distributed; to copy it into place, run
the following command:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/local/etc && cp portsnap.conf.sample portsnap.conf
Running Portsnap for the First
Time
The first time &man.portsnap.8; is run,
it will need to download a compressed snapshot of the entire
ports tree into /var/db/portsnap/ (or
/usr/local/portsnap/ if
Portsnap was installed from the
- Ports Collection). This is approximately a 38 MB
+ Ports Collection). For the beginning of 2006 this is approximately a 41 MB
download.
&prompt.root; portsnap fetch
Once the compressed snapshot has been downloaded, a
live
copy of the ports tree can be extracted into
/usr/ports/ . This is necessary even if a
ports tree has already been created in that directory (e.g., by
using CVSup ), since it establishes a
baseline from which portsnap can
determine which parts of the ports tree need to be updated
later.
&prompt.root; portsnap extract
In the default installation
/usr/ports is not
- created. It should be created before
- portsnap is used.
+ created. If you run &os; 6.0-RELEASE, it should be created before
+ portsnap is used. On more recent
+ versions of &os; or Portsnap ,
+ this operation will be done automatically at first use
+ of the portsnap command.
Updating the Ports Tree
After an initial compressed snapshot of the ports tree has
been downloaded and extracted into /usr/ports/ ,
updating the ports tree consists of two steps:
fetch ing updates to the compressed
snapshot, and using them to update the
live ports tree. These two steps can be specified to
portsnap as a single command:
&prompt.root; portsnap fetch update
Some older versions of portsnap
do not support this syntax; if it fails, try instead the
following:
&prompt.root; portsnap fetch
&prompt.root; portsnap update
Running Portsnap from cron
In order to avoid problems with flash crowds
accessing the Portsnap servers,
portsnap fetch will not run from
a &man.cron.8; job. Instead, a special
portsnap cron command exists, which
waits for a random duration up to 3600 seconds before fetching
updates.
In addition, it is strongly recommended that
portsnap update not be run from a
cron job, since it is liable to cause
major problems if it happens to run at the same time as a port
is being built or installed. However, it is safe to update
- the ports INDEX files, and this can be done by passing the
+ the ports' INDEX files, and this can be done by passing the
-I flag to
portsnap . (Obviously, if
portsnap -I update is run from
cron , then it will be necessary to run
portsnap update without the -I
flag at a later time in order to update the rest of the tree.)
Adding the following line to /etc/crontab
will cause portsnap to update its
- compressed snapshot and the INDEX files in
+ compressed snapshot and the INDEX files in
/usr/ports/ , and will send an email if any
installed ports are out of date:
0 3 * * * root portsnap -I cron update && pkg_version -vIL=
If the system clock is not set to the local time zone,
please replace 3 with a random
value between 0 and 23, in order to spread the load on the
Portsnap servers more evenly.
Some older versions of portsnap
do not support listing multiple commands (e.g., cron update )
in the same invocation of portsnap . If
the line above fails, try replacing
portsnap -I cron update with
portsnap cron && portsnap -I update .
CVS Tags
When obtaining or updating sources using
cvs or
CVSup , a revision tag must be specified.
A revision tag refers to either a particular line of &os;
development, or a specific point in time. The first type are called
branch tags
, and the second type are called
release tags
.
Branch Tags
All of these, with the exception of HEAD (which
is always a valid tag), only apply to the src/
tree. The ports/ , doc/ , and
www/ trees are not branched.
HEAD
Symbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-CURRENT.
Also the default when no revision is specified.
In CVSup , this tag is represented
by a . (not punctuation, but a literal
. character).
In CVS, this is the default when no revision tag is
specified. It is usually not
a good idea to checkout or update to CURRENT sources
on a STABLE machine, unless that is your intent.
RELENG_6
The line of development for FreeBSD-6.X, also known
as FreeBSD 6-STABLE
+
+
+
+
+ RELENG_6_1
+
+
+ The release branch for FreeBSD-6.1, used only for
+ security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_6_0
The release branch for FreeBSD-6.0, used only for
security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_5
The line of development for FreeBSD-5.X, also known
as FreeBSD 5-STABLE.
RELENG_5_4
The release branch for FreeBSD-5.4, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_5_3
The release branch for FreeBSD-5.3, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_5_2
The release branch for FreeBSD-5.2 and FreeBSD-5.2.1, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_5_1
The release branch for FreeBSD-5.1, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_5_0
The release branch for FreeBSD-5.0, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4
The line of development for FreeBSD-4.X, also known
as FreeBSD 4-STABLE.
RELENG_4_11
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.11, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_10
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.10, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_9
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.9, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_8
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.8, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_7
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.7, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_6
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.6 and FreeBSD-4.6.2,
used only for security advisories and other
critical fixes.
RELENG_4_5
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.5, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_4
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.4, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_4_3
The release branch for FreeBSD-4.3, used only
for security advisories and other critical fixes.
RELENG_3
The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known
as 3.X-STABLE.
RELENG_2_2
The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known
as 2.2-STABLE. This branch is mostly obsolete.
Release Tags
These tags refer to a specific point in time when a particular
version of &os; was released. The release engineering process is
documented in more detail by the
Release Engineering
Information and
Release
Process documents.
The src tree uses tag names that
start with RELENG_ tags.
The ports and
doc trees use tags whose names
begin with RELEASE tags.
Finally, the www tree is not
tagged with any special name for releases.
RELENG_6_0_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 6.0
RELENG_5_4_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 5.4
RELENG_4_11_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.11
RELENG_5_3_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 5.3
RELENG_4_10_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.10
RELENG_5_2_1_RELEASE
FreeBSD 5.2.1
RELENG_5_2_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 5.2
RELENG_4_9_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.9
RELENG_5_1_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 5.1
RELENG_4_8_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.8
RELENG_5_0_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 5.0
RELENG_4_7_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.7
RELENG_4_6_2_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.6.2
RELENG_4_6_1_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.6.1
RELENG_4_6_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.6
RELENG_4_5_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.5
RELENG_4_4_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.4
RELENG_4_3_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.3
RELENG_4_2_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.2
RELENG_4_1_1_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.1.1
RELENG_4_1_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.1
RELENG_4_0_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD 4.0
RELENG_3_5_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-3.5
RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-3.4
RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-3.3
RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-3.2
RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-3.1
RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-3.0
RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.8
RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.7
RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.6
RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.5
RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.2
RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.1
RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE
FreeBSD-2.2.0
AFS Sites
AFS servers for FreeBSD are running at the following sites:
Sweden
The path to the files are:
/afs/stacken.kth.se/ftp/pub/FreeBSD/
stacken.kth.se # Stacken Computer Club, KTH, Sweden
130.237.234.43 #hot.stacken.kth.se
130.237.237.230 #fishburger.stacken.kth.se
130.237.234.3 #milko.stacken.kth.se
Maintainer ftp@stacken.kth.se
rsync Sites
The following sites make FreeBSD available through the rsync
protocol. The rsync utility works in
much the same way as the &man.rcp.1; command,
but has more options and uses the rsync remote-update protocol
which transfers only the differences between two sets of files,
thus greatly speeding up the synchronization over the network.
This is most useful if you are a mirror site for the
FreeBSD FTP server, or the CVS repository. The
rsync suite is available for many
operating systems, on FreeBSD, see the
net/rsync
port or use the package.
Czech Republic
rsync://ftp.cz.FreeBSD.org/
Available collections:
ftp: A partial mirror of the FreeBSD FTP
server.
FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP
server.
Germany
rsync://grappa.unix-ag.uni-kl.de/
Available collections:
freebsd-cvs: The full FreeBSD CVS
repository.
This machine also mirrors the CVS repositories of the
NetBSD and the OpenBSD projects, among others.
Netherlands
rsync://ftp.nl.FreeBSD.org/
Available collections:
vol/4/freebsd-core: A full mirror of the
FreeBSD FTP server.
United Kingdom
rsync://rsync.mirror.ac.uk/
Available collections:
ftp.FreeBSD.org: A full mirror of the
FreeBSD FTP server.
United States of America
rsync://ftp-master.FreeBSD.org/
This server may only be used by FreeBSD primary mirror
sites.
Available collections:
FreeBSD: The master archive of the FreeBSD
FTP server.
acl: The FreeBSD master ACL
list.
rsync://ftp13.FreeBSD.org/
Available collections:
FreeBSD: A full mirror of the FreeBSD FTP
server.
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml
index 689de84000..cdd803f47f 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/multimedia/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1842 +1,1833 @@
Ross
Lippert
Edited by
¦h´CÅé¼vµ®T¼Ö(Multimedia)
·§z
FreeBSD ¼sªx¦a¤ä´©¦UºØµ®Ä¥d¡A Åý±z¥i¥H¨É¨ü¨Ó¦Û¹q¸£¤Wªº°ª¶Ç¯uµ½è(Hi-Fi)¡A
¦¹¥~ÁÙ¥]¬A¤F¿ý»s©M¼½©ñ MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3)¡B WAV¡B ¥H¤Î Ogg Vorbis
µ¥³\¦hºØ®æ¦¡Ánµªº¯à¤O¡C¦P®É FreeBSD Ports Collection ¤]¥]¬A¤F³\¦hªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¡A
Åý±z¥i¥H¿ýµ¡B½s×µ®Ä¥H¤Î±±¨î MIDI °t³Æ¡C
n¬O³ßÅw°Ê¤â¹Á¸Õ¤£¦PªºÅéÅç¡A FreeBSD ¤]¯à¼½©ñ¤@¯ëªºµø°TÀÉ©M DVD¡C
½s½X¡BÂà´«©M¼½©ñµø°Tªºµ{¦¡¤ñ°_³B²zÁnµªºµ{¦¡²¤¤Ö¤@¨Ç¡C¨Ò¦p¡A ¦b¼¶¼g³o³¹®É¡A
FreeBSD Ports Collection ¤¤ÁÙ¨S¦³Ãþ¦ü audio/sox ¨º¼Ë¦n¥Îªº½s½X¤u¨ã¡A¯à°÷¥Î¨ÓÂà´«¤£¦Pªº®æ¦¡¡C
¤£¹L¡A³oÓ»â°ìªº³nÅé¬ãµo¶i®i¬O¬Û·í¨³³tªº¡C
¥»³¹±N¤¶²Ð³]©wµ®Ä¥dªº¥²n¨BÆJ¡C¥ý«e¤¶²Ð¨ìªº X11
() ¦w¸Ë©M³]©w¸Ì¡A¤w¸gÁ¿¨ì¤FÅã¥Ü¥dªº³¡¥÷¡A
¦ýn·Q¦³§ó¦nªº¼½©ñ®ÄªG¡A ¤´»Ýn¤@¨Ç²Ó³¡½Õ¾ã¡C
Ū§¹³o³¹¡A±z±N¤F¸Ñ¡G
¦p¦ó³]©w¨t²Î¡A¥H¥¿½TÃѧOµ®Ä¥d¡C
Methods to test that your card is working using
sample applications.
¦p¦ó¸Ñ¨Mµ®Ä¥dªº³]©w°ÝÃD¡C
How to playback and encode MP3s and other audio.
How video is supported by the X server.
Some video player/encoder ports which give good results.
¦p¦ó¼½©ñ DVD ªº .mpg ¤Î
.avi ÀÉ
¦p¦ó±q CD ©M DVD ¤¤Â^¨ú(rip)ÀɮסC
¦p¦ó³]©w¹qµø¥d
¦p¦ó³]©w±½´y¾¹
¦b¾\Ū³o³¹¤§«e¡A±zÀ³·í¤F¸Ñ¡G
ª¾¹D¦p¦ó³]©w¡B¦w¸Ë·sªº kernel ()¡C
Trying to mount audio CDs
with the &man.mount.8; command will
result in an error, at least, and a kernel
panic , at worst. These media have specialized
encodings which differ from the usual ISO-filesystem.
Moses
Moore
Contributed by
Marc
Fonvieille
Enhanced for &os; 5.X by
³]©wµ®Ä¥d
Configuring the System
PCI
ISA
sound cards
Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you
have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card.
FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards.
Check the supported audio devices list of the Hardware Notes to see if
your card is supported. This document will also mention which
driver supports your card.
kernel
configuration
To use your sound device, you will need to load the proper
device driver. This may be accomplished in one of two ways.
The easiest way is to simply load a kernel module for your sound
card with &man.kldload.8; which can either be done from the
command line:
&prompt.root; kldload snd_emu10k1
or by adding the appropriate line to the file
/boot/loader.conf like this:
snd_emu10k1_load="YES"
These examples are for a Creative &soundblaster; Live! sound
card. Other available loadable sound modules are listed in
/boot/defaults/loader.conf .
If you are not sure which driver to use, you may try to load
the snd_driver module:
&prompt.root; kldload snd_driver
This is a metadriver loading the most common device drivers
at once. This speeds up the search for the correct driver. It
is also possible to load all sound drivers via the
/boot/loader.conf facility.
If you wish to find out the driver selected for your
soundcard after loading the snd_driver
metadriver, you may check the /dev/sndstat
file with the cat /dev/sndstat
command.
Under &os; 4.X, to load all sound drivers, you have
to load the snd module instead of
snd_driver .
A second method is to statically
compile in support for your sound card in your kernel. The
section below provides the information you need to add support
for your hardware in this manner. For more information about
recompiling your kernel, please see .
Configuring a Custom Kernel with Sound Support
The first thing to do is adding the generic audio driver
&man.sound.4; to the kernel, for that you will need to
add the following line to the kernel configuration file:
device sound
Under &os; 4.X, you would use the following
line:
device pcm
Then we have to add the support for our sound card.
Therefore, we need to know which driver supports the card.
Check the supported audio devices list of the Hardware Notes , to
determine the correct driver for your sound card. For
example, a Creative &soundblaster; Live! sound card is
supported by the &man.snd.emu10k1.4; driver. To add the support
for this card, use the following:
device snd_emu10k1
Be sure to read the manual page of the driver for the
syntax to use. Information regarding the syntax of sound
drivers in the kernel configuration can also be found in the
/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES file
(/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT for
&os; 4.X).
Non-PnP ISA cards may require you to provide the kernel
with information on the sound card settings (IRQ, I/O port,
etc). This is done via the
/boot/device.hints file. At system boot,
the &man.loader.8; will read this file and pass the settings
to the kernel. For example, an old
Creative &soundblaster; 16 ISA non-PnP card will use the
&man.snd.sbc.4; driver in conjunction with snd_sb16(4). For this card the following lines have to be added to
the kernel configuration file:
device snd_sbc
device snd_sb16
as well as the following in
/boot/device.hints :
hint.sbc.0.at="isa"
hint.sbc.0.port="0x220"
hint.sbc.0.irq="5"
hint.sbc.0.drq="1"
hint.sbc.0.flags="0x15"
In this case, the card uses the 0x220
I/O port and the IRQ 5 .
The syntax used in the
/boot/device.hints file is covered in the
sound driver manual page. On &os; 4.X, these settings
are directly written in the kernel configuration file. In the
case of our ISA card, we would only use this line:
device sbc0 at isa? port 0x220 irq 5 drq 1 flags 0x15
The settings shown above are the defaults. In some
cases, you may need to change the IRQ or the other settings to
match your card. See the &man.snd.sbc.4; manual page for more
information.
Under &os; 4.X, some systems with built-in
motherboard sound devices may require the following option in
the kernel configuration:
options PNPBIOS
Testing the Sound Card
After rebooting with the modified kernel, or after loading
the required module, the sound card should appear in your system
message buffer (&man.dmesg.8;) as something like:
pcm0: <Intel ICH3 (82801CA)> port 0xdc80-0xdcbf,0xd800-0xd8ff irq 5 at device 31.5 on pci0
pcm0: [GIANT-LOCKED]
pcm0: <Cirrus Logic CS4205 AC97 Codec>
The status of the sound card may be checked via the
/dev/sndstat file:
&prompt.root; cat /dev/sndstat
FreeBSD Audio Driver (newpcm)
Installed devices:
pcm0: <Intel ICH3 (82801CA)> at io 0xd800, 0xdc80 irq 5 bufsz 16384
kld snd_ich (1p/2r/0v channels duplex default)
The output from your system may vary. If no
pcm devices show up, go back and review
what was done earlier. Go through your kernel
configuration file again and make sure the correct
device is chosen. Common problems are listed in .
If all goes well, you should now have a functioning sound
card. If your CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive is properly coupled to
your sound card, you can put a CD in the drive and play it
with &man.cdcontrol.1;:
&prompt.user; cdcontrol -f /dev/acd0 play 1
Various applications, such as audio/workman can provide a friendlier
interface. You may want to install an application such as
audio/mpg123 to listen to
MP3 audio files. A quick way to test the card is sending data
to the /dev/dsp , like this:
&prompt.user; cat filename > /dev/dsp
where filename can be any file.
This command line should produce some noise, confirming the
sound card is actually working.
&os; 4.X users need to create the sound card device
nodes before being able to use it. If the card showed up in
message buffer as pcm0 , you will have
to run the following as root :
&prompt.root; cd /dev
&prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0
If the card detection returned pcm1 ,
follow the same steps as shown above, replacing
snd0 with
snd1 .
MAKEDEV will create a group of device
nodes that will be used by the different sound related
applications.
Sound card mixer levels can be changed via the &man.mixer.8;
command. More details can be found in the &man.mixer.8; manual
page.
Common Problems
device nodes
I/O port
IRQ
DSP
Error
Solution
unsupported subdevice XX
One or more of the device nodes was not created
correctly. Repeat the steps above.
sb_dspwr(XX) timed out
The I/O port is not set correctly.
bad irq XX
The IRQ is set incorrectly. Make sure that
the set IRQ and the sound IRQ are the same.
xxx: gus pcm not attached, out of memory
There is not enough available memory to use
the device.
xxx: can't open /dev/dsp!
Check with fstat | grep dsp
if another application is holding the device open.
Noteworthy troublemakers are esound and KDE 's sound
support.
Munish
Chopra
Contributed by
Utilizing Multiple Sound Sources
It is often desirable to have multiple sources of sound that
are able to play simultaneously, such as when
esound or
artsd do not support sharing of the
sound device with a certain application.
FreeBSD lets you do this through Virtual Sound
Channels , which can be set with the &man.sysctl.8;
facility. Virtual channels allow you to multiplex your sound
card's playback channels by mixing sound in the kernel.
To set the number of virtual channels, there are two sysctl
knobs which, if you are the root user, can
be set like this:
&prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.pcm0.vchans=4
&prompt.root; sysctl hw.snd.maxautovchans=4
The above example allocates four virtual channels, which is a
practical number for everyday use. hw.snd.pcm0.vchans
is the number of virtual channels pcm0 has, and is configurable
once a device has been attached.
hw.snd.maxautovchans is the number of virtual channels
a new audio device is given when it is attached using
&man.kldload.8;. Since the pcm module
can be loaded independently of the hardware drivers,
hw.snd.maxautovchans can store how many
virtual channels any devices which are attached later will be
given.
You cannot change the number of virtual channels for a
device while it is in use. First close any programs using the
device, such as music players or sound daemons.
If you are not using &man.devfs.5;, you will have to point
your applications at
/dev/dsp0 .x ,
where x is 0 to 3 if
hw.snd.pcm.0.vchans is set to 4 as in the
above example. On a system using &man.devfs.5;, the above will
automatically be allocated transparently to the user.
Josef
El-Rayes
Contributed by
³]©w¹w³](Mixer Channel)ªºµ¶q¤j¤p
¥»¥\¯à¥u¦³¦b &os; 5.3-RELEASE ¤Î¤§«áª©¥»¤~¦³¤ä´©¡C
The default values for the different mixer channels are
hardcoded in the sourcecode of the &man.pcm.4; driver. There are
a lot of different applications and daemons that allow
you to set values for the mixer they remember and set
each time they are started, but this is not a clean
solution, we want to have default values at the driver
level. This is accomplished by defining the appropriate
values in /boot/device.hints . E.g.:
hint.pcm.0.vol="100"
This will set the volume channel to a default value of
100, when the &man.pcm.4; module is loaded.
Chern
Lee
Contributed by
MP3 µ¼Ö
MP3 (MPEG Layer 3 Audio) accomplishes near CD-quality sound,
leaving no reason to let your FreeBSD workstation fall short of
its offerings.
MP3 Players
By far, the most popular X11 MP3 player is
XMMS (X Multimedia System).
Winamp
skins can be used with XMMS since the
GUI is almost identical to that of Nullsoft's
Winamp .
XMMS also has native plug-in
support.
XMMS can be installed from the
multimedia/xmms port or package.
XMMS' interface is intuitive,
with a playlist, graphic equalizer, and more. Those familiar
with Winamp will find
XMMS simple to use.
The audio/mpg123 port is an alternative,
command-line MP3 player.
mpg123 can be run by specifying
the sound device and the MP3 file on the command line, as
shown below:
&prompt.root; mpg123 -a /dev/dsp1.0 Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3
High Performance MPEG 1.0/2.0/2.5 Audio Player for Layer 1, 2 and 3.
Version 0.59r (1999/Jun/15). Written and copyrights by Michael Hipp.
Uses code from various people. See 'README' for more!
THIS SOFTWARE COMES WITH ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY! USE AT YOUR OWN RISK!
Playing MPEG stream from Foobar-GreatestHits.mp3 ...
MPEG 1.0 layer III, 128 kbit/s, 44100 Hz joint-stereo
/dev/dsp1.0 should be replaced with the
dsp device entry on your system.
Ripping CD Audio Tracks
Before encoding a CD or CD track to MP3, the audio data on
the CD must be ripped onto the hard drive. This is done by
copying the raw CDDA (CD Digital Audio) data to WAV
files.
The cdda2wav tool, which is a part of
the sysutils/cdrtools
suite, is used for ripping audio information from CDs and the
information associated with them.
With the audio CD in the drive, the following command can
be issued (as root ) to rip an entire CD
into individual (per track) WAV files:
&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -B
cdda2wav will support
ATAPI (IDE) CDROM drives. To rip from an IDE drive, specify
the device name in place of the SCSI unit numbers. For
example, to rip track 7 from an IDE drive:
&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D /dev/acd0a -t 7
The -D 0,1,0
indicates the SCSI device 0,1,0 ,
which corresponds to the output of cdrecord
-scanbus .
To rip individual tracks, make use of the
-t option as shown:
&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 7
This example rips track seven of the audio CDROM. To rip
a range of tracks, for example, track one to seven, specify a
range:
&prompt.root; cdda2wav -D 0,1,0 -t 1+7
The utility &man.dd.1; can also be used to extract audio tracks
on ATAPI drives, read
for more information on that possibility.
Encoding MP3s
Nowadays, the mp3 encoder of choice is
lame .
Lame can be found at
audio/lame in the ports tree.
Using the ripped WAV files, the following command will
convert audio01.wav to
audio01.mp3 :
&prompt.root; lame -h -b 128 \
--tt "Foo Song Title " \
--ta "FooBar Artist " \
--tl "FooBar Album " \
--ty "2001 " \
--tc "Ripped and encoded by Foo " \
--tg "Genre " \
audio01.wav audio01.mp3
128 kbits seems to be the standard MP3 bitrate in use.
Many enjoy the higher quality 160, or 192. The higher the
bitrate, the more disk space the resulting MP3 will
consume--but the quality will be higher. The
-h option turns on the higher quality
but a little slower
mode. The options beginning with
--t indicate ID3 tags, which usually contain
song information, to be embedded within the MP3 file.
Additional encoding options can be found by consulting the
lame man page.
Decoding MP3s
In order to burn an audio CD from MP3s, they must be
converted to a non-compressed WAV format. Both
XMMS and
mpg123 support the output of MP3 to
an uncompressed file format.
Writing to Disk in XMMS :
Launch XMMS .
Right-click on the window to bring up the
XMMS menu.
Select Preference under
Options .
Change the Output Plugin to Disk Writer
Plugin
.
Press Configure .
Enter (or choose browse) a directory to write the
uncompressed files to.
Load the MP3 file into XMMS
as usual, with volume at 100% and EQ settings turned
off.
Press Play —
XMMS will appear as if it is
playing the MP3, but no music will be heard. It is
actually playing the MP3 to a file.
Be sure to set the default Output Plugin back to what
it was before in order to listen to MP3s again.
Writing to stdout in mpg123 :
Run mpg123 -s audio01.mp3
> audio01.pcm
XMMS writes a file in the WAV
format, while mpg123 converts the
MP3 into raw PCM audio data. Both of these formats can be
used with cdrecord to create audio CDs.
You have to use raw PCM with &man.burncd.8;.
If you use WAV files, you will notice a small tick sound at the
beginning of each track, this sound is the header of the WAV
file. You can simply remove the header of a WAV file with the
utility SoX (it can be installed from
the audio/sox port or
package):
&prompt.user; sox -t wav -r 44100 -s -w -c 2 track.wav track.raw
Read for more information on using a
CD burner in FreeBSD.
Ross
Lippert
Contributed by
¼½©ñ¼v¤ù
Video playback is a very new and rapidly developing application
area. Be patient. Not everything is going to work as smoothly as
it did with sound.
Before you begin, you should know the model of the video
card you have and the chip it uses. While &xorg; and &xfree86; support a
wide variety of video cards, fewer give good playback
performance. To obtain a list of extensions supported by the
X server using your card use the command &man.xdpyinfo.1; while
X11 is running.
It is a good idea to have a short MPEG file which can be
treated as a test file for evaluating various players and
options. Since some DVD players will look for DVD media in
/dev/dvd by default, or have this device
name hardcoded in them, you might find it useful to make
symbolic links to the proper devices:
&prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0c /dev/dvd
&prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/racd0c /dev/rdvd
On FreeBSD 5.X, which uses &man.devfs.5; there
is a slightly different set of recommended links:
&prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0 /dev/dvd
&prompt.root; ln -sf /dev/acd0 /dev/rdvd
Note that due to the nature of &man.devfs.5;,
manually created links like these will not persist if you reboot
your system. In order to create the symbolic links
automatically whenever you boot your system, add the following
lines to /etc/devfs.conf :
link acd0 dvd
link acd0 rdvd
Additionally, DVD decryption, which requires invoking
special DVD-ROM functions, requires write permission on the DVD
devices.
kernel options
CPU_ENABLE_SSE
kernel options
USER_LDT
Some of the ports discussed rely on the following kernel
options to build correctly. Before attempting to build, add
this option to the kernel configuration file, build a new kernel, and reboot:
options CPU_ENABLE_SSE
On &os; 4.X options USER_LDT should
be added to the kernel configuration file. This option is not
available on &os; 5.X and later version.
To enhance the shared memory X11 interface, it is
recommended that the values of some &man.sysctl.8; variables
should be increased:
kern.ipc.shmmax=67108864
kern.ipc.shmall=32768
Determining Video Capabilities
XVideo
SDL
DGA
There are several possible ways to display video under X11.
What will really work is largely hardware dependent. Each
method described below will have varying quality across
different hardware. Secondly, the rendering of video in X11 is
a topic receiving a lot of attention lately, and with each
version of &xorg; , or of &xfree86; , there may be significant improvement.
A list of common video interfaces:
X11: normal X11 output using shared memory.
XVideo: an extension to the X11
interface which supports video in any X11 drawable.
SDL: the Simple Directmedia Layer.
DGA: the Direct Graphics Access.
SVGAlib: low level console graphics layer.
XVideo
&xorg; and &xfree86; 4.X have an extension called
XVideo (aka Xvideo, aka Xv, aka xv) which
allows video to be directly displayed in drawable objects
through a special acceleration. This extension provides very
good quality playback even on low-end machines.
To check whether the extension is running,
use xvinfo :
&prompt.user; xvinfo
XVideo is supported for your card if the result looks like:
X-Video Extension version 2.2
screen #0
Adaptor #0: "Savage Streams Engine"
number of ports: 1
port base: 43
operations supported: PutImage
supported visuals:
depth 16, visualID 0x22
depth 16, visualID 0x23
number of attributes: 5
"XV_COLORKEY" (range 0 to 16777215)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 2110)
"XV_BRIGHTNESS" (range -128 to 127)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
"XV_CONTRAST" (range 0 to 255)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
"XV_SATURATION" (range 0 to 255)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 128)
"XV_HUE" (range -180 to 180)
client settable attribute
client gettable attribute (current value is 0)
maximum XvImage size: 1024 x 1024
Number of image formats: 7
id: 0x32595559 (YUY2)
guid: 59555932-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 16
number of planes: 1
type: YUV (packed)
id: 0x32315659 (YV12)
guid: 59563132-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 12
number of planes: 3
type: YUV (planar)
id: 0x30323449 (I420)
guid: 49343230-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 12
number of planes: 3
type: YUV (planar)
id: 0x36315652 (RV16)
guid: 52563135-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
bits per pixel: 16
number of planes: 1
type: RGB (packed)
depth: 0
red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x3e0, 0x7c00
id: 0x35315652 (RV15)
guid: 52563136-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
bits per pixel: 16
number of planes: 1
type: RGB (packed)
depth: 0
red, green, blue masks: 0x1f, 0x7e0, 0xf800
id: 0x31313259 (Y211)
guid: 59323131-0000-0010-8000-00aa00389b71
bits per pixel: 6
number of planes: 3
type: YUV (packed)
id: 0x0
guid: 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000
bits per pixel: 0
number of planes: 0
type: RGB (packed)
depth: 1
red, green, blue masks: 0x0, 0x0, 0x0
Also note that the formats listed (YUV2, YUV12, etc) are not
present with every implementation of XVideo and their absence may
hinder some players.
If the result looks like:
X-Video Extension version 2.2
screen #0
no adaptors present
Then XVideo is probably not supported for your card.
If XVideo is not supported for your card, this only means
that it will be more difficult for your display to meet the
computational demands of rendering video. Depending on your
video card and processor, though, you might still be able to
have a satisfying experience. You should probably read about
ways of improving performance in the advanced reading .
Simple Directmedia Layer
The Simple Directmedia Layer, SDL, was intended to be a
porting layer between µsoft.windows;, BeOS, and &unix;,
allowing cross-platform applications to be developed which made
efficient use of sound and graphics. The SDL layer provides a
low-level abstraction to the hardware which can sometimes be
more efficient than the X11 interface.
The SDL can be found at devel/sdl12 .
Direct Graphics Access
Direct Graphics Access is an X11 extension which allows
a program to bypass the X server and directly alter the
framebuffer. Because it relies on a low level memory mapping to
effect this sharing, programs using it must be run as
root .
The DGA extension can be tested and benchmarked by
&man.dga.1;. When dga is running, it
changes the colors of the display whenever a key is pressed. To
quit, use q .
Ports and Packages Dealing with Video
video ports
video packages
This section discusses the software available from the
FreeBSD Ports Collection which can be used for video playback.
Video playback is a very active area of software development,
and the capabilities of various applications are bound to
diverge somewhat from the descriptions given here.
Firstly, it is important to know that many of the video
applications which run on FreeBSD were developed as Linux
applications. Many of these applications are still
beta-quality. Some of the problems that you may encounter with
video packages on FreeBSD include:
An application cannot playback a file which another
application produced.
An application cannot playback a file which the
application itself produced.
The same application on two different machines,
rebuilt on each machine for that machine, plays back the same
file differently.
A seemingly trivial filter like rescaling of the image
size results in very bad artifacts from a buggy rescaling
routine.
An application frequently dumps core.
Documentation is not installed with the port and can be
found either on the web or under the port's work
directory.
Many of these applications may also exhibit
Linux-isms
. That is, there may be
issues resulting from the way some standard libraries are
implemented in the Linux distributions, or some features of the
Linux kernel which have been assumed by the authors of the
applications. These issues are not always noticed and worked around
by the port maintainers, which can lead to problems like
these:
The use of /proc/cpuinfo to detect
processor characteristics.
A misuse of threads which causes a program to hang upon
completion instead of truly terminating.
Software not yet in the FreeBSD Ports Collection
which is commonly used in conjunction with the application.
So far, these application developers have been cooperative with
port maintainers to minimize the work-arounds needed for
port-ing.
MPlayer
MPlayer is a recently developed and rapidly developing
video player. The goals of the MPlayer team are speed and
flexibility on Linux and other Unices. The project was
started when the team founder got fed up with bad playback
performance on then available players. Some would say that
the graphical interface has been sacrificed for a streamlined
design. However, once
you get used to the command line options and the key-stroke
controls, it works very well.
Building MPlayer
MPlayer
making
MPlayer resides in multimedia/mplayer .
MPlayer performs a variety of
hardware checks during the build process, resulting in a
binary which will not be portable from one system to
another. Therefore, it is important to build it from
ports and not to use a binary package. Additionally, a
number of options can be specified in the make
command line, as described in the Makefile and at the start of the build:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer
&prompt.root; make
N - O - T - E
Take a careful look into the Makefile in order
to learn how to tune mplayer towards you personal preferences!
For example,
make WITH_GTK1
builds MPlayer with GTK1-GUI support.
If you want to use the GUI, you can either install
/usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer-skins
or download official skin collections from
http://www.mplayerhq.hu/homepage/dload.html
The default port options should be sufficient for most
users. However, if you need the XviD codec, you have to
specify the WITH_XVID option in the
command line. The default DVD device can also be defined
with the WITH_DVD_DEVICE option, by
default /dev/acd0 will be used.
As of this writing, the MPlayer port will build its HTML
documentation and two executables,
mplayer , and
mencoder , which is a tool for
re-encoding video.
The HTML documentation for MPlayer is very informative.
If the reader finds the information on video hardware and
interfaces in this chapter lacking, the MPlayer documentation
is a very thorough supplement. You should definitely take
the time to read the MPlayer
documentation if you are looking for information about video
support in &unix;.
Using MPlayer
MPlayer
use
Any user of MPlayer must set up a
.mplayer subdirectory of her
home directory. To create this necessary subdirectory,
you can type the following:
&prompt.user; cd /usr/ports/multimedia/mplayer
&prompt.user; make install-user
The command options for mplayer are
listed in the manual page. For even more detail there is HTML
documentation. In this section, we will describe only a few
common uses.
To play a file, such as
testfile.avi ,
through one of the various video interfaces set the
-vo option:
&prompt.user; mplayer -vo xv testfile.avi
&prompt.user; mplayer -vo sdl testfile.avi
&prompt.user; mplayer -vo x11 testfile.avi
&prompt.root; mplayer -vo dga testfile.avi
&prompt.root; mplayer -vo 'sdl:dga' testfile.avi
It is worth trying all of these options, as their relative
performance depends on many factors and will vary significantly
with hardware.
To play from a DVD, replace the
testfile.avi with dvd://N -dvd-device
DEVICE where N is
the title number to play and
DEVICE is the
device node for the DVD-ROM. For example, to play title 3
from /dev/dvd :
&prompt.root; mplayer -vo xv dvd://3 -dvd-device /dev/dvd
The default DVD device can be defined during the build
of the MPlayer port via the
WITH_DVD_DEVICE option. By default,
this device is /dev/acd0 . More
details can be found in the port
Makefile .
To stop, pause, advance and so on, consult the
keybindings, which are output by running mplayer
-h or read the manual page.
Additional important options for playback are:
-fs -zoom which engages the fullscreen mode
and -framedrop which helps performance.
In order for the mplayer command line to not become too
large, the user can create a file
.mplayer/config and set default options
there:
vo=xv
fs=yes
zoom=yes
Finally, mplayer can be used to rip a
DVD title into a .vob file. To dump
out the second title from a DVD, type this:
&prompt.root; mplayer -dumpstream -dumpfile out.vob dvd://2 -dvd-device /dev/dvd
The output file, out.vob , will be
MPEG and can be manipulated by the other packages described
in this section.
mencoder
mencoder
Before using
mencoder it is a good idea to
familiarize yourself with the options from the HTML
documentation. There is a manual page, but it is not very
useful without the HTML documentation. There are innumerable ways to
improve quality, lower bitrate, and change formats, and some
of these tricks may make the difference between good
or bad performance. Here are a couple of examples to get
you going. First a simple copy:
&prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac copy -ovc copy -o output.avi
Improper combinations of command line options can yield
output files that are
unplayable even by mplayer . Thus, if you
just want to rip to a file, stick to the -dumpfile
in mplayer .
To convert input.avi to the MPEG4
codec with MPEG3 audio encoding (audio/lame is required):
&prompt.user; mencoder input.avi -oac mp3lame -lameopts br=192 \
-ovc lavc -lavcopts vcodec=mpeg4:vhq -o output.avi
This has produced output playable by mplayer
and xine .
input.avi can be replaced with
dvd://1 -dvd-device /dev/dvd and run as
root to re-encode a DVD title
directly. Since you are likely to be dissatisfied with
your results the first time around, it is recommended you
dump the title to a file and work on the file.
The xine Video Player
The xine video player is a project of wide scope aiming not only at being an
all in one video solution, but also in producing a reusable base
library and a modular executable which can be extended with
plugins. It comes both as a package and as a port, multimedia/xine .
The xine player
is still very rough around the edges, but it is clearly off to a
good start. In practice, xine requires either a fast CPU with a
fast video card, or support for the XVideo extension. The GUI is
usable, but a bit clumsy.
As of this writing, there is no input module shipped with
xine which will play CSS encoded DVD's. There are third party
builds which do have modules for this built in them, but none
of these are in the FreeBSD Ports Collection.
Compared to MPlayer , xine does more for the user, but at the
same time, takes some of the more fine-grained control away from
the user. The xine video player
performs best on XVideo interfaces.
By default, xine player will
start up in a graphical user interface. The menus can then be
used to open a specific file:
&prompt.user; xine
Alternatively, it may be invoked to play a file immediately
without the GUI with the command:
&prompt.user; xine -g -p mymovie.avi
The transcode Utilities
The software transcode is not a player, but a suite of tools for
re-encoding video and audio files. With transcode , one has the
ability to merge video files, repair broken files, using command
line tools with stdin/stdout stream
interfaces.
A great number of options can be specified during
the build from the multimedia/transcode port, we recommend the
following command line to build
transcode :
&prompt.root; make WITH_OPTIMIZED_CFLAGS=yes WITH_LIBA52=yes WITH_LAME=yes WITH_OGG=yes \
WITH_MJPEG=yes -DWITH_XVID=yes
The proposed settings should be sufficient for most users.
To illustrate transcode capacities, one
example to show how to convert a DivX file into a PAL MPEG-1
file (PAL VCD):
&prompt.user; transcode -i input.avi -V --export_prof vcd-pal -o output_vcd
&prompt.user; mplex -f 1 -o output_vcd.mpg output_vcd.m1v output_vcd.mpa
The resulting MPEG file,
output_vcd.mpg , is ready to be played with
MPlayer . You could even burn the
file on a CD-R media to create a Video CD, in this case you will
need to install and use both multimedia/vcdimager and sysutils/cdrdao programs.
There is a manual page for transcode , but
you should also consult the transcode
wiki for further information and examples.
Further Reading
The various video software packages for FreeBSD are
developing rapidly. It is quite possible that in the near
future many of the problems discussed here will have been
resolved. In the mean time, those who
want to get the very most out of FreeBSD's A/V capabilities will
have to cobble together knowledge from several FAQs and tutorials
and use a few different applications. This section exists to
give the reader pointers to such additional information.
The
MPlayer documentation
is very technically informative.
These documents should probably be consulted by anyone wishing
to obtain a high level of expertise with &unix; video. The
MPlayer mailing list is hostile to anyone who has not bothered
to read the documentation, so if you plan on making bug reports
to them, RTFM.
The
xine HOWTO
contains a chapter on performance improvement
which is general to all players.
Finally, there are some other promising applications which
the reader may try:
Avifile which
is also a port multimedia/avifile .
Ogle
which is also a port multimedia/ogle .
Xtheater
multimedia/dvdauthor , an open
source package for authoring DVD content.
Josef
El-Rayes
Original contribution by
Marc
Fonvieille
Enhanced and adapted by
³]©w¹qµø¥d(TV Cards)
TV cards
¤¶²Ð
¹qµø¥d(TV card)¥i¥HÅý±z¥Î¹q¸£¨Ó¬ÝµL½u¡B¦³½u¹qµø¸`¥Ø¡C³\¦h¥d³£¬O³z¹L RCA ©Î S-video
¿é¤JºÝ¤l¨Ó±µ¦¬µø°T¡A¦Ó¥B¦³¨Ç¥dÁÙ¥i±µ¦¬ FM ¼s¼½ªº¥\¯à¡C
&os; ¥i³z¹L &man.bktr.4; ÅX°Êµ{¦¡¡A¨Ó¤ä´© PCI ¤¶±ªº¹qµø¥d¡A¥un³o¨Ç¥d¨Ï¥Îªº¬O Brooktree Bt848/849/878/879
©Î Conexant CN-878/Fusion 878a µø°TÂ^¨ú´¹¤ù¡C¦¹¥~¡An¦A½T»{þ¨Ç¥d¤W©Òªþªº¿ï¥x¥\¯à¬O§_¦³¤ä´©¡A¥i¥H°Ñ¦Ò &man.bktr.4;
»¡©ú¡A¥H¬d¬Ý©Ò¤ä´©ªºµwÅé²M³æ¡C
³]©w¬ÛÃöÅX°Êµ{¦¡
n¥Î¹qµø¥dªº¸Ü¡A´Nn¸ü¤J &man.bktr.4; ÅX°Êµ{¦¡¡A³oÓ¥i¥H³z¹L¦b /boot/loader.conf
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bktr_load="YES"
¦¹¥~¡A¤]¥i¥H§â¸Ó kernel module ª½±µ»P kernel ½sĶ¦b¤@°_¡A§@ªk´N¬O¦b§Aªº kernel ³]©wÀɤº¡A¥[¤W¤U±³o´X¦æ¡G
device bktr
device iicbus
device iicbb
device smbus
¤§©Ò¥Hn¥[¤W³o¨ÇÃB¥~ªºÅX°Êµ{¦¡¡A¬O¦]¬°¥dªº¦U²Õ¦¨³¡¤À³£¬O³z¹L I2C ¶×¬y±Æ¦Ó¬Û¤¬³s±µªº¡C±µ¤U¨Ó¡A½Ð«·s½sĶ¡B¦w¸Ë·sªº kernel ¡C
¦w¸Ë¦n·sªº kernel ¤§«á¡An«¶}¾÷¤~·|¥Í®Ä¡C¶}¾÷®É¡AÀ³¸Ó·|¬Ý¨ìÃþ¦ü¤U±ªº¥¿½T°»´ú¨ì TV card °T®§¡G
bktr0: <BrookTree 848A> mem 0xd7000000-0xd7000fff irq 10 at device 10.0 on pci0
iicbb0: <I2C bit-banging driver> on bti2c0
iicbus0: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only
iicbus1: <Philips I2C bus> on iicbb0 master-only
smbus0: <System Management Bus> on bti2c0
bktr0: Pinnacle/Miro TV, Philips SECAM tuner.
·íµM¡A³o¨Ç°T®§¥i¯à¦]±zªºµwÅ餣¦P¦Ó¦³©Ò¤£¦P¡CHowever you should check if the tuner is correctly
detected; it is still possible to override some of the
detected parameters with &man.sysctl.8; MIBs and kernel
configuration file options. For example, if you want to force
the tuner to a Philips SECAM tuner, you should add the
following line to your kernel configuration file:
options OVERRIDE_TUNER=6
or you can directly use &man.sysctl.8;:
&prompt.root; sysctl hw.bt848.tuner=6
See the &man.bktr.4; manual page and the
/usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES file for more
details on the available options. (If you are under
&os; 4.X, /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES is
replaced with
/usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT .)
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multimedia/fxtv
provides TV-in-a-window and image/audio/video capture
capabilities.
multimedia/xawtv
is also a TV application, with the same features as
fxtv .
misc/alevt decodes
and displays Videotext/Teletext.
audio/xmradio , an
application to use the FM radio tuner coming with some
TV cards.
audio/wmtune , a handy
desktop application for radio tuners.
More applications are available in the &os; Ports
Collection.
Troubleshooting
If you encounter any problem with your TV card, you should
check at first if the video capture chip and the tuner are
really supported by the &man.bktr.4; driver and if you used the right
configuration options. For more support and various questions
about your TV card you may want to contact and use the
archives of the &a.multimedia.name; mailing list.
Marc
Fonvieille
Written by
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image scanners
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- &os;, like any modern operating system, allows the use of
- image scanners. Standardized access to scanners is provided
- by the SANE (Scanner Access Now
- Easy) API available through the &os; Ports
- Collection. SANE will also use
- some &os; devices drivers to access to the scanner
- hardware.
-
- &os; supports both SCSI and USB scanners. Be sure your
- scanner is supported by SANE prior
- to performing any configuration.
- SANE has a supported
- devices list that can provide you with information
- about the support for a scanner and its status. The
- &man.uscanner.4; manual page also provides a list of supported
- USB scanners.
+ &os; ´N¹³¥ô¦ó²{¥N§@·~¨t²Î¤@¼Ë¡A³£¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î±½´y¾¹¡C
+ ¦b &os; ¬O³z¹L Ports Collection ¤ºªº SANE (Scanner Access Now Easy)
+ ©Ò´£¨Ñªº API ¨Ó¾Þ§@±½´y¾¹¡C
+ SANE ¤]·|¨Ï¥Î¤@¨Ç &os; ªºÅX°Êµ{¦¡¨Ó±±¨î±½´y¾¹µwÅé¡C
+
+ &os; ¦P®É¤ä´© SCSI ©M USB ¨âºØ¤¶±ªº±½´y¾¹¡C¦b°µ¥ô¦ó³]©w¤§«e¡A½Ð½T«O
+ SANE ¦³¤ä´©±zªº±½´y¾¹¡C
+ SANE ¦³±i ¤ä´©µwÅé
+ ªº²M³æ¡A³o¸Ì¦³¤¶²Ð±½´y¾¹ªº¤ä´©±¡ªp©Mª¬ºA°T®§¡C
+ ¦b &man.uscanner.4; ¤º¤]¦³´£¨Ñ¤@¥÷ USB ±½´y¾¹ªº¤ä´©¦Cªí¡C
- Kernel Configuration
+ Kernel ªº³]©w
- As mentioned above both SCSI and USB interfaces are
- supported. According to your scanner interface, different
- device drivers are required.
+ ¦p¦P¤Wz©Ò´£ªº SCSI ©M USB ¬É±³£¦³¤ä´©¡C³on¨ú¨M©ó±zªº±½´y¾¹¬É±¡A¦Ó»Ýn¤£¦Pªº³]³ÆÅX°Êµ{¦¡¡C
- USB Interface
+ USB ¤¶±
The GENERIC kernel by default
includes the device drivers needed to support USB scanners.
Should you decide to use a custom kernel, be sure that the
following lines are present in your kernel configuration
file:
device usb
device uhci
device ohci
device uscanner
Depending upon the USB chipset on your motherboard, you
will only need either device uhci or
device ohci , however having both in the
kernel configuration file is harmless.
If you do not want to rebuild your kernel and your
kernel is not the GENERIC one, you can
directly load the &man.uscanner.4; device driver module with
the &man.kldload.8; command:
&prompt.root; kldload uscanner
To load this module at each system startup, add the
following line to
/boot/loader.conf :
uscanner_load="YES"
After rebooting with the correct kernel, or after
loading the required module, plug in your USB scanner. The
scanner should appear in your system message buffer
(&man.dmesg.8;) as something like:
uscanner0: EPSON EPSON Scanner, rev 1.10/3.02, addr 2
This shows that our scanner is using the
/dev/uscanner0 device node.
On &os; 4.X, the USB daemon (&man.usbd.8;) must
be running to be able to see some USB devices. To enable
this, add usbd_enable="YES" to your
/etc/rc.conf file and reboot the
machine.
- SCSI Interface
+ SCSI ¤¶±
If your scanner comes with a SCSI interface, it is
important to know which SCSI controller board you will use.
According to the SCSI chipset used, you will have to tune
your kernel configuration file. The
GENERIC kernel supports the most common
SCSI controllers. Be sure to read the
NOTES file (LINT
under &os; 4.X) and add the correct line to your kernel
configuration file. In addition to the SCSI adapter driver,
you need to have the following lines in your kernel
configuration file:
device scbus
device pass
Once your kernel has been properly compiled, you should
be able to see the devices in your system message buffer,
when booting:
pass2 at aic0 bus 0 target 2 lun 0
pass2: <AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> Fixed Scanner SCSI-2 device
pass2: 3.300MB/s transfers
If your scanner was not powered-on at system boot, it is
still possible to manually force the detection by performing
a SCSI bus scan with the &man.camcontrol.8; command:
&prompt.root; camcontrol rescan all
Re-scan of bus 0 was successful
Re-scan of bus 1 was successful
Re-scan of bus 2 was successful
Re-scan of bus 3 was successful
Then the scanner will appear in the SCSI devices
list:
&prompt.root; camcontrol devlist
<IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 5 lun 0 (pass0,da0)
<IBM DDRS-34560 S97B> at scbus0 target 6 lun 0 (pass1,da1)
<AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10> at scbus1 target 2 lun 0 (pass3)
<PHILIPS CDD3610 CD-R/RW 1.00> at scbus2 target 0 lun 0 (pass2,cd0)
More details about SCSI devices, are available in the
&man.scsi.4; and &man.camcontrol.8; manual pages.
- SANE Configuration
+ ³]©w SANE
The SANE system has been
splitted in two parts: the backends (graphics/sane-backends ) and the
frontends (graphics/sane-frontends ). The
backends part provides access to the scanner itself. The
SANE 's supported
devices list specifies which backend will support your
image scanner. It is mandatory to determine the correct
backend for your scanner if you want to be able to use your
device. The frontends part provides the graphical scanning
interface (xscanimage ).
The first thing to do is install the graphics/sane-backends port or
package. Then, use the sane-find-scanner
command to check the scanner detection by the
SANE system:
&prompt.root; sane-find-scanner -q
found SCSI scanner "AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 1.10" at /dev/pass3
The output will show the interface type of the scanner and
the device node used to attach the scanner to the system. The
vendor and the product model may not appear, it is not
important.
Some USB scanners require you to load a firmware, this
is explained in the backend manual page. You should also read
&man.sane-find-scanner.1; and &man.sane.7; manual
pages.
Now we have to check if the scanner will be identified by
a scanning frontend. By default, the
SANE backends comes with a command
line tool called &man.scanimage.1;. This command allows you
to list the devices and to perform an image acquisition from
the command line. The -L option is used to
list the scanner device:
&prompt.root; scanimage -L
device `snapscan:/dev/pass3' is a AGFA SNAPSCAN 600 flatbed scanner
No output or a message saying that no scanners were
identified indicates that &man.scanimage.1; is unable to
identify the scanner. If this happens, you will need to edit
the backend configuration file and define the scanner device
used. The /usr/local/etc/sane.d/ directory
contains all backends configuration files. This
identification problem does appear with certain USB
scanners.
For example, with the USB scanner used in the ,
sane-find-scanner gives us the following
information:
&prompt.root; sane-find-scanner -q
found USB scanner (UNKNOWN vendor and product) at device /dev/uscanner0
The scanner is correctly detected, it uses the USB
interface and is attached to the
/dev/uscanner0 device node. We can now
check if the scanner is correctly identified:
&prompt.root; scanimage -L
No scanners were identified. If you were expecting something different,
check that the scanner is plugged in, turned on and detected by the
sane-find-scanner tool (if appropriate). Please read the documentation
which came with this software (README, FAQ, manpages).
Since the scanner is not identified, we will need to edit
the /usr/local/etc/sane.d/epson.conf
file. The scanner model used was the &epson.perfection; 1650,
so we know the scanner will use the epson
backend. Be sure to read the help comments in the backends
configuration files. Line changes are quite simple: comment
out all lines that have the wrong interface for your scanner
(in our case, we will comment out all lines starting with the
word scsi as our scanner uses the USB
interface), then add at the end of the file a line specifying
the interface and the device node used. In this case, we add
the following line:
usb /dev/uscanner0
Please be sure to read the comments provided in the
backend configuration file as well as the backend manual page
for more details and correct syntax to use. We can now verify
if the scanner is identified:
&prompt.root; scanimage -L
device `epson:/dev/uscanner0' is a Epson GT-8200 flatbed scanner
Our USB scanner has been identified. It is not important
if the brand and the model do not match. The key item to be
concerned with is the
`epson:/dev/uscanner0' field, which give us
the right backend name and the right device node.
Once the scanimage -L command is able
to see the scanner, the configuration is complete. The device
is now ready to scan.
While &man.scanimage.1; does allow us to perform an
image acquisition from the command line, it is preferable to
use a graphical user interface to perform image scanning.
SANE offers a simple but efficient
graphical interface: xscanimage
(graphics/sane-frontends ).
Xsane (graphics/xsane ) is another popular
graphical scanning frontend. This frontend offers advanced
features such as various scanning mode (photocopy, fax, etc.),
color correction, batch scans, etc. Both of these applications
are useable as a GIMP
plugin.
Allowing Scanner Access to Other Users
All previous operations have been done with
root privileges. You may however, need
other users to have access
to the scanner. The user will need read and write
permissions to the device node used by the scanner. As an
example, our USB scanner uses the device node
/dev/uscanner0 which is owned by the
operator group. Adding the user
joe to the
operator group will allow him to use
the scanner:
&prompt.root; pw groupmod operator -m joe
For more details read the &man.pw.8; manual page. You
also have to set the correct write permissions (0660 or 0664)
on the /dev/uscanner0 device node, by
default the operator group can only
read the device node. This is done by adding the following
lines to the /etc/devfs.rules file:
[system=5]
add path uscanner0 mode 660
Then add the following to
/etc/rc.conf and reboot the
machine:
devfs_system_ruleset="system"
More information regarding these lines can be found in the
&man.devfs.8; manual page. Under &os; 4.X, the
operator group has, by default, read
and write permissions to
/dev/uscanner0 .
Of course, for security reasons, you should think twice
before adding a user to any group, especially the
operator group.
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml
index d508252e61..fa1a33c1fb 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,1367 +1,1353 @@
³nÅé®M¥óºÞ²z½g¡GPackages ¤Î Ports ¾÷¨î
·§z
ports
packages
¾¨ºÞ FreeBSD ¦b base system ¤w¥[¤F«Ü¦h¨t²Î¤u¨ã¡C
µM¦Ó¡A¦b¹ê°È¹B¥Î¤W¡A±z¥i¯à¤´»Ýn¦w¸ËÃB¥~ªº³nÅé¡C
FreeBSD ´£¨Ñ¤F 2 ºØ¦w¸ËÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡ªº®M¥óºÞ²z¨t²Î¡JPorts Collection(¥H soucre ¨Ó½sĶ¡B¦w¸Ë) ©M
package(¹w¥ý½sĶ¦nªº binary ÀÉ)¡C¤Wzªº¤è¦¡¡AµL½×n¥Îþ¤@ºØ¡A³£¥i¥H¥Ñ¹³¬O CDROM
µ¥©Îºô¸ô¤W¨Ó¦w¸Ë·Q¸Ëªº³Ì·sª©³nÅé¡C
Ū§¹³o³¹¡A±z±N¤F¸Ñ¡G
¦p¦ó¥H packages ¨Ó¦w¸Ë³nÅé¡C
¦p¦ó¥H ports ¨Ó¦w¸Ë³nÅé¡C
¤w¦w¸Ëªº packages ©Î ports n¦p¦ó²¾°£¡C
¦p¦ó§ó§ï(override) ports collection ©Ò¨Ï¥Îªº¹w³]È¡C
¦p¦ó¦b®M¥óºÞ²z¨t²Î¤¤¡A§ä¥X·Q¸Ëªº³nÅé¡C
¦p¦ó¤É¯Å¤w¦w¸Ëªº³nÅé¡C
¦w¸Ë³nÅ骺¦UºØ¤è¦¡¤¶²Ð
³q±`n¦b &unix; ¨t²Î¤W¦w¸Ë³nÅé®É¡A¦³´XÓ¨BÆJn§@¡G
¥ý¤U¸ü¸Ó³nÅéÀ£ÁYÀÉ(tarball)¡A¦³¥i¯à¬Oì©l½X©Î¬O binary °õ¦æÀÉ¡C
¸Ñ¶}¸ÓÀ£ÁYÀÉ¡C(³q±`¬O¥H &man.compress.1; , &man.gzip.1; ©Î &man.bzip2.1; À£ÁYªº)
¾\Ū¬ÛÃö¤å¥óÀÉ¡A¥H¤F¸Ñ¦p¦ó¦w¸Ë¡C(³q±`ÀɦW¬O INSTALL ©Î
README ¡A ©Î¦b doc/ ¥Ø¿ý¤Uªº¤@¨Ç¤å¥ó)
¦pªG©Ò¤U¸üªº¬Oì©l½X¡A¥i¯àn¥ýקï Makefile ©Î¬O°õ¦æ
./configure ¤§Ãþªº script ¡A±µµÛ¦A½sĶ¸Ó³nÅé¡C
³Ì«á´ú¸Õ¦A´ú¸Õ»P¦w¸Ë¡C
¦pªG¤@¤Á¶¶§Qªº¸Ü¡A´N³o»ò²³æ¡C¦pªG¦b¦w¸Ë«D±Mªù³]p(²¾´Ó)µ¹ FreeBSD ªº³nÅé®É¥X°ÝÃD¡A
¨º¥i¯à»Ýnקï¤@¤U¥¦ªºµ{¦¡½X¡A¤~¯à¥¿±`¨Ï¥Î¡C
·íµM¡A§ÚÌ¥i¥H¦b FreeBSD ¤W¨Ï¥Î¤Wzªº¶Ç²Î¤è¦¡¨Ó¦w¸Ë³nÅé¡A¦ý¬O¡A§ÚÌÁÙ¦³§ó²³æªº¿ï¾Ü¡C
FreeBSD ´£¨Ñ¤F¨âºØ¬Ù¨Æªº³nÅéºÞ²z¾÷¨î¡G packages ©M ports¡C´N¦b¼g³o½g¤å³¹ªº®ÉÔ¡A
¤w¸g¦³¶W¹L &os.numports; Ó port ³nÅé¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¡C
- For any given application, the FreeBSD package for that
- application is a single file which you must download. The
- package contains pre-compiled copies of all the commands for the
- application, as well as any configuration files or
- documentation. A downloaded package file can be manipulated
- with FreeBSD package management commands, such as
- &man.pkg.add.1;, &man.pkg.delete.1;, &man.pkg.info.1;, and so
- on. Installing a new application can be carried out with a
- single command.
-
- A FreeBSD port for an application is a collection of files
- designed to automate the process of compiling an application
- from source code.
+ ©Ò¿×ªº FreeBSD package ´N¬O§O¤H§â¸ÓÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡½sĶ¡B¥´¥]§¹²¦¡C
+ ¸Ó package ·|¥]¬A¸ÓÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡ªº©Ò¦³°õ¦æÀÉ¡B³]©wÀÉ¡B¤å¥óµ¥¡C
+ ¦Ó¤U¸ü¨ìµwºÐ¤Wªº package ³£¥i³z¹L FreeBSD ®M¥óºÞ²z«ü¥O¨Ó¶i¦æºÞ²z¡A¤ñ¦p¡G
+ &man.pkg.add.1;¡B&man.pkg.delete.1;¡B&man.pkg.info.1;µ¥«ü¥O¡C
+ ©Ò¥H¡A¥u»Ý²³æ¥´Ó«ü¥O´N¥i»´ÃP¦w¸Ë·sªºÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡¤F¡C
+
+ ¦Ó FreeBSD port «h¬O¥Î¤@¨ÇÀɮסA¨Ó¦Û°Ê³B²zÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡ªº¦w¸Ë¬yµ{¡C
Remember that there are a number of steps you would normally
carry out if you compiled a program yourself (downloading,
unpacking, patching, compiling, installing). The files that
make up a port contain all the necessary information to allow
the system to do this for you. You run a handful of simple
commands and the source code for the application is
automatically downloaded, extracted, patched, compiled, and
installed for you.
- In fact, the ports system can also be used to generate packages
- which can later be manipulated with pkg_add
- and the other package management commands that will be introduced
- shortly.
+ ¨Æ¹ê¤W¡Aports ¾÷¨îÁÙ¥i¥H¥Î¨Ó²£¥Í packages¡A¥H«K¥L¤H¥i¥H¥Î
+ pkg_add ¨Ó¦w¸Ë¡A©Î¬Oµy«á·|¤¶²Ð¨ìªº¨ä¥L®M¥óºÞ²z«ü¥O¡C
Both packages and ports understand
dependencies . Suppose you want to install
an application that depends on a specific library being
installed. Both the application and the library have been made
available as FreeBSD ports and packages. If you use the
pkg_add command or the ports system to add
the application, both will notice that the library has not been
installed, and automatically install the library first.
Given that the two technologies are quite similar, you might
be wondering why FreeBSD bothers with both. Packages and ports
both have their own strengths, and which one you use will depend
on your own preference.
Package ¦n³B¦b©ó¡G
A compressed package tarball is typically smaller than
the compressed tarball containing the source code for the
application.
Packages do not require any additional compilation. For
large applications, such as
Mozilla ,
KDE , or
GNOME this can be important,
particularly if you are on a slow system.
Packages do not require any understanding of the process
involved in compiling software on FreeBSD.
Ports ¦n³B¦b©ó¡G
Packages are normally compiled with conservative options,
because they have to run on the maximum number of systems. By
installing from the port, you can tweak the compilation options to
(for example) generate code that is specific to a Pentium
IV or Athlon processor.
Some applications have compile time options relating to
what they can and cannot do. For example,
Apache can be configured with a
wide variety of different built-in options. By building
from the port you do not have to accept the default options,
and can set them yourself.
In some cases, multiple packages will exist for the same
application to specify certain settings. For example,
Ghostscript is available as a
ghostscript package and a
ghostscript-nox11 package, depending on
whether or not you have installed an X11 server. This sort
of rough tweaking is possible with packages, but rapidly
becomes impossible if an application has more than one or
two different compile time options.
The licensing conditions of some software distributions forbid
binary distribution. They must be distributed as source
code.
Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least
with source code, you can (in theory) read through it and
look for potential problems yourself.
If you have local patches, you will need the source in order to
apply them.
Some people like having code around, so they can read it
if they get bored, hack it, borrow from it (license
permitting, of course), and so on.
To keep track of updated ports, subscribe to the
&a.ports; and the &a.ports-bugs;.
- Before installing any application, you should check for security issues
- related to your application.
-
- You can also install security/portaudit which will
- automatically check all installed applications for known
- vulnerabilities; a check will be also performed before any port
- build. Meanwhile, you can use the command portaudit
- -F -a after you have installed some
- packages.
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë³nÅé«e¡A³Ì¦n¥ý¬Ý ¤º¬O§_¦³¸Ó³nÅ骺¦w¥þº|¬}³q³ø¡C
+
+
+ ¦¹¥~¡A¤]¥i¥H¸Ë security/portaudit ¡A¥¦·|¦Û°ÊÀˬd©Ò¦³¤w¸Ëªº
+ ªº³nÅé¬O§_¦³¤wª¾ªº¦w¥þº|¬}¡A¥t¥~¡A¥¦ÁÙ·|¦b¸Ë³nÅ骺½sĶ¹Lµ{«e¥ý¦æÀˬd¡C
+ ¤]¥i¥H¦b¸Ë¤F¬Y¨Ç³nÅ餧«á¡A¥Î portaudit -F -a
+ ¨Ó§@¥þ±±j¨î¦wÀË¡C
The remainder of this chapter will explain how to use
packages and ports to install and manage third party software on
FreeBSD.
´M§ä·Q¸Ëªº³nÅé
- Before you can install any applications you need to know what you
- want, and what the application is called.
+ ¦b¦w¸Ë¥ô¦ó³nÅ餧«e¡A§A¥²¶·¥ý¤F¸Ñ§A·Qn¤°»òªº³nÅé¡A¥H¤Î¸Ó³nÅé¥s°µ¤°»ò¦WºÙ¡C
- FreeBSD's list of available applications is growing all the
- time. Fortunately, there are a number of ways to find what you
- want:
+ FreeBSD ¤W¥i¸Ëªº³nÅé²M³æ¤£Â_¦b¼W¥[¤¤¡A
+ ¤£¹L¡A§Ú̫ܼy©¯¦³´XºØ¤è¦¡¥i¥H¨Ó§ä§A·Q¸Ëªº³nÅé¡G
- The FreeBSD web site maintains an up-to-date searchable
- list of all the available applications, at http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/ .
- The ports are divided into categories, and you may either
+ FreeBSD ºô¯¸¤W¦³§ó·sÀWÁcªº³nÅé²M³æ¡A¦b
+ http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/ ¡C
+ ¦U ports ¬Ò¨Ì¨ä©Ê½è¦Ó¤Àªù§OÃþ¡Aand you may either
search for an application by name (if you know it), or see
all the applications available in a category.
FreshPorts
- Dan Langille maintains FreshPorts, at . FreshPorts
+ Dan Langille ºûÅ@ FreshPorts ºô¯¸¡Aºô§}¦b ¡C FreshPorts
tracks changes to the applications in the ports tree as they
happen, allows you to watch
one or more
ports, and can send you email when they are updated.
FreshMeat
If you do not know the name of the application you want,
try using a site like FreshMeat ( ) to find an
application, then check back at the FreeBSD site to see if
the application has been ported yet.
If you know the exact name of the port, but just need to
find out which category it is in, you can use the
&man.whereis.1; command.
Simply type whereis
file , where
file is the program you want to
install. If it is found on your system, you will be told
where it is, as follows:
&prompt.root; whereis lsof
lsof: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
This tells us that lsof (a system
utility) can be found in the
/usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
directory.
Yet another way to find a particular port is by using the
Ports Collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the
search feature, you will need to be in the
/usr/ports directory. Once in that
directory, run make search
name=program-name where
program-name is the name of the
program you want to find. For example, if you were looking
for lsof :
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make search name=lsof
Port: lsof-4.56.4
Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
Info: Lists information about open files (similar to fstat(1))
Maint: obrien@FreeBSD.org
Index: sysutils
B-deps:
R-deps:
The part of the output you want to pay particular
attention to is the Path:
line, since that
tells you where to find the port. The other information
provided is not needed in order to install the port, so it
will not be covered here.
For more in-depth searching you can also use make
search key=string where
string is some text to search for.
This searches port names, comments, descriptions and
dependencies and can be used to find ports which relate to a
particular subject if you do not know the name of the program
you are looking for.
In both of these cases, the search string is case-insensitive.
Searching for LSOF
will yield the same results as
searching for lsof
.
Chern
Lee
Contributed by
¨Ï¥Î Packages ºÞ²z¾÷¨î
Package ªº¦w¸Ë¤è¦¡
packages
installing
pkg_add
You can use the &man.pkg.add.1; utility to install a
FreeBSD software package from a local file or from a server on
the network.
¤â°Ê¤U¸ü¡B¦w¸Ë Package (ĶªÌchinsan: ¦]¤ñ¸û¤£«K¦Ó¤£«Øij³o»ò°µ)
&prompt.root; ftp -a ftp2.FreeBSD.org
Connected to ftp2.FreeBSD.org.
220 ftp2.FreeBSD.org FTP server (Version 6.00LS) ready.
331 Guest login ok, send your email address as password.
230-
230- This machine is in Vienna, VA, USA, hosted by Verio.
230- Questions? E-mail freebsd@vienna.verio.net.
230-
230-
230 Guest login ok, access restrictions apply.
Remote system type is UNIX.
Using binary mode to transfer files.
ftp> cd /pub/FreeBSD/ports/packages/sysutils/
250 CWD command successful.
ftp> get lsof-4.56.4.tgz
local: lsof-4.56.4.tgz remote: lsof-4.56.4.tgz
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for 'lsof-4.56.4.tgz' (92375 bytes).
100% |**************************************************| 92375 00:00 ETA
226 Transfer complete.
92375 bytes received in 5.60 seconds (16.11 KB/s)
ftp> exit
&prompt.root; pkg_add lsof-4.56.4.tgz
If you do not have a source of local packages (such as a
FreeBSD CD-ROM set) then it will probably be easier to use the
-r option to &man.pkg.add.1;. This will
cause the utility to automatically determine the correct
object format and release and then fetch and install the
package from an FTP site.
pkg_add
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r lsof
The example above would download the correct package and
add it without any further user intervention.
If you want to specify an alternative &os; Packages Mirror,
instead of the main distribution site, you have to set
PACKAGESITE accordingly, to
override the default settings. &man.pkg.add.1;
uses &man.fetch.3; to download the files, which honors various
environment variables, including
FTP_PASSIVE_MODE , FTP_PROXY , and
FTP_PASSWORD . You may need to set one or more
of these if you are behind a firewall, or need to use an
FTP/HTTP proxy. See &man.fetch.3; for the complete list.
Note that in the example above
lsof is used instead of
lsof-4.56.4 . When the remote fetching
feature is used, the version number of the package must be
removed. &man.pkg.add.1; will automatically fetch the latest
version of the application.
&man.pkg.add.1; will download the latest version of
your application if you are using &os.current; or
&os.stable;. If you run a -RELEASE version, it will grab
the version of the package that was built with your
release. It is possible to change this behavior by
overriding the PACKAGESITE environment
variable. For example, if you run a &os; 5.4-RELEASE
system, by default &man.pkg.add.1; will try to fetch
packages from
ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-5.4-release/Latest/ .
If you want to force &man.pkg.add.1; to download
&os; 5-STABLE packages, set PACKAGESITE
to
ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-5-stable/Latest/ .
Package files are distributed in .tgz
and .tbz formats. You can find them at ,
or on the FreeBSD CD-ROM distribution. Every CD on the
FreeBSD 4-CD set (and the PowerPak, etc.) contains packages
in the /packages directory. The layout
of the packages is similar to that of the
/usr/ports tree. Each category has its
own directory, and every package can be found within the
All directory.
The directory structure of the package system matches the
ports layout; they work with each other to form the entire
package/port system.
ºÞ²z Packages
packages
managing
&man.pkg.info.1; is a utility that lists and describes
the various packages installed.
pkg_info
&prompt.root; pkg_info
cvsup-16.1 A general network file distribution system optimized for CV
docbook-1.2 Meta-port for the different versions of the DocBook DTD
...
&man.pkg.version.1; is a utility that summarizes the
versions of all installed packages. It compares the package
version to the current version found in the ports tree.
pkg_version
&prompt.root; pkg_version
cvsup =
docbook =
...
The symbols in the second column indicate the relative age
of the installed version and the version available in the
local ports tree.
²Å¸¹
¥Nªí·N¸q
= The version of the
installed package matches the one found in the
local ports tree.
<
The installed version is older than the one available
in the ports tree.
> The installed version is newer
than the one found in the local ports tree. (The local ports
tree is probably out of date.)
? The installed package cannot be
found in the ports index. (This can happen, for instance, if an
installed port is removed from the Ports Collection or
renamed.)
* There are multiple versions of the
package.
²¾°£¤w¦w¸Ëªº Package
pkg_delete
packages
deleting
To remove a previously installed software package, use the
&man.pkg.delete.1; utility.
&prompt.root; pkg_delete xchat-1.7.1
¨ä¥L²Ó¸`³¡¥÷
All package information is stored within the
/var/db/pkg directory. The installed
file list and descriptions of each package can be found within
files in this directory.
¨Ï¥Î Ports ºÞ²z¾÷¨î
The following sections provide basic instructions on using the
Ports Collection to install or remove programs from your
system. The detailed description of available make
targets and environment variables is available in &man.ports.7;.
°O±o¦w¸Ë Ports Collection
Before you can install ports, you must first obtain the
Ports Collection—which is essentially a set of
Makefiles , patches, and description files
placed in /usr/ports .
When installing your FreeBSD system,
sysinstall asked if you would like
to install the Ports Collection. If you chose no, you can
follow these instructions to obtain the ports
collection:
CVSup ¤è¦¡
This is a quick method for getting and keeping your copy of the
Ports Collection up to date using CVSup .
If you want to learn more about CVSup , see
Using CVSup.
Install the net/cvsup-without-gui package:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r cvsup-without-gui
See CVSup Installation () for more details.
Run cvsup :
&prompt.root; cvsup -L 2 -h cvsup.FreeBSD.org /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
Change
cvsup.FreeBSD.org to a
CVSup server near you. See
CVSup Mirrors () for a complete listing of mirror
sites.
One may want to use his own
ports-supfile , for example to avoid
the need of passing the CVSup
server on the command line.
In this case, as root , copy
/usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
to a new location, such as
/root or your home
directory.
Edit ports-supfile .
Change
CHANGE_THIS.FreeBSD.org
to a CVSup server near
you. See CVSup
Mirrors () for
a complete listing of mirror sites.
And now to run cvsup , use the
following:
&prompt.root; cvsup -L 2 /root/ports-supfile
Running the &man.cvsup.1; command later will download and apply all
the recent changes to your Ports Collection, except
actually rebuilding the ports for your own system.
Portsnap ¤è¦¡
&man.portsnap.8; is an alternative system for distributing the
Ports Collection. It was first included in &os; 6.0. On older
systems, you can install it from sysutils/portsnap port:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r portsnap
Please refer to Using Portsnap
for a detailed description of all Portsnap
features.
Create an empty directory /usr/ports if it does not exists.
&prompt.root; mkdir /usr/ports
Download a compressed snapshot of the Ports Collection into
/var/db/portsnap . You can
disconnect from the Internet after this step, if you wish.
&prompt.root; portsnap fetch
If you are running Portsnap for the
first time, extract the snapshot into /usr/ports :
&prompt.root; portsnap extract
If you already have a populated /usr/ports and you are just updating,
run the following command instead:
&prompt.root; portsnap update
Sysinstall ¤è¦¡
This method involves using sysinstall
to install the Ports Collection from the installation media. Note
that the old copy of Ports Collection from the date of the release
will be installed. If you have Internet access, you should always
use one of the methods mentioned above.
As root , run
sysinstall
(/stand/sysinstall in &os;
versions older than 5.2) as shown below:
&prompt.root; sysinstall
Scroll down and select Configure ,
press Enter .
Scroll down and select
Distributions , press
Enter .
Scroll down to ports , press
Space .
Scroll up to Exit , press
Enter .
Select your desired installation media, such as CDROM,
FTP, and so on.
Scroll up to Exit and press
Enter .
Press X to exit
sysinstall .
Ports ªº¦w¸Ë¤è¦¡
ports
installing
The first thing that should be explained when it comes to
the Ports Collection is what is actually meant by a
skeleton
. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a
minimal set of files that tell your FreeBSD system how to
cleanly compile and install a program. Each port skeleton
includes:
A Makefile . The
Makefile contains various statements
that specify how the application should be compiled and
where it should be installed on your system.
A distinfo file. This file
contains information about the files that must be
downloaded to build the port and their checksums, to
verify that files have not been corrupted during the
download using &man.md5.1;.
A files directory. This
directory contains patches to make the program compile and
install on your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically
small files that specify changes to particular files.
They are in plain text format, and basically say
Remove line 10
or Change line 26 to
this ...
. Patches are also known as
diffs
because they are generated by the
&man.diff.1; program.
This directory may also contain other files used to build
the port.
A pkg-descr file. This is a more
detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program.
A pkg-plist file. This is a list
of all the files that will be installed by the port. It
also tells the ports system what files to remove upon
deinstallation.
Some ports have other files, such as
pkg-message . The ports system uses these
files to handle special situations. If you want more details
on these files, and on ports in general, check out the FreeBSD Porter's
Handbook .
The port includes instructions on how to build source
code, but does not include the actual source code. You can
get the source code from a CD-ROM or from the Internet.
Source code is distributed in whatever manner the software
author desires. Frequently this is a tarred and gzipped file,
but it might be compressed with some other tool or even
uncompressed. The program source code, whatever form it comes
in, is called a distfile
. The two methods for
installing a &os; port are described below.
You must be logged in as root to
install ports.
Before installing any port, you should be sure to have
an up-to-date Ports Collection and you should check for security issues
related to your port.
A security vulnerabilities check can be automatically
done by portaudit before any new
application installation. This tool can be found in the
Ports Collection (security/portaudit ). Consider
running portaudit -F before installing a
new port, to fetch the current vulnerabilities database. A
security audit and an update of the database will be
performed during the daily security system check. For more
information read the &man.portaudit.1; and &man.periodic.8;
manual pages.
The Ports Collection makes an assumption that you have a working
Internet connection. If you do not, you will need to put a copy of the
distfile into /usr/ports/distfiles
manually.
To begin, change to the directory for the port you want to
install:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/lsof
Once inside the lsof directory, you
will see the port skeleton. The next step is to compile, or
build
, the port. This is done by simply
typing make at the prompt. Once you have
done so, you should see something like this:
&prompt.root; make
>> lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist in /usr/ports/distfiles/.
>> Attempting to fetch from ftp://lsof.itap.purdue.edu/pub/tools/unix/lsof/.
===> Extracting for lsof-4.57
...
[extraction output snipped]
...
>> Checksum OK for lsof_4.57D.freebsd.tar.gz.
===> Patching for lsof-4.57
===> Applying FreeBSD patches for lsof-4.57
===> Configuring for lsof-4.57
...
[configure output snipped]
...
===> Building for lsof-4.57
...
[compilation output snipped]
...
&prompt.root;
Notice that once the compile is complete you are
returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the
port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word
onto the make command, and that word is
install :
&prompt.root; make install
===> Installing for lsof-4.57
...
[installation output snipped]
...
===> Generating temporary packing list
===> Compressing manual pages for lsof-4.57
===> Registering installation for lsof-4.57
===> SECURITY NOTE:
This port has installed the following binaries which execute with
increased privileges.
&prompt.root;
Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to
run the application you just installed. Since
lsof is a
program that runs with increased privileges, a security
warning is shown. During the building and installation of
ports, you should take heed of any other warnings that
may appear.
It is a good idea to delete the working subdirectory,
which contains all the temporary files used during compilation.
Not only it consumes a valuable disk space, it would also cause
problems later when upgrading to the newer version of the port.
&prompt.root; make clean
===> Cleaning for lsof-4.57
&prompt.root;
You can save an extra step by just running make
install clean instead of make ,
make install and make clean
as three separate steps.
Some shells keep a cache of the commands that are
available in the directories listed in the
PATH environment variable, to speed up
lookup operations for the executable file of these
commands. If you are using one of these shells, you might
have to use the rehash command after
installing a port, before the newly installed commands can
be used. This command will work for shells like
tcsh . Use the hash -r
command for shells like sh . Look at the
documentation for your shell for more information.
Some third party DVD-ROM products such as the FreeBSD Toolkit
from the FreeBSD
Mall contain distfiles. They can be used with the Ports
Collection. Mount the DVD-ROM on /cdrom . If
you use a different mount point, set CD_MOUNTPTS
make variable. The needed distfiles will be automatically used
if they are present on the disk.
Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do
not allow for inclusion on the CD-ROM. This could be
because a registration form needs to be filled out before
downloading or redistribution is not allowed, or for
another reason. If you wish to install a port not
included on the CD-ROM, you will need to be online in
order to do so.
The ports system uses &man.fetch.1; to download the
files, which honors various environment variables, including
FTP_PASSIVE_MODE , FTP_PROXY ,
and FTP_PASSWORD . You may need to set one or
more of these if you are behind a firewall, or need to use
an FTP/HTTP proxy. See &man.fetch.3; for the complete
list.
For users which cannot be connected all the time, the
make fetch option is
provided. Just run this command at the top level directory
(/usr/ports ) and the required files
will be downloaded for you. This command will also work in
the lower level categories, for example:
/usr/ports/net .
Note that if a port depends on libraries or other ports this will
not fetch the distfiles of those ports too.
Replace fetch with
fetch-recursive
if you want to fetch all the dependencies of a port too.
You can build all the ports in a category or as a
whole by running make in the top level
directory, just like the aforementioned make
fetch method. This is
dangerous, however, as some ports cannot co-exist. In other
cases, some ports can install two different files with the
same filename.
In some rare cases, users may need to acquire the
tarballs from a site other than the
MASTER_SITES (the location where files
are downloaded from). You can override the
MASTER_SITES option with the following
command:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory
&prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \
ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch
In this example we change the
MASTER_SITES option to ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ .
Some ports allow (or even require) you to provide
build options which can enable/disable parts of the
application which are unneeded, certain security options,
and other customizations. A few which come to mind are
www/mozilla , security/gpgme , and mail/sylpheed-claws . A message
will be displayed when options such as these are
available.
§ó§ï(Override)¹w³]ªº Ports ¥Ø¿ý
Sometimes it is useful (or mandatory) to use a different
distfiles and ports directory. The
PORTSDIR and PREFIX
variables can override the default directories. For
example:
&prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/usr/home/example/ports install
will compile the port in
/usr/home/example/ports and install
everything under /usr/local .
&prompt.root; make PREFIX=/usr/home/example/local install
will compile it in /usr/ports and
install it in
/usr/home/example/local .
And of course,
&prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local install
will combine the two (it is too long to completely write
on this page, but it should give you the general
idea).
Alternatively, these variables can also be set as part
of your environment. Read the manual page for your shell
for instructions on doing so.
Dealing with imake
Some ports that use imake (a part of
the X Window System) do not work well with
PREFIX , and will insist on installing
under /usr/X11R6 . Similarly, some Perl
ports ignore PREFIX and install in the
Perl tree. Making these ports respect
PREFIX is a difficult or impossible
job.
²¾°£¤w¦w¸Ëªº Ports
ports
removing
Now that you know how to install ports, you are probably
wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and
later on decide that you installed the wrong port.
We will remove our previous example (which was
lsof for
those of you not paying attention). Ports are being removed exactly
the same as the packages (discussed in the Packages section), using the
&man.pkg.delete.1; command:
&prompt.root; pkg_delete lsof-4.57
¤É¯Å¤w¦w¸Ëªº Ports
ports
upgrading
First, list outdated ports that have a newer version available in
the Ports Collection with the &man.pkg.version.1; command:
&prompt.root; pkg_version -v
Once you updated your Ports Collection, before
attempting a port upgrade, you should check the
/usr/ports/UPDATING file. This file
describes various issues and additional steps users may
encounter and need to perform when updating a port.
¥H Portupgrade ¨Ó¤É¯Å¤w¦w¸Ëªº Ports
portupgrade
The portupgrade utility is designed
to easily upgrade installed ports. It is available from the sysutils/portupgrade port. Install it like
any other port, using the make install
clean command:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/portupgrade
&prompt.root; make install clean
Scan the list of installed ports with the pkgdb
-F command and fix all the inconsistencies it reports. It is
a good idea to do this regularly, before every upgrade.
When you run portupgrade -a ,
portupgrade will begin to upgrade all the
outdated ports installed on your system. Use the -i
flag if you want to be asked for confirmation of every individual
upgrade.
&prompt.root; portupgrade -ai
If you want to upgrade only a
certain application, not all available ports, use portupgrade
pkgname . Include the
-R flag if portupgrade
should first upgrade all the ports required by the given
application.
&prompt.root; portupgrade -R firefox
To use packages instead of ports for installation, provide
-P flag. With this option
portupgrade searches
the local directories listed in PKG_PATH , or
fetches packages from remote site if it is not found locally.
If packages can not be found locally or fetched remotely,
portupgrade will use ports.
To avoid using ports, specify -PP .
&prompt.root; portupgrade -PR gnome2
To just fetch distfiles (or packages, if
-P is specified) without building or
installing anything, use -F .
For further information see &man.portupgrade.1;.
¥H Portmanager ¨Ó¤É¯Å¤w¦w¸Ëªº Ports
portmanager
Portmanager is another utility for
easy upgrading of installed ports. It is available from the
sysutils/portmanager port:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/sysutils/portmanager
&prompt.root; make install clean
All the installed ports can be upgraded using this simple
command:
&prompt.root; portmanager -u
You can add the -ui flag to get asked for
confirmation of every step Portmanager
will perform. Portmanager can also be
used to install new ports on the system. Unlike the usual
make install clean command, it will upgrade all
the dependencies prior to building and installing the
selected port.
&prompt.root; portmanager x11/gnome2
If there are any problems regarding the dependencies for the
selected port, you can use Portmanager to
rebuild all of them in the correct order. Once finished, the
problematic port will be rebuilt too.
&prompt.root; portmanager graphics/gimp -f
For more information see
Portmanager 's manual page.
Ports »PµwºÐªÅ¶¡
ports
disk-space
Using the Ports Collection will use up disk
space over time. After building and installing software from the
ports, you should always remember to clean up
the temporary work directories using the make
clean command. You can sweep the whole
Ports Collection with the following command:
&prompt.root; portsclean -C
You will accumulate a lot of old source distribution files in the
distfiles directory over time.
You can remove them by hand, or you can use the following command to
delete all the distfiles that are no longer referenced by any
ports:
&prompt.root; portsclean -D
The portsclean utility is part of the
portupgrade suite.
Do not forget to remove the installed ports once you no longer need
them. A nice tool to help automate this task is available from the
sysutils/pkg_cutleaves port.
¦w¸Ë¤§«á¡A¦³¤°»ò«áÄòª`·N¨Æ¶µ¶Ü¡H
³q±`¡A¦w¸Ë§¹³nÅé«á¡A§ÚÌ¥i¥H¾\Ū©Òªþªº¤@¨Ç¤å¥ó¡A©Î»Ýn½s¿è³]©wÀÉ¡A
¨Ó½T«O³oÓ³nÅé¯à¶¶§Q¹B§@¡A©Î¦b¾÷¾¹¶}¾÷ªº®ÉÔ±Ò°Ê(¦pªG¬O daemon ªº¸Ü)µ¥µ¥¡C
¤£¦Pªº³nÅé·|¦³¤£¦Pªº³]©w¨BÆJ¡C¤£ºÞ«ç¼Ë¡A¦pªG¸Ë¦n¤F³nÅé¡A
¦ý¬O¤£ª¾¹D¤U¤@¨B«ç»ò¿ìªº®ÉÔ¡A ¥i¥H¸Õ¸Õ¬Ý³o¨Ç¤p§Þ¥©¡G
µ½¥Î &man.pkg.info.1; ¡A³o«ü¥O¥i¥HÅã¥Ü¡G³z¹L®M¥óºÞ²z¨t²Î(Packages/Ports)¸Ë¤Fþ¨Ç³nÅé¡BÀɮ׸˦bþÃä¡CÁ|¨Ò¨Ó»¡¡AYè¸Ë¤F FooPackage (ª©¥» 1.0.0)¡A¨º»ò¤U±³o«ü¥O¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_info -L foopackage-1.0.0 | less
´N·|Åã¥Ü³o³nÅé©Ò¦w¸ËªºÀɮײM³æ¡C Pay
special attention to files in man/
directories, which will be manual pages,
etc/ directories, which will be
configuration files, and doc/ , which
will be more comprehensive documentation.
If you are not sure which version of the application was
just installed, a command like this
&prompt.root; pkg_info | grep -i foopackage
will find all the installed packages that have
foopackage in the package name.
Replace foopackage in your
command line as necessary.
Once you have identified where the application's manual
pages have been installed, review them using &man.man.1;.
Similarly, look over the sample configuration files, and any
additional documentation that may have been provided.
If the application has a web site, check it for
additional documentation, frequently asked questions, and so
forth. If you are not sure of the web site address it may
be listed in the output from
&prompt.root; pkg_info foopackage-1.0.0
A WWW: line, if present, should provide a URL
for the application's web site.
Ports that should start at boot (such as Internet
servers) will usually install a sample script in
/usr/local/etc/rc.d . You should
review this script for correctness and edit or rename it if
needed. See Starting
Services for more information.
¦p¦ó³B²zÄê±¼(Broken)ªº Ports¡H
¦pªGµo²{¬YÓ port µLªk¶¶§Q¦w¸Ë¡B¹B§@¡A ¦³´XºØ¤èªk¥i¥H¸Õ¸Õ¬Ý¡G
±q Problem Report
¸ê®Æ®w ¤¤«õÄ_¬Ý¬Ý¡A»¡¤£©w¤w¸g¦³¤H°e¥i¥Îªº patch ¤W¥hÅo¡A
¨º»ò©Î³\´N¥i¥H¶¶§Q¸Ñ¨M°ÝÃDù¡C
¦V¸Ó port ªº maintainer ´M¨D¨ó§U¡G½Ð¥´
make maintainer ©Î½¾\
Makefile ¥H¬d¸ß maintainer ªº
email address¡C°O±o±H«Hµ¹ maintainer ®É¡Anªþµù¸Ó port ªº¦WºÙ¡Bª©¥»(©Î¬O§â Makefile ¤ºªº $FreeBSD: ¨º¤@¾ã¦æªþ¤W) ¥H¤Î¬ÛÃö¿ù»~°T®§¡C
- Some ports are not maintained by an individual but
- instead by a ¦³¨Ç port ¤£¬O¥Ñ±Mªùªº³æ¤@ maintainer t³d¡A¦Ó¬O³z¹L mailing
- list . Many, but not all, of these addresses look like
- freebsd-listname@FreeBSD.org . Please
- take this into account when phrasing your questions.
+ list ªº±MÃD°Q½×¡C³\¦h(¦ý«D¥þ³¡)ªºÁpµ¸ email ®æ¦¡³q±`¬O
+ freebsd-list¦WºÙ@FreeBSD.org ¡Cµo°Ý®É¡A½Ð°O±o§â¡yfreebsd-list¦WºÙ¡z§ï¬°¬ÛÃö°Q½×ªº mailing list ¦WºÙ¡C
¤×¨ä·í port ªº maintainer Äæ¦ì¬O
freebsd-ports@FreeBSD.org
®É¡A¨Æ¹ê¤W¤w¸g¨S¤H·í¸Ó port maintainer ¤F¡C
¦]¦¹Y¸Ó port ¤´¦³×¥¿©Î¨ä¥L§Þ³N¤ä´©ªº¸Ü¡A¬ÛÃö°Q½×³£·|¦b freebsd-ports ¶l»¼½×¾Â¤W¥X²{¡C
³á¡A¹ï¤F¡A¦pªG¦³¼ô±x¸Ó³nÅéªÌ¡A§ÓÄ@·í¸Ó port maintainer ªº¸Ü¡A§Ṳ́]³£«ÜÅwªï±zªº¥[¤J³á¡C
Y port maintainer ¨S¦³¦^Âбzªº«H¥ó¡A «h¥i¥H¥Î &man.send-pr.1;
¨Ó´£¥æ°ÝÃD³ø§i PR¡C(½Ð°Ñ¾\ Writing
FreeBSD Problem Reports )¡C
¸Õ¸Õ¬Ý×¥¿¥¦§a! Porter's
Handbook ¥]¬A¤F Ports
¬[ºcªº²Ó¸`³¡¥÷¡A³o¨Ç®Ñ¤¤¤º®e¦³§U±zצn¦³°ÝÃDªº port ¬Æ¦Ü´£¥æ¦Û¤vªº port¡T
±q¸ûªñªº FTP ¯¸ÂI¤U¸ü½sĶ¦nªº package¡C
package collection ªº³Ì¤W´å¯¸¬O¦b ftp.FreeBSD.org ¤Wªº packages
¥Ø¿ý ¤º¡A¦ý½Ð°O±o¥ýÀˬd¬O§_¤w¦³ local mirror
¯¸! ³q±`±¡ªp¤U³o¨Ç package ³£¥i¥Hª½±µ¨Ï¥Î¡A¦Ó¥BÀ³¸Ó¤ñ¦Û¦æ½sĶ§Ö¤@¨Ç¡C
¥Î &man.pkg.add.1; §Y¥i¶¶§Q¦w¸Ë package ¡C
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/porters-handbook/book.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/porters-handbook/book.sgml
index 49bf3f4ce0..a27d6c900a 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/porters-handbook/book.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/porters-handbook/book.sgml
@@ -1,10036 +1,9980 @@
%books.ent;
]>
FreeBSD Porter's Handbook
FreeBSD ¤å¥óp¹º
April 2000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
FreeBSD ¤å¥óp¹º
&bookinfo.trademarks;
&bookinfo.legalnotice;
·¤¤l
´X¥G¨CÓ FreeBSD ·R¥ÎªÌ³£¬O³z¹L FreeBSD Ports Collection
¨Ó¸Ë¦U¦¡À³¥Îµ{¦¡("ports")¡C¦p¦P FreeBSD ªº¨ä¥L³¡¤À¤@¼Ë¡A
³o¨Ç ports ³£¥Dn¨Ó¦Û³\¦h§Ó¤uªº§V¤O¦¨ªG¡A©Ò¥H¦b¾\Ū³o¥÷¤å¥ó®É¡A
½Ð°È¥²·P®¦¦b¤ß¡C
¦b FreeBSD ¤W±¡A¨CÓ¤H³£¥i¥H´£¥æ·sªº port¡A
©Î°²¦p¸Ó port ¨Ã¨S¦³¤HºûÅ@ªº¸Ü¡A¥i¥H¦ÛÄ@ºûÅ@ —
³oÂI¨Ã¤£»Ýn¥ô¦ó commit ªºÅv¡A´N¥i¥H¨Ó°µ³o¥ó¨Æ±¡¡C
¦Û¦æ¥´³y port
¨º»ò¡A¶}©l¹ï¦Û¦æ»s§@ port ©Î§ó·s²{¦³ port
¦³¤@¨Ç¿³½ì¤F¶Ü¡H¤Ó¦nÅo¡I
¤U±±N¤¶²Ð¤@¨Ç«Ø¥ß port ®É¸Óª`·Nªº¨Æ¶µ¡C¦pªG¬O·Q¤É¯Å²{¦³ªº port
¡A¨º»ò¤]½Ð°Ñ¾\ »¡©ú¡C
¦]¬°³o¥÷¤å¥ó¥i¯àÁ¿±o¤£¬O¤Q¤À¸Ô²Ó¡A¥i¯à»Ýn°Ñ¦Ò
/usr/ports/Mk/bsd.port.mk
³oÀɬO©Ò¦³ port ªº Makefile Àɳ£·|¥Î¨ìªº¡C´Nºâ§A¤£¬O¨C¤Ñ¤£Â_ hacking Makefiles
¡A¤]³£¥i¥HÂǥѥ¦¨Ó¹ï¾ãÓ port ¾÷¨î¡BMakefile §óÁA¸Ñ¡A¸Ì±ªºµùÄÀ¬Û·í¸Ô²Ó¡C
¦¹¥~¡AY¦³¨ä¥L¯S©w port ªº°ÝÃD¡A¤]¥i¥H¨ì &a.ports; ¨ÓÀò±oµª®×¡C
- Only a fraction of the variables
- (VAR ) that can be
- overridden are mentioned in this document. Most (if not all)
- are documented at the start of /usr/ports/Mk/bsd.port.mk ;
- the others probably ought to be.
- Note that this file uses a non-standard tab setting:
- Emacs and
- Vim should recognize the setting on
- loading the file. Both &man.vi.1; and
- &man.ex.1; can be set to use the correct value by
- typing :set tabstop=4 once the file has been
- loaded.
+ ¥»¤å¤º©Ò´£¤ÎªºÀô¹ÒÅܼÆ(VAR )³¡¥÷¡A
+ ¥u¦³¤@¨Ç¥i¥H´À´«(overridden)¡C¤j³¡¥÷ªºÀô¹ÒÅܼÆ(«D¥þ³¡)³q±`³£·|¼g¦b
+ /usr/ports/Mk/bsd.port.mk ¤º¡A¨ä¥Lªº¤]¬O®t¤£¦h¡C
+ ½Ðª`·N¡G¸ÓÀɨëD¨Ï¥Î¤@¯ëªº tab ³]©wÈ¡A¦Ó¬O±Ä¥Î 1 Ó tab µ¥©ó 4 Ó space¡G
+ Emacs »P
+ Vim À³¸Ó³£·|¦b¸ü¤J¸ÓÀɮɶ¶«KŪ¨ú¬ÛÃö³]©wÈ¡C
+ &man.vi.1; ¤Î
+ &man.ex.1; ³o¨âÓµ{¦¡¤]³£¥i¥H¥´ :set tabstop=4 ¥Hקï³]©wÈ¡C
¥´³y Port §Ö³t¤W¤â½g
¥»¸`¥Dn¤¶²Ð¦p¦ó¨Ó§Ö³t¥´³y port¡AµM¦Ó¡A«Ü¦h®ÉÔ³o¨Ç¤º®e¨Ã¤£¬O«Ü°÷¥Î¡A
«Øij¾\Ū¥»¤å¥ó¤¤§ó²`¶øªº¦a¤è¡C
º¥ý¨ú±o¸ÓÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡ªºì©lµ{¦¡½XÀ£ÁYÀÉ(tarball)¡A¨Ã§â¥¦©ñ¨ì
DISTDIR ¡A¹w³]¸ô®|À³¸Ó¬O
/usr/ports/distfiles ¡C
¤U±ªº¨Ò¤l¡A¬O°²³]¨Ã¤£»Ýn¦Aקï¸ÓÀ³¥Îµ{¦¡ªºì©l½X¡A´N¥i¥H¦b
FreeBSD ¤W½sĶ¦¨¥\ªº¡F°²¦pÁÙ»Ýn¥t¥~קï¤~¯à¦¨¥\½sĶªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò½Ð°Ñ¦Ò¤U¤@³¹ªº»¡©ú¡C
½s¼g Makefile
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# New ports collection makefile for: oneko
# Date created: 5 December 1994
# Whom: asami
#
# $FreeBSD$
#
PORTNAME= oneko
PORTVERSION= 1.1b
CATEGORIES= games
MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/X11R5/contrib/
MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.org
COMMENT= A cat chasing a mouse all over the screen
MAN1= oneko.1
MANCOMPRESSED= yes
USE_IMAKE= yes
.include <bsd.port.mk>
¶â¡A¤jP´N¬O³o¼Ë¡A¬Ý¬Ý§A¤w¸g»â²¤¦h¤Ö¤F©O¡H¬Ý¨ì $FreeBSD$
³o¤@¦æªº¸Ü¡A§O·Q¤Ó¦h¡A¥¦¬O CVS ID tag ¥Î³~¡A·í¸Ó port ¥¿¦¡¶i¤J port tree ®É¡A´N·|¦Û°ÊÂà´«¬°¬ÛÃö¦r¦êÅo¡C
¦³Ãö³oÂIªº²Ó¸`³¡¥÷¡A¥i¥H°Ñ¾\ sample Makefile ³¹¸`¡C
¼¶¼g¸Ó³nÅ骺»¡©úÀÉ
µL½×¬O§_¥´ºâ¦A¥[¤u°µ¦¨ package¡A¦³ 2 ÓÀɮ׬O¥ô¦ó¹êÅé port (Slave port«h¤£¤@©w)³£¥²¶·n¨ã³Æªº¡C
³o 2 ÓÀɤÀ§O¬O pkg-descr ÀɤÎ
pkg-plist ÀÉ¡C³o¨âÓÀÉ®×ÀɦW«e±³£¦³ pkg-
¥H¸ò¨ä¥LÀÉ®×°µ°Ï§O¡C
pkg-descr
³o¬O¦¹ port ªº¸Ô²Ó»¡©úÀÉ¡A½Ð¥Î¤@¬q©Î´X¬q¤å¦r¨Ó»¡©ú¸Ó port ªº§@¥Î¡A¨Ãªþ¤W WWW
ºô§}(Y¦³ªº¸Ü)
½Ðª`·N¡A³oÀɵ´«D¡u¸Ó³nÅ骺»¡©ú¤â¥U¡v©Î¬O¡u¦p¦ó½sĶ¡B¨Ï¥Î¸Ó port ªº»¡©ú¡v¡C
Y¬O±q¸Ó³nÅ骺 README ©Î manpage ª½±µ½Æ»s¹L¨Óªº¸Ü¡A
½Ðª`·N¡A¦]¬°¥¦Ì³q±`³£¼g±o¤Ó¸Ô²Ó¡B®æ¦¡¸û¯S§O(¤ñ¦p manpage ·|¦Û°Ê½Õ¾ãªÅ¥Õ)¡A
½Ð¾¨¶qÁקK³o¨Ç¤¾ªøÂصü©Î±Ä¥Î¯S®í®æ¦¡¡CY¸Ó³nÅ馳©x¤èª©º¶ªº¸Ü¡A½Ð¦b¦¹¦C¥X¨Ó¡C
¨CÓºô§}½Ð¥Î WWW: §@¬°¶}ÀY¡A³o¼Ë¤l¬ÛÃö¤u¨ãµ{¦¡´N·|¦Û°Ê³B²z§¹²¦¡C
¸Ó port ªº pkg-descr ¤º®e¡A¤jP¦p¤U±¨Ò¤l¡G
This is a port of oneko, in which a cat chases a poor mouse all over
the screen.
:
(etc.)
WWW: http://www.oneko.org/
pkg-plist
³o¬O¸Ó port ©Ò·|¸Ëªº©Ò¦³ÀɮײM³æ¡A¥t¥~¦]¬° package ·|¥Ñ³o²M³æ©Ò²£¥Í¡A¦]¦¹¤]³QºÙ¬°¡ypacking list
(¥´¥]²M³æ)¡z¡C ¥H ${PREFIX} ¬°°ò·ÇÂI¡A¦Ó¥Î¬Û¹ï¸ô®|ªí¥Ü¡C
(${PREFIX} ³q±`¬O /usr/local ©Î
/usr/X11R6 ) ¦ý¬O¦pªG¸Óµ{¦¡¦³¦w¸Ë man page ªº¸Ü¡A«hn¥HÃþ¦ü
MANn = ªº¤è¦¡¼g¦b
Makefile ¤º¡A¤£¯à¦C¦b pkg-plist ®@¡C
°£¤F¦C¥XÀÉ®×¥H¥~¡A¤]n§â¸Ó port ©Ò·|«Ø¥ßªº¥Ø¿ý¤]¦C¶i¥h¡A¤è¦¡¦³¨âºØ¡G¤@ºØ¬O¼g¦b
pkg-plist ¤ºªº¤è¦¡¡A¤ñ¦p¡G
@dirrm ¡C¦Ü©ó¥t¥~¤@ºØ¤è¦¡¡A«h¬O¼g¦b Makefile ¤º¡A¤ñ¦p
¡GPLIST_FILES= ¤§Ãþªº¤è¦¡¡C
¸Ó port ªº pkg-plist ¤º®e¡A¤jP¦p¤U±¨Ò¤l:
bin/oneko
lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko
lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm
lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm
lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm
@dirrm lib/X11/oneko
Ãö©ó packing list ¤è±¡A¥i¥H°Ñ¾\ &man.pkg.create.1; ·|¦³¸Ô¸Ñ¡C
«Øij²M³æ¤ºªºÀɦW¡A¨Ì·Ó¦r¥À¶¶§Ç§@±Æ§Ç¡A¨º»ò¤U¦¸n¤É¯Å®É¡A·|¤ñ¸û²M·¡¡B¤è«K¨Ó§ó·s³o¥÷²M³æ¡C
¤â°Ê¥Í³o¥÷²M³æ¹ê¦b¤ÓW¤F¡C¤×¨äY¸Ó port ·|¸Ë¤@¤j°ïÀɮתº¸Ü¡A½Ð¦hµ½¥Î ¦Û°Ê²£¥Í packing list ·|¤ñ¸û¬Ù®É¬Ù¤Oò¡C
- ¥u¦³¦b¤@ ºØ±¡ªp¤U¥i¥H¬Ù²¤¤£¥Î¥Í pkg-plist ÀÉ¡C If the port installs just a handful
- of files, and perhaps directories, the files and directories may
- be listed in the variables PLIST_FILES and
- PLIST_DIRS , respectively, within the port's
- Makefile . For instance, we could get along
- without pkg-plist in the above
- oneko port by adding the
- following lines to the Makefile :
+ ¥u¦³¦b¤@ºØ±¡ªp¤U¥i¥H¬Ù²¤¤£¥Î¥Í pkg-plist ÀÉ¡G
+ Y¦w¸Ëªº port ¬Û·í³æ¯Â¡A¥u¦³¸Ë¤@¨ÇÀɮסA¥H¤Î³£¦b¦P¤@¥Ø¿ý¤Uªº¸Ü¡A
+ ¨º»ò¥i¥H¦b Makefile ¤º§ï¥Î PLIST_FILES ¤Î
+ PLIST_DIRS ¨Ó¨ú¥N¡C
+ ¤ñ¦p¡A¥i¥H¦b¤Wzªº oneko port ¤º¤£¥²ªþ¤W
+ pkg-plist ¡A¦Ó¥u»Ý¦b Makefile ¤º¥[¤J¤U¦C´X¦æ¡G
PLIST_FILES= bin/oneko \
lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko \
lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm \
lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm \
lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm
PLIST_DIRS= lib/X11/oneko
- Of course, PLIST_DIRS should be left
- unset if a port installs no directories of its own.
-
- The price for this way of listing port's files and
- directories is that you cannot use command sequences
- described in &man.pkg.create.1;. Therefore, it is suitable
- only for simple ports and makes them even simpler. At the
- same time, it has the advantage of reducing the number of files
- in the ports collection. Please consider using this technique
- before you resort to pkg-plist .
-
- Later we will see how pkg-plist
- and PLIST_FILES can be used to fulfil
- more sophisticated
- tasks.
+ ·íµM¡AY¸Ó port ¨ÃµL¦w¸Ë¦ÛÄݪº¥Ø¿ýªº¸Ü¡A´N¤£¥²³] PLIST_DIRS Åo¡C
+
+ µM¦Ó¡A¨Ï¥Î PLIST_FILES ¡BPLIST_DIRS ¬O¥²¶·¥I¥X¥N»ù¡G
+ ¤£¯à¨Ï¥Î &man.pkg.create.1; ¤º©Ò»¡ªº command sequences¡C
+ ¦]¦¹¡A³o©Û¶È¾A¥Î©ó¸û²³æªº port ¡A¥H¤Î²¤Æ¸Ó port ªº§@ªk¡C
+ ¦¹¥~¡A³o©ÛÁÙ¦³¤@Ó¦n³B¡G¥i¥H´î¤Ö ports collection ªº¾ãÅéÀÉ®×Á`¼Æ¡C
+ ©Ò¥H¡A¦b¦Ò¼{¬O§_¤@©wn¥Î pkg-plist ¤§«e¡A¥i¥H¥ý·r°u³oÓ´À¥N¤è®×¬Ý¬Ý¡C
+
+ «á±·|¤¶²Ð¨ì¦p¦ó¹B¥Î pkg-plist ¡BPLIST_FILES
+ ³o¨Ç§Þ¥©¥H¦]À³ §ó½ÆÂøªºª¬ªp¡C
²£¥Í checksum ¥Î³~ªº distinfo ÀÉ
¥un¥´¡ymake makesum ¡z´N¦n¤F¡A±µ¤U¨Ó´N·|¦Û°Ê²£¥Í¬Û¹ïÀ³ªº
- distinfo ÀÉù¡C
-
- If a file fetched has its checksum changed regularly and you are
- certain the source is trusted (i.e. it comes from manufacturer CDs
- or documentation generated daily), you should specify these files in
- the IGNOREFILES variable.
- Then the checksum is not calculated for that file when you run
- make makesum , but set to
- IGNORE .
+ distinfo ÀɤFò¡C
+
+ Y§ì¤U¨ÓªºÀɮסA¥¦ªº checksum ·|¸g±`Åܧó¡A¦Ó§A¤]«Ü½T«H©Ò§ìªº¨Ó·½¬O¥¿½TµL»~ªº¸Ü¡A
+ (¤ñ¦p¡G¨Ó·½¬O¥úºÐ©Î¬O¨C¤Ñ¦Û°Ê²£¥Íªº¤å¥ó)¡A¨º»ò¥i¥H³]©w¨º¨ÇÀɮ׬° IGNOREFILES ¡C
+ ¦p¦¹¤@¨Ó¡A¦b¥´ make makesum ªº®ÉÔ´N¤£·|pºâ¨º¨ÇÀɮתº checksum¡A¦Ó¦Û°Ê§ï¬°
+ IGNORE Åo¡C
ÀËÅç port ¬O§_§¹¾ã¡B¥i¦æ
- You should make sure that the port rules do exactly what you
- want them to do, including packaging up the port. These are the
- important points you need to verify.
+ ±µ¤U¨Ó¡A¥²¶·ÀËÅç¬O§_¦³²Å¦X port ªº¹CÀ¸³W«h¡A¥]¬A¥´¥]¸Ó port ¬° package¡C
+ ¥H¤U¦³´XÓ»Ýn½T»{ªº«n¦a¤è¡G
- pkg-plist does not contain anything not
- installed by your port
+ Y¸Ó port ¨S¸ËªºªF¦è¡A¤£n¦C¦b pkg-plist ¤º¡C
- pkg-plist contains everything that is
- installed by your port
+ Y¸Ó port ¦³¸ËªºªF¦è¡A½Ð°È¥²¦C¦b pkg-plist ¤º¡C
- Your port can be installed multiple times using the
- reinstall target
+ ¸Ó port ¥i¥H¥Î reinstall ¨Ó«·s¦w¸Ë¡C
- Your port cleans up
- after itself upon deinstall
+ ¸Ó port ¦b²¾°£¤§«á¡A½T©w³£¥i cleans up¡C
- «Øij±Ä¦æªº´ú¸Õ¶¶§Ç¡G
+ «Øijªº´ú¸Õ¨BÆJ¶¶§Ç¡G
make install
make package
make deinstall
pkg_add package-name
make deinstall
make reinstall
make package
- Make sure that there are not any warnings issued in any of the
- package and
- deinstall stages. After step 3, check to
- see if all the new directories are correctly deleted. Also, try
- using the software after step 4, to ensure that it works correctly
- when installed from a package.
+ ½T»{¦b package ©M deinstall
+ ³o¨âÓ¶¥¬q³£¨S¦³¥ô¦ó¿ù»~°T®§¥X²{¡C
+ §¹¦¨²Ä¤T¨BÆJ¤§«á¡AÀˬd¤@¤U¬O§_©Ò¸ËªºÀɮסB¥Ø¿ý³£¦³²¾°£§¹²¦¡C¦¹¥~¡A²Ä¥|¨BÆJ§¹¦¨«á¡A¤]Àˬd¤@¤U¥H package
+ ¸Ëªº¸Ó³nÅé¡A¬O§_³£¯à¥¿±`¹B§@¡C
¥H portlint ¨Ó§@ÀËÅç
- ½Ð¥Î portlint ¨ÓÀˬd¸Ó port ¬O§_¦³¿í´`¤Wz³W«h¡C The
- devel/portlint program is part of the ports collection.
- In particular, you may want to check if the
- Makefile is in the right
- shape and the package is named
- appropriately.
+ ½Ð¥Î portlint ¨ÓÀˬd¸Ó port ¬O§_¦³¿í´`¤Wz¹CÀ¸³W«h¡C »¡¨ì³o
+ devel/portlint ¥¦¬O ports collection ªº¨ä¤¤¤@Ó®M¥ó¡C
+ ¥¦¥Dn¥i¥H¥Î¨ÓÀËÅç Makefile ¤º®e¬O§_¥¿½T¥H¤Î
+ package ¬O§_¦³¥¿½T©R¦W¡C
´£¥æ(Submit) port
º¥ý¡A½Ð½T»{¬O§_¦³ÁA¸Ñ DOs and DON'Ts ¸Ó³¹³¡¤À¡C
²{¦b§A«Ü°ª¿³²×©ó¥´³y¥X port ¨ÓÅo¡A°ß¤@³Ñ¤Un°µªº´N¬O§â¥¦¥¿¦¡©ñ¨ì FreeBSD ports tree
¤º¡A¤~¯àÅý¨CÓ¤H³£¯à¤À¨É¨Ï¥Î³oÓ port¡C½Ð¥ý®³±¼ work ¥Ø¿ý©ÎÀɦW¹³¬O
pkgname.tgz ªº package ¥i¥H¬å±¼¡C±µµÛ¡A¥un¥Î shar `find
port_dir` ¨Ó²£¥Í shar ®æ¦¡¡A¨Ã°t¦X &man.send-pr.1; µ{¦¡¥H´£¥æ¥X¥h¡C
(&man.send-pr.1; ªº³¡¤À¥i¥H°Ñ¾\
- ¿ù»~³ø§i©M·N¨£µoªí ) °O±o¦b¶ñ¼g PR ®É¡y¤ÀÃþ(Category)¡z¿ï
- ports ÁÙ¦³¡yºØÃþ(Class)¡z¶ñ change-request
+ ¿ù»~³ø§i©M·N¨£µoªí)
+
+ °O±o¦b¶ñ¼g PR ®É¡y¤ÀÃþ(Category)¡z¿ï ports ¡AÁÙ¦³¡yºØÃþ(Class)¡z¶ñ change-request
(¤d¸U§O¶Ì¶Ì¦a§â¸Ó PR ªº¡yConfidential(¾÷±K)¡z³]¬° yes¡I)¡A¦¹¥~¦b¡y´yz(Description
)¡z
¨ºÃä¼g¤W¸Óµ{¦¡ªºÂ²¼ä»¡©ú¡A¦Ó shar ÀÉ«hªþ¦b¡y×¥¿(Fix
)¡zÄæ¦ì¤º¡C
- You can make our work a lot easier, if you use a good
- description in the synopsis of the problem report.
- We prefer something like
+ Y Synopsis Äæ²M·¡´yz¸Ó PR «ÂIªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò·|Åý¾ãÓ¬yµ{§ó¬°¶¶ºZ¡C
+ new ports ªº¸Ü¡A§Ú̲ߺD¥Î¡G
New port: <category>/<portname>
- <short description of the port>
for new ports and
+ <¸Ó port ªºÂ²¤¶> ¡A¦Ó§ó·s port ªº¸Ü¡A«h¬O
Update port: <category>/<portname>
- <short description of the update>
for port updates.
- If you stick to this scheme, the chance that someone will take a
- look at your PR soon is much better.
+ <¥»¦¸ update ªºÂ²¤¶>¡C
+ Y§A¤]±Ä¥Î³o¼Ëªº®æ¦¡ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò·|³Q¨ü²zªº¾÷·|´N·|¶V°ªÅo¡C
- One more time, do not include the original source
- distfile, the work directory, or the package
- you built with make package .
-
- After you have submitted your port, please be patient.
- Sometimes it can take a few months before a port is included
- in FreeBSD, although it might only take a few days. You can
- view the list of ports
- waiting to be committed to FreeBSD .
-
- Once we have looked at your port, we will get back to you if necessary, and put
- it in the tree. Your name will also appear in the list of
- Additional FreeBSD Contributors
- and other files. Isn't that great?!? :-)
Slow Porting
- Ok...¨Æ¹ê¤W¨Ã¤£¤Ó¥i¯à³o»ò²³æ¡Aport¤è±¥i¯à»Ýn§@¨Çקï¤~¯à¥¿±`¨Ï¥Î¡C
+ Ok...¨Æ¹ê¤W¨Ã¤£¤Ó¥i¯à³o»ò²³æ¡Aport ¤è±¥i¯à»Ýn§@¨Çקï¤~¯à¥¿±`¨Ï¥Î¡C
¦]¦¹¡A¥»¸`±N¤@¨B¤@¨B¨Ó¤¶²Ð¦p¦óקï¤W¤@³¹ªº¼Ë¥»¥H¥¿±`¨Ï¥Î¡C
How things work
- First, this is the sequence of events which occurs when the user
- first types make in your port's directory.
- You may find that having bsd.port.mk in another
- window while you read this really helps to understand it.
+ º¥ý¡A¥ý¤¶²Ð¤@¤U¦b§A©Ò§@ªº port ¥Ø¿ý¤º¥´ make ®É¡A©Ò·|§@þ¨Ç¨Æ±¡ªº¶¶§Ç§a¡C
+ §A¥i¥H¥t¶}¤@µ¡¨Ó¬Ý bsd.port.mk ¤º®e¡A¥H«KÁA¸Ñ§Ṳ́U±¦bÁ¿¤°»ò¡C
¦ý§O¤Ó¾á¤ß¬O§_§¹¥þ¬ÝÀ´
bsd.port.mk ¦b°µÔ£¡A«Ü¦h¤H³£ÁÙ¨S§¹¥þ¬Ý§¹...
:->
- The fetch target is run. The
- fetch target is responsible for making
- sure that the tarball exists locally in
- DISTDIR . If fetch
- cannot find the required files in DISTDIR it
- will look up the URL MASTER_SITES , which is
- set in the Makefile, as well as our main FTP site at ,
- where we put sanctioned distfiles as backup. It will then
- attempt to fetch the named distribution file with
- FETCH , assuming that the requesting site has
- direct access to the Internet. If that succeeds, it will save
- the file in DISTDIR for future use and
- proceed.
+ º¥ý¡A¶i¦æ fetch ¶¥¬q¡C
+ fetch ¬O½T»{ tarball Àɦ³¨S¦³¤w¦b
+ DISTDIR ¤º¤F¡HY fetch
+ ¦b DISTDIR §ä¤£¨ìªº¸Ü¡A¥¦·|·j´M Makefile ¤ºªº MASTER_SITES URL
+ ¡A©ÎªÌ¬O¥D FTP ¯¸±Mªù©ñ³Æ¥÷ distfiles ªº¥Ø¿ý ¡C
+ °²³]³£§ä¤£¨ìªº¸Ü¡A¦ý¬Oºô¸ô¦³±µ¤W Internet ªº¸Ü¡A¥¦·|¸ÕµÛ¥Î FETCH ¨Ó§ì©Ò«ü©wªºÀɮסC
+ §ì¨ì¤§«á¡A¥¦·|§âÀɮצs¨ì DISTDIR ¥H«K¶}©l¨Ï¥Î©Î¤é«á¹B¥Î¡C
- The extract target is run. It
- looks for your port's distribution file (typically a gzip'd
- tarball) in DISTDIR and unpacks it into a
- temporary subdirectory specified by WRKDIR
- (defaults to work ).
+ ¨ä¦¸¡A¶i¦æ extract ¶¥¬q¡A¥¦·|±q DISTDIR ¤º§ä¥X¸Ó port
+ ©Ò»ÝªºÀÉ®×(³q±`¬O gzip ®æ¦¡ªº tarball)¡AµM«á¸ÑÀ£ÁY¨ì WRKDIR ©Ò³]©wªºÁ{®É¥Ø¿ý¦WºÙ
+ (¹w³]¬O work ¥Ø¿ý)¤º¡C
- The patch target is run. First,
- any patches defined in PATCHFILES are
- applied. Second, if any patch files named
- patch-* are found in
- PATCHDIR (defaults to the
- files subdirectory), they are applied at
- this time in alphabetical order.
+ ¤§«á¡A¶i¦æ patch ¶¥¬q¡A¤@¶}©l·|¥ý®M¥Î PATCHFILES
+ «ü©wªº¥ô¦ó patch ÀÉ¡C
+ ±µµÛ¡A¬O PATCHDIR (¹w³]¬O files ¤l¥Ø¿ý) ¤ºªºÀɦW¬°
+ patch-* ¤§ÃþªºÀɮסA·|¥H¦r¥À¶¶§Ç¦Ó³v¤@®M¥Î patch¡C
- The configure target is run. This
- can do any one of many different things.
+ ±µµÛ¬O configure ¶¥¬q¡A¥i¥H·Ó port ªºÃþ«¬¨Ó§@¦UºØ¤£¦P³]©w¥H½Õ¾ã¡A¤ñ¦p¡G
- If it exists, scripts/configure is
- run.
+ Y¦³©ñ scripts/configure ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò´N·|¶]¸Ì±ªº³]©w¡C
- If HAS_CONFIGURE or
- GNU_CONFIGURE is set,
- WRKSRC /configure is
- run.
+ Y¦³³] HAS_CONFIGURE ©Î¬O
+ GNU_CONFIGURE ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò´N·|¶]
+ WRKSRC /configure
- If USE_IMAKE is set,
- XMKMF (default: xmkmf
- -a ) is run.
+ Y¦³³] USE_IMAKE ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò´N·|¶]
+ XMKMF (¹w³]¬O xmkmf
+ -a ) ¡C
- The build target is run. This is
- responsible for descending into the port's private working
- directory (WRKSRC ) and building it. If
- USE_GMAKE is set, GNU make
- will be used, otherwise the system make will
- be used.
+ ³Ì«á¬O build ¶¥¬q¡A¥¦·|¦b¸Ó
+ port ªº working directory(¥Ñ WRKSRC ©Ò³]©w) ¤º¶}©l½sĶ¡C
+ Y¦³³] USE_GMAKE ªº¸Ü¡A¨º»ò´N·|§ï¥Î GNU make
+ ¨Ó½sĶ¡A§_«h´N¥Î¨t²Î¥»¨ªº make ¨Ó½sĶ¡C
- The above are the default actions. In addition, you can define
- targets
- pre-something or
- post-something ,
- or put scripts with those names, in the scripts
- subdirectory, and they will be run before or after the default
- actions are done.
-
- For example, if you have a post-extract
- target defined in your Makefile , and a file
- pre-build in the scripts
- subdirectory, the post-extract target will
- be called after the regular extraction actions, and the
- pre-build script will be executed before the
- default build rules are done. It is recommended that you use
- Makefile targets if the actions are simple
- enough, because it will be easier for someone to figure out what
- kind of non-default action the port requires.
-
- The default actions are done by the
- bsd.port.mk targets
- do-something .
- For example, the commands to extract a port are in the target
- do-extract . If you are not happy with the
- default target, you can fix it by redefining the
- do-something
- target in your Makefile .
+ ¤W±Á¿ªº³£¬O¥´ make ®Éªº¹w³]¶¥¬q¡C
+ ¦¹¥~¡AÁÙ¥i¥H³]©w¦U¶¥¬q¤§«e¡B¤§«án§@ªº¨Æ±¡¡G³z¹L©w¸q
+ pre-something ©Î
+ post-something ¡A
+ ©ÎªÌ§â³o¨ÇÀɦWªº script ¥á¨ì scripts ¤l¥Ø¿ý¥h¡A
+ ³o¼Ë¤l¥¦Ì´N·|¦b¦U¹w³]¶¥¬qªº¤§«e¡B¤§«á¶i¦æÅo¡C
+
+ Á|¨Ò¨Ó»¡¡AY¦b Makefile ¤º³]©w post-extract
+ ¡A¦Ó¥B¦b scripts ¤l¥Ø¿ý¤º¤S¦³ pre-build Àɪº¸Ü¡A
+ ¨º»ò¦b§@¸ÑÀ£ÁY¤§«á¡A´N·|¶}©l post-extract ¶¥¬q¥H¶i¦æ¸ÑÀ£ÁY«áªº«áÄò°Ê§@¡A
+ ¦Ó¦b¶] build ¶¥¬q¤§«e¡A´N·|¥ý°õ¦æ pre-build ³o°¦ script §@¥ý´Á·Ç³Æ¡C
+ ³q±`¸û²³æªº×§ï°Ê§@¡A«Øijª½±µ©ñ¦b Makefile
+ ¤º´N¦n¤F¡A¦]¬°³o¼Ë·|¤ñ¸û¤è«K¥[¤W³o¨Ç쥻¨S¦³ªº¶¥¬q¡A¦P®É¤]¤è«K¥L¤H¨ó§U°£¿ù¡C
+
+ ¹w³]ªº¦U¶¥¬q°Ê§@³£¬O·Ó
+ bsd.port.mk ¤ºªº
+ do-something ¤§Ãþ©Ò©w¸qªº¡C
+ Á|¨Ò¡Gdo-extract ´N¬O©w¸q«ç»ò§âÀɮ׸ÑÀ£ÁYªº¡C
+ Y¹ï¹w³]¤è¦¡Ä±±o¤£§´ªº¸Ü¡A³£¥i¥H¦b¸Ó port ªº Makefile «·s©w¸q¡C
The main
targets (e.g.,
extract ,
configure , etc.) do nothing more than
make sure all the stages up to that one are completed and call
the real targets or scripts, and they are not intended to be
changed. If you want to fix the extraction, fix
do-extract , but never ever change
the way extract operates!
- Now that you understand what goes on when the user types
- make , let us go through the recommended steps to
- create the perfect port.
+ ²{¦b¡A§A¤w¸gª¾¹D¥´ make ¨ì©³·|§@¨Ç¤°»ò¨ÆÅo¡A±µ¤U¨Ó·|±Ð§A¦p¦ó§@§ó§¹¬üªº
+ port¡C
- Getting the original sources
-
- Get the original sources (normally) as a compressed tarball
- (foo .tar.gz or
- foo .tar.Z ) and copy
- it into DISTDIR . Always use
- mainstream sources when and where you
- can.
+ ¨ú±oì©lªº source ÀÉ
+
+ ¨ú±oì©lªº source ÀÉ(³q±`ÀɦW¬O foo .tar.gz
+ ©Î foo .tar.Z ¤§ÃþªºÀ£ÁYÀÉ)¡A
+ µM«á·|§â§ì¤U¨ÓªºÀɮשñ¦b DISTDIR ¤º¡C
+ °O±o¡G§ìªº®ÉÔ¡A¾¨¶q¨Ï¥Î¡y¥D¬y¯¸¡z¤W±ªº¨Ó·½ÀÉ¡A¥H½T«OÀɮצ³®Ä¡B¥i«H¡C
You will need to set the variable MASTER_SITES
to reflect where the original tarball resides. You will find
convenient shorthand definitions for most mainstream sites
in bsd.sites.mk . Please use these
sites—and the associated definitions—if
at all possible, to help avoid the problem of having the same
information repeated over again many times in the source base.
As these sites tend to change over time, this becomes a
maintenance nightmare for everyone involved.
If you cannot find a FTP/HTTP site that is well-connected to the
net, or can only find sites that have irritatingly non-standard
formats, you might want to put a copy on a reliable FTP or HTTP
server that you control (e.g., your home page).
If you cannot find somewhere convenient and reliable to put the
distfile
we can house
it ourselves
on ftp.FreeBSD.org ; however, this is the
least-preferred solution.
The distfile must be placed into
~/public_distfiles/ of someone's
freefall account.
Ask the person who commits your port to do this.
This person will also set MASTER_SITES to
MASTER_SITE_LOCAL and
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to their
freefall username.
If your port's distfile changes all the time without any
kind of version update by the author,
consider putting the distfile on your home page and listing it as
the first MASTER_SITES . If you can, try
to talk the port author out of doing this; it
really does help to establish some kind of source code control.
Hosting your own version will prevent users
from getting checksum mismatch errors, and
also reduce the workload of maintainers of our FTP site. Also, if
there is only one master site for the port, it is recommended that
you house a backup at your site and list it as the second
MASTER_SITES .
If your port requires some additional `patches' that are
available on the Internet, fetch them too and put them in
DISTDIR . Do not worry if they come from a site
other than where you got the main source tarball, we have a way to
handle these situations (see the description of PATCHFILES below).
Modifying the port
Unpack a copy of the tarball in a private directory and make
whatever changes are necessary to get the port to compile properly
under the current version of FreeBSD. Keep careful
track of everything you do, as you will be automating
the process shortly. Everything, including the deletion, addition,
or modification of files should be doable using an automated script
or patch file when your port is finished.
If your port requires significant user interaction/customization
to compile or install, you should take a look at one of Larry Wall's
classic Configure scripts and perhaps do
something similar yourself. The goal of the new ports collection is
to make each port as plug-and-play
as possible for the
end-user while using a minimum of disk space.
Unless explicitly stated, patch files, scripts, and other
files you have created and contributed to the FreeBSD ports
collection are assumed to be covered by the standard BSD copyright
conditions.
Patching
In the preparation of the port, files that have been added or
changed can be picked up with a &man.diff.1;
for later feeding to &man.patch.1;. Each patch you
wish to apply should be saved into a file named
patch-* where
* indicates
the pathname of the file that is patched,
such as patch-Imakefile or
patch-src-config.h . These files should
be stored in PATCHDIR
(usually files/ , from where they will be
automatically applied. All patches must be relative to
WRKSRC (generally the directory your port's
tarball unpacks itself into, that being where the build is done).
To make fixes and upgrades easier, you should avoid having more than
one patch fix the same file (e.g., patch-file and
patch-file2 both changing
WRKSRC /foobar.c ).
Please only use characters [-+._a-zA-Z0-9] for
naming your patches. Do not use any other characters besides them.
Do not name your patches like patch-aa or
patch-ab etc, always mention path and file name
in patch names.
Do not put RCS strings in patches. CVS will mangle them when we
put the files into the ports tree, and when we check them out again,
they will come out different and the patch will fail. RCS strings
are surrounded by dollar ($ ) signs, and
typically start with $Id or
$RCS .
Using the recurse (-r ) option to
&man.diff.1; to generate patches is fine, but please take
a look at the resulting patches to make sure you do not have any
unnecessary junk in there. In particular, diffs between two backup
files, Makefile s when the port uses
Imake or GNU configure , etc.,
are unnecessary and should be deleted. If you had to edit
configure.in and run
autoconf to regenerate
configure , do not take the diffs of
configure (it often grows to a few thousand
lines!); define USE_AUTOTOOLS=autoconf:253 and take the
diffs of configure.in .
If you had to delete a file, then you can do it in the
post-extract target rather than as part of
the patch.
Simple replacements can be performed directly from the port
Makefile using the in-place mode of
&man.sed.1;. This is very useful when you need to patch in
a variable value. Example:
post-patch:
@${REINPLACE_CMD} -e 's|for Linux|for FreeBSD|g' ${WRKSRC}/README
@${REINPLACE_CMD} -e 's|-pthread|${PTHREAD_LIBS}|' ${WRKSRC}/configure
Quite often, there is a situation when the software being
ported, especially if it is primarily developed on &windows;, uses
the CR/LF convention for most of its source files. This may cause
problems with further patching, compiler warnings, scripts
execution (/bin/sh^M not found), etc. To
quickly convert all files from CR/LF to just LF, add
USE_DOS2UNIX=yes to the port
Makefile . A list of files to convert can
be specified:
USE_DOS2UNIX= util.c util.h
Configuring
Include any additional customization commands in your
configure script and save it in the
scripts subdirectory. As mentioned above, you
can also do this with Makefile targets and/or
scripts with the name pre-configure or
post-configure .
Handling user input
If your port requires user input to build, configure, or install,
you must set IS_INTERACTIVE in your Makefile . This
will allow overnight builds
to skip your port if the
user sets the variable BATCH in his environment (and
if the user sets the variable INTERACTIVE , then
only those ports requiring interaction are
built). This will save a lot of wasted time on the set of
machines that continually build ports (see below).
It is also recommended that if there are reasonable default
answers to the questions, you check the
PACKAGE_BUILDING variable and turn off the
interactive script when it is set. This will allow us to build the
packages for CDROMs and FTP.
Configuring the Makefile
Configuring the Makefile is pretty simple, and again we suggest
that you look at existing examples before starting. Also, there is a
sample Makefile in this
handbook, so take a look and please follow the ordering of variables
and sections in that template to make your port easier for others to
read.
Now, consider the following problems in sequence as you design
your new Makefile :
The original source
Does it live in DISTDIR as a standard
gzip'd tarball named something like
foozolix-1.2.tar.gz ? If so, you can go on
to the next step. If not, you should look at overriding any of
the DISTVERSION , DISTNAME ,
EXTRACT_CMD ,
EXTRACT_BEFORE_ARGS ,
EXTRACT_AFTER_ARGS ,
EXTRACT_SUFX , or DISTFILES
variables, depending on how alien a format your port's
distribution file is. (The most common case is
EXTRACT_SUFX=.tar.Z , when the tarball is
condensed by regular compress , not
gzip .)
In the worst case, you can simply create your own
do-extract target to override the
default, though this should be rarely, if ever,
necessary.
Naming
The first part of the port's Makefile names
the port, describes its version number, and lists it in the correct
category.
PORTNAME and PORTVERSION
You should set PORTNAME to the
base name of your port, and PORTVERSION
to the version number of the port.
PORTREVISION and
PORTEPOCH
PORTREVISION
The PORTREVISION variable is a
monotonically increasing value which is reset to 0 with
every increase of PORTVERSION (i.e.
every time a new official vendor release is made), and
appended to the package name if non-zero.
Changes to PORTREVISION are
used by automated tools (e.g. &man.pkg.version.1;)
to highlight the fact that a new package is
available.
PORTREVISION should be increased
each time a change is made to the port which significantly
affects the content or structure of the derived
package.
Examples of when PORTREVISION
should be bumped:
Addition of patches to correct security
vulnerabilities, bugs, or to add new functionality to
the port.
Changes to the port Makefile to enable or disable
compile-time options in the package.
Changes in the packing list or the install-time
behavior of the package (e.g. change to a script
which generates initial data for the package, like ssh
host keys).
Version bump of a port's shared library dependency
(in this case, someone trying to install the old
package after installing a newer version of the
dependency will fail since it will look for the old
libfoo.x instead of libfoo.(x+1)).
Silent changes to the port distfile which have
significant functional differences, i.e. changes to
the distfile requiring a correction to
distinfo with no corresponding change to
PORTVERSION , where a diff
-ru of the old and new versions shows
non-trivial changes to the code.
Examples of changes which do not require a
PORTREVISION bump:
Style changes to the port skeleton with no
functional change to what appears in the resulting
package.
Changes to MASTER_SITES or
other functional changes to the port which do not
affect the resulting package.
Trivial patches to the distfile such as correction
of typos, which are not important enough that users of
the package should go to the trouble of
upgrading.
Build fixes which cause a package to become
compilable where it was previously failing (as long as
the changes do not introduce any functional change on
any other platforms on which the port did previously
build). Since PORTREVISION reflects
the content of the package, if the package was not
previously buildable then there is no need to increase
PORTREVISION to mark a
change.
A rule of thumb is to ask yourself whether a change
committed to a port is something which everyone
would benefit from having (either because of an
enhancement, fix, or by virtue that the new package will
actually work at all), and weigh that against that fact
that it will cause everyone who regularly updates their
ports tree to be compelled to update. If yes, the
PORTREVISION should be bumped.
PORTEPOCH
From time to time a software vendor or FreeBSD porter
will do something silly and release a version of their
software which is actually numerically less than the
previous version. An example of this is a port which goes
from foo-20000801 to foo-1.0 (the former will be
incorrectly treated as a newer version since 20000801 is a
numerically greater value than 1).
In situations such as this, the
PORTEPOCH version should be increased.
If PORTEPOCH is nonzero it is appended
to the package name as described in section 0 above.
PORTEPOCH must never be decreased or reset
to zero, because that would cause comparison to a package
from an earlier epoch to fail (i.e. the package would not
be detected as out of date): the new version number (e.g.
1.0,1 in the above example) is still
numerically less than the previous version (20000801), but
the ,1 suffix is treated specially by
automated tools and found to be greater than the implied
suffix ,0 on the earlier package.
Dropping or resetting PORTEPOCH
incorrectly leads
to no end of grief; if you do not understand the above discussion,
please keep after it until you do, or ask questions on
the mailing lists.
It is expected that PORTEPOCH will
not be used for the majority of ports, and that sensible
use of PORTVERSION can often pre-empt
it becoming necessary if a future release of the software
should change the version structure. However, care is
needed by FreeBSD porters when a vendor release is made
without an official version number — such as a code
snapshot
release. The temptation is to label the
release with the release date, which will cause problems
as in the example above when a new official
release is
made.
For example, if a snapshot release is made on the date
20000917, and the previous version of the software was
version 1.2, the snapshot release should be given a
PORTVERSION of 1.2.20000917 or similar,
not 20000917, so that the succeeding release, say 1.3, is
still a numerically greater value.
Example of PORTREVISION and
PORTEPOCH usage
The gtkmumble port, version
0.10 , is committed to the ports
collection:
PORTNAME= gtkmumble
PORTVERSION= 0.10
PKGNAME becomes
gtkmumble-0.10 .
A security hole is discovered which requires a local
FreeBSD patch. PORTREVISION is bumped
accordingly.
PORTNAME= gtkmumble
PORTVERSION= 0.10
PORTREVISION= 1
PKGNAME becomes
gtkmumble-0.10_1
A new version is released by the vendor, numbered 0.2
(it turns out the author actually intended
0.10 to actually mean
0.1.0 , not what comes after
0.9
- oops, too late now). Since the new minor
version 2 is numerically less than the
previous version 10 , the
PORTEPOCH must be bumped to manually
force the new package to be detected as newer
. Since it
is a new vendor release of the code,
PORTREVISION is reset to 0 (or removed
from the Makefile ).
PORTNAME= gtkmumble
PORTVERSION= 0.2
PORTEPOCH= 1
PKGNAME becomes
gtkmumble-0.2,1
The next release is 0.3. Since
PORTEPOCH never decreases, the version
variables are now:
PORTNAME= gtkmumble
PORTVERSION= 0.3
PORTEPOCH= 1
PKGNAME becomes
gtkmumble-0.3,1
If PORTEPOCH were reset
to 0 with this upgrade, someone who had
installed the gtkmumble-0.10_1 package would not detect
the gtkmumble-0.3 package as newer, since
3 is still numerically less than
10 . Remember, this is the whole point of
PORTEPOCH in the first place.
PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX
Two optional variables, PKGNAMEPREFIX and
PKGNAMESUFFIX , are combined with
PORTNAME and
PORTVERSION to
form PKGNAME as
${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}${PKGNAMESUFFIX}-${PORTVERSION} .
Make sure this conforms to our guidelines for a good package
name. In particular, you are not allowed to use a
hyphen (- ) in
PORTVERSION . Also, if the package name
has the language- or the
-compiled.specifics part (see below), use
PKGNAMEPREFIX and
PKGNAMESUFFIX , respectively. Do not make
them part of PORTNAME .
Package Naming Conventions
The following are the conventions you should follow in naming your
packages. This is to have our package directory easy to scan, as
there are already thousands of packages and users are going to
turn away if they hurt their eyes!
The package name should look like
language_region -name- compiled.specifics -version.numbers .
The package name is defined as
${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}${PKGNAMESUFFIX}-${PORTVERSION} .
Make sure to set the variables to conform to that format.
FreeBSD strives to support the native language of its users.
The language- part should be a two
letter abbreviation of the natural language defined by ISO-639 if
the port is specific to a certain language. Examples are
ja for Japanese, ru for
Russian, vi for Vietnamese,
zh for Chinese, ko for
Korean and de for German.
If the port is specific to a certain region within the
language area, add the two letter country code as well.
Examples are en_US for US English and
fr_CH for Swiss French.
The language- part should
be set in the PKGNAMEPREFIX variable.
The first letter of name part
should be lowercase. (The rest of the name can contain
capital letters, so use your own discretion when you are
converting a software name that has some capital letters in it.)
There is a tradition of naming perl 5 modules by
prepending p5- and converting the double-colon
separator to a hyphen; for example, the
Data::Dumper module becomes
p5-Data-Dumper . If the software in question
has numbers, hyphens, or underscores in its name, you may include
them as well (like kinput2 ).
If the port can be built with different hardcoded defaults (usually
part of the directory name in a family of ports), the
-compiled.specifics part should state
the compiled-in defaults (the hyphen is optional). Examples are
papersize and font units.
The -compiled.specifics part
should be set in the PKGNAMESUFFIX
variable.
The version string should follow a dash
(- ) and be a period-separated list of
integers and single lowercase alphabetics. In particular,
it is not permissible to have another dash inside the
version string. The only exception is the string
pl (meaning patchlevel
), which can be
used only when there are no major and
minor version numbers in the software. If the software
version has strings like alpha
, beta
, rc
, or pre
, take
the first letter and put it immediately after a period.
If the version string continues after those names, the
numbers should follow the single alphabet without an extra
period between them.
The idea is to make it easier to sort ports by looking
at the version string. In particular, make sure version
number components are always delimited by a period, and
if the date is part of the string, use the
yyyy .mm .dd
format, not
dd .mm .yyyy
or the non-Y2K compliant
yy .mm .dd
format.
Here are some (real) examples on how to convert the name
as called by the software authors to a suitable package
name:
Distribution Name
PKGNAMEPREFIX
PORTNAME
PKGNAMESUFFIX
PORTVERSION
Reason
mule-2.2.2
(empty)
mule
(empty)
2.2.2
No changes required
XFree86-3.3.6
(empty)
XFree86
(empty)
3.3.6
No changes required
EmiClock-1.0.2
(empty)
emiclock
(empty)
1.0.2
No uppercase names for single programs
rdist-1.3alpha
(empty)
rdist
(empty)
1.3.a
No strings like alpha
allowed
es-0.9-beta1
(empty)
es
(empty)
0.9.b1
No strings like beta
allowed
mailman-2.0rc3
(empty)
mailman
(empty)
2.0.r3
No strings like rc
allowed
v3.3beta021.src
(empty)
tiff
(empty)
3.3
What the heck was that anyway?
tvtwm
(empty)
tvtwm
(empty)
pl11
Version string always required
piewm
(empty)
piewm
(empty)
1.0
Version string always required
xvgr-2.10pl1
(empty)
xvgr
(empty)
2.10.1
pl allowed only when no
major/minor version numbers
gawk-2.15.6
ja-
gawk
(empty)
2.15.6
Japanese language version
psutils-1.13
(empty)
psutils
-letter
1.13
Papersize hardcoded at package build time
pkfonts
(empty)
pkfonts
300
1.0
Package for 300dpi fonts
If there is absolutely no trace of version information in the
original source and it is unlikely that the original author will ever
release another version, just set the version string to
1.0 (like the piewm example above). Otherwise, ask
the original author or use the date string
(yyyy .mm .dd )
as the version.
Categorization
CATEGORIES
When a package is created, it is put under
/usr/ports/packages/All and links are made from
one or more subdirectories of
/usr/ports/packages . The names of these
subdirectories are specified by the variable
CATEGORIES . It is intended to make life easier
for the user when he is wading through the pile of packages on the
FTP site or the CDROM. Please take a look at the current list of categories and pick the ones
that are suitable for your port.
This list also determines where in the ports tree the port is
imported. If you put more than one category here, it is assumed
that the port files will be put in the subdirectory with the name in
the first category. See below for more
discussion about how to pick the right categories.
Current list of categories
Here is the current list of port categories. Those
marked with an asterisk (* ) are
virtual categories—those that do not have
a corresponding subdirectory in the ports tree. They are only
used as secondary categories, and only for search purposes.
For non-virtual categories, you will find a one-line
description in the COMMENT in that
subdirectory's Makefile .
Category
Description
Notes
accessibility
Ports to help disabled users.
afterstep*
Ports to support the
AfterStep
window manager.
arabic
Arabic language support.
archivers
Archiving tools.
astro
Astronomical ports.
audio
Sound support.
benchmarks
Benchmarking utilities.
biology
Biology-related software.
cad
Computer aided design tools.
chinese
Chinese language support.
comms
Communication software.
Mostly software to talk to your serial port.
converters
Character code converters.
databases
Databases.
deskutils
Things that used to be on the desktop before
computers were invented.
devel
Development utilities.
Do not put libraries here just because they are
libraries—unless they truly do not belong anywhere
else, they should not be in this category.
dns
DNS-related software.
editors
General editors.
Specialized editors go in the section for those
tools (e.g., a mathematical-formula editor will go
in math ).
elisp*
Emacs-lisp ports.
emulators
Emulators for other operating systems.
Terminal emulators do not belong
here—X-based ones should go to
x11 and text-based ones to either
comms or misc ,
depending on the exact functionality.
finance
Monetary, financial and related applications.
french
French language support.
ftp
FTP client and server utilities.
If your port speaks both FTP and HTTP, put it in
ftp with a secondary
category of www .
games
Games.
german
German language support.
gnome*
Ports from the GNOME
Project.
graphics
Graphics utilities.
hamradio*
Software for amateur radio.
haskell*
Software related to the Haskell language.
hebrew
Hebrew language support.
hungarian
Hungarian language support.
ipv6*
IPv6 related software.
irc
Internet Relay Chat utilities.
japanese
Japanese language support.
java
Software related to the Java language.
The java category shall not be
the only one for a port. Save for ports directly related to
the Java language, porters are also encouraged not to
use java as the main category of a
port.
kde*
Ports from the K Desktop Environment (KDE)
Project.
korean
Korean language support.
lang
Programming languages.
linux*
Linux applications and support utilities.
lisp*
Software related to the Lisp language.
mail
Mail software.
math
Numerical computation software and other utilities
for mathematics.
mbone
MBone applications.
misc
Miscellaneous utilities
Basically things that
do not belong anywhere else.
If at all possible, try to
find a better category for your port than
misc , as ports tend to get overlooked
in here.
multimedia
Multimedia software.
net
Miscellaneous networking software.
net-im
Instant messaging software.
net-mgmt
Networking management software.
net-p2p
Peer to peer network applications.
news
USENET news software.
palm
Software support for the Palm™ series.
parallel*
Applications dealing with parallelism in computing.
pear*
Ports related to the Pear PHP framework.
perl5*
Ports that require Perl version 5 to run.
plan9*
Various programs from Plan9 .
polish
Polish language support.
portuguese
Portuguese language support.
print
Printing software.
Desktop publishing tools
(previewers, etc.) belong here too.
python*
Software related to the Python language.
ruby*
Software related to the Ruby language.
rubygems*
Ports of RubyGems packages.
russian
Russian language support.
scheme*
Software related to the Scheme language.
science
Scientific ports that do not fit into other
categories such as astro ,
biology and
math .
security
Security utilities.
shells
Command line shells.
sysutils
System utilities.
tcl80*
Ports that use Tcl version 8.0 to run.
tcl81*
Ports that use Tcl version 8.1 to run.
tcl82*
Ports that use Tcl version 8.2 to run.
tcl83*
Ports that use Tcl version 8.3 to run.
tcl84*
Ports that use Tcl version 8.4 to run.
textproc
Text processing utilities.
It does not include
desktop publishing tools, which go to print .
tk80*
Ports that use Tk version 8.0 to run.
tk82*
Ports that use Tk version 8.2 to run.
tk83*
Ports that use Tk version 8.3 to run.
tk84*
Ports that use Tk version 8.4 to run.
tkstep80*
Ports that use TkSTEP version 8.0 to run.
ukrainian
Ukrainian language support.
vietnamese
Vietnamese language support.
windowmaker*
Ports to support the WindowMaker window
manager.
www
Software related to the World Wide Web.
HTML language
support belongs here too.
x11
The X Window System and friends.
This category is only
for software that directly supports the window system. Do not
put regular X applications here; most of them should go
into other x11-* categories (see below).
If your port is an X
application, define USE_XLIB (implied by
USE_IMAKE ) and put it in the appropriate
category.
x11-clocks
X11 clocks.
x11-fm
X11 file managers.
x11-fonts
X11 fonts and font utilities.
x11-servers
X11 servers.
x11-themes
X11 themes.
x11-toolkits
X11 toolkits.
x11-wm
X11 window managers.
xfce*
Ports relating to the
Xfce desktop
environment.
zope*
Zope support.
Choosing the right category
As many of the categories overlap, you often have to choose
which of the categories should be the primary category of your port.
There are several rules that govern this issue. Here is the list of
priorities, in decreasing order of precedence:
The first category must be a physical category (see
above). This is
necessary to make the packaging work. Virtual categories and
physical categories may be intermixed after that.
Language specific categories always come first. For
example, if your port installs Japanese X11 fonts, then your
CATEGORIES line would read japanese
x11-fonts .
Specific categories are listed before less-specific ones. For
instance, an HTML editor should be listed as www
editors , not the other way around. Also, you should not
list net when the port belongs to
any of irc , mail ,
mbone , news ,
security , or www , as
net is included implicitly.
x11 is used as a secondary category only
when the primary category is a natural language. In particular,
you should not put x11 in the category line
for X applications.
Emacs modes should be
placed in the same ports category as the application
supported by the mode, not in
editors . For example, an
Emacs mode to edit source
files of some programming language should go into
lang .
misc
should not appear with any other non-virtual category.
If you have misc with something else in
your CATEGORIES line, that means you can
safely delete misc and just put the port
in that other subdirectory!
If your port truly does not belong anywhere else, put it in
misc .
If you are not sure about the category, please put a comment to
that effect in your &man.send-pr.1; submission so we can
discuss it before we import it. If you are a committer, send a note
to the &a.ports; so we can discuss it first. Too often, new ports are
imported to the wrong category only to be moved right away.
This causes unnecessary and undesirable bloat in the master
source repository.
Proposing a new category
As the Ports Collection has grown over time, various new
categories have been introduced. New categories can either
be virtual categories—those that do
not have a corresponding subdirectory in the ports tree—
or physical categories—those that
do. The following text discusses the issues involved in creating
a new physical category so that you can understand them before
you propose one.
Our existing practice has been to avoid creating a new
physical category unless either a large number of ports would
logically belong to it, or the ports that would belong to it
are a logically distinct group that is of limited general
interest (for instance, categories related to spoken human
languages), or preferably both.
The rationale for this is that such a change creates a
fair amount of work for both the committers and also
for all users who track changes to the Ports Collection. In
addition, proposed category changes just naturally seem to
attract controversy. (Perhaps this is because there is no
clear consensus on when a category is too big
,
nor whether categories should lend themselves to browsing (and
thus what number of categories would be an ideal number), and
so forth.)
Here is the procedure:
Propose the new category on &a.ports;. You should
include a detailed rationale for the new category,
including why you feel the existing categories are not
sufficient, and the list of existing ports proposed to move.
(If there are new ports pending in
GNATS that would fit this
category, list them too.) If you are the maintainer and/or
submitter, respectively, mention that as it may help you
to make your case.
Participate in the discussion.
If it seems that there is support for your idea,
file a PR which includes both the rationale and the list
of existing ports that need to be moved. Ideally, this
PR should also include patches for the following:
Makefile s for the
new ports once they are repocopied
Makefile for the
new category
Makefile for the
old ports' categories
Makefile s for ports
that depend on the old ports
(for extra credit, you can include the other
files that have to change, as per the procedure
in the Committer's Guide.)
Since it affects the ports infrastructure and involves
not only performing repo-copies but also possibly running
regression tests on the build cluster, the PR should be
assigned to the &a.portmgr;.
If that PR is approved, a committer will need to follow
the rest of the procedure that is
outlined in the Committer's Guide .
Proposing a new virtual category should be similar to
the above but much less involved, since no ports will
actually have to move. In this case, the only patches to
include in the PR would be those to add the new category to the
CATEGORIES s of the affected ports.
Proposing reorganizing all the categories
Occasionally someone proposes reorganizing the categories
with either a 2-level structure, or some other kind of keyword
structure. To date, nothing has come of any of these proposals
because, while they are very easy to make, the effort involved to
retrofit the entire existing ports collection with any kind of
reorganization is daunting to say the very least. Please read
the history of these proposals in the mailing list archives before
you post this idea; furthermore, you should be prepared to be
challenged to offer a working prototype.
The distribution files
The second part of the Makefile describes the
files that must be downloaded in order to build the port, and where
they can be downloaded from.
DISTVERSION/DISTNAME
DISTNAME is the name of the port as
called by the authors of the software.
DISTNAME defaults to
${PORTNAME}-${PORTVERSION} , so override it only if necessary.
DISTNAME is only used in two places.
First, the distribution file list
(DISTFILES ) defaults to
${DISTNAME} ${EXTRACT_SUFX} .
Second, the distribution file is expected to extract into a
subdirectory named WRKSRC , which defaults
to work/${DISTNAME} .
Some vendor's distribution names which do not fit into the
${PORTNAME}-${PORTVERSION} -scheme can be handled
automatically by setting DISTVERSION .
PORTVERSION and DISTNAME will be
derived automatically, but can of course be overridden. The following
table lists some examples:
DISTVERSION
PORTVERSION
0.7.1d
0.7.1.d
10Alpha3
10.a3
3Beta7-pre2
3.b7.p2
8:f_17
8f.17
PKGNAMEPREFIX and
PKGNAMESUFFIX do not affect
DISTNAME . Also note that if
WRKSRC is equal to
work/${PORTNAME}-${PORTVERSION}
while the original source archive is named something other than
${PORTNAME}-${PORTVERSION}${EXTRACT_SUFX} ,
you should probably leave DISTNAME
alone— you are better off defining
DISTFILES than having to set both
DISTNAME and WRKSRC
(and possibly EXTRACT_SUFX ).
MASTER_SITES
Record the directory part of the FTP/HTTP-URL pointing at the
original tarball in MASTER_SITES . Do not forget
the trailing slash (/ )!
The make macros will try to use this
specification for grabbing the distribution file with
FETCH if they cannot find it already on the
system.
It is recommended that you put multiple sites on this list,
preferably from different continents. This will safeguard against
wide-area network problems. We are even planning to add support
for automatically determining the closest master site and fetching
from there; having multiple sites will go a long way towards
helping this effort.
If the original tarball is part of one of the popular
archives such as X-contrib, GNU, or Perl CPAN, you may be able
refer to those sites in an easy compact form using
MASTER_SITE_*
(e.g., MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB and
MASTER_SITE_PERL_GNU ). Simply set
MASTER_SITES to one of these variables and
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to the path within the
archive. Here is an example:
MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB}
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications
These variables are defined in
/usr/ports/Mk/bsd.sites.mk . There are
new entries added all the time, so make sure to check the
latest version of this file before submitting a port.
The user can also set the MASTER_SITE_*
variables in /etc/make.conf to override our
choices, and use their favorite mirrors of these popular archives
instead.
EXTRACT_SUFX
If you have one distribution file, and it uses an odd suffix to
indicate the compression mechanism, set
EXTRACT_SUFX .
For example, if the distribution file was named
foo.tgz instead of the more normal
foo.tar.gz , you would write:
DISTNAME= foo
EXTRACT_SUFX= .tgz
The USE_BZIP2 and USE_ZIP
variables automatically set EXTRACT_SUFX to
.tar.bz2 or .zip as necessary. If
neither of these are set then EXTRACT_SUFX
defaults to .tar.gz .
You never need to set both EXTRACT_SUFX and
DISTFILES .
DISTFILES
Sometimes the names of the files to be downloaded have no
resemblance to the name of the port. For example, it might be
called source.tar.gz or similar. In other
cases the application's source code might be in several different
archives, all of which must be downloaded.
If this is the case, set DISTFILES to be a
space separated list of all the files that must be
downloaded.
DISTFILES= source1.tar.gz source2.tar.gz
If not explicitly set, DISTFILES defaults to
${DISTNAME}${EXTRACT_SUFX} .
EXTRACT_ONLY
If only some of the DISTFILES must be
extracted—for example, one of them is the source code, while
another is an uncompressed document—list the filenames that
must be extracted in EXTRACT_ONLY .
DISTFILES= source.tar.gz manual.html
EXTRACT_ONLY= source.tar.gz
If none of the DISTFILES
should be uncompressed then set EXTRACT_ONLY to
the empty string.
EXTRACT_ONLY=
PATCHFILES
If your port requires some additional patches that are available
by FTP or HTTP, set PATCHFILES to the names of
the files and PATCH_SITES to the URL of the
directory that contains them (the format is the same as
MASTER_SITES ).
If the patch is not relative to the top of the source tree
(i.e., WRKSRC ) because it contains some extra
pathnames, set PATCH_DIST_STRIP accordingly. For
instance, if all the pathnames in the patch have an extra
foozolix-1.0/ in front of the filenames, then set
PATCH_DIST_STRIP=-p1 .
Do not worry if the patches are compressed; they will be
decompressed automatically if the filenames end with
.gz or .Z .
If the patch is distributed with some other files, such as
documentation, in a gzip'd tarball, you cannot just use
PATCHFILES . If that is the case, add the name
and the location of the patch tarball to
DISTFILES and MASTER_SITES .
Then, use the EXTRA_PATCHES variable to
point to those files and bsd.port.mk
will automatically apply them for you. In particular, do
not copy patch files into the
PATCHDIR directory—that directory may
not be writable.
The tarball will have been extracted alongside the
regular source by then, so there is no need to explicitly extract
it if it is a regular gzip'd or compress'd tarball. If you do the
latter, take extra care not to overwrite something that already
exists in that directory. Also, do not forget to add a command to
remove the copied patch in the pre-clean
target.
Multiple distribution files or patches from different
sites and subdirectories
(MASTER_SITES:n )
(Consider this to be a somewhat advanced topic
;
those new to this document may wish to skip this section at first).
This section has information on the fetching mechanism
known as both MASTER_SITES:n and
MASTER_SITES_NN . We will refer to this
mechanism as MASTER_SITES:n
hereon.
A little background first. OpenBSD has a neat feature
inside both DISTFILES and
PATCHFILES variables, both files and
patches can be postfixed with :n
identifiers where n both can be
[0-9] and denote a group designation.
For example:
DISTFILES= alpha:0 beta:1
In OpenBSD, distribution file alpha
will be associated with variable
MASTER_SITES0 instead of our common
MASTER_SITES and
beta with
MASTER_SITES1 .
This is a very interesting feature which can decrease
that endless search for the correct download site.
Just picture 2 files in DISTFILES and
20 sites in MASTER_SITES , the sites slow
as hell where beta is carried by all
sites in MASTER_SITES , and
alpha can only be found in the 20th
site. It would be such a waste to check all of them if
maintainer knew this beforehand, would it not? Not a good
start for that lovely weekend!
Now that you have the idea, just imagine more
DISTFILES and more
MASTER_SITES . Surely our
distfiles survey meister
would appreciate the
relief to network strain that this would bring.
In the next sections, information will follow on the
FreeBSD implementation of this idea. We improved a bit on
OpenBSD's concept.
Simplified information
This section tells you how to quickly prepare fine
grained fetching of multiple distribution files and
patches from different sites and subdirectories. We
describe here a case of simplified
MASTER_SITES:n usage. This will be
sufficient for most scenarios. However, if you need
further information, you will have to refer to the next
section.
Some applications consist of multiple distribution
files that must be downloaded from a number of different
sites. For example,
Ghostscript consists of the
core of the program, and then a large number of driver
files that are used depending on the user's printer. Some
of these driver files are supplied with the core, but many
others must be downloaded from a variety of different
sites.
To support this, each entry in
DISTFILES may be followed by a colon
and a tag name
. Each site listed in
MASTER_SITES is then followed by a
colon, and the tag that indicates which distribution files
should be downloaded from this site.
For example, consider an application with the source
split in two parts, source1.tar.gz
and source2.tar.gz , which must be
downloaded from two different sites. The port's
Makefile would include lines like
.
Simplified use of MASTER_SITES:n
with 1 file per site
MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.example1.com/:source1 \
ftp://ftp.example2.com/:source2
DISTFILES= source1.tar.gz:source1 \
source2.tar.gz:source2
Multiple distribution files can have the same tag.
Continuing the previous example, suppose that there was a
third distfile, source3.tar.gz , that
should be downloaded from
ftp.example2.com . The
Makefile would then be written like
.
Simplified use of MASTER_SITES:n
with more than 1 file per site
MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.example1.com/:source1 \
ftp://ftp.example2.com/:source2
DISTFILES= source1.tar.gz:source1 \
source2.tar.gz:source2 \
source3.tar.gz:source2
Detailed information
Okay, so the previous section example did not reflect
your needs? In this section we will explain in detail how
the fine grained fetching mechanism
MASTER_SITES:n works and how you can
modify your ports to use it.
Elements can be postfixed with
:n where
n is
[^:,]+ , i.e.,
n could conceptually be any
alphanumeric string but we will limit it to
[a-zA-Z_][0-9a-zA-Z_]+ for
now.
Moreover, string matching is case sensitive;
i.e., n is different from
N .
However, the following words cannot be used for
postfixing purposes since they yield special meaning:
default , all and
ALL (they are used internally in
item ).
Furthermore, DEFAULT is a special
purpose word (check item ).
Elements postfixed with :n
belong to the group n ,
:m belong to group
m and so forth.
Elements without a postfix are groupless, i.e.,
they all belong to the special group
DEFAULT . If you postfix any
elements with DEFAULT , you are just
being redundant unless you want to have an element
belonging to both DEFAULT and other
groups at the same time (check item ).
The following examples are equivalent but the
first one is preferred:
MASTER_SITES= alpha
MASTER_SITES= alpha:DEFAULT
Groups are not exclusive, an element may belong to
several different groups at the same time and a group
can either have either several different elements or
none at all. Repeated elements within the same group
will be simply that, repeated elements.
When you want an element to belong to several
groups at the same time, you can use the comma
operator (, ).
Instead of repeating it several times, each time
with a different postfix, we can list several groups
at once in a single postfix. For instance,
:m,n,o marks an element that
belongs to group m ,
n and o .
All the following examples are equivalent but the
last one is preferred:
MASTER_SITES= alpha alpha:SOME_SITE
MASTER_SITES= alpha:DEFAULT alpha:SOME_SITE
MASTER_SITES= alpha:SOME_SITE,DEFAULT
MASTER_SITES= alpha:DEFAULT,SOME_SITE
All sites within a given group are sorted
according to MASTER_SORT_AWK . All
groups within MASTER_SITES and
PATCH_SITES are sorted as
well.
Group semantics can be used in any of the
following variables MASTER_SITES ,
PATCH_SITES ,
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR ,
PATCH_SITE_SUBDIR ,
DISTFILES , and
PATCHFILES according to the
following syntax:
All MASTER_SITES ,
PATCH_SITES ,
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR and
PATCH_SITE_SUBDIR elements must
be terminated with the forward slash
/ character. If any elements
belong to any groups, the group postfix
:n
must come right after the terminator
/ . The
MASTER_SITES:n mechanism relies
on the existence of the terminator
/ to avoid confusing elements
where a :n is a valid part of
the element with occurrences where
:n denotes group
n . For compatibility purposes,
since the / terminator was not
required before in both
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR and
PATCH_SITE_SUBDIR elements, if
the postfix immediate preceding character is not
a / then :n
will be considered a valid part of the element
instead of a group postfix even if an element is
postfixed with :n . See both
and .
Detailed use of
MASTER_SITES:n in
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= old:n new/:NEW
Directories within group
DEFAULT -> old:n
Directories within group
NEW -> new
Detailed use of
MASTER_SITES:n with comma
operator, multiple files, multiple sites and
multiple subdirectories
MASTER_SITES= http://site1/%SUBDIR%/ http://site2/:DEFAULT \
http://site3/:group3 http://site4/:group4 \
http://site5/:group5 http://site6/:group6 \
http://site7/:DEFAULT,group6 \
http://site8/%SUBDIR%/:group6,group7 \
http://site9/:group8
DISTFILES= file1 file2:DEFAULT file3:group3 \
file4:group4,group5,group6 file5:grouping \
file6:group7
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= directory-trial:1 directory-n/:groupn \
directory-one/:group6,DEFAULT \
directory
The previous example results in the
following fine grained fetching. Sites are
listed in the exact order they will be
used.
file1 will be
fetched from
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE
http://site1/directory-trial:1/
http://site1/directory-one/
http://site1/directory/
http://site2/
http://site7/
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP
file2 will be
fetched exactly as
file1 since they
both belong to the same group
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE
http://site1/directory-trial:1/
http://site1/directory-one/
http://site1/directory/
http://site2/
http://site7/
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP
file3 will be
fetched from
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE
http://site3/
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP
file4 will be
fetched from
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE
http://site4/
http://site5/
http://site6/
http://site7/
http://site8/directory-one/
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP
file5 will be
fetched from
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP
file6 will be
fetched from
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE
http://site8/
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP
How do I group one of the special variables from
bsd.sites.mk , e.g.,
MASTER_SITE_SOURCEFORGE ?
See .
Detailed use of
MASTER_SITES:n with
MASTER_SITE_SOURCEFORGE
MASTER_SITES= http://site1/ ${MASTER_SITE_SOURCEFORGE:S/$/:sourceforge,TEST/}
DISTFILES= something.tar.gz:sourceforge
something.tar.gz will be
fetched from all sites within
MASTER_SITE_SOURCEFORGE .
How do I use this with PATCH*
variables?
All examples were done with
MASTER* variables but they work
exactly the same for PATCH* ones as
can be seen in .
Simplified use of
MASTER_SITES:n with
PATCH_SITES .
PATCH_SITES= http://site1/ http://site2/:test
PATCHFILES= patch1:test
What does change for ports? What does not?
All current ports remain the same. The
MASTER_SITES:n feature code is only
activated if there are elements postfixed with
:n like
elements according to the aforementioned syntax rules,
especially as shown in item .
The port targets remain the same:
checksum ,
makesum ,
patch ,
configure ,
build , etc. With the obvious
exceptions of do-fetch ,
fetch-list ,
master-sites and
patch-sites .
do-fetch : deploys the
new grouping postfixed
DISTFILES and
PATCHFILES with their matching
group elements within both
MASTER_SITES and
PATCH_SITES which use matching
group elements within both
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR and
PATCH_SITE_SUBDIR . Check .
fetch-list : works
like old fetch-list with
the exception that it groups just like
do-fetch .
master-sites and
patch-sites :
(incompatible with older versions) only return the
elements of group DEFAULT ; in
fact, they execute targets
master-sites-default and
patch-sites-default
respectively.
Furthermore, using target either
master-sites-all or
patch-sites-all is
preferred to directly checking either
MASTER_SITES or
PATCH_SITES . Also,
directly checking is not guaranteed to work in any
future versions. Check item
for more information on these new port
targets.
New port targets
There are
master-sites-n
and
patch-sites-n
targets which will list the elements of the
respective group n
within MASTER_SITES and
PATCH_SITES respectively. For
instance, both
master-sites-DEFAULT and
patch-sites-DEFAULT will
return the elements of group
DEFAULT ,
master-sites-test and
patch-sites-test of group
test , and thereon.
There are new targets
master-sites-all and
patch-sites-all which do
the work of the old
master-sites and
patch-sites ones. They
return the elements of all groups as if they all
belonged to the same group with the caveat that it
lists as many
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP and
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE as there
are groups defined within either
DISTFILES or
PATCHFILES ; respectively for
master-sites-all and
patch-sites-all .
DIST_SUBDIR
Do not let your port clutter
/usr/ports/distfiles . If your port requires a
lot of files to be fetched, or contains a file that has a name that
might conflict with other ports (e.g.,
Makefile ), set DIST_SUBDIR
to the name of the port (${PORTNAME} or
${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}
should work fine). This will change
DISTDIR from the default
/usr/ports/distfiles to
/usr/ports/distfiles/DIST_SUBDIR ,
and in effect puts everything that is required for your port into
that subdirectory.
It will also look at the subdirectory with the same name on the
backup master site at ftp.FreeBSD.org .
(Setting DISTDIR explicitly in your
Makefile will not accomplish this, so please use
DIST_SUBDIR .)
This does not affect the MASTER_SITES you
define in your Makefile .
ALWAYS_KEEP_DISTFILES
If your port uses binary distfiles and has a license that
requires that the source code is provided with packages distributed
in binary form, e.g. GPL, ALWAYS_KEEP_DISTFILES
will instruct the &os; build cluster to keep a copy of the files
specified in DISTFILES . Users of these ports
will generally not need these files, so it is a good idea to only
add the source distfiles to DISTFILES when
PACKAGE_BUILDING is defined.
Use of ALWAYS_KEEP_DISTFILES .
.if defined(PACKAGE_BUILDING)
DISTFILES+= foo.tar.gz
ALWAYS_KEEP_DISTFILES= yes
.endif
When adding extra files to DISTFILES ,
make sure you also add them to distinfo .
Also, the additional files will normally be extracted into
WRKDIR as well, which for some ports may
lead to undesirable sideeffects and require special handling.
MAINTAINER
Set your mail-address here. Please. :-)
Note that only a single address without the comment part is
allowed as a MAINTAINER value.
The format used should be user@hostname.domain .
Please do not include any descriptive text such as your real
name in this entry—that merely confuses
bsd.port.mk .
The maintainer is responsible for keeping the port up to
date, and ensuring the port works correctly.
For a detailed description of the responsibilities of a port
maintainer, refer to the The
challenge for port maintainers section.
Changes to the port will be sent to the maintainer of
a port for a review and an approval before being committed.
If the maintainer does not respond to an update
request after two weeks (excluding major public
holidays), then that is considered a maintainer timeout, and the
update may be made without explicit maintainer approval. If the
maintainer does not respond within three months, then that
maintainer is considered absent without leave, and can be
replaced as the maintainer of the particular port in question.
Exceptions to this are anything maintained by the &a.portmgr;, or
the &a.security-officer;. No unauthorized commits may ever be
made to ports maintained by those groups.
We reserve the right to modify the maintainer's submission
to better match existing policies and style of the Ports
Collection without explicit blessing from the submitter.
Also, large infrastructural changes can result in
a port being modified without maintainer's consent.
This kind of changes will never affect the port's
functionality.
The &a.portmgr; reserves the right to revoke or override
anyone's maintainership for any reason, and the &a.security-officer;
reserves the right to revoke or override maintainership for security
reasons.
Dependencies
Many ports depend on other ports. There are seven variables that
you can use to ensure that all the required bits will be on the
user's machine. There are also some pre-supported dependency
variables for common cases, plus a few more to control the behavior
of dependencies.
LIB_DEPENDS
This variable specifies the shared libraries this port depends
on. It is a list of
lib :dir :target
tuples where lib is the name of the
shared library, dir is the
directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and
target is the target to call in that
directory. For example,
LIB_DEPENDS= jpeg.9:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg
will check for a shared jpeg library with major version 9, and
descend into the graphics/jpeg subdirectory
of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found.
The target part can be omitted if it is
equal to DEPENDS_TARGET (which defaults to
install ).
The lib part is a regular
expression which is being looked up in the
ldconfig -r output. Values such as
intl.[5-7] and intl are
allowed. The first pattern,
intl.[5-7] , will match any of:
intl.5 , intl.6 or
intl.7 . The second pattern,
intl , will match any version of the
intl library.
The dependency is checked twice, once from within the
extract target and then from within the
install target. Also, the name of the
dependency is put into the package so that
&man.pkg.add.1; will automatically install it if it is
not on the user's system.
RUN_DEPENDS
This variable specifies executables or files this port depends
on during run-time. It is a list of
path :dir :target
tuples where path is the name of the
executable or file, dir is the
directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and
target is the target to call in that
directory. If path starts with a slash
(/ ), it is treated as a file and its existence
is tested with test -e ; otherwise, it is
assumed to be an executable, and which -s is
used to determine if the program exists in the search path.
For example,
RUN_DEPENDS= ${LOCALBASE}/etc/innd:${PORTSDIR}/news/inn \
wish8.0:${PORTSDIR}/x11-toolkits/tk80
will check if the file or directory
/usr/local/etc/innd exists, and build and
install it from the news/inn subdirectory of
the ports tree if it is not found. It will also see if an
executable called wish8.0 is in the search
path, and descend into the x11-toolkits/tk80
subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is
not found.
In this case, innd is actually an
executable; if an executable is in a place that is not expected
to be in the search path, you should use the full
pathname.
The official search PATH used on the ports
build cluster is
/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin
The dependency is checked from within the
install target. Also, the name of the
dependency is put into the package so that
&man.pkg.add.1; will automatically install it if it is
not on the user's system. The target
part can be omitted if it is the same as
DEPENDS_TARGET .
BUILD_DEPENDS
This variable specifies executables or files this port
requires to build. Like RUN_DEPENDS , it is a
list of
path :dir :target
tuples. For example, BUILD_DEPENDS=
unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip will check
for an executable called unzip , and descend
into the archivers/unzip subdirectory of your
ports tree to build and install it if it is not found.
build
here means everything from extraction to
compilation. The dependency is checked from within the
extract target. The
target part can be omitted if it is
the same as DEPENDS_TARGET
FETCH_DEPENDS
This variable specifies executables or files this port
requires to fetch. Like the previous two, it is a list of
path :dir :target
tuples. For example, FETCH_DEPENDS=
ncftp2:${PORTSDIR}/net/ncftp2 will check for an
executable called ncftp2 , and descend into the
net/ncftp2 subdirectory of your ports tree to
build and install it if it is not found.
The dependency is checked from within the
fetch target. The
target part can be omitted if it is the
same as DEPENDS_TARGET .
EXTRACT_DEPENDS
This variable specifies executables or files this port
requires for extraction. Like the previous, it is a list of
path :dir :target
tuples. For example, EXTRACT_DEPENDS=
unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip will check
for an executable called unzip , and descend
into the archivers/unzip subdirectory of
your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found.
The dependency is checked from within the
extract target. The
target part can be omitted if it is the
same as DEPENDS_TARGET .
Use this variable only if the extraction does not already
work (the default assumes gzip ) and cannot
be made to work using USE_ZIP or
USE_BZIP2 described in .
PATCH_DEPENDS
This variable specifies executables or files this port
requires to patch. Like the previous, it is a list of
path :dir :target
tuples. For example, PATCH_DEPENDS=
${NONEXISTENT}:${PORTSDIR}/java/jfc:extract
will descend into the
java/jfc subdirectory of your ports tree to
extract it.
The dependency is checked from within the
patch target. The
target part can be omitted if it is the
same as DEPENDS_TARGET .
PERL_BUILD_DEPENDS and
PERL_RUN_DEPENDS
These variables allow you to specify dependencies on Perl
modules. For example,
PERL_RUN_DEPENDS= MIME-Base64:${PORTSDIR}/converters/p5-MIME-Base64
will check for the MIME::Base64 Perl module
(note the replacement of ::
with -
) and install it if
it is missing.
DEPENDS
If there is a dependency that does not fall into either of the
above categories, or your port requires having the source of
the other port extracted in addition to having it installed,
then use this variable. This is a list of
dir :target ,
as there is nothing to check, unlike the previous four. The
target part can be omitted if it is the
same as DEPENDS_TARGET .
USE_*
A number of variables exist in order to encapsulate common
dependencies that many ports have. Although their use is
optional, they can help to reduce the verbosity of the port
Makefile s. Each of them is styled
as USE_* . The
usage of these variables is restricted to the port
Makefile s and
ports/Mk/bsd.*.mk and is not designed
to encapsulate user-settable options — use
WITH_* and
WITHOUT_*
for that purpose.
It is always incorrect to set
any USE_*
in /etc/make.conf . For instance,
setting USE_GCC=3.2
would adds a dependency on gcc32 for every port,
including gcc32 itself!
The USE_*
variables
Variable
Means
USE_BZIP2
The port's tarballs are compressed with
bzip2 .
USE_ZIP
The port's tarballs are compressed with
zip .
USE_BISON
The port uses bison for
building.
USE_GCC
The port requires a specific version of
gcc to build. The exact version can be
specified with value such as 3.2 .
The minimal required version can be specified as
3.2+ . The gcc from
the base system is used when it satisfies the requested
version, otherwise an appropriate gcc is
compiled from ports and the CC and
CXX variables are adjusted.
USE_GCC can't be used together with
USE_AUTOTOOLS=libtool:XX .
Variables related to gmake and
the configure script are described in
, while
autoconf ,
automake and
libtool are described in
. Perl
related variables are described in .
X11 variables are listed in . deals with GNOME and with KDE related variables. documents Java variables, while contains information on
Apache , PHP
and PEAR modules. Python is discussed
in , while
Ruby in .
Finally, provides variables used for
SDL applications.
Minimal version of a dependency
A minimal version of a dependency can be specified in any
*_DEPENDS variable using the following
syntax:
p5-Spiffy>=0.26:${PORTSDIR}/devel/p5-Spiffy
The first field contains a dependent package name,
which must match the entry in the package database,
a comparison sign, and a package version. The dependency
is satisfied if p5-Spiffy-0.26 or newer is installed on
the machine.
Notes on dependencies
As mentioned above, the default target to call when a
dependency is required is DEPENDS_TARGET .
It defaults to install . This is a user
variable; it is never defined in a port's
Makefile . If your port needs a special way
to handle a dependency, use the :target part of
the *_DEPENDS variables instead of redefining
DEPENDS_TARGET .
When you type make clean , its dependencies
are automatically cleaned too. If you do not wish this to happen,
define the variable NOCLEANDEPENDS in your
environment. This may be particularly desirable if the port
has something that takes a long time to rebuild in its
dependency list, such as KDE, GNOME or Mozilla.
To depend on another port unconditionally, use the
variable ${NONEXISTENT} as the first field
of BUILD_DEPENDS or
RUN_DEPENDS . Use this only when you need to
get the source of the other port. You can often save
compilation time by specifying the target too. For
instance
BUILD_DEPENDS= ${NONEXISTENT}:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:extract
will always descend to the jpeg port and extract it.
Do not use DEPENDS unless there is no other
way the behavior you want can be accomplished. It will cause the
other port to always be built (and installed, by default), and the
dependency will go into the packages as well. If this is really
what you need, you should probably write it as
BUILD_DEPENDS and
RUN_DEPENDS instead—at least the
intention will be clear.
Circular dependencies are fatal
Do not introduce any circular dependencies into the
ports tree!
The ports building technology does not tolerate
circular dependencies. If you introduce one, you will have
someone, somewhere in the world, whose FreeBSD installation will
break almost immediately, with many others quickly to follow.
These can really be hard to detect; if in doubt, before
you make that change, make sure you have done the following:
cd /usr/ports; make index . That process
can be quite slow on older machines, but you may be able to
save a large number of people—including yourself—
a lot of grief in the process.
MASTERDIR
If your port needs to build slightly different versions of
packages by having a variable (for instance, resolution, or paper
size) take different values, create one subdirectory per package to
make it easier for users to see what to do, but try to share as many
files as possible between ports. Typically you only need a very short
Makefile in all but one of the directories if you
use variables cleverly. In the sole Makefile ,
you can use MASTERDIR to specify the directory
where the rest of the files are. Also, use a variable as part of
PKGNAMESUFFIX so
the packages will have different names.
This will be best demonstrated by an example. This is part of
japanese/xdvi300/Makefile ;
PORTNAME= xdvi
PORTVERSION= 17
PKGNAMEPREFIX= ja-
PKGNAMESUFFIX= ${RESOLUTION}
:
# default
RESOLUTION?= 300
.if ${RESOLUTION} != 118 && ${RESOLUTION} != 240 && \
${RESOLUTION} != 300 && ${RESOLUTION} != 400
@${ECHO} "Error: invalid value for RESOLUTION: \"${RESOLUTION}\""
@${ECHO} "Possible values are: 118, 240, 300 (default) and 400."
@${FALSE}
.endif
japanese/xdvi300 also has all the regular
patches, package files, etc. If you type make
there, it will take the default value for the resolution (300) and
build the port normally.
As for other resolutions, this is the entire
xdvi118/Makefile :
RESOLUTION= 118
MASTERDIR= ${.CURDIR}/../xdvi300
.include "${MASTERDIR}/Makefile"
(xdvi240/Makefile and
xdvi400/Makefile are similar). The
MASTERDIR definition tells
bsd.port.mk that the regular set of
subdirectories like FILESDIR and
SCRIPTDIR are to be found under
xdvi300 . The RESOLUTION=118
line will override the RESOLUTION=300 line in
xdvi300/Makefile and the port will be built with
resolution set to 118.
Manpages
The MAN[1-9LN] variables will automatically add
any manpages to pkg-plist (this means you must
not list manpages in the
pkg-plist —see generating PLIST for more). It also
makes the install stage automatically compress or uncompress manpages
depending on the setting of NOMANCOMPRESS in
/etc/make.conf .
If your port tries to install multiple names for manpages using
symlinks or hardlinks, you must use the MLINKS
variable to identify these. The link installed by your port will
be destroyed and recreated by bsd.port.mk
to make sure it points to the correct file. Any manpages
listed in MLINKS must not be listed in the
pkg-plist .
To specify whether the manpages are compressed upon installation,
use the MANCOMPRESSED variable. This variable can
take three values, yes , no and
maybe . yes means manpages are
already installed compressed, no means they are
not, and maybe means the software already respects
the value of NOMANCOMPRESS so
bsd.port.mk does not have to do anything
special.
MANCOMPRESSED is automatically set to
yes if USE_IMAKE is set and
NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES is not set, and to
no otherwise. You do not have to explicitly define
it unless the default is not suitable for your port.
If your port anchors its man tree somewhere other than
PREFIX , you can use the
MANPREFIX to set it. Also, if only manpages in
certain sections go in a non-standard place, such as some perl modules
ports, you can set individual man paths using
MANsect PREFIX (where
sect is one of 1-9 ,
L or N ).
If your manpages go to language-specific subdirectories, set the
name of the languages to MANLANG . The value of
this variable defaults to "" (i.e., English
only).
Here is an example that puts it all together.
MAN1= foo.1
MAN3= bar.3
MAN4= baz.4
MLINKS= foo.1 alt-name.8
MANLANG= "" ja
MAN3PREFIX= ${PREFIX}/share/foobar
MANCOMPRESSED= yes
This states that six files are installed by this port;
${PREFIX}/man/man1/foo.1.gz
${PREFIX}/man/ja/man1/foo.1.gz
${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/man3/bar.3.gz
${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/ja/man3/bar.3.gz
${PREFIX}/man/man4/baz.4.gz
${PREFIX}/man/ja/man4/baz.4.gz
Additionally ${PREFIX}/man/man8/alt-name.8.gz
may or may not be installed by your port. Regardless, a
symlink will be made to join the foo(1) manpage and
alt-name(8) manpage.
Info files
If your package needs to install GNU info files, they should be
listed in the INFO variable (without the trailing
.info ), and appropriate installation/de-installation
code will be automatically added to the temporary
pkg-plist before package registration.
Makefile Options
Some large applications can be built in a number of
configurations, adding functionality if one of a number of
libraries or applications is available. Examples include
choice of natural (human) language, GUI versus command-line,
or type of database to support. Since not all users
want those libraries or applications, the ports system
provides hooks that the port author can use to control which
configuration should be built. Supporting these properly will
make users happy, and effectively provide 2 or more ports for the
price of one.
KNOBS
WITH_* and
WITHOUT_*
These variables are designed to be set by the system
administrator. There are many that are standardized in
ports/Mk/bsd.*.mk ; others are not,
which can be confusing. If you need to add such a
configuration variable, please consider using one of the
ones from the following list.
You should not assume that a
WITH_*
necessarily has a corresponding
WITHOUT_*
variable and vice versa. In general, the default is
simply assumed.
Unless otherwise specified, these variables are only
tested for being set or not set, rather than being set to
some kind of variable such as YES or
NO .
The WITH_*
and WITHOUT_*
variables
Variable
Means
WITH_APACHE2
If set, use
www/apache2
instead of the default of
www/apache .
WITH_BERKELEY_DB
Define this variable to specify the ability to
use a variant of the Berkeley database package such as
databases/db41 .
An associated variable,
WITH_BDB_VER , may be
set to values such as 2, 3, 4, 41 or 42.
WITH_MYSQL
Define this variable to specify the ability to
use a variant of the MySQL database package such as
databases/mysql40-server .
An associated variable,
WANT_MYSQL_VER , may be
set to values such as 323, 40, 41, or 50.
WITHOUT_NLS
If set, says that internationalization is not
needed, which can save compile time. By default,
internationalization is used.
WITH_OPENSSL_BASE
Use the version of OpenSSL in the base system.
WITH_OPENSSL_PORT
Use the version of OpenSSL from
security/openssh ,
overwriting the version that was originally installed
in the base system.
WITH_POSTGRESQL
Define this variable to specify the ability to
use a variant of the PostGreSQL database package such as
databases/postgresql72 .
WITHOUT_X11
If the port can be built both with and without
X support, then it should normally be built with
X support. If this variable is defined, then
the version that does not have X support should
be built instead.
Knob naming
It is recommended that porters use like-named knobs, for the
benefit of end-users and to help keep the number of knob names down.
A list of popular knob names can be found in the
KNOBS
file.
Knob names should reflect what the knob is and does.
When a port has a lib-prefix in the PORTNAME
the lib-prefix should be dropped in knob naming.
OPTIONS
Background
The OPTIONS variable gives the user who
installs the port a dialog with the available options and saves
them to /var/db/ports/portname /options .
Next time when the port has to be rebuild, the options are reused.
Never again you will have to remember all the twenty
WITH_* and
WITHOUT_* options you
used to build this port!
When the user runs make config (or runs
make build for the first time), the framework will
check for
/var/db/ports/portname /options .
If that file does not exist, it will use the values of
OPTIONS to create a dialogbox where the options
can be enabled or disabled. Then the
options file is saved and the selected
variables will be used when building the port.
Use make showconfig to see the saved
configuration. Use make rmconfig to remove the
saved configuration.
Syntax
The syntax for the OPTIONS variable is:
OPTIONS= OPTION "descriptive text" default ...
The value for default is either ON or
OFF . Multiple repetitions of these three fields
are allowed.
OPTIONS definition must appear before
the inclusion of bsd.port.pre.mk .
The WITH_* and WITHOUT_*
variables can only be tested after the inclusion of
bsd.port.pre.mk . Due to a deficiency
in the infrastructure, you can only test
WITH_* variables for options, which are
OFF by default, and
WITHOUT_* variables for options, which
defaults to ON .
Example
Simple use of OPTIONS
OPTIONS= FOO "Enable option foo" On \
BAR "Support feature bar" Off
.include <bsd.port.pre.mk>
.if defined(WITHOUT_FOO)
CONFIGURE_ARGS+= --without-foo
.else
CONFIGURE_ARGS+= --with-foo
.endif
.if defined(WITH_BAR)
RUN_DEPENDS+= bar:${PORTSDIR}/bar/bar
.endif
.include <bsd.port.post.mk>
Specifying the working directory
Each port is extracted in to a working directory, which must be
writable. The ports system defaults to having the
DISTFILES unpack in to a directory called
${DISTNAME} . In other words, if you have
set:
PORTNAME= foo
PORTVERSION= 1.0
then the port's distribution files contain a top-level directory,
foo-1.0 , and the rest of the files are located
under that directory.
There are a number of variables you can override if that is not the
case.
WRKSRC
The variable lists the name of the directory that is created when
the application's distfiles are extracted. If our previous example
extracted into a directory called foo (and not
foo-1.0 ) you would write:
WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/foo
or possibly
WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/${PORTNAME}
NO_WRKSUBDIR
If the port does not extract in to a subdirectory at all then
you should set NO_WRKSUBDIR to indicate
that.
NO_WRKSUBDIR= yes
CONFLICTS
If your package cannot coexist with other packages
(because of file conflicts, runtime incompatibility, etc.),
list the other package names in the CONFLICTS
variable. You can use shell globs like * and
? here. Packages names should be
enumerated the same way they appear in
/var/db/pkg . Please make sure that
CONFLICTS does not match this port's
package itself, or else forcing its installation with
FORCE_PKG_REGISTER will no longer work.
CONFLICTS automatically sets
IGNORE , which is more fully documented
in .
Special considerations
There are some more things you have to take into account when you
create a port. This section explains the most common of those.
Shared Libraries
If your port installs one or more shared libraries, define a
INSTALLS_SHLIB make variable, which will instruct
a bsd.port.mk to run
${LDCONFIG} -m on the directory where the
new library is installed (usually
PREFIX /lib ) during
post-install target to register it into the
shared library cache. This variable, when defined, will also
facilitate addition of an appropriate
@exec /sbin/ldconfig -m and
@unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R pair into your
pkg-plist file, so that a user who installed
the package can start using the shared library immediately and
de-installation will not cause the system to still believe the
library is there.
If you need, you can override the default location where the new
library is installed by defining the LDCONFIG_DIRS
make variable, which should contain a list of directories into which
shared libraries are to be installed. For example if your port
installs shared libraries into
PREFIX /lib/foo and
PREFIX /lib/bar directories
you could use the following in your
Makefile :
INSTALLS_SHLIB= yes
LDCONFIG_DIRS= %%PREFIX%%/lib/foo %%PREFIX%%/lib/bar
Remember that non-standard directories will not be passed to
&man.ldconfig.8; on (re-)boot! If any port really
needs this to work, install a startup-script as
x11/kdelibs3 does. Please
double-check, often this is not necessary at all or can be avoided
through -rpath or setting LD_RUN_PATH
during linking (see lang/moscow_ml
for an example), or through a shell-wrapper which sets
LD_LIBRARY_PATH before invoking the binary, like
www/mozilla does.
Note that content of LDCONFIG_DIRS is passed
through &man.sed.1; just like the rest of pkg-plist ,
so PLIST_SUB substitutions also apply here. It is
recommended that you use %%PREFIX%% for
PREFIX , %%LOCALBASE%% for
LOCALBASE and %%X11BASE%% for
X11BASE .
Try to keep shared library version numbers in the
libfoo.so.0 format. Our runtime linker only
cares for the major (first) number.
When the major library version number increments in the update
to the new port version, all other ports that link to the affected
library should have their PORTREVISION incremented,
to force recompilation with the new library version.
Ports with distribution restrictions
Licenses vary, and some of them place restrictions on how the
application can be packaged, whether it can be sold for profit, and so
on.
It is your responsibility as a porter to read the licensing
terms of the software and make sure that the FreeBSD project will
not be held accountable for violating them by redistributing the
source or compiled binaries either via FTP/HTTP or CD-ROM. If in doubt,
please contact the &a.ports;.
In situations like this, the variables described in the following
sections can be set.
NO_PACKAGE
This variable indicates that we may not generate a binary
package of the application. For instance, the license may
disallow binary redistribution, or it may prohibit distribution
of packages created from patched sources.
However, the port's DISTFILES may be
freely mirrored on FTP/HTTP. They may also be distributed on
a CD-ROM (or similar media) unless NO_CDROM
is set as well.
NO_PACKAGE should also be used if the binary
package is not generally useful, and the application should always
be compiled from the source code. For example, if the application
has configuration information that is site specific hard coded in to
it at compile time, set NO_PACKAGE .
NO_PACKAGE should be set to a string
describing the reason why the package should not be
generated.
NO_CDROM
This variable alone indicates that, although we are allowed
to generate binary packages, we may put neither those packages
nor the port's DISTFILES onto a CD-ROM (or
similar media) for resale. However, the binary packages and
the port's DISTFILES will still be available
via FTP/HTTP.
If this variable is set along with
NO_PACKAGE , then only the port's
DISTFILES will be available, and only via
FTP/HTTP.
NO_CDROM should be set to a string
describing the reason why the port cannot be redistributed
on CD-ROM. For instance, this should be used if the port's license
is for non-commercial
use only.
NOFETCHFILES
Files defined in the NOFETCHFILES
variable are not fetchable from any of the
MASTER_SITES . An example of such a
file is when the file is supplied on CD-ROM by the
vendor.
Tools which check for the availability of these files
on the MASTER_SITES should ignore these
files and not report about them.
RESTRICTED
Set this variable alone if the application's license permits
neither mirroring the application's DISTFILES
nor distributing the binary package in any way.
NO_CDROM or NO_PACKAGE
should not be set along with RESTRICTED
since the latter variable implies the former ones.
RESTRICTED should be set to a string
describing the reason why the port cannot be redistributed.
Typically, this indicates that the port contains proprietary
software and that the user will need to manually download the
DISTFILES , possibly after registering for the
software or agreeing to accept the terms of an
EULA .
RESTRICTED_FILES
When RESTRICTED or NO_CDROM
is set, this variable defaults to ${DISTFILES}
${PATCHFILES} , otherwise it is empty. If only some of the
distribution files are restricted, then set this variable to list
them.
Note that the port committer should add an entry to
/usr/ports/LEGAL for every listed distribution
file, describing exactly what the restriction entails.
Building mechanisms
make , gmake , and
imake
If your port uses GNU make , set
USE_GMAKE=yes .
Variables for ports related to gmake
Variable
Means
USE_GMAKE
The port requires gmake to
build.
GMAKE
The full path for gmake if it is not
in the PATH .
If your port is an X application that creates
Makefile files from
Imakefile files using
imake , then set
USE_IMAKE=yes . This will cause the
configure stage to automatically do an xmkmf -a .
If the -a flag is a problem for your port, set
XMKMF=xmkmf . If the port uses
imake but does not understand the
install.man target,
NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES=yes should be set.
If your port's source Makefile has
something else than all as the main build
target, set ALL_TARGET accordingly. Same goes
for install and
INSTALL_TARGET .
configure script
If your port uses the configure script to
generate Makefile files from
Makefile.in files, set
GNU_CONFIGURE=yes . If you want to give extra
arguments to the configure script (the default
argument is --prefix=${PREFIX}
${CONFIGURE_TARGET} ), set those
extra arguments in CONFIGURE_ARGS . Extra
environment variables can be passed using
CONFIGURE_ENV variable.
If your package uses GNU configure , and
the resulting executable file has a strange
name
like
i386-portbld-freebsd4.7- appname ,
you will need to additionally override the
CONFIGURE_TARGET variable to specify the
target in the way required by scripts generated by recent
versions of autoconf . Add the following line
immediately after the GNU_CONFIGURE=yes line
in your Makefile :
CONFIGURE_TARGET=--build=${MACHINE_ARCH}-portbld-freebsd${OSREL}
Variables for ports that use configure
Variable
Means
GNU_CONFIGURE
The port uses configure script to
prepare build.
HAS_CONFIGURE
Same as GNU_CONFIGURE , except
default configure target is not added to
CONFIGURE_ARGS .
CONFIGURE_ARGS
Additional arguments passed to
configure script.
CONFIGURE_ENV
Additional environment variables to be set
for configure script run.
CONFIGURE_TARGET
Override default configure target. Default value is
${MACHINE_ARCH}-portbld-freebsd${OSREL} .
Using GNU autotools
Introduction
The various GNU autotools provide an abstraction mechanism for
building a piece of software over a wide variety of operating
systems and machine architectures. Within the Ports Collection,
an individual port can make use of these tools via a simple
construct:
USE_AUTOTOOLS= tool :version [:operation ] ...
At the time of writing, tool can be
one of libtool , libltdl ,
autoconf , autoheader ,
automake or aclocal .
version specifies the particular
tool revision to be used (see
devel/{automake,autoconf,libtool}[0-9]+ for
valid versions).
operation is an optional extension
to modify how the tool is used.
Multiple tools can be specified at once, either by including
them all on a single line, or using the +=
Makefile construct.
Before proceeding any further, it cannot be stressed highly
enough that the constructs discussed here are for use ONLY in
building other ports. For cross-development work, the
devel/gnu-{automake,autoconf,libtool} ports
should be used, such as within an IDE. devel/anjuta and devel/kdevelop (GNOME and KDE
respectively) are good examples of how to achieve this.
libtool
Shared libraries using the GNU building framework usually use
libtool to adjust the compilation and
installation of shared libraries to match the specifics of the
underlying operating system. The Ports Collection provides a
number of versions of libtool modified for use by
&os;.
USE_AUTOTOOLS= libtool:version [:inc|:env]
With no additional operations,
libtool:version tells
the building framework that the port uses
libtool , implying
GNU_CONFIGURE . The configure script will be
patched with the system-installed copy of
libtool . Further, a number of make and shell
variables will be assigned for onward use by the port. See
bsd.autotools.mk for details.
With the :inc operation, the environment
will be set up, and a slightly different set of patching will be
performed.
With the :env operation, only the
environment will be set up.
Previously
USE_AUTOTOOLS construct
USE_LIBTOOL_VER=13
libtool:13
USE_INC_LIBTOOL_VER=15
libtool:15:inc
WANT_LIBTOOL_VER=15
libtool:15:env
Finally, LIBTOOLFLAGS and
LIBTOOLFILES can be optionally set to override
the most likely arguments to, and files patched by,
libtool . Most ports are unlikely to need this.
See bsd.autotools.mk for further
details.
libltdl
Some ports make use of the libltdl library
package, which is part of the libtool suite.
Use of this library does not automatically necessitate the use of
libtool itself, so a separate construct is
provided.
USE_AUTOTOOLS= libltdl:version
Currently, all this does is to bring in a
LIB_DEPENDS on the appropriate
libltdl port, and is provided as a convenience
function to help eliminate any dependencies on the autotools ports
outside of the USE_AUTOTOOLS framework. There
are no optional operations for this tool.
Previously
USE_AUTOTOOLS construct
USE_LIBLTDL=YES
libltdl:15
autoconf and
autoheader
Some ports do not contain a configure script, but do contain an
autoconf template in the configure.ac file.
You can use the following assignments to let
autoconf create the configure script, and also
have autoheader create template headers for use
by the configure script.
USE_AUTOTOOLS= autoconf:version [:env]
and
USE_AUTOTOOLS= autoheader:version
which also implies the use of
autoconf:version .
Similarly to libtool , the inclusion of the
optional :env operation simply sets up the
environment for further use. Without it, patching and
reconfiguration of the port is carried out.
Previously
USE_AUTOTOOLS construct
USE_AUTOCONF_VER=213
autoconf:213
WANT_AUTOCONF_VER=259
autoconf:259:env
USE_AUTOHEADER_VER=253
autoheader:253 (implies
autoconf:253 )
The additional optional variables
AUTOCONF_ARGS and
AUTOHEADER_ARGS can be overridden by the port
Makefile if specifically requested. As with
the libtool equivalents, most ports are unlikely
to need this.
automake and
aclocal
Some packages only contain Makefile.am
files. These have to be converted into
Makefile.in files using
automake , and the further processed by
configure to generate an actual
Makefile .
Similarly, packages occasionally do not ship with included
aclocal.m4 files, again required to build the
software. This can be achieved with aclocal ,
which scans configure.ac or
configure.in .
aclocal has a similar relationship to
automake as autoheader does
to autoconf , described in the previous section.
aclocal implies the use of
automake , thus we have:
USE_AUTOTOOLS= automake:version [:env ]
and
USE_AUTOTOOLS= aclocal:version
which also implies the use of
automake:version .
Similarly to libtool and
autoconf , the inclusion of the optional
:env operation simply sets up the environment
for further use. Without it, reconfiguration of the port is
carried out.
Previously
USE_AUTOTOOLS construct
USE_AUTOMAKE_VER=14
automake:14
WANT_AUTOMAKE_VER=15
automake:15:env
USE_ACLOCAL_VER=19
aclocal:19 (implies
automake:19 )
As with
autoconf and autoheader , both
automake and aclocal have
optional argument variables, AUTOMAKE_ARGS and
ACLOCAL_ARGS respectively, which may be
overriden by the port Makefile if
required.
Using perl
Variables for ports that use perl
Variable
Means
USE_PERL5
Says that the port uses perl 5 to build and run.
USE_PERL5_BUILD
Says that the port uses perl 5 to build.
USE_PERL5_RUN
Says that the port uses perl 5 to run.
PERL
The full path of perl 5 , either in the
system or installed from a port, but without the version
number. Use this if you need to replace
#!
lines in scripts.
PERL_CONFIGURE
Configure using Perl's MakeMaker. It implies
USE_PERL5 .
PERL_MODBUILD
Configure, build and install using Module::Build. It
implies PERL_CONFIGURE .
Read only variables
PERL_VERSION
The full version of perl installed (e.g.,
5.00503 ).
PERL_VER
The short version of perl installed (e.g.,
5.005 ).
PERL_LEVEL
The installed perl version as an integer of the form MNNNPP
(e.g., 500503 ).
PERL_ARCH
Where perl stores architecture dependent libraries.
Defaults to ${ARCH}-freebsd .
PERL_PORT
Name of the perl port that is
installed (e.g., perl5 ).
SITE_PERL
Directory name where site specific
perl packages go.
This value is added to PLIST_SUB.
Ports of Perl modules, which do not have an official website,
should link cpan.org in the WWW line of a
pkg-descr file. The suggested URL scheme is
http://search.cpan.org/dist/Module-Name .
Using X11
Variable definitions
Variables for ports that use X
USE_X_PREFIX
The port installs in X11BASE , not
PREFIX .
USE_XLIB
The port uses the X libraries.
USE_MOTIF
The port uses the Motif toolkit. Implies
USE_XPM .
USE_IMAKE
The port uses imake . Implies
USE_X_PREFIX .
XMKMF
Set to the path of xmkmf if not in the
PATH . Defaults to xmkmf
-a .
Variables for depending on individual parts of X11
X_IMAKE_PORT
Port providing imake and several
other utilities used to build X11.
X_LIBRARIES_PORT
Port providing X11 libraries.
X_CLIENTS_PORT
Port providing X clients.
X_SERVER_PORT
Port providing X server.
X_FONTSERVER_PORT
Port providing font server.
X_PRINTSERVER_PORT
Port providing print server.
X_VFBSERVER_PORT
Port providing virtual framebuffer server.
X_NESTSERVER_PORT
Port providing a nested X server.
X_FONTS_ENCODINGS_PORT
Port providing encodings for fonts.
X_FONTS_MISC_PORT
Port providing miscellaneous bitmap fonts.
X_FONTS_100DPI_PORT
Port providing 100dpi bitmap fonts.
X_FONTS_75DPI_PORT
Port providing 75dpi bitmap fonts.
X_FONTS_CYRILLIC_PORT
Port providing cyrillic bitmap fonts.
X_FONTS_TTF_PORT
Port providing &truetype; fonts.
X_FONTS_TYPE1_PORT
Port providing Type1 fonts.
X_MANUALS_PORT
Port providing developer oriented manual pages
Using X11 related variables in port
# Use X11 libraries and depend on
# font server as well as cyrillic fonts.
RUN_DEPENDS= ${X11BASE}/bin/xfs:${X_FONTSERVER_PORT} \
${X11BASE}/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/crox1c.pcf.gz:${X_FONTS_CYRILLIC_PORT}
USE_XLIB= yes
Ports that require Motif
If your port requires a Motif library, define
USE_MOTIF in the Makefile .
Default Motif implementation is
x11-toolkits/open-motif .
Users can choose
x11-toolkits/lesstif instead
by setting WANT_LESSTIF variable.
The MOTIFLIB variable will be set by
bsd.port.mk to reference the appropriate
Motif library. Please patch the source of your port to
use ${MOTIFLIB} wherever the Motif library is referenced in the original
Makefile or
Imakefile .
There are two common cases:
If the port refers to the Motif library as
-lXm in its Makefile or
Imakefile , simply substitute
${MOTIFLIB} for it.
If the port uses XmClientLibs in its
Imakefile , change it to
${MOTIFLIB} ${XTOOLLIB}
${XLIB} .
Note that MOTIFLIB (usually) expands to
-L/usr/X11R6/lib -lXm or
/usr/X11R6/lib/libXm.a , so there is no need to
add -L or -l in front.
X11 fonts
If your port installs fonts for the X Window System, put them in
X11BASE /lib/X11/fonts/local .
Getting fake DISPLAY using Xvfb
Some applications require a working X11 display for compilation to
succeed. This pose a problem for the FreeBSD package building
cluster, which operates headless. When the following canonical hack
is used, the package cluster will start the virtual framebuffer
X server. The working DISPLAY is then passed
to the build.
.if defined(PACKAGE_BUILDING)
BUILD_DEPENDS+= Xvfb:${X_VFBSERVER_PORT} \
${X11BASE}/lib/X11/fonts/misc/8x13O.pcf.gz:${X_FONTS_MISC_PORT}
.endif
Using GNOME
The FreeBSD/GNOME project uses its own set of variables
to define which GNOME components a
particular port uses. A
comprehensive
list of these variables exists within the FreeBSD/GNOME
project's homepage.
Using KDE
Variables for ports that use KDE
USE_QT_VER
The port uses the Qt toolkit. Possible values are
1 and
3 ; each specify the major version
of Qt to use. Sets both MOC and
QTCPPFLAGS to default appropriate
values.
USE_KDELIBS_VER
The port uses KDE libraries. Possible values are
3 ; each specify the major version
of KDE to use. Implies USE_QT_VER
of the appropriate version.
USE_KDEBASE_VER
The port uses KDE base. Possible values are
3 ; each specify the major version
of KDE to use. Implies USE_KDELIBS_VER
of the appropriate version.
MOC
Set to the path of moc .
Default set according to USE_QT_VER
value.
QTCPPFLAGS
Set the CPPFLAGS to use when
processing Qt code. Default set according to
USE_QT_VER value.
Using Java
Variable definitions
If your port needs a Java™ Development Kit (JDK) to
either build, run or even extract the distfile, then it should
define USE_JAVA .
There are several JDKs in the ports collection, from various
vendors, and in several versions. If your port must use one of
these versions, you can define which one. The most current
version is java/jdk14 .
Variables that may be set by ports that use Java
Variable
Means
USE_JAVA
Should be defined for the remaining variables to have any
effect.
JAVA_VERSION
List of space-separated suitable Java versions for
the port. An optional "+" allows you to
specify a range of versions (allowed values:
1.1[+] 1.2[+] 1.3[+] 1.4[+] ).
JAVA_OS
List of space-separated suitable JDK port operating
systems for the port (allowed values: native
linux ).
JAVA_VENDOR
List of space-separated suitable JDK port vendors for
the port (allowed values: freebsd bsdjava sun ibm
blackdown ).
JAVA_BUILD
When set, it means that the selected JDK port should
be added to the build dependencies of the port.
JAVA_RUN
When set, it means that the selected JDK port should
be added to the run dependencies of the port.
JAVA_EXTRACT
When set, it means that the selected JDK port should
be added to the extract dependencies of the port.
USE_JIKES
Whether the port should or should not use the
jikes bytecode compiler to build. When
no value is set for this variable, the port will use
jikes to build if available. You may
also explicitly forbid or enforce the use of
jikes (by setting 'no'
or 'yes' ). In the later case, devel/jikes will be added to build
dependencies of the port. In any case that jikes
is actually used in place of javac , then the
HAVE_JIKES variable is defined by
bsd.java.mk .
Below is the list of all settings a port will receive after
setting USE_JAVA :
Variables provided to ports that use Java
Variable
Value
JAVA_PORT
The name of the JDK port (e.g.
'java/jdk14' ).
JAVA_PORT_VERSION
The full version of the JDK port (e.g.
'1.4.2' ). If you only need the first
two digits of this version number, use
${JAVA_PORT_VERSION:C/^([0-9])\.([0-9])(.*)$/\1.\2/} .
JAVA_PORT_OS
The operating system used by the JDK port (e.g.
'linux' ).
JAVA_PORT_VENDOR
The vendor of the JDK port (e.g.
'sun' ).
JAVA_PORT_OS_DESCRIPTION
Description of the operating system used by the JDK port
(e.g. 'Linux' ).
JAVA_PORT_VENDOR_DESCRIPTION
Description of the vendor of the JDK port (e.g.
'FreeBSD Foundation' ).
JAVA_HOME
Path to the installation directory of the JDK (e.g.
'/usr/local/jdk1.3.1' ).
JAVAC
Path to the Java compiler to use (e.g.
'/usr/local/jdk1.1.8/bin/javac' or
'/usr/local/bin/jikes' ).
JAR
Path to the jar tool to use (e.g.
'/usr/local/jdk1.2.2/bin/jar' or
'/usr/local/bin/fastjar' ).
APPLETVIEWER
Path to the appletviewer utility (e.g.
'/usr/local/linux-jdk1.2.2/bin/appletviewer' ).
JAVA
Path to the java executable. Use
this for executing Java programs (e.g.
'/usr/local/jdk1.3.1/bin/java' ).
JAVADOC
Path to the javadoc utility
program.
JAVAH
Path to the javah program.
JAVAP
Path to the javap program.
JAVA_KEYTOOL
Path to the keytool utility program.
This variable is available only if the JDK is Java 1.2 or
higher.
JAVA_N2A
Path to the native2ascii tool.
JAVA_POLICYTOOL
Path to the policytool program.
This variable is available only if the JDK is Java 1.2 or
higher.
JAVA_SERIALVER
Path to the serialver utility
program.
RMIC
Path to the RMI stub/skeleton generator,
rmic .
RMIREGISTRY
Path to the RMI registry program,
rmiregistry .
RMID
Path to the RMI daemon program rmid .
This variable is only available if the JDK is Java 1.2
or higher.
JAVA_CLASSES
Path to the archive that contains the JDK class
files. On JDK 1.2 or later, this is
${JAVA_HOME}/jre/lib/rt.jar . Earlier
JDKs used
${JAVA_HOME}/lib/classes.zip .
HAVE_JIKES
Defined whenever jikes is used by
the port (see USE_JIKES above).
You may use the java-debug make target
to get information for debugging your port. It will display the
value of many of the forecited variables.
Additionally, the following constants are defined so all
Java ports may be installed in a consistent way:
Constants defined for ports that use Java
Constant
Value
JAVASHAREDIR
The base directory for everything related to Java.
Default: ${PREFIX}/share/java .
JAVAJARDIR
The directory where JAR files should be installed.
Default:
${JAVASHAREDIR}/classes .
JAVALIBDIR
The directory where JAR files installed by other
ports are located. Default:
${LOCALBASE}/share/java/classes .
The related entries are defined in both
PLIST_SUB (documented in
) and
SUB_LIST .
Building with Ant
When the port is to be built using Apache Ant, it has to
define USE_ANT . Ant is thus considered to be
the sub-make command. When no do-build target
is defined by the port, a default one will be set that simply
runs Ant according to MAKE_ENV ,
MAKE_ARGS and ALL_TARGETS .
This is similar to the USE_GMAKE mechanism,
which is documented in .
If jikes is used in place of
javac (see USE_JIKES in
), then Ant will automatically
use it to build the port.
Best practices
When porting a Java library, your port should install the
JAR file(s) in ${JAVAJARDIR} , and everything
else under ${JAVASHAREDIR}/${PORTNAME}
(except for the documentation, see below). In order to reduce
the packing file size, you may reference the JAR file(s) directly
in the Makefile . Just use the following
statement (where myport.jar is the name
of the JAR file installed as part of the port):
PLIST_FILES+= %%JAVAJARDIR%%/myport.jar
When porting a Java application, the port usually installs
everything under a single directory (including its JAR
dependencies). The use of
${JAVASHAREDIR}/${PORTNAME} is strongly
encouraged in this regard. It is up the porter to decide
whether the port should install the additional JAR dependencies
under this directory or directly use the already installed ones
(from ${JAVAJARDIR} ).
Regardless of the type of your port (library or application),
the additional documentation should be installed in the
same location as for
any other port. The JavaDoc tool is known to produce a
different set of files depending on the version of the JDK that
is used. For ports that do not enforce the use of a particular
JDK, it is therefore a complex task to specify the packing list
(pkg-plist ). This is one reason why
porters are strongly encouraged to use the
PORTDOCS macro. Moreover, even if you can
predict the set of files that will be generated by
javadoc , the size of the resulting
pkg-plist advocates for the use of
PORTDOCS .
The default value for DATADIR is
${PREFIX}/share/${PORTNAME} . It is a good
idea to override DATADIR to
${JAVASHAREDIR}/${PORTNAME} for Java ports.
Indeed, DATADIR is automatically added to
PLIST_SUB (documented in ) so you may use
%%DATADIR%% directly in
pkg-plist .
As for the choice of building Java ports from source or
directly installing them from a binary distribution, there is
no defined policy at the time of writing. However, people from
the &os; Java Project
encourage porters to have their ports built from source whenever
it is a trivial task.
All the features that have been presented in this section
are implemented in bsd.java.mk . If you
ever think that your port needs more sophisticated Java support,
please first have a look at the
bsd.java.mk CVS log as it usually takes some time to
document the latest features. Then, if you think the support
you are lacking would be beneficial to many other Java ports,
feel free to discuss it on the &a.java;.
Although there is a java category for
PRs, it refers to the JDK porting effort from the &os; Java
project. Therefore, you should submit your Java port in the
ports category as for any other port, unless
the issue you are trying to resolve is related to either a JDK
implementation or bsd.java.mk .
Similarly, there is a defined policy regarding the
CATEGORIES of a Java port, which is detailed
in .
Using Apache and PHP
Apache
Variables for ports that use Apache
USE_APACHE
The port requires Apache.
WITH_APACHE2
The port requires Apache 2.0. Without this variable,
the port will depend on Apache 1.3.
APXS
Full path to the apxs binary
(read-only variable).
PHP
Variables for ports that use PHP
USE_PHP
The port requires PHP. The value yes
adds a dependency on PHP. The list of required PHP extensions
can be specified instead. Example: pcre xml
gettext
DEFAULT_PHP_VER
Selects which major version of PHP will be installed as
a dependency when no PHP is installed yet. Default is
4 . Possible values: 4 ,
5
BROKEN_WITH_PHP
The port does not work with PHP of the given version.
Possible values: 4 ,
5
USE_PHPIZE
The port will be built as a PHP extension.
USE_PHPEXT
The port will be treated as a PHP extension, including
installation and registration in the extension registry.
USE_PHP_BUILD
Set PHP as a build dependency.
WANT_PHP_CLI
Want the CLI (command line) version of PHP.
WANT_PHP_CGI
Want the CGI version of PHP.
WANT_PHP_MOD
Want the Apache module version of PHP.
WANT_PHP_SCR
Want the CLI or the CGI version of PHP.
WANT_PHP_WEB
Want the Apache module or the CGI version of PHP.
WANT_PHP_PEAR
Want the PEAR framework.
PEAR modules
Porting PEAR modules is a very simple process.
Use the variables FILES ,
TESTS , DATA ,
SQLS , SCRIPTFILES ,
DOCS and EXAMPLES to list the
files you want to install. All listed files will be automatically
installed into the appropriate locations and added to
pkg-plist .
Include
${PORTSDIR}/devel/pear-PEAR/Makefile.common
on the last line of the Makefile .
Example Makefile for PEAR class
PORTNAME= Date
PORTVERSION= 1.4.3
CATEGORIES= devel www pear
MAINTAINER= example@domain.com
COMMENT= PEAR Date and Time Zone Classes
BUILD_DEPENDS= ${PEARDIR}/PEAR.php:${PORTSDIR}/devel/pear-PEAR
RUN_DEPENDS= ${BUILD_DEPENDS}
FILES= Date.php Date/Calc.php Date/Human.php Date/Span.php \
Date/TimeZone.php
TESTS= test_calc.php test_date_methods_span.php testunit.php \
testunit_date.php testunit_date_span.php wknotest.txt \
bug674.php bug727_1.php bug727_2.php bug727_3.php \
bug727_4.php bug967.php weeksinmonth_4_monday.txt \
weeksinmonth_4_sunday.txt weeksinmonth_rdm_monday.txt \
weeksinmonth_rdm_sunday.txt
DOCS= TODO
_DOCSDIR= .
.include <bsd.port.pre.mk>
.include "${PORTSDIR}/devel/pear-PEAR/Makefile.common"
.include <bsd.port.post.mk>
Using Python
Most useful variables for ports that use Python
USE_PYTHON
The port needs Python. Minimal required version can be
specified with values such as 2.3+ .
Version ranges can also be specified, by separating two version
numbers with a dash, e.g.: 2.1-2.3
USE_PYDISTUTILS
Use Python distutils for configuring, compiling and
installing. This is required when the port comes with
setup.py . This overrides the
do-build and
do-install targets
and may also override do-configure if
GNU_CONFIGURE is not defined.
PYTHON_PKGNAMEPREFIX
Used as a PKGNAMEPREFIX to distinguish
packages for different Python versions.
Example: py24-
PYTHON_SITELIBDIR
Location of the site-packages tree, that contains
installation path of Python (usually LOCALBASE ).
The PYTHON_SITELIBDIR variable can be very
useful when installing Python modules.
PYTHONPREFIX_SITELIBDIR
The PREFIX-clean variant of PYTHON_SITELIBDIR.
Always use
%%PYTHON_SITELIBDIR%% in
pkg-plist when possible. The default value of
%%PYTHON_SITELIBDIR%% is
lib/python%%PYTHON_VERSION%%/site-packages
PYTHON_CMD
Python interpreter command line, including version
number.
PYNUMERIC
Dependency line for numeric extension.
PYXML
Dependency line for XML extension (not needed for
Python 2.0 and higher as it is also in base distribution).
USE_TWISTED
Add dependency on twistedCore. The list of required
components can be specified as a value of this
variable. Example: web lore pair
flow
USE_ZOPE
Add dependency on Zope, a web application platform.
Change Python dependency to Python 2.3. Set
ZOPEBASEDIR containing a directory with
Zope installation.
A complete list of available variables can be found in
/usr/ports/Mk/bsd.python.mk .
Using Emacs
This section is yet to be written.
Using Ruby
Useful variables for ports that use Ruby
Variable
Description
USE_RUBY
The port requires Ruby.
USE_RUBY_EXTCONF
The port uses extconf.rb to
configure.
USE_RUBY_SETUP
The port uses setup.rb to
configure.
RUBY_SETUP
Set to the alternative name of
setup.rb . Common value is
install.rb .
The following table shows the selected variables available to port
authors via the ports infrastructure. These variables should be used
to install files into their proper locations. Use them in
pkg-plist as much as possible. These variables
should not be redefined in the port.
Selected read-only variables for ports that use Ruby
Variable
Description
Example value
RUBY_PKGNAMEPREFIX
Used as a PKGNAMEPREFIX to distinguish
packages for different Ruby versions.
ruby18-
RUBY_VERSION
Full version of Ruby in the form of
x.y.z .
1.8.2
RUBY_SITELIBDIR
Architecture independent libraries installation
path.
/usr/local/lib/ruby/site_ruby/1.8
RUBY_SITEARCHILIBDIR
Architecture dependent libraries installation
path.
/usr/local/lib/ruby/site_ruby/1.8/amd64-freebsd6
RUBY_MODDOCDIR
Module documentation installation path.
/usr/local/share/doc/ruby18/patsy
RUBY_MODEXAMPLESDIR
Module examples installation path.
/usr/local/share/examples/ruby18/patsy
A complete list of available variables can be found in
/usr/ports/Mk/bsd.ruby.mk .
Using SDL
The USE_SDL variable is used to autoconfigure
the dependencies for ports which use an SDL based library like
devel/sdl12 and
x11-toolkits/sdl_gui .
The following SDL libraries are recognized at the moment:
sdl: devel/sdl12
gfx: graphics/sdl_gfx
gui: x11-toolkits/sdl_gui
image: graphics/sdl_image
ldbad: devel/sdl_ldbad
mixer: audio/sdl_mixer
mm: devel/sdlmm
net: net/sdl_net
sound: audio/sdl_sound
ttf: graphics/sdl_ttf
Therefore, if a port has a dependency on
net/sdl_net and
audio/sdl_mixer ,
the syntax will be:
USE_SDL= net mixer
The dependency devel/sdl12 ,
which is required by net/sdl_net and
audio/sdl_mixer , is automatically
added as well.
If you use USE_SDL , it will automatically:
Add a dependency on sdl12-config to
BUILD_DEPENDS
Add the variable SDL_CONFIG to
CONFIGURE_ENV
Add the dependencies of the selected libraries to the
LIB_DEPENDS
To check whether an SDL library is available, you can do it
with the WANT_SDL variable:
WANT_SDL=yes
.include <bsd.port.pre.mk>
.if ${HAVE_SDL:Mmixer}!=""
USE_SDL+= mixer
.endif
.include <bsd.port.post.mk>
Starting and stopping services (rc scripts)
rc.d scripts are used to start services on system
startup, and to give administrators a standard way of stopping,
starting and restarting the service. Ports integrate into
the system rc.d framework. Details on usage
can be found in
the rc.d Handbook
chapter . Detailed explanation of available commands are in
&man.rc.8; and &man.rc.subr.8;.
One or more rc scripts can be installed:
USE_RC_SUBR= doorman.sh
Scripts must be placed in the files
subdirectory and a .in suffix must be added to their
filename. The only difference from a base system rc.d script is that the
. /etc/rc.subr line must be replaced with the
. %%RC_SUBR%% , because older versions of &os;
do not have an /etc/rc.subr file. Standard
SUB_LIST expansions are used too.
Use of the %%PREFIX%% ,
%%LOCALBASE%% , and
%%X11BASE%% expansions is strongly encouraged as well.
More on
SUB_LIST in the relevant section.
Prior to &os; 6.1-RELEASE, integration with &man.rcorder.8; is available by using
USE_RCORDER instead of
USE_RC_SUBR .
However, use of this method is deprecated.
As of &os; 6.1-RELEASE, local rc.d
scripts (including those installed by ports) are included in
the overall &man.rcorder.8; of the base system.
Example simple rc.d script:
#!/bin/sh
# PROVIDE: doorman
# REQUIRE: LOGIN
#
# Add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable doorman:
# doorman_enable (bool): Set to "NO" by default.
# Set it to "YES" to enable doorman
# doorman_config (path): Set to "%%PREFIX%%/etc/doormand/doormand.cf" by default.
#
. %%RC_SUBR%%
name="doorman"
rcvar=`set_rcvar`
load_rc_config $name
: ${doorman_enable="NO"}
: ${doorman_config="%%PREFIX%%/etc/doormand/doormand.cf"}
command=%%PREFIX%%/sbin/doormand
pidfile=/var/run/doormand.pid
command_args="-p $pidfile -f $doorman_config"
run_rc_command "$1"
The "=" style of default variable assignment
is preferable to the ":=" style here, since the
former sets a default value only if the variable is unset,
and the latter sets one if the variable is unset
or null.
A user might very well include something like
doorman_flags="" in their
rc.conf.local file, and a variable
substitution using ":=" would inappropriately
override the user's intention.
Advanced pkg-plist practices
Changing pkg-plist based on make
variables
Some ports, particularly the p5- ports,
need to change their pkg-plist depending on
what options they are configured with (or version of
perl , in the case of p5-
ports). To make this easy, any instances in the
pkg-plist of %%OSREL%% ,
%%PERL_VER%% , and
%%PERL_VERSION%% will be substituted for
appropriately. The value of %%OSREL%% is the
numeric revision of the operating system (e.g.,
4.9 ). %%PERL_VERSION%% is
the full version number of perl (e.g.,
5.00502 ) and %%PERL_VER%%
is the perl version number minus
the patchlevel (e.g., 5.005 ). Several other
%%VARS %% related to
port's documentation files are described in the relevant section.
If you need to make other substitutions, you can set the
PLIST_SUB variable with a list of
VAR =VALUE
pairs and instances of
%%VAR %% will be
substituted with VALUE in the
pkg-plist .
For instance, if you have a port that installs many files in a
version-specific subdirectory, you can put something like
OCTAVE_VERSION= 2.0.13
PLIST_SUB= OCTAVE_VERSION=${OCTAVE_VERSION}
in the Makefile and use
%%OCTAVE_VERSION%% wherever the version shows up
in pkg-plist . That way, when you upgrade the port,
you will not have to change dozens (or in some cases, hundreds) of
lines in the pkg-plist .
This substitution (as well as addition of any manual pages) will be done between
the pre-install and
do-install targets, by reading from
PLIST and writing to
TMPPLIST
(default:
WRKDIR /.PLIST.mktmp ). So if
your port builds PLIST
on the fly, do so in or
before pre-install . Also, if your port
needs to edit the resulting file, do so in
post-install to a file named
TMPPLIST .
Another possibility to modify port's packing list is based
on setting the variables PLIST_FILES and
PLIST_DIRS . The value of each variable
is regarded as a list of pathnames to
write to TMPPLIST
along with PLIST
contents. Names listed in PLIST_FILES
and PLIST_DIRS are subject to
%%VAR %%
substitution, as described above.
Except for that, names from PLIST_FILES
will appear in the final packing list unchanged,
while @dirrm will be
prepended to names from PLIST_DIRS .
To take effect, PLIST_FILES and
PLIST_DIRS must be set before
TMPPLIST is written,
i.e. in pre-install or earlier.
Empty directories
Cleaning up empty directories
Do make your ports remove empty directories when they are
de-installed. This is usually accomplished by adding
@dirrm lines for all directories that are
specifically created by the port. You need to delete subdirectories
before you can delete parent directories.
:
lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps/cat.xpm
lib/X11/oneko/sounds/cat.au
:
@dirrm lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps
@dirrm lib/X11/oneko/sounds
@dirrm lib/X11/oneko
However, sometimes @dirrm will give you
errors because other ports share the same directory. You
can use @dirrmtry to
remove only empty directories without warning.
@dirrmtry share/doc/gimp
This will neither print any error messages nor cause
&man.pkg.delete.1; to exit abnormally even if
${PREFIX} /share/doc/gimp is not
empty due to other ports installing some files in there.
Creating empty directories
Empty directories created during port installation need special
attention. They will not get created when installing the package,
because packages only store the files, and &man.pkg.add.1; creates
directories for them as needed. To make sure the empty directory
is created when installing the package, add this line to
pkg-plist above the corresponding
@dirrm line:
@exec mkdir -p %D/share/foo/templates
Configuration files
If your port requires some configuration files in
PREFIX /etc , do
not just install them and list them in
pkg-plist . That will cause
&man.pkg.delete.1; to delete files carefully edited by
the user and a new installation to wipe them out.
Instead, install sample files with a suffix
(filename .sample
will work well). Copy the sample file as the real configuration
file, if it does not exist. On deinstall, delete the configuration
file, but only if it was not modified by the user. You need to
handle this both in the port Makefile , and in
the pkg-plist (for installation from
the package).
Example of the Makefile part:
post-install:
@if [ ! -f ${PREFIX}/etc/orbit.conf ]; then \
${CP} -p ${PREFIX}/etc/orbit.conf.sample ${PREFIX}/etc/orbit.conf ; \
fi
Example of the pkg-plist part:
@unexec if cmp -s %D/etc/orbit.conf.sample %D/etc/orbit.conf; then rm -f %D/etc/orbit.conf; fi
etc/orbit.conf.sample
@exec if [ ! -f %D/etc/orbit.conf ] ; then cp -p %D/%F %B/orbit.conf; fi
Alternatively, print out a message pointing out that the
user has to copy and edit the file before the software can be made
to work.
Dynamic vs. static package list
A static package list is a package list
which is available in the Ports Collection either as a
pkg-plist file (with or without variable
substitution), or embedded into the Makefile
via PLIST_FILES and PLIST_DIRS .
Even if the contents are auto-generated by a tool or a target
in the Makefile before the inclusion into the
Ports Collection by a committer, this is still considered a
static list, since it is possible to examine it without having
to download or compile the distfile.
A dynamic package list is a package list
which is generated at the time the port is compiled based upon the
files and directories which are installed. It is not possible to
examine it before the source code of the ported application
is downloaded and compiled, or after running a make
clean .
While the use of dynamic package lists is not forbidden,
maintainers should use static package lists wherever possible, as it
enables users to &man.grep.1; through available ports to discover,
for example, which port installs a certain file. Dynamic lists
should be primarily used for
complex ports where the package list changes drastically based upon
optional features of the port (and thus maintaining a static package
list is infeasible), or ports which change the
package list based upon the version of dependent software used (e.g.
ports which generate docs with
Javadoc ).
Maintainers who prefer dynamic package lists are encouraged to
add a new target to their port which generates the
pkg-plist file so that users may examine
the contents.
¦Û°Ê²£¥Í package list
º¥ý¡A¥ý½T»{±zªº port °£¤F pkg-plist ©|¥¼·d©w¤§¥~¡A¨ä¥L³£§¹¦¨¤F¡C
±µµÛ¡A create a temporary directory tree into which your port can be
installed, and install any dependencies.
port-type should be local
for non-X ports and x11-4 or x11
for ports which install into the directory hierarchy of XFree86 4
or an earlier XFree86 release, respectively.
&prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/port-name
&prompt.root; mtree -U -f /etc/mtree/BSD.port-type .dist -d -e -p /var/tmp/port-name
&prompt.root; make depends PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name
Store the directory structure in a new file.
&prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find -d * -type d) | sort > OLD-DIRS
Create an empty pkg-plist file:
&prompt.root; touch pkg-plist
If your port honors PREFIX (which it should)
you can then install the port and create the package list.
&prompt.root; make install PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name
&prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find -d * \! -type d) | sort > pkg-plist
You must also add any newly created directories to the packing
list.
&prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find -d * -type d) | sort | comm -13 OLD-DIRS - | sort -r | sed -e 's#^#@dirrm #' >> pkg-plist
Finally, you need to tidy up the packing list by hand; it is not
all automated. Manual pages should be listed in
the port's Makefile under
MANn , and not in the
package list. User configuration files should be removed, or
installed as
filename .sample .
The info/dir file should not be listed
and appropriate install-info lines should
be added as noted in the info
files section. Any
libraries installed by the port should be listed as specified in the
shared libraries section.
Alternatively, use the plist script in
/usr/ports/Tools/scripts/ to build the
package list automatically. The first step is the same as
above: take the first three lines, that is,
mkdir , mtree and
make depends . Then build and install the
port:
&prompt.root; make install PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name
And let plist create the
pkg-plist file:
&prompt.root; /usr/ports/Tools/scripts/plist -Md -m /etc/mtree/BSD.port-type .dist /var/tmp/port-name > pkg-plist
The packing list still has to be tidied up by hand as
stated above.
The pkg-* files
There are some tricks we have not mentioned yet about the
pkg-* files
that come in handy sometimes.
pkg-message
If you need to display a message to the installer, you may place
the message in pkg-message . This capability is
often useful to display additional installation steps to be taken
after a &man.pkg.add.1; or to display licensing
information.
The pkg-message file does not need to be
added to pkg-plist . Also, it will not get
automatically printed if the user is using the port, not the
package, so you should probably display it from the
post-install target yourself.
pkg-install
If your port needs to execute commands when the binary package
is installed with &man.pkg.add.1; you can do this via the
pkg-install script. This script will
automatically be added to the package, and will be run twice by
&man.pkg.add.1;: the first time as
${SH} pkg-install ${PKGNAME}
PRE-INSTALL and the second time as
${SH} pkg-install ${PKGNAME} POST-INSTALL .
$2 can be tested to determine which mode
the script is being run in. The PKG_PREFIX
environmental variable will be set to the package installation
directory. See &man.pkg.add.1; for
additional information.
This script is not run automatically if you install the port
with make install . If you are depending on it
being run, you will have to explicitly call it from your port's
Makefile , with a line like
PKG_PREFIX=${PREFIX} ${SH} ${PKGINSTALL}
${PKGNAME} PRE-INSTALL .
pkg-deinstall
This script executes when a package is removed.
This script will be run twice by &man.pkg.delete.1;.
The first time as ${SH} pkg-deinstall ${PKGNAME}
DEINSTALL and the second time as
${SH} pkg-deinstall ${PKGNAME} POST-DEINSTALL .
pkg-req
If your port needs to determine if it should install or not, you
can create a pkg-req requirements
script. It will be invoked automatically at
installation/de-installation time to determine whether or not
installation/de-installation should proceed.
The script will be run at installation time by
&man.pkg.add.1; as
pkg-req ${PKGNAME} INSTALL .
At de-installation time it will be run by
&man.pkg.delete.1; as
pkg-req ${PKGNAME} DEINSTALL .
Changing the names of
pkg-* files
All the names of pkg-* files
are defined using variables so you can change them in your
Makefile if need be. This is especially useful
when you are sharing the same pkg-* files
among several ports or have to write to one of the above files (see
writing to places other than
WRKDIR for why it is a bad idea to write
directly into the pkg-* subdirectory).
Here is a list of variable names and their default
values. (PKGDIR defaults to
${MASTERDIR} .)
Variable
Default value
DESCR
${PKGDIR}/pkg-descr
PLIST
${PKGDIR}/pkg-plist
PKGINSTALL
${PKGDIR}/pkg-install
PKGDEINSTALL
${PKGDIR}/pkg-deinstall
PKGREQ
${PKGDIR}/pkg-req
PKGMESSAGE
${PKGDIR}/pkg-message
Please change these variables rather than overriding
PKG_ARGS . If you change
PKG_ARGS , those files will not correctly be
installed in /var/db/pkg upon install from a
port.
Making use of SUB_FILES and
SUB_LIST
The SUB_FILES and SUB_LIST
variables are useful for dynamic values in port files, such as the
installation PREFIX in
pkg-message .
The SUB_FILES variable specifies a list
of files to be automatically modified. Each
file in the
SUB_FILES list must have a corresponding
file .in present
in FILESDIR . A modified version will
be created in WRKDIR . Files defined as a
value of USE_RC_SUBR (or the deprecated
USE_RCORDER )
are automatically added to the
SUB_FILES . For the files
pkg-message ,
pkg-install , pkg-deinstall
and pkg-reg , the corresponding Makefile variable
is automatically set to point to the processed version.
The SUB_LIST variable is a list of
VAR=VALUE pairs. For each pair
%%VAR%% will get replaced
with VALUE in each file listed in
SUB_FILES . Several common pairs are
automatically defined: PREFIX ,
LOCALBASE , X11BASE ,
DATADIR , DOCSDIR ,
EXAMPLESDIR . Any line beginning with
@comment will be deleted from resulting files
after a variable substitution.
The following example will replace %%ARCH%%
with the system architecture
in a pkg-message :
SUB_FILES= pkg-message
SUB_LIST= ARCH=${ARCH}
Note that for this example, the
pkg-message.in file must exist in
FILESDIR .
Example of a good pkg-message.in :
Now it's time to configure this package.
Copy %%PREFIX%%/share/examples/putsy/%%ARCH%%.conf into your home directory
as .putsy.conf and edit it.
Testing your port
Running make describe
Several of the &os; port maintenance tools, such as
&man.portupgrade.1;, rely on a database called
/usr/ports/INDEX which keeps track of such
items as port dependencies. INDEX is created
by the top-level ports/Makefile via
make index , which descends into each
port subdirectory and executes make describe
there. Thus, if make describe fails in any
port, no one can generate INDEX , and many
people will quickly become unhappy.
It is important to be able to generate this file no
matter what options are present in make.conf ,
so please avoid doing things such as using .error
statements when (for instance) a dependency is not satisfied.
(See .)
If make describe produces a string
rather than an error message, you are probably safe. See
bsd.port.mk for the meaning of the
string produced.
Also note that running a recent version of
portlint (as specified in the next section)
will cause make describe to be run
automatically.
Portlint
Do check your work with portlint
before you submit or commit it. portlint
warns you about many common errors, both functional and
stylistic. For a new (or repocopied) port,
portlint -A is the most thorough; for an
existing port, portlint -C is sufficient.
Since portlint uses heuristics to
try to figure out errors, it can produce false positive
warnings. In addition, occasionally something that is
flagged as a problem really cannot be done in any other
way due to limitations in the ports framework. When in
doubt, the best thing to do is ask on &a.ports;.
PREFIX
Do try to make your port install relative to
PREFIX . The value of this variable will be set
to LOCALBASE (default
/usr/local ). If
USE_X_PREFIX or USE_IMAKE is
set, PREFIX will be X11BASE (default
/usr/X11R6 ). If
USE_LINUX_PREFIX is set, PREFIX
will be LINUXBASE (default
/compat/linux ).
Avoiding the hard-coding of /usr/local or
/usr/X11R6 anywhere in the source will make the
port much more flexible and able to cater to the needs of other
sites. For X ports that use imake , this is
automatic; otherwise, this can often be done by simply replacing the
occurrences of /usr/local (or
/usr/X11R6 for X ports that do not use imake)
in the various scripts/Makefile s in the port to read
${PREFIX} , as this variable is automatically passed
down to every stage of the build and install processes.
Make sure your application is not installing things in
/usr/local instead of PREFIX .
A quick test for this is to do this is:
&prompt.root; make clean; make package PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name
If anything is installed outside of PREFIX ,
the package creation process will complain that it
cannot find the files.
This does not test for the existence of internal references,
or correct use of LOCALBASE for references to
files from other ports. Testing the installation in
/var/tmp/port-name
to do that while you have it installed would do that.
Do not set USE_X_PREFIX unless your port
truly requires it (i.e., it links against X libs or it needs to
reference files in X11BASE ).
The variable PREFIX can be reassigned in your
Makefile or in the user's environment.
However, it is strongly discouraged for individual ports to set this
variable explicitly in the Makefile s.
Also, refer to programs/files from other ports with the
variables mentioned above, not explicit pathnames. For instance, if
your port requires a macro PAGER to be the full
pathname of less , use the compiler flag:
-DPAGER=\"${LOCALBASE}/bin/less\"
instead of
-DPAGER=\"/usr/local/bin/less\" . This way it will
have a better chance of working if the system administrator has
moved the whole /usr/local tree somewhere else.
Upgrading
When you notice that a port is out of date compared to the latest
version from the original authors, you should first ensure that you
have the latest
port. You can find them in the
ports/ports-current directory of the &os; FTP mirror
sites. However, if you are working with more than a few
ports, you will probably find it easier to use
CVSup to keep your whole ports collection
up-to-date, as described in the
Handbook .
This will have the added benefit of tracking all the ports'
dependencies.
The next step is to see if there is an update already pending.
To do this, you have two options. There is a searchable interface
to the
FreeBSD Problem Report (PR) database (also known as
GNATS ). Select ports in the
dropdown, and enter the name of the port.
However, sometimes people forget to put the name of the port
into the Synopsis field in an unambiguous fashion. In that case,
you can try the
FreeBSD Ports Monitoring System (also known as
portsmon ). This system attempts to classify
port PRs by portname. To search for PRs about a particular port,
use the
Overview of One Port .
If there is no pending PR, the next step is to send an email
to the port's maintainer, as shown by
make maintainer . That person may
already be working on an upgrade, or have a reason to not upgrade the
port right now (because of, for example, stability problems of the new
version); you would not want to duplicate their work. Note that
unmaintained ports are listed with a maintainer of
ports@FreeBSD.org , which is just the general
ports mailing list, so sending mail there
probably will not help in this case.
If the maintainer asks you to do the upgrade or there is
no maintainer, then you have a chance to help out &os; by
preparing the update yourself! Please make the changes and save
the result of the
recursive diff output
of the new and old
ports directories (e.g., if your modified port directory is
called superedit and the original is in our tree
as superedit.bak , then save the result of
diff -ruN superedit.bak superedit ). Either
unified or context diff is fine, but port committers generally
prefer unified diffs. Note the use of the -N
option—this is the accepted way to force diff to properly
deal with the case of new files being added or old files being
deleted. Before sending us the diff, please examine the
output to make sure all the changes make sense. To
simplify common operations with patch files, you can use
/usr/ports/Tools/scripts/patchtool.py .
Before using it, please read
/usr/ports/Tools/scripts/README.patchtool .
If the port is unmaintained, and you are actively using
it yourself, please consider volunteering to become its
maintainer. &os; has over 2000 ports without maintainers,
and this is an area where more volunteers are always needed.
(For a detailed description of the responsibilities of maintainers,
refer to the
MAINTAINER on Makefiles section.)
The best way to
send us the diff is by including it via &man.send-pr.1; (category
ports ). If you are volunteering to maintain the
port,
be sure to put [maintainer update] at the beginning
of your synopsis line and set the Class
of your PR
to maintainer-update . Otherwise, the
Class
of your PR should be
change-request . Please mention any added or
deleted files in the message, as they have to be explicitly specified
to &man.cvs.1; when doing a commit. If the diff is more than about 20KB,
please compress and uuencode it; otherwise, just include it in the PR
as is.
Before you &man.send-pr.1;, you should review the
Writing the problem report section in the Problem
Reports article; it contains far more information about how to write
useful problem reports.
If your upgrade is motivated by security concerns or a
serious fault in the currently committed port, please notify
the &a.portmgr; to request immediate rebuilding and
redistribution of your port's package. Unsuspecting users
of &man.pkg.add.1; will otherwise continue to install the
old version via pkg_add -r for several
weeks.
Once again, please use &man.diff.1; and not &man.shar.1; to send
updates to existing ports!
Now that you have done all that, you will want to read about
how to keep up-to-date in .
Ports security
Why security is so important
Bugs are occasionally introduced to the software.
Arguably, the most dangerous of them are those opening
security vulnerabilities. From the technical viewpoint,
such vulnerabilities are to be closed by exterminating
the bugs that caused them. However, the policies for
handling mere bugs and security vulnerabilities are
very different.
A typical small bug affects only those users who have
enabled some combination of options triggering the bug.
The developer will eventually release a patch followed
by a new version of the software, free of the bug, but
the majority of users will not take the trouble of upgrading
immediately because the bug has never vexed them. A
critical bug that may cause data loss represents a graver
issue. Nevertheless, prudent users know that a lot of
possible accidents, besides software bugs, are likely to
lead to data loss, and so they make backups of important
data; in addition, a critical bug will be discovered
really soon.
A security vulnerability is all different. First,
it may remain unnoticed for years because often it does
not cause software malfunction. Second, a malicious party
can use it to gain unauthorized access to a vulnerable
system, to destroy or alter sensitive data; and in the
worst case the user will not even notice the harm caused.
Third, exposing a vulnerable system often assists attackers
to break into other systems that could not be compromised
otherwise. Therefore closing a vulnerability alone is
not enough: the audience should be notified of it in most
clear and comprehensive manner, which will allow to
evaluate the danger and take appropriate actions.
Fixing security vulnerabilities
While on the subject of ports and packages, a security
vulnerability may initially appear in the original
distribution or in the port files. In the former case,
the original software developer is likely to release a
patch or a new version instantly, and you will
only need to update the port promptly with respect to
the author's fix. If the fix is delayed for some reason,
you should either mark the port as
FORBIDDEN
or introduce a patch file of your own to the port. In
the case of a vulnerable port, just fix the port as soon as
possible. In either case, the
standard procedure for submitting your change should
be followed unless you have rights to commit it directly
to the ports tree.
Being a ports committer is not enough to commit to
an arbitrary port. Remember that ports usually have
maintainers, whom you should respect.
Please make sure that the port's revision is bumped
as soon as the vulnerability has been closed.
That is how the users who upgrade installed packages
on a regular basis will see they need to run an update.
Besides, a new package will be built and distributed
over FTP and WWW mirrors, replacing the vulnerable one.
PORTREVISION should be bumped unless
PORTVERSION has changed in the course
of correcting the vulnerability. That is you should
bump PORTREVISION if you have added a
patch file to the port, but you should not if you have updated
the port to the latest software version and thus already
touched PORTVERSION . Please refer to the
corresponding section
for more information.
Keeping the community informed
The VuXML database
A very important and urgent step to take as early as
a security vulnerability is discovered is to notify the
community of port users about the jeopardy. Such
notification serves two purposes. First, should the danger
be really severe, it will be wise to apply an instant workaround,
e.g., stop the affected network service or even deinstall
the port completely, until the vulnerability is closed.
Second, a lot of users tend to upgrade installed packages
just occasionally. They will know from the notification
that they must update the package
without delay as soon as a corrected version is available.
Given the huge number of ports in the tree,
a security advisory cannot be issued on each incident
without creating a flood and losing the attention of
the audience by the time it comes to really serious
matters. Therefore security vulnerabilities found in
ports are recorded in the FreeBSD VuXML
database . The Security Officer Team members
are monitoring it for issues requiring their
intervention.
If you have committer rights, you can update the VuXML
database by yourself. So you will both help the Security
Officer Team and deliver the crucial information to the
community earlier. However, if you are not a committer,
or you believe you have found an exceptionally severe
vulnerability, or whatever, please do not hesitate to
contact the Security Officer Team directly as described
on the FreeBSD
Security Information page.
All right, you elected the hard way. As it may be obvious
from its title, the VuXML database is essentially an
XML document. Its source file vuln.xml
is kept right inside the port security/vuxml . Therefore
the file's full pathname will be
PORTSDIR /security/vuxml/vuln.xml .
Each time you discover a security vulnerability in a
port, please add an entry for it to that file.
Until you are familiar with VuXML, the best thing you can
do is to find an existing entry fitting your case, then copy
it and use as a template.
A short introduction to VuXML
The full-blown XML is complex and far beyond the scope of
this book. However, to gain basic insight on the structure
of a VuXML entry, you need only the notion of tags. XML
tag names are enclosed in angle brackets. Each opening
<tag> must have a matching closing </tag>.
Tags may be nested. If nesting, the inner tags must be
closed before the outer ones. There is a hierarchy of
tags, i.e. more complex rules of nesting them. Sounds
very similar to HTML, doesn't it? The major difference
is that XML is eX tensible, i.e. based
on defining custom tags. Due to its intrinsic structure,
XML puts otherwise amorphous data into shape. VuXML is
particularly tailored to mark up descriptions of security
vulnerabilities.
Now let's consider a realistic VuXML entry:
<vuln vid="f4bc80f4-da62-11d8-90ea-0004ac98a7b9">
<topic>Several vulnerabilities found in Foo</topic>
<affects>
<package>
<name>foo</name>
<name>foo-devel</name>
<name>ja-foo</name>
<range><ge>1.6</ge><lt>1.9</lt></range>
<range><ge>2.*</ge><lt>2.4_1</lt></range>
<range><eq>3.0b1</eq></range>
</package>
<package>
<name>openfoo</name>
<range><lt>1.10_7</lt></range>
<range><ge>1.2,1</ge><lt>1.3_1,1</lt></range>
</package>
</affects>
<description>
<body xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<p>J. Random Hacker reports:</p>
<blockquote
cite="http://j.r.hacker.com/advisories/1">
<p>Several issues in the Foo software may be exploited
via carefully crafted QUUX requests. These requests will
permit the injection of Bar code, mumble theft, and the
readability of the Foo administrator account.</p>
</blockquote>
</body>
</description>
<references>
<freebsdsa>SA-10:75.foo</freebsdsa>
<freebsdpr>ports/987654</freebsdpr>
<cvename>CAN-2010-0201</cvename>
<cvename>CAN-2010-0466</cvename>
<bid>96298</bid>
<certsa>CA-2010-99</certsa>
<certvu>740169</certvu>
<uscertsa>SA10-99A</uscertsa>
<uscertta>SA10-99A</uscertta>
<mlist msgid="201075606@hacker.com">http://marc.theaimsgroup.com/?l=bugtraq&m=203886607825605</mlist>
<url>http://j.r.hacker.com/advisories/1</url>
</references>
<dates>
<discovery>2010-05-25</discovery>
<entry>2010-07-13</entry>
<modified>2010-09-17</entry>
</dates>
</vuln>
The tag names are supposed to be self-descriptive,
so we shall take a closer look only at fields you will need
to fill in by yourself:
This is the top-level tag of a VuXML entry. It has
a mandatory attribute, vid ,
specifying a universally unique identifier (UUID) for
this entry (in quotes). You should generate a UUID
for each new VuXML entry (and do not forget to substitute
it for the template UUID unless you are writing the
entry from scratch). You can use &man.uuidgen.1; in
FreeBSD 5.x, or you may install the port devel/p5-Data-UUID and issue
the following command:
perl -MData::UUID -le 'print lc new Data::UUID->create_str'
This is a one-line description of the issue found.
The names of packages affected are listed there.
Multiple names can be given since several packages may be
based on a single master port or software product. This
may include stable and development branches, localized
versions, and slave ports featuring different choices of
important build-time configuration options.
It is your responsibility to find all such related
packages when writing a VuXML entry. Keep in mind that
make search name=foo is your friend.
The primary points to look for are as follows:
the foo-devel variant
for a foo port;
other variants with a suffix like
-a4 (for print-related packages),
-without-gui (for packages with X
support disabled), or similar;
jp- , ru- ,
zh- , and other possible localized
variants in the corresponding national categories of
the ports collection.
Affected versions of the package(s) are specified
there as one or more ranges using a combination of
<lt> , <le> ,
<eq> , <ge> ,
and <gt> elements. The
version ranges given should not overlap.
In a range specification, * (asterisk)
denotes the smallest version number. In particular,
2.* is less than 2.a .
Therefore an asterisk may be used for a range to match all
possible alpha , beta ,
and RC versions. For instance,
<ge>2.*</ge><lt>3.*</lt>
will selectively match every 2.x version while
<ge>2.0</ge><lt>3.0</lt>
will obviously not since the latter misses
2.r3 and matches
3.b .
The above example
specifies that affected are versions from 1.6
to 1.9 inclusive, versions
2.x before 2.4_1 ,
and version 3.0b1 .
Several related package groups (essentially, ports)
can be listed in the <affected>
section. This can be used if several software products
(say FooBar, FreeBar and OpenBar) grow from the same code base
and still share its bugs and vulnerabilities. Note the
difference from listing multiple names within a single
<package> section.
The version ranges should allow for
PORTEPOCH and
PORTREVISION if applicable.
Please remember that according to the collation rules,
a version with a non-zero PORTEPOCH is
greater than any version without
PORTEPOCH , e.g., 3.0,1
is greater than 3.1 or even than
8.9 .
This is a summary of the issue.
XHTML is used in this field. At least enclosing
<p> and </p>
should appear. More complex mark-up may be used, but only for
the sake of accuracy and clarity: No eye candy please.
This section contains references to relevant documents.
As many references as apply are encouraged.
This is a
FreeBSD
security advisory .
This is a
FreeBSD
problem report .
This is a Mitre
CVE identifier.
This is a
SecurityFocus
Bug ID .
This is a
US-CERT
security advisory.
This is a
US-CERT
vulnerability note.
This is a
US-CERT
Cyber Security Alert.
This is a
US-CERT
Technical Cyber Security Alert.
This is a URL to an archived posting in a mailing list.
The attribute msgid is optional and
may specify the message ID of the posting.
This is a generic URL. It should be used only if none of
the other reference categories apply.
This is the date when the issue was disclosed
(YYYY-MM-DD ).
This is the date when the entry was added
(YYYY-MM-DD ).
This is the date when any information in the entry
was last modified (YYYY-MM-DD ).
New entries must not include this field. It should be added
upon editing an existing entry.
Testing your changes to the VuXML database
Assume you just wrote or filled in an entry for a
vulnerability in the package clamav
that has been fixed in version 0.65_7 .
As a prerequisite, you need to install fresh versions of the
ports security/portaudit and
security/portaudit-db .
First, check whether there already is an entry for this
vulnerability. If there were such entry, it would match the
previous version of the package,
0.65_6 :
&prompt.user; packaudit
&prompt.user; portaudit clamav-0.65_6
To run packaudit , you must have
permission to write to its
DATABASEDIR ,
typically /var/db/portaudit .
If there is none found, you get the green light to add
a new entry for this vulnerability. Now you can generate
a brand-new UUID (assume it's
74a9541d-5d6c-11d8-80e3-0020ed76ef5a ) and
add your new entry to the VuXML database. Please verify
its syntax after that as follows:
&prompt.user; cd ${PORTSDIR}/security/vuxml && make validate
You will need at least one of the following packages
installed: textproc/libxml2 ,
textproc/jade .
Now rebuild the portaudit database
from the VuXML file:
&prompt.user; packaudit
To verify that the <affected>
section of your entry will match correct package(s), issue
the following command:
&prompt.user; portaudit -f /usr/ports/INDEX -r 74a9541d-5d6c-11d8-80e3-0020ed76ef5a
Please refer to &man.portaudit.1; for better understanding
of the command syntax.
Make sure that your entry produces no spurious matches
in the output.
Now check whether the right package versions are matched
by your entry:
&prompt.user; portaudit clamav-0.65_6 clamav-0.65_7
Affected package: clamav-0.65_6 (matched by clamav<0.65_7)
Type of problem: clamav remote denial-of-service.
Reference: <http://www.freebsd.org/ports/portaudit/74a9541d-5d6c-11d8-80e3-0020ed76ef5a.html>
1 problem(s) found.
Obviously, the former version should match while the
latter one should not.
Finally, verify whether the web page generated from the
VuXML database looks like expected:
&prompt.user; mkdir -p ~/public_html/portaudit
&prompt.user; packaudit
&prompt.user; lynx ~/public_html/portaudit/74a9541d-5d6c-11d8-80e3-0020ed76ef5a.html
If VuXML still scares you...
As an easy alternative to writing VuXML, you may opt to add
a single line to a different file with much simpler syntax,
PORTSDIR /security/portaudit-db/database/portaudit.txt ,
which resides within the port security/portaudit-db , and
send a request for review to the Security Officer Team
as described on the FreeBSD
Security Information page.
A line in that file consists of four fields
separated by | , a pipe character.
The first field is a &man.pkg.version.1; pattern
expression matching the vulnerable packages. The second
field contains URLs to relevant information, separated
by space characters. The third field is a one-line
description of the issue. The fourth and last field
is the entry's UUID.
You may want take a closer look at existing entries in
portaudit.txt before adding your
first line to that file.
Dos and Don'ts
Introduction
Here is a list of common dos and don'ts that you encounter during
the porting process. You should check your own port against this list,
but you can also check ports in the PR database that others have
submitted. Submit any comments on ports you check as described in
Bug Reports and General
Commentary . Checking ports in the PR database will both make
it faster for us to commit them, and prove that you know what you are
doing.
Stripping Binaries
Do not strip binaries manually unless you have to. All binaries
should be stripped, but the INSTALL_PROGRAM
macro will install and strip a binary at the same time (see the next
section).
If you need to strip a file, but do not wish to use the
INSTALL_PROGRAM macro,
${STRIP_CMD} will strip your program. This is
typically done within the post-install
target. For example:
post-install:
${STRIP_CMD} ${PREFIX}/bin/xdl
Use the &man.file.1; command on the installed executable to
check whether the binary is stripped or not. If it does not say
not stripped , it is stripped. Additionally,
&man.strip.1; will not strip a previously stripped program; it
will instead exit cleanly.
INSTALL_* macros
Do use the macros provided in bsd.port.mk
to ensure correct modes and ownership of files in your own
*-install targets.
INSTALL_PROGRAM is a command to install
binary executables.
INSTALL_SCRIPT is a command to install
executable scripts.
INSTALL_DATA is a command to install
sharable data.
INSTALL_MAN is a command to install
manpages and other documentation (it does not compress
anything).
These are basically the install command with
all the appropriate flags. See below for an example on how to use
them.
WRKDIR
Do not write anything to files outside
WRKDIR . WRKDIR is the only
place that is guaranteed to be writable during the port build (see
installing ports from a CDROM for an
example of building ports from a read-only tree). If you need to
modify one of the pkg-*
files, do so by redefining a variable, not by
writing over it.
WRKDIRPREFIX
Make sure your port honors WRKDIRPREFIX .
Most ports do not have to worry about this. In particular, if you
are referring to a WRKDIR of another port, note
that the correct location is
WRKDIRPREFIX PORTSDIR /subdir /name /work not PORTSDIR /subdir /name /work or .CURDIR /../../subdir /name /work or some such.
Also, if you are defining WRKDIR yourself,
make sure you prepend
${WRKDIRPREFIX}${.CURDIR} in the
front.
Differentiating operating systems and OS versions
You may come across code that needs modifications or conditional
compilation based upon what version of Unix it is running under. If
you need to make such changes to the code for conditional
compilation, make sure you make the changes as general as possible
so that we can back-port code to older FreeBSD systems and cross-port
to other BSD systems such as 4.4BSD from CSRG, BSD/386, 386BSD,
NetBSD, and OpenBSD.
The preferred way to tell 4.3BSD/Reno (1990) and newer versions
of the BSD code apart is by using the BSD macro
defined in
sys/param.h .
Hopefully that
file is already included; if not, add the code:
#if (defined(__unix__) || defined(unix)) && !defined(USG)
#include <sys/param.h>
#endif
to the proper place in the .c file. We
believe that every system that defines these two symbols has
sys/param.h . If you find a system that
does not, we would like to know. Please send mail to the
&a.ports;.
Another way is to use the GNU Autoconf style of doing
this:
#ifdef HAVE_SYS_PARAM_H
#include <sys/param.h>
#endif
Do not forget to add -DHAVE_SYS_PARAM_H to the
CFLAGS in the Makefile for
this method.
Once you have sys/param.h included, you may
use:
#if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199103))
to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.3 Net2 code base
or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 1.x, 4.3/Reno, NetBSD 0.9, 386BSD, BSD/386
1.1 and below).
Use:
#if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199306))
to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.4 code base or
newer (e.g. FreeBSD 2.x, 4.4, NetBSD 1.0, BSD/386 2.0 or
above).
The value of the BSD macro is
199506 for the 4.4BSD-Lite2 code base. This is
stated for informational purposes only. It should not be used to
distinguish between versions of FreeBSD based only on 4.4-Lite vs.
versions that have merged in changes from 4.4-Lite2. The
__FreeBSD__ macro should be used instead.
Use sparingly:
__FreeBSD__ is defined in all versions of
FreeBSD. Use it if the change you are making
only affects FreeBSD. Porting gotchas like
the use of sys_errlist[] vs
strerror() are Berkeley-isms, not FreeBSD
changes.
In FreeBSD 2.x, __FreeBSD__ is defined to
be 2 . In earlier versions, it is
1 . Later versions always bump it to match
their major version number.
If you need to tell the difference between a FreeBSD 1.x
system and a FreeBSD 2.x or above system, usually the right answer
is to use the BSD macros described above. If
there actually is a FreeBSD specific change (such as special
shared library options when using ld ) then it
is OK to use __FreeBSD__ and #if
__FreeBSD__ > 1 to detect a FreeBSD 2.x and later
system. If you need more granularity in detecting FreeBSD
systems since 2.0-RELEASE you can use the following:
#if __FreeBSD__ >= 2
#include <osreldate.h>
# if __FreeBSD_version >= 199504
/* 2.0.5+ release specific code here */
# endif
#endif
In the hundreds of ports that have been done, there have only
been one or two cases where __FreeBSD__ should
have been used. Just because an earlier port screwed up and used it
in the wrong place does not mean you should do so too.
FreeBSD ª©¥»³t¬dªí(__FreeBSD_version)
¥H¤U¬O sys/param.h ¤ºªº __FreeBSD_version ª©¥»³t¬dªí¡G
__FreeBSD_version values
Release
__FreeBSD_version
2.0-RELEASE
119411
2.1-CURRENT
199501, 199503
2.0.5-RELEASE
199504
2.2-CURRENT before 2.1
199508
2.1.0-RELEASE
199511
2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.5
199512
2.1.5-RELEASE
199607
2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.6
199608
2.1.6-RELEASE
199612
2.1.7-RELEASE
199612
2.2-RELEASE
220000
2.2.1-RELEASE
220000 (no change)
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.1-RELEASE
220000 (no change)
2.2-STABLE after texinfo-3.9
221001
2.2-STABLE after top
221002
2.2.2-RELEASE
222000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.2-RELEASE
222001
2.2.5-RELEASE
225000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.5-RELEASE
225001
2.2-STABLE after ldconfig -R merge
225002
2.2.6-RELEASE
226000
2.2.7-RELEASE
227000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.7-RELEASE
227001
2.2-STABLE after &man.semctl.2; change
227002
2.2.8-RELEASE
228000
2.2-STABLE after 2.2.8-RELEASE
228001
3.0-CURRENT before &man.mount.2; change
300000
3.0-CURRENT after &man.mount.2; change
300001
3.0-CURRENT after &man.semctl.2; change
300002
3.0-CURRENT after ioctl arg changes
300003
3.0-CURRENT after ELF conversion
300004
3.0-RELEASE
300005
3.0-CURRENT after 3.0-RELEASE
300006
3.0-STABLE after 3/4 branch
300007
3.1-RELEASE
310000
3.1-STABLE after 3.1-RELEASE
310001
3.1-STABLE after C++ constructor/destructor order
change
310002
3.2-RELEASE
320000
3.2-STABLE
320001
3.2-STABLE after binary-incompatible IPFW and
socket changes
320002
3.3-RELEASE
330000
3.3-STABLE
330001
3.3-STABLE after adding &man.mkstemp.3;
to libc
330002
3.4-RELEASE
340000
3.4-STABLE
340001
3.5-RELEASE
350000
3.5-STABLE
350001
4.0-CURRENT after 3.4 branch
400000
4.0-CURRENT after change in dynamic linker
handling
400001
4.0-CURRENT after C++ constructor/destructor
order change
400002
4.0-CURRENT after functioning &man.dladdr.3;
400003
4.0-CURRENT after __deregister_frame_info dynamic
linker bug fix (also 4.0-CURRENT after EGCS 1.1.2
integration)
400004
4.0-CURRENT after &man.suser.9; API change
(also 4.0-CURRENT after newbus)
400005
4.0-CURRENT after cdevsw registration change
400006
4.0-CURRENT after the addition of so_cred for
socket level credentials
400007
4.0-CURRENT after the addition of a poll syscall
wrapper to libc_r
400008
4.0-CURRENT after the change of the kernel's
dev_t type to struct
specinfo pointer
400009
4.0-CURRENT after fixing a hole
in &man.jail.2;
400010
4.0-CURRENT after the sigset_t
datatype change
400011
4.0-CURRENT after the cutover to the GCC 2.95.2
compiler
400012
4.0-CURRENT after adding pluggable linux-mode
ioctl handlers
400013
4.0-CURRENT after importing OpenSSL
400014
4.0-CURRENT after the C++ ABI change in GCC 2.95.2
from -fvtable-thunks to -fno-vtable-thunks by
default
400015
4.0-CURRENT after importing OpenSSH
400016
4.0-RELEASE
400017
4.0-STABLE after 4.0-RELEASE
400018
4.0-STABLE after the introduction of delayed
checksums.
400019
4.0-STABLE after merging libxpg4 code into
libc.
400020
4.0-STABLE after upgrading Binutils to 2.10.0, ELF
branding changes, and tcsh in the base system.
400021
4.1-RELEASE
410000
4.1-STABLE after 4.1-RELEASE
410001
4.1-STABLE after &man.setproctitle.3; moved from
libutil to libc.
410002
4.1.1-RELEASE
411000
4.1.1-STABLE after 4.1.1-RELEASE
411001
4.2-RELEASE
420000
4.2-STABLE after combining libgcc.a and
libgcc_r.a, and associated GCC linkage changes.
420001
4.3-RELEASE
430000
4.3-STABLE after wint_t introduction.
430001
4.3-STABLE after PCI powerstate API merge.
430002
4.4-RELEASE
440000
4.4-STABLE after d_thread_t introduction.
440001
4.4-STABLE after mount structure changes (affects
filesystem klds).
440002
4.4-STABLE after the userland components of smbfs
were imported.
440003
4.5-RELEASE
450000
4.5-STABLE after the usb structure element rename.
450001
4.5-STABLE after the
sendmail_enable &man.rc.conf.5;
variable was made to take the value
NONE .
450004
4.5-STABLE after moving to XFree86 4 by default
for package builds.
450005
4.5-STABLE after accept filtering was fixed so
that is no longer susceptible to an easy DoS.
450006
4.6-RELEASE
460000
4.6-STABLE &man.sendfile.2; fixed to comply with
documentation, not to count any headers sent against
the amount of data to be sent from the file.
460001
4.6.2-RELEASE
460002
4.6-STABLE
460100
4.6-STABLE after MFC of `sed -i'.
460101
4.6-STABLE after MFC of many new pkg_install
features from the HEAD.
460102
4.7-RELEASE
470000
4.7-STABLE
470100
Start generated __std{in,out,err}p references rather
than __sF. This changes std{in,out,err} from a
compile time expression to a runtime one.
470101
4.7-STABLE after MFC of mbuf changes to replace
m_aux mbufs by m_tag's
470102
4.7-STABLE gets OpenSSL 0.9.7
470103
4.8-RELEASE
480000
4.8-STABLE
480100
4.8-STABLE after &man.realpath.3; has been made
thread-safe
480101
4.8-STABLE 3ware API changes to twe.
480102
4.9-RELEASE
490000
4.9-STABLE
490100
4.9-STABLE after e_sid was added to struct
kinfo_eproc.
490101
4.9-STABLE after MFC of libmap functionality
for rtld.
490102
4.10-RELEASE
491000
4.10-STABLE
491100
4.10-STABLE after MFC of revision 20040629 of
the package tools
491101
4.10-STABLE after VM fix dealing with unwiring
of fictitious pages
491102
4.11-RELEASE
492000
4.11-STABLE
492100
5.0-CURRENT
500000
5.0-CURRENT after adding addition ELF header fields,
and changing our ELF binary branding method.
500001
5.0-CURRENT after kld metadata changes.
500002
5.0-CURRENT after buf/bio changes.
500003
5.0-CURRENT after binutils upgrade.
500004
5.0-CURRENT after merging libxpg4 code into
libc and after TASKQ interface introduction.
500005
5.0-CURRENT after the addition of AGP
interfaces.
500006
5.0-CURRENT after Perl upgrade to 5.6.0
500007
5.0-CURRENT after the update of KAME code to
2000/07 sources.
500008
5.0-CURRENT after ether_ifattach() and
ether_ifdetach() changes.
500009
5.0-CURRENT after changing mtree defaults
back to original variant, adding -L to follow
symlinks.
500010
5.0-CURRENT after kqueue API changed.
500011
5.0-CURRENT after &man.setproctitle.3; moved from
libutil to libc.
500012
5.0-CURRENT after the first SMPng commit.
500013
5.0-CURRENT after <sys/select.h> moved to
<sys/selinfo.h>.
500014
5.0-CURRENT after combining libgcc.a and
libgcc_r.a, and associated GCC linkage changes.
500015
5.0-CURRENT after change allowing libc and libc_r
to be linked together, deprecating -pthread
option.
500016
5.0-CURRENT after switch from struct ucred to
struct xucred to stabilize kernel-exported API for
mountd et al.
500017
5.0-CURRENT after addition of CPUTYPE make variable
for controlling CPU-specific optimizations.
500018
5.0-CURRENT after moving machine/ioctl_fd.h to
sys/fdcio.h
500019
5.0-CURRENT after locale names renaming.
500020
5.0-CURRENT after Bzip2 import.
Also signifies removal of S/Key.
500021
5.0-CURRENT after SSE support.
500022
5.0-CURRENT after KSE Milestone 2.
500023
5.0-CURRENT after d_thread_t,
and moving UUCP to ports.
500024
5.0-CURRENT after ABI change for descriptor
and creds passing on 64 bit platforms.
500025
5.0-CURRENT after moving to XFree86 4 by default for
package builds, and after the new libc strnstr() function
was added.
500026
5.0-CURRENT after the new libc strcasestr() function
was added.
500027
5.0-CURRENT after the userland components of smbfs
were imported.
500028
5.0-CURRENT after the new C99 specific-width
integer types were added.
(Not incremented.)
5.0-CURRENT after a change was made in the return
value of &man.sendfile.2;.
500029
5.0-CURRENT after the introduction of the
type fflags_t , which is the
appropriate size for file flags.
500030
5.0-CURRENT after the usb structure element rename.
500031
5.0-CURRENT after the introduction of
Perl 5.6.1.
500032
5.0-CURRENT after the
sendmail_enable &man.rc.conf.5;
variable was made to take the value
NONE .
500033
5.0-CURRENT after mtx_init() grew a third argument.
500034
5.0-CURRENT with Gcc 3.1.
500035
5.0-CURRENT without Perl in /usr/src
500036
5.0-CURRENT after the addition of &man.dlfunc.3;
500037
5.0-CURRENT after the types of some struct
sockbuf members were changed and the structure was
reordered.
500038
5.0-CURRENT after GCC 3.2.1 import.
Also after headers stopped using
_BSD_FOO_T_ and started using _FOO_T_DECLARED.
This value can also be used as a conservative
estimate of the start of &man.bzip2.1; package
support.
500039
5.0-CURRENT after various changes to disk functions
were made in the name of removing dependency on disklabel
structure internals.
500040
5.0-CURRENT after the addition of &man.getopt.long.3;
to libc.
500041
5.0-CURRENT after Binutils 2.13 upgrade, which
included new FreeBSD emulation, vec, and output format.
500042
5.0-CURRENT after adding weak pthread_XXX stubs
to libc, obsoleting libXThrStub.so. 5.0-RELEASE.
500043
5.0-CURRENT after branching for RELENG_5_0
500100
<sys/dkstat.h> is empty and should
not be included.
500101
5.0-CURRENT after the d_mmap_t interface
change.
500102
5.0-CURRENT after taskqueue_swi changed to run
without Giant, and taskqueue_swi_giant added to run
with Giant.
500103
cdevsw_add() and cdevsw_remove() no
longer exists.
Appearance of MAJOR_AUTO allocation facility.
500104
5.0-CURRENT after new cdevsw initialization method.
500105
devstat_add_entry() has been replaced by
devstat_new_entry()
500106
Devstat interface change; see sys/sys/param.h 1.149
500107
Token-Ring interface changes.
500108
Addition of vm_paddr_t.
500109
5.0-CURRENT after &man.realpath.3; has been made
thread-safe
500110
5.0-CURRENT after &man.usbhid.3; has been synced with
NetBSD
500111
5.0-CURRENT after new NSS implementation
and addition of POSIX.1 getpw*_r, getgr*_r
functions
500112
5.0-CURRENT after removal of the old rc system.
500113
5.1-RELEASE.
501000
5.1-CURRENT after branching for RELENG_5_1.
501100
5.1-CURRENT after correcting the semantics of
sigtimedwait(2) and sigwaitinfo(2).
501101
5.1-CURRENT after adding the lockfunc and lockfuncarg
fields to &man.bus.dma.tag.create.9;.
501102
5.1-CURRENT after GCC 3.3.1-pre 20030711 snapshot
integration.
501103
5.1-CURRENT 3ware API changes to twe.
501104
5.1-CURRENT dynamically-linked /bin and /sbin
support and movement of libraries to /lib.
501105
5.1-CURRENT after adding kernel support for
Coda 6.x.
501106
5.1-CURRENT after 16550 UART constants moved from
<dev/sio/sioreg.h> to
<dev/ic/ns16550.h> .
Also when libmap functionality was unconditionally
supported by rtld.
501107
5.1-CURRENT after PFIL_HOOKS API update
501108
5.1-CURRENT after adding kiconv(3)
501109
5.1-CURRENT after changing default operations
for open and close in cdevsw
501110
5.1-CURRENT after changed layout of cdevsw
501111
5.1-CURRENT after adding kobj multiple inheritance
501112
5.1-CURRENT after the if_xname change in
struct ifnet
501113
5.1-CURRENT after changing /bin and /sbin to
be dynamically linked
501114
5.2-RELEASE
502000
5.2.1-RELEASE
502010
5.2-CURRENT after branching for RELENG_5_2
502100
5.2-CURRENT after __cxa_atexit/__cxa_finalize
functions were added to libc.
502101
5.2-CURRENT after change of default thread library
from libc_r to libpthread.
502102
5.2-CURRENT after device driver API megapatch.
502103
5.2-CURRENT after getopt_long_only() addition.
502104
5.2-CURRENT after NULL is made into ((void *)0)
for C, creating more warnings.
502105
5.2-CURRENT after pf is linked to the build and
install.
502106
5.2-CURRENT after time_t is changed to a
64-bit value on sparc64.
502107
5.2-CURRENT after Intel C/C++ compiler support in some headers and execve(2) changes to be more strictly conforming to POSIX.
502108
5.2-CURRENT after the introduction of the
bus_alloc_resource_any API
502109
5.2-CURRENT after the addition of UTF-8 locales
502110
5.2-CURRENT after the removal of the getvfsent(3)
API
502111
5.2-CURRENT after the addition of the .warning
directive for make.
502112
5.2-CURRENT after ttyioctl() was made mandatory
for serial drivers.
502113
5.2-CURRENT after import of the ALTQ framework.
502114
5.2-CURRENT after changing sema_timedwait(9) to
return 0 on success and a non-zero error code on
failure.
502115
5.2-CURRENT after changing kernel dev_t to
be pointer to struct cdev *.
502116
5.2-CURRENT after changing kernel udev_t to dev_t.
502117
5.2-CURRENT after adding support for CLOCK_VIRTUAL
and CLOCK_PROF to clock_gettime(2) and clock_getres(2).
502118
5.2-CURRENT after changing network interface
cloning overhaul.
502119
5.2-CURRENT after the update of the package tools
to revision 20040629.
502120
5.2-CURRENT after marking Bluetooth code as
non-i386 specific.
502121
5.2-CURRENT after the introduction of the KDB
debugger framework, the conversion of DDB into a
backend and the introduction of the GDB backend.
502122
5.2-CURRENT after change to make
VFS_ROOT take a struct
thread argument as does vflush. Struct kinfo_proc
now has a user data pointer.
The switch of the default X implementation to
xorg was also made at this time.
502123
5.2-CURRENT after the change to separate the way
ports rc.d and legacy scripts are started.
502124
5.2-CURRENT after the backout of the
previous change.
502125
5.2-CURRENT after the removal of
kmem_alloc_pageable() and the import of gcc 3.4.2.
502126
5.2-CURRENT after changing the UMA kernel
API to allow ctors/inits to fail.
502127
5.2-CURRENT after the change of the
vfs_mount signature as well as global replacement of
PRISON_ROOT with SUSER_ALLOWJAIL for the suser(9)
API.
502128
5.3-BETA/RC before the pfil API change
503000
5.3-RELEASE
503001
5.3-STABLE after branching for RELENG_5_3
503100
5.3-STABLE after addition of glibc style
&man.strftime.3; padding options.
503101
5.3-STABLE after OpenBSD's nc(1) import MFC.
503102
5.4-PRERELEASE after the MFC of the fixes in
<src/include/stdbool.h> and
<src/sys/i386/include/_types.h>
for using the GCC-compatibility of the Intel C/C++ compiler.
503103
5.4-PRERELEASE after the MFC of the change of
ifi_epoch from wall clock time to uptime.
503104
5.4-PRERELEASE after the MFC of the fix of EOVERFLOW check in vswprintf(3).
503105
5.4-RELEASE.
504000
5.4-STABLE after branching for RELENG_5_4
504100
5.4-STABLE after increasing the default
thread stacksizes
504101
5.4-STABLE after the addition of sha256
504102
5.4-STABLE after the MFC of if_bridge
504103
5.4-STABLE after the MFC of bsdiff and portsnap
504104
5.4-STABLE after MFC of ldconfig_local_dirs
change.
504105
6.0-CURRENT
600000
6.0-CURRENT after permanently enabling PFIL_HOOKS
in the kernel.
600001
6.0-CURRENT after initial addition of
ifi_epoch to struct if_data. Backed out after a
few days. Do not use this value.
600002
6.0-CURRENT after the re-addition of the
ifi_epoch member of struct if_data.
600003
6.0-CURRENT after addition of the struct inpcb
argument to the pfil API.
600004
6.0-CURRENT after addition of the "-d
DESTDIR" argument to newsyslog.
600005
6.0-CURRENT after addition of glibc style
&man.strftime.3; padding options.
600006
6.0-CURRENT after addition of 802.11 framework
updates.
600007
6.0-CURRENT after changes to VOP_*VOBJECT() functions
and introduction of MNTK_MPSAFE flag for Giantfree filesystems.
600008
6.0-CURRENT after addition of the cpufreq framework
and drivers.
600009
6.0-CURRENT after importing OpenBSD's nc(1).
600010
6.0-CURRENT after removing semblance of SVID2
matherr() support.
600011
6.0-CURRENT after increase of default thread stacks'
size.
600012
6.0-CURRENT after fixes in
<src/include/stdbool.h> and
<src/sys/i386/include/_types.h>
for using the GCC-compatibility of the Intel C/C++ compiler.
600013
6.0-CURRENT after EOVERFLOW checks in vswprintf(3) fixed.
600014
6.0-CURRENT after changing the struct if_data
member, ifi_epoch, from wall clock time to uptime.
600015
6.0-CURRENT after LC_CTYPE disk format changed.
600016
6.0-CURRENT after NLS catalogs disk format changed.
600017
6.0-CURRENT after LC_COLLATE disk format changed.
600018
Installation of acpica includes into /usr/include.
600019
Addition of MSG_NOSIGNAL flag to send(2) API.
600020
Addition of fields to cdevsw
600021
Removed gtar from base system.
600022
LOCAL_CREDS, LOCAL_CONNWAIT socket options added to unix(4).
600023
&man.hwpmc.4; and related tools added to 6.0-CURRENT.
600024
struct icmphdr added to 6.0-CURRENT.
600025
pf updated to 3.7.
600026
Kernel libalias and ng_nat introduced.
600027
POSIX ttyname_r(3) made available through unistd.h and libc.
600028
6.0-CURRENT after libpcap updated to v0.9.1 alpha 096.
600029
6.0-CURRENT after importing NetBSD's if_bridge(4).
600030
6.0-CURRENT after struct ifnet was broken out
of the driver softcs.
600031
6.0-CURRENT after the import of libpcap v0.9.1.
600032
6.0-STABLE after bump of all shared library
versions that had not been changed since
RELENG_5.
600033
6.0-STABLE after credential argument is added to
dev_clone vent handler. 6.0-RELEASE.
600034
6.0-STABLE after 6.0-RELEASE
600100
6.0-STABLE after incorporating scripts from the
local_startup directories into the base &man.rcorder.8;.
600101
6.0-STABLE after updating the ELF types and
constants.
600102
6.0-STABLE after MFC of pidfile(3) API.
600103
6.0-STABLE after MFC of ldconfig_local_dirs
change.
600104
7.0-CURRENT.
700000
7.0-CURRENT after bump of all shared library
versions that had not been changed since
RELENG_5.
700001
7.0-CURRENT after credential argument is added to
dev_clone vent handler.
700002
7.0-CURRENT after memmem(3) is added to libc.
700003
7.0-CURRENT after solisten(9) kernel arguments
are modified to accept a backlog paramater.
700004
7.0-CURRENT after IFP2ENADDR() was changed to return
a pointer to IF_LLADDR().
700005
7.0-CURRENT after addition of if_addr
member to struct ifnet and IFP2ENADDR()
removal.
700006
7.0-CURRENT after incorporating scripts from the
local_startup directories into the base &man.rcorder.8;.
700007
7.0-CURRENT after removal of MNT_NODEV mount
option.
700008
7.0-CURRENT after ELF-64 type changes and symbol
versioning.
700009
7.0-CURRENT after addition of hostb and vgapci
drivers, addition of pci_find_extcap(), and changing
the AGP drivers to no longer map the aperture.
700010
7-0.CURRENT after tv_sec was made time_t on
all platforms but Alpha.
700011
7-0.CURRENT after ldconfig_local_dirs change.
700012
7-0.CURRENT after changes to
/etc/rc.d/abi to support
/compat/linux/etc/ld.so.cache
being a symlink in a readonly filesystem.
700013
7-0.CURRENT after pts import.
700014
Note that 2.2-STABLE sometimes identifies itself as
2.2.5-STABLE
after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern
used to be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it
to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from 2.2.
This is because the parallel development on several branches made
it infeasible to classify the releases simply by their real
release dates. If you are making a port now, you do not have to
worry about old -CURRENTs; they are listed here just for your
reference.
Writing something after
bsd.port.mk
Do not write anything after the .include
<bsd.port.mk> line. It usually can be avoided by
including bsd.port.pre.mk somewhere in the
middle of your Makefile and
bsd.port.post.mk at the end.
You need to include either the
bsd.port.pre.mk /bsd.port.post.mk pair or
bsd.port.mk only; do not mix these two usages.
bsd.port.pre.mk only defines a few
variables, which can be used in tests in the
Makefile , bsd.port.post.mk
defines the rest.
Here are some important variables defined in
bsd.port.pre.mk (this is not the complete list,
please read bsd.port.mk for the complete
list).
Variable
Description
ARCH
The architecture as returned by uname
-m (e.g., i386 )
OPSYS
The operating system type, as returned by
uname -s (e.g.,
FreeBSD )
OSREL
The release version of the operating system (e.g.,
2.1.5 or
2.2.7 )
OSVERSION
The numeric version of the operating system; the same as
__FreeBSD_version .
PORTOBJFORMAT
The object format of the system
(elf or aout ;
note that for modern
versions of FreeBSD,
aout is deprecated.)
LOCALBASE
The base of the local
tree (e.g.,
/usr/local/ )
X11BASE
The base of the X11
tree (e.g.,
/usr/X11R6 )
PREFIX
Where the port installs itself (see more on
PREFIX ).
If you have to define the variables
USE_IMAKE , USE_X_PREFIX , or
MASTERDIR , do so before including
bsd.port.pre.mk .
Here are some examples of things you can write after
bsd.port.pre.mk :
# no need to compile lang/perl5 if perl5 is already in system
.if ${OSVERSION} > 300003
BROKEN= perl is in system
.endif
# only one shlib version number for ELF
.if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "elf"
TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR}
.else
TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR}.${SHLIB_MINOR}
.endif
# software already makes link for ELF, but not for a.out
post-install:
.if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "aout"
${LN} -sf liblinpack.so.1.0 ${PREFIX}/lib/liblinpack.so
.endif
You did remember to use tab instead of spaces after
BROKEN= and
TCL_LIB_FILE= , did you not?
:-).
Install additional documentation
If your software has some documentation other than the standard
man and info pages that you think is useful for the user, install it
under PREFIX /share/doc .
This can be done, like the previous item, in the
post-install target.
Create a new directory for your port. The directory name should
reflect what the port is. This usually means
PORTNAME . However, if you
think the user might want different versions of the port to be
installed at the same time, you can use the whole
PKGNAME .
Make the installation dependent on the variable
NOPORTDOCS so that users can disable it in
/etc/make.conf , like this:
post-install:
.if !defined(NOPORTDOCS)
${MKDIR} ${DOCSDIR}
${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/docs/xvdocs.ps ${DOCSDIR}
.endif
Here are some handy variables and how they are expanded
by default when used
in the Makefile :
DATADIR gets expanded to
PREFIX /share/PORTNAME .
DOCSDIR gets expanded to
PREFIX /share/doc/PORTNAME .
EXAMPLESDIR gets expanded to
PREFIX /share/examples/PORTNAME .
These variables are exported to PLIST_SUB .
Their values will appear there as pathnames relative to
PREFIX if possible.
That is, share/doc/PORTNAME
will be substituted for %%DOCSDIR%%
in the packing list by default, and so on.
(See more on pkg-plist substitution
here.)
All documentation files and directories installed should
be included in pkg-plist with the
%%PORTDOCS%% prefix, for example:
%%PORTDOCS%%%%DOCSDIR%%/AUTHORS
%%PORTDOCS%%%%DOCSDIR%%/CONTACT
%%PORTDOCS%%@dirrm %%DOCSDIR%%
As an alternative to enumerating the documentation files
in pkg-plist , a port can set the variable
PORTDOCS to a list of file names and shell
glob patterns to add to the final packing list.
The names will be relative to DOCSDIR .
Therefore, a port that utilizes PORTDOCS and
uses a non-default location for its documentation should set
DOCSDIR accordingly.
If a directory is listed in PORTDOCS
or matched by a glob pattern from this variable,
the entire subtree of contained files and directories will be
registered in the final packing list. If NOPORTDOCS
is defined then files and directories listed in
PORTDOCS would not be installed and neither
would be added to port packing list.
Installing the documentation at PORTDOCS
as shown above remains up to the port itself.
A typical example of utilizing PORTDOCS
looks as follows:
PORTDOCS= README.* ChangeLog docs/*
You can also use the pkg-message file to
display messages upon installation. See the section on using
pkg-message for details.
The pkg-message file does not need to be
added to pkg-plist .
Subdirectories
Try to let the port put things in the right subdirectories of
PREFIX . Some ports lump everything and put it in
the subdirectory with the port's name, which is incorrect. Also,
many ports put everything except binaries, header files and manual
pages in the a subdirectory of lib , which does
not work well with the BSD paradigm. Many of the files should be
moved to one of the following: etc
(setup/configuration files), libexec
(executables started internally), sbin
(executables for superusers/managers), info
(documentation for info browser) or share
(architecture independent files). See &man.hier.7; for details;
the rules governing
/usr pretty much apply to
/usr/local too. The exception are ports
dealing with USENET news
. They may use
PREFIX /news as a destination
for their files.
UIDs and GIDs
If your port requires a certain user to be on the installed
system, let the pkg-install script call
pw to create it automatically. Look at
net/cvsup-mirror for an example.
If your port must use the same user/group ID number when it is
installed as a binary package as when it was compiled, then you must
choose a free UID from 50 to 999 and register it below. Look at
japanese/Wnn6 for an example.
Make sure you do not use a UID already used by the system or
other ports.
This is the current list of UIDs between 50 and 999.
bind:*:53:53:Bind Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
majordom:*:54:54:Majordomo Pseudo User:/usr/local/majordomo:/nonexistent
rdfdb:*:55:55:rdfDB Daemon:/var/db/rdfdb:/bin/sh
spamd:*:58:58:SpamAssassin user:/var/spool/spamd:/sbin/nologin
cyrus:*:60:60:the cyrus mail server:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
gnats:*:61:1:GNATS database owner:/usr/local/share/gnats/gnats-db:/bin/sh
proxy:*:62:62:Packet Filter pseudo-user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
uucp:*:66:66:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico
xten:*:67:67:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/nonexistent
pop:*:68:6:Post Office Owner (popper):/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
wnn:*:69:7:Wnn:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
pgsql:*:70:70:PostgreSQL pseudo-user:/usr/local/pgsql:/bin/sh
oracle:*:71:71::0:0:Oracle:/usr/local/oracle7:/sbin/nologin
ircd:*:72:72:IRC daemon:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
ircservices:*:73:73:IRC services:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
simscan:*:74:74:Simscan User:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
ifmail:*:75:66:Ifmail user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
www:*:80:80:World Wide Web Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
alias:*:81:81:QMail user:/var/qmail/alias:/nonexistent
qmaild:*:82:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent
qmaill:*:83:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent
qmailp:*:84:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent
qmailq:*:85:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent
qmailr:*:86:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent
qmails:*:87:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent
mysql:*:88:88:MySQL Daemon:/var/db/mysql:/sbin/nologin
vpopmail:*:89:89:VPop Mail User:/usr/local/vpopmail:/nonexistent
firebird:*:90:90:Firebird Database Administrator:/usr/local/firebird:/bin/sh
mailman:*:91:91:Mailman User:/usr/local/mailman:/sbin/nologin
gdm:*:92:92:GDM Sandbox:/:/sbin/nologin
jabber:*:93:93:Jabber Daemon:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
p4admin:*:94:94:Perforce admin:/usr/local/perforce:/sbin/nologin
interch:*:95:95:Interchange user:/usr/local/interchange:/sbin/nologin
squeuer:*:96:96:SQueuer Owner:/nonexistent:/bin/sh
mud:*:97:97:MUD Owner:/nonexistent:/bin/sh
msql:*:98:98:mSQL-2 pseudo-user:/var/db/msqldb:/bin/sh
rscsi:*:99:99:Remote SCSI:/usr/local/rscsi:/usr/local/sbin/rscsi
squid:*:100:100:squid caching-proxy pseudo user:/usr/local/squid:/sbin/nologin
quagga:*:101:101:Quagga route daemon pseudo user:/usr/local/etc/quagga:/sbin/nologin
ganglia:*:102:102:Ganglia User:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
sgeadmin:*:103:103:Sun Grid Engine Admin:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
slimserv:*:104:104:Slim Devices SlimServer pseudo-user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
dnetc:*:105:105:distributed.net client and proxy pseudo-user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
clamav:*:106:106:Clamav Antivirus:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
cacti:*:107:107:Cacti Sandbox:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
webkit:*:108:108:WebKit Default User:/usr/local/www/webkit:/bin/sh
quickml:*:109:109:quickml Server:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
vscan:*:110:110:Scanning Virus Account:/var/amavis:/bin/sh
fido:*:111:111:Fido System:/usr/local/fido:/bin/sh
dcc:*:112:112:Distributed Checksum Clearinghouse:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
amavis:*:113:113:Amavis-stats Account:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
dhis:*:114:114:DHIS Daemon:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
_symon:*:115:115:Symon Account:/var/empty:/sbin/nologin
postfix:*:125:125:Postfix Mail System:/var/spool/postfix:/sbin/nologin
rbldns:*:153:153:rbldnsd pseudo-user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
sfs:*:171:171:Self-Certifying File System:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
agk:*:172:172:AquaGateKeeper:/nonexistent:/nonexistent
polipo:*:173:173:polipo web cache:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
bogomilter:*:174:174:milter-bogom:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
moinmoin:*:192:192:MoinMoin User:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
sympa:*:200:200:Sympa Owner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
privoxy:*:201:201:Privoxy proxy user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
dspam:*:202:202:Dspam:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
shoutcast:*:210:210:Shoutcast sandbox:/nonexistent:/bin/sh
_tor:*:256:256:Tor anonymising router:/var/db/tor:/bin/sh
smxs:*:260:260:Sendmail X SMTPS:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
smxq:*:261:261:Sendmail X QMGR:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
smxc:*:262:262:Sendmail X SMTPC:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
smxm:*:263:263:Sendmail X misc:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
smx:*:264:264:Sendmail X other:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
ldap:*:389:389:OpenLDAP Server:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
drweb:*:426:426:Dr.Web Mail Scanner:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
courier:*:465:465:Courier Mail Server:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
_bbstored:*:505:505::0:0:BoxBackup Store Daemon:/nonexistent:/bin/sh
qtss:*:554:554:Darwin Streaming Server:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
ircdru:*:555:555:Russian hybrid IRC server:/nonexistent:/bin/sh
messagebus:*:556:556:D-BUS Daemon User:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
avahi:*:558:558:Avahi Daemon User:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
bnetd:*:700:700:Bnetd user:/nonexistent:/sbin/nologin
bopm:*:717:717:Blitzed Open Proxy Monitor:/nonexistent:/bin/sh
bacula:*:910:910:Bacula Daemon:/var/db/bacula:/sbin/nologin
This is the current list of reserved GIDs.
bind:*:53:
rdfdb:*:55:
spamd:*:58:
cyrus:*:60:
proxy:*:62:
authpf:*:63:
uucp:*:66:
xten:*:67:
dialer:*:68:
network:*:69:
pgsql:*:70:
simscan:*:74:
www:*:80:
qnofiles:*:81:
qmail:*:82:
mysql:*:88:
vpopmail:*:89:
firebird:*:90:
mailman:*:91:
gdm:*:92:
jabber:*:93:
p4admin:*:94:
interch:*:95:
squeuer:*:96:
mud:*:97:
msql:*:98:
rscsi:*:99:
squid:*:100:
quagga:*:101:
ganglia:*:102:
sgeadmin:*:103:
slimserv:*:104:
dnetc:*:105:
clamav:*:106:
cacti:*:107:
webkit:*:108:
quickml:*:109:
vscan:*:110:
fido:*:111:
dcc:*:112:
amavis:*:113:
dhis:*:114:
_symon:*:115:
postfix:*:125:
maildrop:*:126:
rbldns:*:153:
sfs:*:171:
agk:*:172:
polipo:*:173:
moinmoin:*:192:
sympa:*:200:
dspam:*:202:
_tor:*:256:
smxs:*:260:
smxq:*:261:
smxc:*:262:
smxm:*:263:
smx:*:264:
ldap:*:389:
drweb:*:426:
courier:*:465:
_bbstored:*:505:
qtss:*:554:
ircdru:*:555:
messagebus:*:556:
realtime:*:557:
avahi:*:558:
bnetd:*:700:
bopm:*:717:
bacula:*:910:
Please include a notice when you submit a port (or an upgrade)
that reserves a new UID or GID in this range. This allows us to
keep the list of reserved IDs up to date.
Do things rationally
The Makefile should do things simply and
reasonably. If you can make it a couple of lines shorter or more
readable, then do so. Examples include using a make
.if construct instead of a shell
if construct, not redefining
do-extract if you can redefine
EXTRACT* instead, and using
GNU_CONFIGURE instead of CONFIGURE_ARGS
+= --prefix=${PREFIX} .
If you find yourself having to write a lot
of new code to try to do something, please go back and review
bsd.port.mk to see if it contains an
existing implementation of what you are trying to do. While
hard to read, there are a great many seemingly-hard problems for
which bsd.port.mk already provides a
shorthand solution.
Respect both CC and
CXX
The port should respect both CC
and CXX variables. What we mean by this
is that the port should not set the values of these variables
absolutely, overriding existing values; instead, it should append
whatever values it needs to the existing values. This is so that
build options that affect all ports can be set globally.
If the port does not respect these variables,
please add NO_PACKAGE=ignores either cc or
cxx to the Makefile .
An example of a Makefile respecting
both CC and CXX
variables follows. Note the ?= :
CC?= gcc
CXX?= g++
Here is an example which respects neither
CC nor CXX
variables:
CC= gcc
CXX= g++
Both CC and CXX
variables can be defined on FreeBSD systems in
/etc/make.conf . The first example
defines a value if it was not previously set in
/etc/make.conf , preserving any
system-wide definitions. The second example clobbers
anything previously defined.
Respect CFLAGS
The port should respect the CFLAGS variable.
What we mean by this is that the port should not set the value of
this variable absolutely, overriding the existing value; instead,
it should append whatever values it needs to the existing value.
This is so that build options that affect all ports can be set
globally.
If it does not, please add NO_PACKAGE=ignores
cflags to the Makefile .
An example of a Makefile respecting
the CFLAGS variable follows. Note the
+= :
CFLAGS+= -Wall -Werror
Here is an example which does not respect the
CFLAGS variable:
CFLAGS= -Wall -Werror
The CFLAGS variable is defined on
FreeBSD systems in /etc/make.conf . The
first example appends additional flags to the
CFLAGS variable, preserving any system-wide
definitions. The second example clobbers anything previously
defined.
You should remove optimization flags from the third party
Makefile s. System CFLAGS
contains system-wide optimization flags. An example from
an unmodified Makefile :
CFLAGS= -O3 -funroll-loops -DHAVE_SOUND
Using system optimization flags, the
Makefile would look similar to the
following example:
CFLAGS+= -DHAVE_SOUND
Threading libraries
The threading library must be linked to the binaries
using a special linker flag -pthread on
&os;. If a port insists on linking
-lpthread or -lc_r
directly, patch it to use PTHREAD_LIBS
variable provided by the ports framework. This variable
usually has the value of -pthread , but
on certain architectures and &os; versions it can have
different values, so do not just hardcode
-pthread into patches and always use
PTHREAD_LIBS .
Feedback
Do send applicable changes/patches to the original
author/maintainer for inclusion in next release of the code. This
will only make your job that much easier for the next
release.
README.html
Do not include the README.html file. This
file is not part of the cvs collection but is generated using the
make readme command.
Marking a port not installable with BROKEN ,
FORBIDDEN , or IGNORE
In certain cases users should be prevented from installing
a port. To tell a user that
a port should not be installed, there are several
make variables that can be used in a port's
Makefile . The value of the following
make variables will be the reason that is
given back to users for why the port refuses to install itself.
Please use the correct make variable as
each make variable conveys radically different meanings to
both users, and to automated systems that depend on the
Makefile s, such as
the ports build cluster,
FreshPorts, and
portsmon.
Variables
BROKEN is reserved for ports that
currently do not compile, install, or deinstall correctly.
It should be used for ports where the the problem is
believed to be temporary.
The build cluster will still attempt to try to build
them to see if the underlying problem has been
resolved. For instance, use
BROKEN when a port:
does not compile
fails its configuration or installation process
installs files outside of
${LOCALBASE} and
${X11BASE}
does not remove all its files cleanly upon
deinstall (however, it may be acceptable, and desirable,
for the port to leave user-modified files behind)
FORBIDDEN is used for ports that
do contain a security vulnerability or induce grave
concern regarding the security of a FreeBSD system with
a given port installed (ex: a reputably insecure program
or a program that provides easily exploitable services).
Ports should be marked as FORBIDDEN
as soon as a particular piece of software has a
vulnerability and there is no released upgrade. Ideally
ports should be upgraded as soon as possible when a
security vulnerability is discovered so as to reduce the
number of vulnerable FreeBSD hosts (we like being known
for being secure), however sometimes there is a
noticeable time gap between disclosure of a
vulnerability and an updated release of the
vulnerable software. Do not mark a port
FORBIDDEN for any reason other than
security.
IGNORE is reserved for ports that
should not be built for some other reason.
It should be used for ports where the the problem is
believed to be structural.
The build
cluster will not, under any
circumstances, build ports marked as
IGNORE . For instance, use
IGNORE when a port:
compiles but does not run properly
does not work on the installed version of &os;
requires &os; kernel sources to build, but the
user does not have them installed
has a distfile which may not be automatically
fetched due to licensing restrictions
does not work with some other currently installed
port (for instance, the port depends on
www/apache21 but
www/apache13
is installed)
If a port would conflict with a currently installed
port (for example, if they install a file in the same
place that perfoms a different function),
use
CONFLICTS instead.
CONFLICTS will set
IGNORE by itself.
If a port sould be marked IGNORE
only on certain architectures, there are two other
convenience variables that will automatically set
IGNORE for you:
ONLY_FOR_ARCHS and
NOT_FOR_ARCHS . Examples:
ONLY_FOR_ARCHS= i386 amd64
NOT_FOR_ARCHS= alpha ia64 sparc64
Implementation Notes
The strings should not be quoted.
Also, the wording of the string should be somewhat
different due to the way the information is shown to the
user. Examples:
BROKEN= this port is unsupported on FreeBSD 5.x
IGNORE= is unsupported on FreeBSD 5.x
resulting in the following output from
make describe :
===> foobar-0.1 is marked as broken: this port is unsupported on FreeBSD 5.x.
===> foobar-0.1 is unsupported on FreeBSD 5.x.
Marking a port for removal with DEPRECATED
or EXPIRATION_DATE
Do remember that BROKEN and
FORBIDDEN are to be used as a
temporary resort if a port is not working. Permanently
broken ports should be removed from the tree
entirely.
When it makes sense to do so, users can be warned about
a pending port removal with DEPRECATED
and EXPIRATION_DATE . The former is
simply a string stating why the port is scheduled for removal;
the latter is a string in ISO 8601 format (YYYY-MM-DD). Both
will be shown to the user.
It is possible to set DEPRECATED
without an EXPIRATION_DATE (for
instance, recommending a newer version of the port), but
the converse does not make any sense.
There is no set policy on how much notice to give.
Current practice seems to be one month for security-related
issues and two months for build issues. This also gives any
interested committers a little time to fix the problems.
Avoid use of the .error construct
The correct way for a Makefile to
signal that the port can not be installed due to some external
factor (for instance, the user has specified an illegal
combination of build options) is to set a nonblank value to
IGNORE . This value will be formatted and
shown to the user by make install .
It is a common mistake to use .error
for this purpose. The problem with this is that many
automated tools that work with the ports tree will fail in
this situation. The most common occurence of this is seen
when trying to build /usr/ports/INDEX
(see ). However, even more
trivial commands such as make -V maintainer
also fail in this scenario. This is not acceptable.
How to avoid using .error
Assume that someone has the line
USE_POINTYHAT=yes
in make.conf . The first of
the next two Makefile snippets will
cause make index to fail, while the
second one will not:
.if USE_POINTYHAT
.error "POINTYHAT is not supported"
.endif
.if USE_POINTYHAT
IGNORE=POINTYHAT is not supported
.endif
Necessary workarounds
Sometimes it is necessary to work around bugs in
software included with older versions of &os;.
Some versions of &man.make.1; were broken
on at least 4.8 and 5.0 with respect to handling
comparisons based on OSVERSION .
This would often lead to failures during
make describe (and thus, the overall
ports make index ). The workaround is
to enclose the conditional comparison in spaces, e.g.:
if ( ${OSVERSION} > 500023 )
Be aware that test-installing a port on 4.9 or 5.2
will not detect this problem.
Miscellanea
The files
pkg-descr and pkg-plist
should each be double-checked. If you are reviewing a port and feel
they can be worded better, do so.
Do not copy more copies of the GNU General Public License into
our system, please.
Please be careful to note any legal issues! Do not let us
illegally distribute software!
A Sample Makefile
Here is a sample Makefile that you can use to
create a new port. Make sure you remove all the extra comments (ones
between brackets)!
It is recommended that you follow this format (ordering of
variables, empty lines between sections, etc.). This format is
designed so that the most important information is easy to locate. We
recommend that you use portlint to check the
Makefile .
[the header...just to make it easier for us to identify the ports.]
# New ports collection makefile for: xdvi
[the "version required" line is only needed when the PORTVERSION
variable is not specific enough to describe the port.]
# Date created: 26 May 1995
[this is the person who did the original port to FreeBSD, in particular, the
person who wrote the first version of this Makefile. Remember, this should
not be changed when upgrading the port later.]
# Whom: Satoshi Asami <asami@FreeBSD.org>
#
# $FreeBSD$
[ ^^^^^^^^^ This will be automatically replaced with RCS ID string by CVS
when it is committed to our repository. If upgrading a port, do not alter
this line back to "$FreeBSD$". CVS deals with it automatically.]
#
[section to describe the port itself and the master site - PORTNAME
and PORTVERSION are always first, followed by CATEGORIES,
and then MASTER_SITES, which can be followed by MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR.
PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, if needed, will be after that.
Then comes DISTNAME, EXTRACT_SUFX and/or DISTFILES, and then
EXTRACT_ONLY, as necessary.]
PORTNAME= xdvi
PORTVERSION= 18.2
CATEGORIES= print
[do not forget the trailing slash ("/")!
if you are not using MASTER_SITE_* macros]
MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB}
MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications
PKGNAMEPREFIX= ja-
DISTNAME= xdvi-pl18
[set this if the source is not in the standard ".tar.gz" form]
EXTRACT_SUFX= .tar.Z
[section for distributed patches -- can be empty]
PATCH_SITES= ftp://ftp.sra.co.jp/pub/X11/japanese/
PATCHFILES= xdvi-18.patch1.gz xdvi-18.patch2.gz
[maintainer; *mandatory*! This is the person who is volunteering to
handle port updates, build breakages, and to whom a users can direct
questions and bug reports. To keep the quality of the Ports Collection
as high as possible, we no longer accept new ports that are assigned to
"ports@FreeBSD.org".]
MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.org
COMMENT= A DVI Previewer for the X Window System
[dependencies -- can be empty]
RUN_DEPENDS= gs:${PORTSDIR}/print/ghostscript
LIB_DEPENDS= Xpm.5:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/xpm
[this section is for other standard bsd.port.mk variables that do not
belong to any of the above]
[If it asks questions during configure, build, install...]
IS_INTERACTIVE= yes
[If it extracts to a directory other than ${DISTNAME}...]
WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/xdvi-new
[If the distributed patches were not made relative to ${WRKSRC}, you
may need to tweak this]
PATCH_DIST_STRIP= -p1
[If it requires a "configure" script generated by GNU autoconf to be run]
GNU_CONFIGURE= yes
[If it requires GNU make, not /usr/bin/make, to build...]
USE_GMAKE= yes
[If it is an X application and requires "xmkmf -a" to be run...]
USE_IMAKE= yes
[et cetera.]
[non-standard variables to be used in the rules below]
MY_FAVORITE_RESPONSE= "yeah, right"
[then the special rules, in the order they are called]
pre-fetch:
i go fetch something, yeah
post-patch:
i need to do something after patch, great
pre-install:
and then some more stuff before installing, wow
[and then the epilogue]
.include <bsd.port.mk>
Keeping Up
The &os; Ports Collection is constantly changing. Here is
some information on how to keep up.
FreshPorts
One of the easiest ways to learn about updates that have
already been committed is by subscribing to
FreshPorts .
You can select multiple ports to monitor. Maintainers are
strongly encouraged to subscribe, because they will receive
notification of not only their own changes, but also any
changes that any other &os; committer has made. (These are
often necessary to keep up with changes in the underlying
ports framework—although it would be most polite to
receive an advance heads-up from those committing such changes,
sometimes this is overlooked or just simply impractical.
Also, in some cases, the changes are very minor in nature.
We expect everyone to use their best judgement in these
cases.)
If you wish to use FreshPorts, all you need is an
account. If your registered email address is
@FreeBSD.org , you will see the opt-in link on the
right hand side of the webpages.
For those of you who already have a FreshPorts account, but are not
using your @FreeBSD.org email address,
just change your email to @FreeBSD.org , subscribe,
then change it back again.
FreshPorts also has
a sanity test feature which automatically tests each commit to the
FreeBSD ports tree. If subscribed to this service, you will be
notified of any errors which FreshPorts detects during sanity
testing of your commits.
The Web Interface to the Source Repository
It is possible to browse the files in the source repository by
using a web interface. Changes that affect the entire port system
are now documented in the
CHANGES file. Changes that affect individual ports
are now documented in the
UPDATING file. However, the definitive answer to any
question is undoubtedly to read the source code of
bsd.port.mk , and associated files.
The &os; Ports Mailing List
If you maintain ports, you should consider following the
&a.ports;. Important changes to the way ports work will be announced
there, and then committed to CHANGES .
The &os; Port Building Cluster on
pointyhat.FreeBSD.org
One of the least-publicized strengths of &os; is that
an entire cluster of machines is dedicated to continually
building the Ports Collection, for each of the major OS
releases and for each Tier-1 architecture. You can find
the results of these builds at
package building logs
and errors .
Individual ports are built unless they are specifically
marked with IGNORE . Ports that are
marked with BROKEN will still be attempted,
to see if the underlying problem has been resolved. (This
is done by passing TRYBROKEN to the
port's Makefile .)
The &os; Port Distfile Survey
The build cluster is dedicated to building the latest
release of each port with distfiles that have already been
fetched. However, as the Internet continually changes,
distfiles can quickly go missing. The FreeBSD
Ports distfiles survey attempts to query every
download site for every port to find out if each distfile
is still currently available. Maintainers are asked to
check this report periodically, not only to speed up the
building process for users, but to help avoid wasting
bandwidth of the sites that volunteer to host all these
distfiles.
The &os; Ports Monitoring System
Another handy resource is the
FreeBSD Ports Monitoring System (also known as
portsmon ). This system comprises a
database that processes information from several sources
and allows its to be browsed via a web interface. Currently,
the ports Problem Reports (PRs), the error logs from
the build cluster, and individual files from the ports
collection are used. In the future, this will be expanded
to include the distfile survey, as well as other sources.
To get started, you can view all information about a
particular port by using the
Overview of One Port .
As of this writing, this is the only resource available
that maps GNATS PR entries to portnames. (PR submitters
do not always include the portname in their Synopsis, although
we would prefer that they did.) So, portsmon
is a good place to start if you want to find out whether an
existing port has any PRs filed against it and/or any build
errors; or, to find out if a new port that you may be thinking
about creating has already been submitted.
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/compose.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/compose.sgml
index 973a2ecfa7..2af07b460c 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/compose.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/compose.sgml
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³o®M¦n¥Îªº³nÅé¡C¦b¦¹®M¥ó¤¤¤w¸g¹w³]¦w¸Ë¤F¤å¹©ÁcÅé»P²Åé¦r«¬¡C
¦pªG·Q¦Û¦æ¦w¸Ë·s¦r«¬¡A¥H¤U¬O¤å¹©ÁcÅ骺¦w¸Ë¡A¥i¥H°Ñ¦Ò¬Ý¬Ý¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --add abiword /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/bkai00lp.ttf
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --add abiword /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/bsmi00lp.ttf
¨Ã¦b XF86Config ¥[¤J
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/share/AbiSuite/fonts/zh-TW" ¡C
Ãö©ó¤¤¤å¦C¦Lªº³¡¤À¡A½Ð°Ñ¦Ò abiword ªº²ÊÅé»P±×Åé ¤@¸`¡C
abiword snapshot
WWW:
abisource project
WWW:
gnome-office abiword
XEmacs - ¤ä´© XIM ¥B Big5 ³]©wªº XEmacs ¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹
·í±z°Ý¤@¨Ç¨Ï¥ÎUnix¦h¦~ªº¦Ñª±®a¡A
¥LÌ»{¬°³Ì¨ã¥Nªí©Êªº¤å®Ñ³B²z³nÅé¬O¤°»ò©O¡H
¥LÌ´X¥G³£·|¦^µª¡ÐEmacs¡A¦Ó¦bX Windowªº·¦æ¤§¤U¡A
Emacs¤]±À¥X¤FXWindowsª©¡ÐXEmacs¡C
XEmacs¤@¶µµÛ¦Wªº¯à¤O¬O¥¦¯à°÷³B²z¦h°ê»y¤å¡A
¯à°÷³B²z¦UºØ¤£¦P¤å¦rªº³nÅé¤v¸g¥O¤H¤Q¤ÀÅ岧¡A
¦ýn¦b¤@Ó¤å¥ó¤¤¦P®É³B²z¦n´XºØ¤£¦P»y¤å¡A
XEmacsÁÙ¬O¥i¥H°µ¨ì¡A¥¦¦b³o¤è±ªº¯à¤O¡A
´X¥G¨S¦³¦PÃþ§Îªº³nÅé¯à±æ¨ä¶µI¡C
°£¦¹¤§¥~¡AXEmacs¬°¤F¯à³B²z¦UºØ¤å¥ó¡A¥¦±NÂsÄýHTML¤å¥ó¡A
ÁÙ¦³¦¬µoE-mailªº¥\¯à¥þ³¡¾ã¦X¶i¨Ó¡AÅý±z¯à°÷¥ÎXEmacs¨Ó½s¼g
HTML©Î¬O¼g«Hªº¤u§@¡C¥¦¬Æ¦ÜÁÙ¾ã¦X¤FC©MLisp»y¨¥ªº½sĶ¾¹¡A
Åý±z¦bXEmacs¤W¼gµ{¦¡¡A¨Ã¥B¤]¥i¥H¦b¨ä¤¤½sĶµ{¦¡¡A
¨Ï¼gµ{¦¡®É´î¤Ö±¹ïÁcº¾ªº¨Æ°È¡C
¹³«÷¦rÀˬd³oºØ¤u§@¡A¤@¯ë³£¥u¦³°Ó·~³nÅé´£¨Ñ¡A
¦ý¬OXEmacs¤]´£¨Ñ¤F¡A³s¦r¨å¤]¥i¥H¦Û¤v«ü©w¡AUnixªº¥Ø¿ýµ²ºc¡A
XEmacs¤]¥i¥H½s¿è¡C¨ä¥¦ÁÙ¦³³\³\¦h¦hªº¥\¯à¡A«Ü¦h¤H¥Î¤F¤@¬q®É¶¡¡A
³£¥u¦³¨Ï¥Î¤F¤@¤p³¡¤À¡A¥i¨£¨ä¥\¯à¤§¼s¡C
XEmacs¬O¤@Ó¤£¥i¦h±oªº¤å®Ñ³B²z³nÅé¡A¸Õ¸Õ¬Ý¡A
©Î³\¥i¥HÅý±z¦³§ó¤è«K³B²z¤å¥óªº¤èªk¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/xemacs21 ¡C
ÁÙ¦³¡Aemacs ©M xemacs ¬O¤£¤@¼Ëªº¡Aªì¾Ç *emacs ÁÙ¬O±q xemacs
¾Ç¤ñ¸û¦n¡C¦Ü¤Ö &a.keith; ¤j¤j§â¤@¤Á³£¥´ÂI¦n¤F¡C
~/Emacs «h¬O³] fontset¡C
Emacs.Font: fontset-18
Emacs.Fontset-0: -*-*-medium-r-normal-*-18-*-*-*-*-*-fontset-18,\
ascii:-*-lucidatypewriter-medium-r-normal-*-*-100-*-*-m-*-iso8859-1,\
chinese-big5-1:-*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-*-160-*-*-c-*-big5-0,\
chinese-big5-2:-*-fixed-medium-r-normal-*-*-160-*-*-c-*-big5-0
wvware - ¥i¥HÂà´«·L³n Word Àɮתº¤u¨ã
Last Update: 2003¦~ 1¤ë26¤é ©P¤é 03®É34¤À02¬í CST
wv ¬O¤@®M¥i¥HÂà´«·L³n Word Àɮתº¤u¨ã¡A
¯à°÷Ū¨ú¨Ã¥B¸ÑªR Word 6-9 ®æ¦¡ (Word 6, 95, 97, 2000)¡C
¨Ã¥B´£¨Ñ³\¦hÂà´«¤u¨ã¡A³qºÙ¬° wvWare ¡C
wvHtml, wvLatex, wvCleanLatex, wvDVI, wvPS, wvPDF,
wvText, wvAbw, wvWml, wvMime
¦w¸Ë textproc/wv ¡C
±µµÛ¥H³Ì±`¥Îªº wvHtml ¬°¨Ò¡AnÂà Word ¦¨ HTML¡A
¥un¤U wvHtml --charset=big5 input.doc ouput.html
¡C
WWW:
wvware project
Emacs
¦w¸Ë chinese/emacs20 ¡C
emacs ¤£¬O§¹¾ãªº XIM support¡A½Ð¬Ý
http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/query-pr.cgi?pr=21160 ¡C
~/.emacs ¬O³] mule
;; Set environment to Chinese-Big5
(set-language-environment 'chinese-big5)
(set-keyboard-coding-system 'chinese-big5)
(set-terminal-coding-system 'chinese-big5)
(set-buffer-file-coding-system 'chinese-big5)
(set-selection-coding-system 'chinese-big5)
(modify-coding-system-alist 'process "*" 'chinese-big5)
¦Ü©ó ~/.emacs ÁÙ¦³«Ü¦h¦nª±ªº¡A¥i¥H¨ì
http://dotfiles.com
°Ñ¦Ò°Ñ¦Ò¡C
celvis - Ãþ¦ü vi/ex ¥B¤¤¤åÅã¥Üªº¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹
Celvis ¬O¤@ӫܹ³ UNIX ¤W¼Ð·Ç½s¿è¾¹
vi /ex
ªºªF¦è¡A´X¥G¤ä´©©Ò¦³ vi /
ex ªº«ü¥O¡C
Celvis ¥i½s¿è¦P®É§t¦³¤¤^¤åªº¤å³¹¡C
¥¦¤]¦P®É¤ä´© GB2312-80 ©M BIG5 ½s½X¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/celvis ¡C
joe - ²©ö¥B¥\¯à¤£¿ùªº½s¿èµ{¦¡
joe ¬O¤@Ó UNIX ¤W§K¶O±M·~ªº
ASCII ¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹¡C¥¦¥Î°_¨Ó´N¹³¤j³¡¥÷ IBM PC ¤Wªº¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹¡C
¥¦¬O¤@®M¾Þ§@¬Û·í¤è«Kªº¤å®Ñ½s¿èµ{¦¡¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/joe ¡C
n¦b joe ¤W¨Ï¥Î¤¤¤å¡A¥²¶·×§ï
/usr/local/lib/joerc ©M
/usr/local/lib/rjoerc ªº³]©w¡C
-asis Characters 128 - 255 shown as-is
quote Enter Ctrl chars
±N¥H¤Wªº¦Û¶Çק令¥H¤Uªº¦r¦ê
-asis Characters 128 - 255 shown as-is
quote .k; Enter Ctrl chars
-asis ¬On¯àÅã¥Ü¤¤¤å¦r¡A
¦Ó quote ¬On¿é¤J¯S®íªº±±¨î¦r¤¸®É¨Ï¥Îªº«öÁä¡A
¦Ó¹w³]ȬO ¡A´N·|¹J¨ì¦³¨Ç¤¤¤å¦rªº¤º½X¡A
µM«á¥un¥[°Ñ¼Æ -asia ´N¥i¥H¬Ý¤¤¤å¡A¦p¡G
joe -asis filename ´N¥i¥H¤F¡A¦ý¬O
quote «h¥²¶·§ïÀɮסA©Î¬O¨âÓ³£§ïÀɮקa¡C
joe snapshot
nvi - Ãþ¦ü vi/ex¡A¦³¦hºØ»y¨¥×¸É¡A¹w³]¬° big5
¦³ nvi-big5 ¡B
nvi-enc-cn ¡B
nvi-enc-tw µ¥¤£¦Pªº®M¥ó¡C
BIG5 ©Î GB ¬Û®eªº vi ¾Þ§@¤¶±½s¿è¾¹
vi ¬O UNIX
ªº¼Ð·Ç½s¿è¾¹¡A¦¹µ{¦¡©M¤¤¤åÁcÅé¡Benc-cn ¡B
euc-tw ¬Û®e¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/nvi-big5 ¡C
½s¿è ~/.nexrc
set noskipdisplay
set displayencoding=big5
set inputencoding=big5
set fileencoding=big5
set autodetect=tw
WWW:
http://www.itojun.org/
qe - qe ¬O¤@Ó¼Ò¥é PE2 ªº½s¿èµ{¦¡
qe ¬O¤@Ó¼Ò¥é PE2 ªº½s¿èµ{¦¡¡A¥s qe ªºì¦]¥u¬O¦]¬°¦r¥À Q ¬O±Æ¦b P
¤§«á¡C©M DOS ¤£¦Pªº¬O¡AUNIX ¨S¦³¨º»ò¦hÁä¥i¥Î¡A¦Ó¥B¤£¦Pªº Terminal
ªºÁä½X¤]²¤¦³¤£¦P¡C¦]¦¹¤@¨Ç±`¥Îªº function ³Ì¦n©w¸q¨ì Control Key
©Î Meta Key ¤W¡A¥H§K¤£³ô¨Ï¥Î¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/qe ¡C
qe snapshot
WWW:
qe project
ve - NTHU-CS Maple BBS µo®iªº BBS-like ¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹
¤@®M¥Ñ NTHU-CS Maple BBS 2.36 µo®iªº BBS-like ¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/ve ¡C
ve snapshot
ChiTex - ¤¤¤å Tex/LaTex
ChiTeX ¬O¤@®M¤¤¤å LeX
/LaTeX ¡A¥un·|^¤å
TeX /LaTeX
´N´X¥G¥ß¨è¥i¨Ï¥Î ChiTeX ¡A¥»ª©¥i¾A¥Î©ó
Big5 ¤Î GB ¤º½X¤§¤¤¤å¡C¦¹¤@ Unix ª©¥i¥Î©ó¸Ë¦³
teTeX ªº GNU/Linux¡AFreeBSD¡ASolaris¡A»P
SunOS ¨t²Î¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/chitex ¡C
ChiTeX 6.1.2 ¤@¨t¦Cªº§ï¶i¡A
¥H¤Î¤U¸ü¦ì¸m½Ð°Ñ¦Ò¡G
chitex ftp site ¡C
ChiTex ªº¯SÂI¡G
¥Îªk²³æ¡A¤£¥Î¯S§O¾Ç²ß¡A·|¥Î^¤å TeX
/LaTeX ´N´X¥G¥ß¨è¥i¨Ï¥Î
ChiTeX
(Yn¶i¤@¨B¨Ï¥Î¸û¦h¥\¯à¡A¥un¾Ç²ß´XÓ²³æªº¯S®í«ü¥O´N¥i)¡C
»P^¤å TeX /
LaTeX ¬Û®e©Ê°ª¡C
¥\¯à§¹³Æ¦Ó¦h¼Ë¤Æ¡C
´£¨Ñ cbibtex¡Acmakeindex ¥i¥Î¥H¤Þ¥Î¤º§t¤¤¤åªº¥~¦b°Ñ¦Ò¤åÄm¸ê®Æ¤Î
¦Û°Ê½s¿è§t¤¤¤å¤§¯Á¤Þ¡C´£¨Ñ¤¤¤å¤Æªº chilatex2html ¥i±N§t¤¤¤åªº
LaTeX ¤å¥óÂà´«¬° HTML ®æ¦¡ÀÉ¡C
¤ä´©¥Ñ TeX /LaTeX
¤å¥ó²£¥Í pdf ÀÉ¡C
¦P®É¤ä´© Big5 ½X¤¤¤å (¥xÆW¡A»´ä) ¤Î GB ½X¤¤¤å (·s¥[©Y»P¤j³°)¡C
²{¦b±z¥i¥H®³ ChiTeX ªþªº½d¨Ò¨Ó´ú¸Õ¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/local/share/texmf/tex/chinese
&prompt.root; chilatex math2.tex (½sĶ)
&prompt.root; xdvi math2.dvi (¹wµø)
&prompt.root; dvips math2.dvi -o math2.ps (Âà´«¦¨ PostScript ÀÉ)
&prompt.root; gv math2.ps (¥Î gv Æ[¬Ý)
WWW:
yih's homepage
WWW:
Kile: LaTeX source editor
CJK - ¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î CJK scripts ªº LaTeX2e ¥¨¶°®M¥ó
TeX /LaTeX
¬O¤@®Mªº¹õ«á±Æª©³nÅé¡C¨äÀu¨qªº¿é¥X«~½è¦¤w¬°¼s¤jªº
¾Ç³N¬ÉªB¤Í©Ò³ß·R¤Î±Ä¥Î¡CCJK ¬O¤@Ó
LaTeX2e ªº¥¨¶°®M¥ó(macro package)¡A
¯àÅý±z¦b TeX ¤å¥ó¤¤¨Ï¥Î
CJK (Chinese/Japanese/Korean)
ªº¤å¦r½s½X¡C
±zªº¨t²Î¥²¶·¥ý¦w¸Ë¦n teTeX /
LaTeX ¡C¦pªG¨S¦³ªº¸Ü¡A±z¤]¥i¥H¦Û¤v¸Ë¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò /usr/ports/print/teTeX ªº»¡©ú¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/CJK ¡C
¦b CJK ®M¥ó¤¤¦³¤@¥÷¤¤¤å¤å¥ó¡A¥Ñ§õ§g¦t¥ý¥Í©Ò¼gªº¤¶²Ð¡A
±Mªù¤¶²Ð CJK ³B²z¤¤¤åªº»yªk¡A¦b
/usr/local/share/doc/CJK/chinese/READMEb5.tex ¡A
¦b¦¹´£¨Ñ READMEb5.pdf ªº¤U¸ü¡C
&prompt.root; cd /usr/local/share/doc/CJK/chinese/
&prompt.root; bg5latex READMEb5.tex (¬Ý¬Ý¦³¨S¦³²£¥Í READMEb5.dvi)
&prompt.root; xdvi READMEb5.dvi (¬O§_¯à¬Ý¨ì¤¤¤å? ·íµM±zn¥ý¶i X Window)
&prompt.root; dvips READMEb5.dvi -o READMEb5.ps (Âà´«¦¨ PostScript ®æ¦¡))
&prompt.root; gv READMEb5.ps (¥Î gv Æ[¬Ý)
% ´ú¸Õ¤å¥ó
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{CJK}
\begin{document}
\begin{CJK*}{Bg5}{song}
§ºÅé
\end{CJK*}
\begin{CJK*}{Bg5}{kai}
·¢Åé
\end{CJK*}
\end{document}
CJK snapshot
WWW:
§Úªº CJK - by Edward
WWW:
cjk project
CJK-LyX - ¦³ LaTeX ¨Ï¥Î¤¶±ªº¤å¥ó½s¿è¾¹(©Ò¨£§Y©Ò±o)
LyX ¬O¤@Ó¦³ LaTeX
¤¶±¤å¥ó½s¿è¾¹¡A¬O¤@Ó®e©ö¨Ï¥Îªº¤å¦r½s¿è¾¹
¡A¤]¬O¤@Ó¦³¼u©Ê¥B±j¤jªº LaTeX ¡C
¦³µÛ©Ò¨£§Y©Ò±oªº¤¶±¡A©M³\¦h LaTeX
·®æ©M¦Û°Ê²£¥Íªº³]p¡C¥[³t¾Ç²ß LaTeX
¨Ã¨Ï½ÆÂøªº³]p²³æ¤Æ©Mª½Ä±¤Æ¡C·sªº¯S¦â¥]§t«÷¦rÀˬd
¡A°ê»Ú¤Æ¡A¦r¤¸´£¨Ñ¡A©Ò¨£§Y©Ò±oªº¹Ï§Î¡Bªí®æ¡B¤èµ{¦¡¡C
LyX ¬O¤@Ó¶i¥i§ð
TeX /LaTeX ¡A
°h¥i¦u (§â LyX ·í¦¨¤å®Ñ³B²z³nÅé)
ªº¤@Ó¥\¯à±j¤j¡A¥i¥H³B²z¹Ï¤åªº¤å®Ñ³B²z³nÅé¡C
¦w¸Ë print/cjk-lyx ¡C
¥²nªº³]©w¡G
½Ð½s¿è¤@Ó ~/.lyx/preferences
(¨S¦³³oÓÀÉ¡A½Ð¦Û¦æ«Ø¥ß)¡A¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
\screen_dpi 100
\screen_font_roman "-*-times new roman"
\screen_font_sans "-*-arial"
\screen_font_typewriter "-*-courier new"
\screen_font_i18n1_encoding "big5-0"
\screen_font_i18n1_normal "-*-ar pl mingti2l big5"
\screen_font_i18n1_gothic "-*-ar pl mingti2l big5"
\screen_font_i18n2_encoding "big5-0"
\screen_font_i18n2_normal "-*-ar pl kaitim big5"
\screen_font_i18n2_gothic "-*-ar pl kaitim big5"
¥t¥~°w¹ï CJK ÁÙ·|³]©w¦p¤UªºªF¦è¡G
\language_package "\usepackage{CJK}"
\language_command_begin "\begin{CJK*}{Bg5}{aming}"
\language_command_end "\end{CJK*}"
\language_auto_begin false
\language_auto_end false
\mark_foreign_language false
\converter latex dvi "bg5latex $$i" "latex"
#\converter dvi pdf "dvipdfm $$i" ""
#\font_encoding default
¦pªG±z TeX/LaTeX ¬O¨Ï¥Î¤¤¤å Type1 ¦r«¬ªº¸Ü¡A½Ð±N³Ì«á¤G¦æªº mark
®³±¼¡C
´ú¸Õ¡G
½Ð¶i¤J LyX «áÀH«K½s¿è¤@Ó¤¤¤åÀÉ¡A
µM«á«ö View => DVI ¤Î View => Postscript ¬Ý¹B§@¬O¤£¬O¥¿±`¡C
¥t¥~ File => Export => Postscript ¬Ý¬O¤£¬O¥i¥H¥¿½T¿é¥X¤å½Zªº
*.ps ÀÉ¡C
* ¦b¦¹«Øij¨Ï¥Î¤¤¤å Type1 ¦r«¬¡A¥H§K¦hªá®É¶¡µ¥«Ý¨t²Î»s³y pk ¦r«¬¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò¤»¤ë¥÷ªºÂ«H¡A¼ÐÃD¬O¡G
``[FYI] CJK/LaTeX enviroment ¤¤¤å Type1 ¤Î TTF ªº¨Ï¥Î''
nÅÜ´«¦r«¬©Î°µ§ó½ÆÂøªºÅܤơALyX ¥»¨¨Ã¨S¦³ CJK enviroment
ªº¯S®í¥\¯à¡A±o¦Û¦æ¥[¤J tags¡C¨Ò¦pn´«¦r«¬¡A
¥i«ö¥\¯àªí¨ºÓ¤jªº¦V¤Uªº¶Â½bÀY¿ï LaTeX¡A¥H«K¿é¤J CJK enviroment
ªº tag¡G
\CJKfamily{akai}
³o¼Ë¥H¤Uªº¤å¦r´N·|§ï¥Î·¢Åé¦r¡Aª`·N¡A³o¸Ì«üªº¬O©Ò¿é¥Xªº *.ps
Àɪº¦r«¬¡A¦Ó¤£¤@©w¬O±z¿Ã¹õ¤W¬Ý¨ìªº¦r«¬
(¨Ì§Úªº³]©w¡A¿Ã¹õ¤W¬O©úÅé)¡C
¨ä¥Lªº¤¤¤å TeX/LaTeX ¨t²Î¡A¦p cwTeX/ChiTeX
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò¥H¤W³]©w¡A¦Û¦æ§ó§ï¡C
Copyright (c) 2001 §õªG¥¿(&a.edwardlee;)
¥»¤å¬°¦Û¥Ñ¤å¥ó(FDL http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)
¥i¦Û¥Ñ½Æ»s/קï/´²§G¡C¦ý½Ð«O¯dª©ÅvÁn©úªº³¡¥÷¡C
CJK-LyX snapshot
WWW:
CJK-LyX ¤¤¨Ï¥Î¤¤¤å
WWW:
lyx project
WWW:
CJK-LyX project
¦b ConTeXt ¨Ï¥Î Big-5 ¤¤¤å
Contributed by &a.edwardlee;
Last Update: 2003¦~ 4¤ë30¤é ©P¤T 03®É25¤À52¬í CST
¦bÅý ConTeXt ¨Ï¥Î Big-5 ¤¤¤å«e¡A
¦Ü¤Ön¯à¦b^¤åÀô¹Ò¹B§@¡C
&prompt.root; cd ${TEXMF}/web2c
&prompt.root; texexec --make en metafun
¬°¤F©M CJK ©M dvipdfmx °t¦X¡A
½Ð¥ý¦w¸Ë chinese/CJK ©M
print/dvipdfmx ¡A
±Ä¥Î CJK standard encoding vector¡A³o¼Ë¤@¨Ó¡A
¦r«¬¤è±ªº¸ê®Æ´N¥i¥H¦@¥Î¤F¡C
קïÀɮסG
1. ${TEXMF}/tex/context/config/cont-usr.tex
¦pªG¨S¦³³oÓÀÉ¡A½Ð±N ../base/cont-usr.ori «þ¨©¤@¥÷¦¨ cont-usr.tex¡C
¦b \protect \endinput ¤§«e¥[¤J¤U¦C¸ê®Æ¡G
% ±N Poorman ªº¹ïÀ³¡AÂন CJK ªº¹ïÀ³
\defineucharmapping{BIG5}#1#2%
{\unicodeposition=#1
\advance\unicodeposition -161
\multiply\unicodeposition 157
\advance\unicodeposition #2
\advance\unicodeposition-\ifnum#2>160 98\else64\fi
\dorepositionunicode}
% for Big-5 CJK standard encoding vector
\def\currentucharmapping{BIG5}
% font alias¡C³o¼Ë´N¤£¥²§ó°Êì¨Óªº¦r«¬³]©w¤F
\definefontsynonym [b5song] [arb5sung] [encoding=big5]
\definefontsynonym [b5songsl] [arb5sungs] [encoding=big5]
\definefontsynonym [b5kai] [arb5kai] [encoding=big5]
\definefontsynonym [b5kaisl] [arb5kais] [encoding=big5]
2. ${TEXMF}/tex/context/base/font-chi.tex
±N¬Y¦æ¥u¦³ \SimChi §ï¦¨ \TraChi ¡C
§ï¦n«á«·s°õ¦æ¡G
&prompt.root; cd ${TEXMF}/web2c/
&prompt.root; texec --make en
«e¸m³B²z script
¥Ñ©ó¡u³\¡B¥\¡vªº°ÝÃD¡A§ÚÌ¥²¶·«e¸m³B²z¡A¥H¤U¬O§ï¦Û¤ý¦ö¤¤¥ý¥Íªº
clatex ªº perl script¡C
#!/usr/bin/env perl
#
# Process Big-5 Traditional Chinese ConTeXt file.
# Usage: chcont.pl tex file(NO tex extension)
# By Edward G.J. Lee <edt1023@speedymail.org> 2003.04.24
# Inspire heavily from wycc's(wycc@iis.sinica.edu.tw) clatex.
#
$one = 161;
$two = 254;
open(CONT,">$ARGV[0].cont");
if ($ARGV[0] =~/(.*)\.tex$/)
{
-r $ARGV[0] || die " file $ARGV[0] not found\n";
open(INFILE,"<$ARGV[0]");
}
else
{
-r "$ARGV[0].tex" || die "file $ARGV[0].tex not found\n";
open(INFILE,"<$ARGV[0].tex");
}
while(<INFILE>)
{
&trans_print($_);
}
close(CONT);
system "texexec ${ARGV[0]}.cont";
sub trans_print {
local($s) = @_;
local($i,$c,$nc,$ordc,$ordc1);
for($i=0;$i<length($s);$i++)
{
$c = substr($s,$i,1);
$ordc = ord($c);
if (($ordc>=$one)&&($ordc<=$two))
{
$nc = substr($s,$i+1,1);
if ($nc =~/[\\{}\^_]/)
{
$ordc1 = ord($nc);
print CONT "\\uc{$ordc}{$ordc1}";
}
else
{
print CONT $c,$nc;
}
$i++;
}
else
{
print CONT $c;
}
}
}
´ú¸Õ¡G
\usemodule[chinese]
\starttext
\completecontent
%\setupindenting[medium]
\setupwhitespace[10pt]
\chapter{®çªá·½°O}
\ConTeXt\ ¤¤¤å´ú¸Õ¡C
\section{®çªá·½°O«e¬q}
®Ê¤Ó¤¸¤¤¡AªZ³®¤H¡A®·³½¬°·~¡A½t·Ë¦æ¡A§Ñ¸ô¤§»·ªñ¡F©¿³{®çªáªL¡A§¨©¤¼Æ¦Ê¨B¡A
¤¤µLÂø¾ð¡AªÚ¯óÂA¬ü¡A¸¨^Ä}¯É¡Aº®¤H¬Æ²§¤§¡C´_«e¦æ¡A±ý½a¨äªL¡CªLºÉ¤ô·½¡A
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ªì·¥¯U¡AÅ׳q¤H¡F´_¦æ¼Æ¤Q¨B¡AÁŵM¶}®Ô¡C¤g¦a¥Ãm¡A«ÎªÙÅkµM¡C¦³¨}¥Ð¡B¬ü¦À¡B
®á¡B¦Ë¤§ÄÝ¡A¦é¯¥æ³q¡AÂû¤ü¬Û»D¡C¨ä¤¤©¹¨ÓºØ§@¡A¨k¤k¦çµÛ¡A±x¦p¥~¤H¡F¶À¾v¡B
««èÔ¡A¨Ã©ÉµM¦Û¼Ö¡C¨£º®¤H¡A¤D¤jÅå¡A°Ý©Ò±q¨Ó¡F¨ãµª¤§¡A«KnÁÙ®a¡A³]°s¡B±þÂû¡B
§@¹¡C§ø¤¤»D¦³¦¹¤H¡A«w¨Ó°Ý°T¡C¦Û¤ª¡G¡u¥ý¥@Áׯ³®É¶Ã¡A²v©d¤l¨¶¤H¨Ó¦¹µ´¹Ò¡A
¤£´_¥X²j¡F¹E»P¥~¤H¶¢¹j¡C¡v°Ý¤µ¬O¦ó¥@¡F¤D¤£ª¾¦³º~¡AµL½×ÃQ¡B®Ê¡C¦¹¤H¤@¤@
¬°¨ã¨¥©Ò»D¡A¬Ò¼Û±{¡C¾l¤H¦U´_©µ¦Ü¨ä®a¡A¬Ò¥X°s¹¡C°±¼Æ¤é¡AÃã¥h¡C¦¹¤¤¤H»y
¤ª¡G¡u¤£¨¬¬°¥~¤H¹D¤]¡C¡v
¬J¥X¡A±o¨ä²î¡A«K§ß¦V¸ô¡A³B³B»x¤§¡C¤Î°p¤U¡A¸Ú¤Ó¦u¡A»¡¦p¦¹¡A¤Ó¦u§Y»º¤HÀH
¨ä©¹¡A´M¦V©Ò»x¡A¹E°g¤£´_±o¸ô¡C«n¶§¼B¤lÆk¡A°ª©|¤h¤]¡A»D¤§¡AªYµM³W©¹¡A¥¼
ªG¡A´M¯f²×¡C«á¹EµL°Ý¬zªÌ¡C
\chapter{±N¶i°s}
§g¤£¨£¡A¶Àªe¤§¤ô¤Ñ¤W¨Ó¡A©b¬y¨ì®ü¤£´_¦^¡C
§g¤£¨£¡A°ª°ó©úÃè´d¥Õ¾v¡A´Â¦p«Cµ·¼Ç¦¨³·¡C
¤H¥Í±o·N¶·ºÉÅw¡A²ö¨Ïª÷¾êªÅ¹ï¤ë¡C
¤Ñ¥Í§Ú§÷¥²¦³¥Î¡A¤dª÷´²ºÉÁÙ´_¨Ó¡C
²i¦Ï®_¤û¥B¬°¼Ö¡A·|¶·¤@¶¼¤T¦ÊªM¡C
§Â¤Ò¤l¡A¤¦¥C¥Í¡A±N¶i°s¡A§g²ö°±¡C
»P§gºq¤@¦±¡A½Ð§g¬°§Ú°¼¦ÕÅ¥¡C
ÄÁ¹ªõW¥É¤£¨¬¶Q¡A¦ýÄ@ªø¾K¤£Ä@¿ô¡C
¥j¨Ó¸t½å¬Ò±I¹æ¡A±©¦³¶¼ªÌ¯d¨ä¦W¡C
³¯¤ý©õ®É®b¥¼Ö¡A¤æ°s¤Q¤d®¡ùN릡C
¥D¤H¦ó¬°¨¥¤Ö¿ú¡A®|¶·ªf¨ú¹ï§g°u¡C
¤ªá°¨ ¤dª÷¸Ê¡A©I¨à±N¥X´«¬ü°s¡C
»Pº¸¦P®ø¸U¥j·T¡C
\chapter{³\¥\¶}ªº°ÝÃD}
³\¥\¶}¡C³o¨Ç¦³°ÝÃDªº¦r¤¸nÁ׶}¡C
¤]´N¬O»¡¡An«e¸m³B²z³o¨Ç¦r¤¸¡C
\stoptext
&prompt.root; chcont.pl cont-b5 ==> ¤d¸U¤£n¥[°ÆÀɦW¡A¤Á°O¡I
³o¼Ë·|²£¥Í cont-b5.dvi
&prompt.root; dvipdfmx cont-b5 ==> ²£¥Í¤£¤º´O¦r«¬¥B¥i copy&paste ªº pdf ÀÉ¡C
³o¸Ì¨S¦³¥Î¨ì pdftex ´O¤J TTF ªº¥\¯à¡Aì¦]¬O¥L¤£¶È´O¤J¾ãÓ subfont
ÀÉ®×·|Åܱo«Ü¤j¡A¦Ó¥B¤S¨S¦³ copy&paste&search ªº¥\¯à¡C
WWW:
http://www.pragma-ade.com/
WWW:
http://www.pragma-ade.com/general/manuals/mchinese.pdf
cwTeX
cwTeX ±Æª©¨t²Î¥Ñ§dÁo±Ó»P§dÁo¼z¦@¦Pµo®i¡A
¥¦©µ¦ù TeX/LaTeX ¤§¥\¯à¡A¨Ï¤§¥i¥H±Æª©¤¤¤å¡C
·íªì§d¦Ñ®v³]p cwTeX ¦r«¬®É¡A¹ï¦r«¬ªº½s±Æ¬O¥J²Ó³]pªº¡C
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©Ò¥H¡A³o©M windows ¤Wªº¦r«¬¶¶§Ç¤£¬Û¦P¡C·íªì¤§©Ò¥H¦p¦¹³]p¡A
¬O¬°¤FÅý½sĶªº³t«×¯à°÷Åܱo¤ñ¸û§Ö¡C
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¦ü¥Gı±o¤]¥i¥H§ïÅÜ¡C´N©M Windows ªº¦Û¦æ½s±Æ¤è¦¡¤@P¥Lı±o©Î³\
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¤¤¤å¦r¦r«¬ªºÀuÂIªº½T«Ü§l¤Þ¤H¡A¤£¹L©O¡A³o¥i¯àÁÙ»Ýn¡u¥Á·N¡v¡C
½Ð¦Ñ®v¨Ó¶Ë¸£µ¬§a¡C
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¦w¸Ë chinese/cwtex ¡C
cwTeX ªº¨Ï¥Î¡G
&prompt.user; vi file.ctx
&prompt.user; cwtex file
&prompt.user; latex file.tex
&prompt.user; dvips -o file.ps file.dvi
&prompt.user; gv -antialias file.ps
³o¸Ì¦³§d¦Ñ®v cwTeX ±Æª©¨t²Î¤Gª©¤â¥U
cxbook.pdf ¡C
WWW:
tmwu's homepage
dvipdfmx - Âà´« *.dvi ¦¨¬°¤£¤º´O¤¤¤å¦r«¬ªº *.pdf ÀÉ
Copyright (c) 20021 §õªG¥¿(&a.edwardlee;)
³o¬O Jin-Hwan Cho(Áú)¡BShunsaku Hirata(¤é) קï¦Û Mark A. Wicks
ªº dvipdfm ¦Ó¨Óªº¡C
¥Dnªº¥\¯à¬OÂà´« *.dvi ¦¨¬°¤£¤º´O¤¤¤å¦r«¬ªº *.pdf ÀÉ¡C
¤@¯ëªº^¤åÀɤ]¬O¥i¥H·Ó±`¨Ï¥Î(§t즳 dvipdfm ªº¥\¯à)¡C
¤£ºÞ¬O¥i³B²z double-byte code ªº Omega ©Î¥u¯à³B²z single-byte ¨Ï¥Î
subfont ªº CJK package ³£¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¡C
³Ì¤jªº¦n³B¬O¥i¥H§Q¥Î TeX/LaTeX ¨Ó»s§@¤¤¤å pdf ÀÉ¡A
¦Ó¥B¤S¤£¤º´O¤¤¤å¦r«¬¡A¥i¥H¨ÏÀɮפp«Ü¦h(¬O¯uªº¡y«Ü¦h¡z¡I:)¡C
¥iª½±µ¨Ï¥Î TTF¡A¦ý·|³Q¼Ð°O¬° use font of acroread
©Ò¹w³]¨Ï¥Îªº¦r«¬(MHei-Medium ¤Î MSung-Light)¡A³o¼ËÁöµM¤£¤º´O¦r«¬¡A
¦ý¦b acroread/xpdf ³£¥i¥H¥¿±`¾\Äý¡A«D±`¤è«Kºô¸ô¤Wªº¬y³q¡C
¤S¤£¥²¦A¥hªá»È¤l¶R³nÅé¨Ó»s§@¡A§ó«nªº¬O TeX/LaTeX
ªº¯S®í¥\¯àÁÙ¬O¥i¥HÄ~Äòªu¥Î¡C
¦pªG©M pslatex °t¦X¨Ï¥Îªº¸Ü¡A
¨º³s^¤å¦r«¬¤Î¤Ö¼Æ¯S®í²Å¸¹¤]·|¤£¤º´O¡A¨ÏÀɮקó¤p¡A
·íµM mathtime ªº¤@¨Ç¼Æ¾Ç²Å¸¹¨Ã¨S¦³ free ªº¡A³o·|¤º´O CM ¦r«¬¡C
¦w¸Ë print/dvipdfmx ¡C
¥H bsmi00lp.ttf ¬°¨Ò¡A¦w¸Ë¦n«á $TEXMF/dvipdfm/config/cid-x.map ³]¬°¡G
arb5sung@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_sung.ttf
arb5sungs@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_sung.ttf,Italic
arb5sung@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_sung.ttf,Bold
arb5sungs@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_sung.ttf,BoldItalic
arb5kai@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_kai.ttf
arb5kais@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_kai.ttf,Italic
arb5kai@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_kai.ttf,Bold
arb5kais@Big5@ ETen-B5-H :0:!arb5_kai.ttf,BoldItalic
% ¦ý¤£§t postscript name ªº¦r«¬«hµLªk¨Ï¥Î¡C¥h±¼ ``!'' ·|´O¤J TTF(
% CIDFontType2¡A©Î Type11)¡A¤£»Ý *.enc ÀÉ¡C
¥t¥~¤]¦³¤H«Øij±N ,Italic §ï¦¨
-s .167 ¡A,BoldItalic
§ï¦¨ ,Bold -s .167 ¥HÁקK±×Åé¦rÅã¥Ü¤£¥¿±`¡A
¨S¦³³rÂIªº°ÝÃD¡C
¸Ë§¹«á°O±o°õ¦æ mktexlsr
§Y¥i¡C·íµM¡Aì¥ýªº¨t²Î CJK package n¯à°÷¥¿±`¹B§@
(¤£ºÞ¬O¨Ï¥Î Type1©Î pk ¦r«¬)¡A¦]¬°»Ýn¥¿½Tªº *.tfm ¦r«¬´yzÀÉ¡C
µM«á¡A¨Ì·Ó¤@¯ë¥¿±`µ{§Ç½sĶ CJK ¤å½Z§Y¥i¡C
¥Ñ©ó¨Ã¨S¦³¥hÅܳy¡B´O¤J¦r«¬¥»¨¡A
©Ò¥H¥un¬O¦Xªk¶R¨Óªº¦r«¬À³¸Ó³£¥i¥H©ñ¤ß¥h¨Ï¥Î¤F¡C
% §Ú¤£¬O«ß®v¡A¥i¤£t¾á«O³d¥ô¡C:)
Åý^¤å¦r«¬¤]¤£¤º´O¡G¥Ñ *.tex ¤å½Z¤¤¡A¥[¤J¡G
\usepackage{pslatex}
´ú¸Õ¡G
&prompt.user; cat cjk.tex
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{CJK}
\begin{document}
Hello World
\begin{CJK*}{Bg5}{song}
±z¦n
\end{CJK*}
\end{document}
&prompt.user; bg5latex cjk.tex
&prompt.user; dvips -o ps2pdf-cjk.ps cjk.dvi
&prompt.user; ps2pdf ps2pdf-cjk.ps
&prompt.user; dvipdfmx -o dvipdfmx-cjk.pdf cjk.dvi
&prompt.user; cat bg5pslatex
#!/bin/sh
f=`echo $1 | sed -e 's|\(.*\)\.[^/]*$|\1|'`
bg5conv < $1 > $f.cjk && pslatex $f.cjk
&prompt.user; ./bg5pslatex cjk.tex
&prompt.user; dvipdfmx -o pslatex-cjk.pdf cjk.dvi
&prompt.user; pdffonts ps2pdf-cjk.pdf
name type emb sub uni object ID
------------------------------------ ------------ --- --- --- ---------
[none] Type 3 no no no 9 0
&prompt.user; pdffonts dvipdfmx-cjk.pdf
name type emb sub uni object ID
------------------------------------ ------------ --- --- --- ---------
TGRGZY+CMR10 Type 1 yes yes no 10 0
ZenKai-Medium CID TrueType no no no 13 0
&prompt.user; pdffonts pslatex-cjk.pdf
name type emb sub uni object ID
------------------------------------ ------------ --- --- --- ---------
Times-Roman Type 1 no no no 8 0
ZenKai-Medium CID TrueType no no no 11 0
&prompt.user; ls -l *.pdf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 8427 7 6 00:17 dvipdfmx-cjk.pdf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 5373 7 6 00:17 ps2pdf-cjk.pdf
-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 3789 7 6 00:17 pslatex-cjk.pdf
°ÝÃD¡G
µLªk¥Ñ pdf2ps/pdftops ¨ÓÂন ps¡C¤]´N¬O»¡¤@¯ëªí¾÷·|¦L¤£¥X¨Ó¡C
¹ïµ¦¡G
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«~½è¬Û·íºë¨}¡A¥u¬OÀɮ׫ܤj´N¬O¤F¡C
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n©M gs ¾ã¦X¦b¤@°_¡C
dvipdfmx snapshot
WWW:
§Úªº CJK - by Edward
WWW:
dvipdfmx project
ttf2pt1 - TTF Âत¤å Type1 ¦r«¬
Copyright (c) 2001 §õªG¥¿(&a.edwardlee;)
¥»¤å¬°¦Û¥Ñ¤å¥ó(FDL http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)
¥i¦Û¥Ñ½Æ»s/קï/´²§G¡C¦ý½Ð«O¯dª©ÅvÁn©úªº³¡¥÷¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/ttf2pt1 ¡A
¥L·|³s print/ttf2pt1 ¤@°_¦w¸Ë¡C
chinese ®M¥ó¥u¬O map ªí¡A¦³Ê¤Ñ¦r¶°¥i¥Î¡C
¼g¤@Ó sh script(mkfont) ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
=== mkfont begin ===
#!/bin/sh
#
# By Edward G.J. Lee 2001.11.25
# This code is Public Domain.
#
if [ $# -ne 1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` your.ttf"
exit 1
fi
echo
echo "Now create *.t1a and *.enc and *.afm files. Wait... "
echo
FONTNAME=$1
MAPFILE=/usr/local/share/ttf2pt1/maps/cubig5.map
n=1
while [ $n -lt 10 ]
do
m=0$n
ttf2pt1 -GE -pft -Ohub -W0 -L $MAPFILE+$m $FONTNAME ${FONTNAME%.ttf}$m
n=`expr $n + 1`
done
m=10
while [ $m -lt 56 ]
do
ttf2pt1 -GE -pft -Ohub -W0 -L $MAPFILE+$m $FONTNAME ${FONTNAME%.ttf}$m
m=`expr $m + 1`
done
# avoid dvips(k)(before v5.86) t1part module bug.
#
perl -pi -e 's/_/Z/g' *.t1a *.afm
echo
echo "Now create *.pfb, wait... "
echo
for ps in *.t1a
do
t1asm -b $ps > ${ps%.t1a}.pfb
done
echo
echo "Now create *.tfm, wait... "
echo
for afm in *.afm
do
afm2tfm $afm
done
AFM=${FONTNAME%.ttf}-afm
TFM=${FONTNAME%.ttf}-tfm
PFB=${FONTNAME%.ttf}-pfb
ENC=${FONTNAME%.ttf}-enc
rm -f *.t1a
mkdir -p $AFM $TFM $PFB $ENC
mv -f *.enc $ENC
mv -f *.afm $AFM
mv -f *.tfm $TFM
mv -f *.pfb $PFB
echo
echo "OK, all done. :-)"
echo
=== mkfotn end ===
¦b¤@Ó¿W¥ß¥Ø¿ý©ñ mkfont(n¥ý chmod +x mkfont)¡A
¦A§â¦r«¬¸m©ó¦P¤@¥Ø¿ý¡C
* ¤@¨Ç¸ô®|¦³¤£¤@¼Ëªº¸Ü¡A½Ð¦Û¦æקï¡C
³o¸Ì¥H¤å¹©²Ó¤W®ü§º©M¤å¹©¤¤·¢¬°¨Ò¡G
./mkfont bsmi00lp.ttf; ./mkfont bkai00mp.ttf
§Y¥i¡C§¹¦¨«á·|²£¥Í afm, euc, tfm, pfb µ¥¥|ӥؿý¡A¸Ì±³£¬O¦r«¬¸ê®Æ¡C
±N¸ê®Æ·h²¾¨ì©ÒÄݪº¦a¤è(arphic ¥Ø¿ý½Ð¦Û¦æ«Ø¥ß)¡C
afm copy ¦Ü /usr/local/share/texmf/fonts/afm/arphic¡C
tfm copy ¦Ü /usr/local/share/texmf/fonts/tfm/arphic¡C
pfb copy ¦Ü /usr/local/share/texmf/fonts/type1/arphic¡C
euc copy ¦Ü /usr/local/share/texmf/dvips/arphic¡C
·s¼W /usr/local/share/texmf/dvips/config/aming.map ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
bsmi00lp01 ShanHeiSun-Light-01 <bsmi00lp01.pfb
bsmi00lp02 ShanHeiSun-Light-02 <bsmi00lp02.pfb
...
bsmi00lp55 ShanHeiSun-Light-55 <bsmi00lp55.pfb
·s¼W /usr/local/share/texmf/dvips/config/akai.map ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
bkai00mp01 ZenKai-Medium-01 <bkai00mp01.pfb
bkai00mp02 ZenKai-Medium-02 <bkai00mp02.pfb
...
bkai00mp55 ZenKai-Medium-55 <bkai00mp55.pfb
¦b /usr/local/share/texmf/dvips/config/config.ps ¥[¤J¡G
p +aming.map
p +akai.map
·s¼W /usr/local/share/texmf/dvips/config/bsmi00lp.map ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
bsmi00lp01 <bsmi00lp01.enc <bsmi00lp.ttf
bsmi00lp02 <bsmi00lp02.enc <bsmi00lp.ttf
...
bsmi00lp55 <bsmi00lp55.enc <bsmi00lp.ttf
·s¼W /usr/local/share/texmf/dvips/config/bkai00lp.map ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
bkai00mp01 <bkai00mp01.enc <bkai00mp.ttf
bkai00mp02 <bkai00mp02.enc <bkai00mp.ttf
...
bkai00mp55 <bkai00mp55.enc <bkai00mp.ttf
* bsmi00lp.ttf,bkai00mp.ttf n¸m©ó kpathsea §ä±o¨ìªº¦a¤è¡A¦p
/usr/local/share/texmf/fonts/truetype (¥Ø¿ý¥i¦Û¦æ«Ø¥ß)¡C
קï /usr/local/share/texmf/pdftex/config/pdftex.cfg¡A¥[¤J¡G
map +bsmi00lp.map
map +bkai00mp.map
·s¼W /usr/local/share/texmf/tex/latex/CJK/Bg5/c00aming.fd ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
\def\fileversion{4.2.0}
\def\filedate{2001/09/28}
\ProvidesFile{c00aming.fd}[\filedate\space\fileversion]
\DeclareFontFamily{C00}{aming}{}
\DeclareFontShape{C00}{aming}{m}{n}{<-> CJK * bsmi00lp}{}
\DeclareFontShape{C00}{aming}{bx}{n}{<-> CJK * bkai00mp}{}
\endinput
·s¼W /usr/local/share/texmf/tex/latex/CJK/Bg5/c00bsmi00lp.fd ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
\def\fileversion{4.2.0}
\def\filedate{2001/09/28}
\ProvidesFile{c00bsmi00lp.fd}[\filedate\space\fileversion]
\DeclareFontFamily{C00}{bsmi00lp}{}
\DeclareFontShape{C00}{bsmi00lp}{m}{n}{<-> CJK * bsmi00lp}{}
\DeclareFontShape{C00}{bsmi00lp}{bx}{n}{<-> CJK * bkai00mp}{}
\endinput
³o¼Ë²ÊÅé¦r·|¥h¿ï¥Î¤å¹©·¢®ÑÅé(Ó¤H¤£³ßÅw¼ÒÀÀ¥X¨Óªº²ÊÅé¦r)¡C
·íµM·¢®ÑÅé¤]n¦Û¦æ«ö¤Wz¤èªk»s§@¥X¨Ó¡C
°õ¦æ texhash(or mktexlsr)¡C³o¼Ë´N¥i¥H¤F¡An¨Ï¥Î©úÅé´N¨Ï¥Î
aming ªº¦r«¬¦WºÙ¡An¨Ï¥Î·¢Åé´N¨Ï¥Î akai(¨Ì¤Wz¤èªk°µ¤@Ó c00akai.fd)¡C
·íµM¡ACJK ªº¨Ï¥Î¤èªk¡A½Ð°Ñ¦Ò CJK ©Òªþ¤å¥ó¡A¤@©wn«ü©w aming
¤~·|¥h¨Ï¥Î©Ò©w¸q¥X¨Óªº¦r«¬¡A§_«h·|¥h§ì CJK ¹w³]¦r«¬¡A
¨º·íµM¤@¯ë¨t²Î¤W¬O¨S¦³ªº¡C
¬°¤F°t¦X¤¤¤å Type1 ¦r«¬¡A°õ¦æ dvips ®É½Ð¥[¤W -Ppdf ©Î -Pcmz °Ñ¼Æ¡A
³o¼Ë^¤å¦r«¬¤~·|¥h¨Ï¥Î Type1¡C
³Ì«á°O±o°õ¦æ texhash¡C
´ú¸Õ¨Ò¤l
=== begin ex.tex ===
\def\Fn{\char}
\font\Aa=bsmi00lp01 scaled 1000
\font\CCC=bsmi00lp55 scaled 3000
\font\CCc=bsmi00lp55 scaled 2000
\font\Ccc=bsmi00lp55 scaled 1000
\font\JJJ=bsmi00lp24 scaled 3000
\font\JJj=bsmi00lp24 scaled 2000
\font\Jjj=bsmi00lp24 scaled 1000
{\CCC\Fn108}
{\CCC\Fn109}
{\CCc\Fn110}
{\CCc\Fn111}
{\Ccc\Fn112}
{\Ccc\Fn113}
{\Ccc\Fn114}
{\JJJ\Fn55}
{\JJj\Fn95}
{\Jjj\Fn84}
{\CCC\Fn101}
{\CCC\Fn102}
{\CCc\Fn103}
{\CCc\Fn104}
{\Ccc\Fn106}
{\Ccc\Fn107}
\bye
=== end ex.tex ===
pdftex ex.tex §Y¥i²£¥Í¤º´O¤¤¤å TTF ªº ex.pdf¡C
¦pªG¦³»s§@¤¤¤å Type1 ¦r«¬¡A«h tex ex.tex ; dvipdf ex
«h¬O·|¤º´O¤¤¤å Type1¡A¦U¦ì¥i¤ñ¸û¬Ý¬Ý¨âªÌ¦³¦ó¤£¦P¡C
¼gÓ cjk-latex ½Z¸Õ¬Ý¬Ý§a¡I¦r«¬¦WºÙn¨Ï¥Î bsmi00lp¡C§Ú¼gªº
sh script ¥u¬OÓ¥b¦¨«~¡A¥i¯à±o¦h¸Õ´X¦¸¤~·|¦¨¥\¡Chave fun! :)
* LaTeX ½Z½Ð¥Î pdflatex¡C
n½sĶ CJK-latex ¤å½Z¡A¥i¦³¨âºØ¤è¦¡¡G
1. bg5latex test.tex ; pdflatex test.cjk
2. ¼g¤@Ó sh script(bg5pdflatex) ¤º®e¦p¤U¡G
=== bg5pdflatex begin ===
#!/bin/sh
FILE=`echo $1 | sed -e 's|\(.*\)\.[^/]*$|\1|'`
bg5conv < $1 > $FILE.cjk
pdflatex $FILE.cjk
=== bg5pdflatex end ===
chmod +x bg5pdflatex «á¸m©ó PATH ¥i¤Î¤§³B¡C
bg5pdflatex test.tex
§Y¥i¡C¨ä¹ê³oÓ script ªº¤º®e©M bg5latex ¬O¤@¼Ëªº¡A¥u¤£¹L¬O§â
latex ´«¦¨ pdflatex ¦Ó¤w¡C
ps. ¤º®e¦p¦³¿ù»~¡A½Ð¤£§[«ü¥¿¡C
ttf2pt1 snapshot
WWW:
¨Ï¥Î pdfTeX/pdfLaTeX Åý pdf Àɤº´O¤¤¤å TTF/TTC
WWW:
¥Ñ TeX/LaTeX »s§@¤¤¤å PDF ÀÉ
WWW:
CJK/LaTeX environment ¤¤¤å Type1 ¤Î TTF ªº¨Ï¥Î
WWW:
http://ttf2pt1.sourceforge.net/
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/fonts.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/fonts.sgml
index 8367b0068b..19c365b23e 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/fonts.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/fonts.sgml
@@ -1,1038 +1,1042 @@
¿é¥X¦r«¬
¦b³oÓ³¹¸`¤¤±N·|¤¶²ÐÂI°}¦r«¬(Bitmapped Font)¡A
¥H¤Î¦±½u´yÃä¦r«¬(Outline Fonts)¡C
ÂI°}¦r«¬(Bitmapped Fonts)¡G
³oºØ¦r«¬´N¬Oª½±µ±NÂI¯x°}ªº¦r«¬Àx¦s¦b°O¾ÐÅ餤¡A
¨Ï¥Î®É´Nª½±µ¨ú¥X¡A³oºØ¤è¦¡YÀx¦sÂI¼Æ¤£¦h«h¿é¥X¦r«¬¤ÓÃø¬Ý¡F
¦ýYÀx¦sÂI¼Æ¸û¦h«h»Ýn¦û±¼¤Ó¦h°O¾ÐÅé¡A
¦P®É±N¦rÅé©ñ¤j«á¥i¯à²£¥Í¿÷¾¦§§¡A¦]¦¹¥Ø«e°£¤F¯S®í¥Î³~¥~¡A
´X¥G«Ü¤Ö¥Î¨ì¡C
¦±½u´yÃä¦r«¬(Outline Fonts)¬O§Q¥Î¦±½u¤½¦¡¨Ó´yø¦r®Ø¡A
¦]¦¹¤£½×©ñ¤jÁY¤p¦ì¼Æ¬O¦h¤Ö³£¤@¼Ë¥·Æ¡A
¦ý¬O¯ÊÂI¬Opºâ¯Ó®É¡A±`¨£ªº¥]¬A±`¥Î¦b¦L¨êªº Postscript
»P¥Î¦b¿Ã¹õÅã¥Üªº TrueType Font(TTF) µ¥¡C
¥Ø«e¨Ï¥ÎÂI°}¦r«¬ªº¥Dn¬O±±¨î¥x³nÅé¡A¹³¬O big5con¡Bzhcon µ¥¡A
¥Dn¬O¦]¬°Åª¨ú¦±½u´yÃä¦r«¬ªº³t«×¸ûºC¡A
¤]¤ñ¸û½ÆÂø¡A©Ò¥H¥Ø«eªº±±¨î¥x³nÅé³£¨S¬Ý¨ì¨Ï¥Î¦±½u´yÃä¦r«¬ªº¡C
WWW:
Chinese, Japanese and Korean characters in English
Windows
WWW:
Chinese Fonts
showttf snapshot
Bitmapped Font - ÂI°}¦r«¬·§½×
ÂI°}¦r«¬¥Nªí¦r«¬ BDF(Bitmap Distribution Format¡AÂI°}¤À´²®æ¦¡)¡B
HBF(Hanzi Bitmap Font¡Aº~¦rÂI°}¦rÅé)¡B
PCF(Portable Compiled Font)¡C
BDF Spec:
5005.BDF_Spec.pdf
cmexfonts - ¤¤±À·| Big5+ ÂI°}¦r«¬
¸ÓµÛ§@Åv¬°¤¤µØ¥Á°ê¦æ¬F°|¬ã¦Ò·|¡B¤¤¤å¹q¸£±À¼s°òª÷·|©Ò¦@¦³¡A
¦r§Î³]p¬°µØ±d¬ì§Þ Dynalab Inc.¡C
¸Ó®M¦r«¬¨Ã¤£¬O¼Ð·Çªº Big5 ¦r«¬¡A¦Ó¬O·í®É¬°¤F±À¼s Big5+ ©Ò»s§@ªº¡A
¥Ø«e¨ÃµL¨Ï¥Îªº»ùÈ¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/cmexfonts ¡C
³oÓ®M¥ó¤¤¥]§t¤F 16 ÂI¡B24 ÂI¨â®M¤¤¤åÂI°}¦r«¬¡C
WWW:
cmex org
kcfonts - °ê³ìÂI°}¦r«¬
°ê³ì¤¤¤å PCF ¦r«¬¬O FreeBSD ¤U³Ì±`¥ÎªºÂI°}¦r«¬¡C
n±oª¾¤w¦w¸Ëªº BIG5 ¦r«¬¥Î¡G
&prompt.user; xlsfonts | grep big5
kc15f.pcf.gz -kc-fixed-medium-r-normal--16-160-72-72-c-160-big5-0
kc24f.pcf.gz -kc-fixed-medium-r-normal--24-240-100-100-c-240-big5-0
¦w¸Ë chinese/kcfonts ¡C
³oÓ®M¥ó¸Ì±¥]§t¤F 16 ÂI¡B20 ÂI¥H¤Î 24 ÂI¤T®M¤¤
¤åÂI°}¦rÅé¡A¨¬¨Ñ¤@¯ë±¡ªpÅã¥Ü¤¤¤å¤§¥Î¡C
¾A¥Î©ó 640x480 ¸ÑªR«× (NoteBook)
&prompt.root; rxvt -ls -fm kc15 -fn 8x16 &
¾A¥Î©ó +1024x768 ¸ÑªR«× (17 ¦T¿Ã¹õ)
&prompt.root; rxvt -ls -fm kc24 -fn 12x24 &
gugod-clean - ·f°t¤¤¤åÂI°}¦r«¬¥Îªº^¤åÂI°}¦r«¬
¬Ý¤F¤@¤U irc ¤W±o²á¤Ñ¡A²×©óÀ´±o¬O¬°¤F²×ºÝ¾÷ªº´Ý¼v°ÝÃD¡C
¸`¿ý gugod ªº¤@¬q¸Ü¡G
°t¦X kc15f §ï¤F¤@¤U schumacher ªº clean¡A¥»¨Ó³o¨âºØ¦r¤£¤@¼Ë°ª¡A
©Ò¥H¥Î¤[¤F term ·|żżªº¡A§ï¦¨¤@¼Ë°ª´N¤£·|¤F¡A³oÓ clean ¬O 15 ªº¡A
«ç»ò§ï¦¨¤@¼Ë°ªªº¡H¤jP¤W¬O§ï bdf ¤¤ªº PIXEL_SIZE, POINT_SIZE,
FONT_ASCENT, FONT_DESCENT ÁÙ¦³ FONT ³o¨ÇªFªF¥ý¡A¤£¹Ln¥ý¥Î
xmbdfed §â bdf ¦r§ï¦¨·Qnªºªø¼e¡A¤£µM clean
¦rªº¨CÓ¦r¥Àªø¼e³£¤£¤@¼Ë¡A«ÜÃø½Z¡A¬ÛÃö¤u¨ã½Ð¬Ý
ports/x11-fonts ¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/gugod-clean ¡C
&prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/local
&prompt.root; mkfontdir
&prompt.root; xset fp rehash
±N¥H¤U¥[¤J /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/local/fonts.alias
gugod16 -gugod-clean-medium-r-normal--16-160-75-75-c-90-iso8859-1
gugod18 -gugod-clean-medium-r-normal--18-180-75-75-c-80-iso8859-1
gugod20 -gugod-clean-medium-r-normal--20-200-75-75-c-100-iso8859-1
gugod22 -gugod-clean-medium-r-normal--22-220-75-75-c-110-iso8859-1
µM«á°õ¦æ Eterm --font gugod16 &
´N¥i¥H¬Ý¨ì«Üº}«Gªº Eterm ³z©úI´º¡A
ì¨Ó·|ż±¼ªº²×ºÝ¾÷¤]¨S°ÝÃD¤F¡C
intlfonts - ¦U°êªº§K¶OÂI°}¦r«¬
³oÓ¥]§t¦U°êªº§K¶O PCF ¦r«¬¡A¦Ó¥B¸Ì±ÁÙ¥]§t¤F cns11643 ¤CÓ¦r±ªº
16pt¡B24pt »P 40pt¡A¥H¤Î big5 ªº taipei16 »P taipei24¡A
¸Ë§¹´X¥G¥i¥H³B²z¦UºØ»y¨¥¤F¡C
¦w¸Ë x11-fonts/intlfonts ¡C
PostScript ·§½×
PostScript¬°¬ü°êAdobe(
http://www.adobe.com )¤½¥q©ó1985¦~©Òµoªíªº¤å¥ó´yz§Þ³N¡A
Adobe¨Ã§Q¥Î³oÓ§Þ³N¡A³Ð³yµÛ¦W¦X¥GPostScript§Þ³Nªº¦r«¬¡A
¨Ã±q¦Ó§ïÅܾãÓ¦L¨ê¤u·~¡APostScript
¥i¥Hºë½Tªº´yz¥±Ã¸»s¥ô¦ó¤å¦r¤Î¹Ï§Î¡A²{¤µPostScript
ªº§Þ³N¤w¸g«D±`´¶¹Mªº¨Ï¥Î¦b¦L¨ê»â°ì¡A¥]¬A¿Ã¹õÅã¥Ü(Display)¡A
¹p®g¦Lªí¾÷(Laser Printer)¡A ¿é¥X¾÷(Imagesetter)¡A
¼Æ¦ì¦L¨ê¾÷(Digital Printing)..µ¥µ¥¿é¥X³]³Æ¡C
¦Ó»PPostScript§Þ³N·f°t³Ì«nªº¬OPostScript¦r«¬¡A
¨Ï¥ÎªÌ¥i¥H³z¹LPostScript§Þ³N½Õ¾ã¬Y¨Ç°Ñ¼Æ¡A¦Ó§ïÅܦr«¬ªº¤j¤p¡A
³±¼v/¥ßÅé/ªÅ¤ß/²Ê²Óµ¥¯S®í®ÄªG¡A ¥Ñ©óPostScript¦b¦L¨ê¤è±¨ô¶Vªí²{¡A
¥Ø«e¥@¬É¤W¥Dnªº¤åÄm´X¥G¦h¬O¥HPostScriptªº§Î¦¡¥X²{¡C
¥Ø«e±`¨£ªº¤¤¤å¦C¦L¤è®×³£¬O²£¥Í Postscript «á¡A
¦A¶i¦æ¦C¦L¡C²£¥ÍªºÀɮפS¥i¤À¬°¤º´O(bg5ps¡Benscript¡Bcnprint)
»P¤£¤º´O¦r«¬(truetype¡Bcid font)¡A
¥Ø«eªº¸Ñ¨M¤è®×°¾¦V©ó¨Ï¥Î CID-Keyed font¡C
CID-Keyed font¡ACID¬OCharacter IDªºÂ²ºÙ¡C
CID¦r§Î®æ¦¡ªº³]p¥Dn¬O¬°¤F¦UºØPostScript¿é¥X³]³Æ¡A
ATM(Adobe Type Manager)³nÅé¡A
CPSI(Configurable PostScript Interpreter)¸ÑĶ¾¹¤Î
DPS(Display PostScript)Åã¥Ü«¬PostScript³nÅéµ¥¡A
¯à¨Ï¥Î©ó¤j¦r®w¦rÅ鶰¡A¯S§O¬O¥xÆW¡B¤j³°¡B¤é¥»¡BÁú°ê
µ¥Âù¦ì¤¸»y¨tªº°ê®a¤å¦r¡C
CJK(Chinese , Japan , Korean)¦r¶°¤W¤é¡BÁú¤G°ê¤å¦r¡A
°£¤F¥°²¦W¡B¤ù°²¦W¤ÎÁú¤å¦r¥~¡A¦û³Ì¦h¦rÅé®e¶qªºÁÙ¬Oº~¦r³¡¥÷¡A
¦Ó¥B¤¤¡B¤é¡BÁúªºº~¦r«Ü¦h³£¬O¬Û¦Pªºº~¦r¡A¦pªG¤@®MCJK¦r¶°¯à¥]¬A
Big5¡BGB¡BJIS¤ÎKSC½Xªº©Ò¦³ªº¦r§Î¡B
®e¶q¤@©w¤ñ¥|ºØ½X¦ì¤À¶}ªº¦r§Î¤Ö30%¥H¤W¡A¦Ó¥B¥i¥H¤£¥Î¾á¤ß¡A
¥H«á±q¥H¤W¥|Ó¦a°Ï¨Óªº¤å¥ó¡A¿é¥X®É¨S¦³¹ïÀ³ªº¦r§Î¿é¥X¡C
¦b1990¦~Adobeµoªí¥i¥H¤ä´©Âù¦ì¤¸¬[ºcªºPostScript¦r§Î®æ¦¡¡A
¤@¯ë§Ú̳qºÙ¬°OCF(Original Composite Font)®æ¦¡¡A
¥¦¨Ï¥Î¤ñ¸û½ÆÂø¦r§Îºc³y¤Î¦r§ÎÀx¦s¤è¦¡¡A
¦]¬°¥¦¬°¤Fn¤ä´©Âù¦ì¤¸ªº¦r§Î¡A´N¥²¶·n°µ¦¨³o¼Ë½ÆÂøªº¬[ºc¡A
¹³¥Ø«e¤j®a©Ò¨Ï¥Îªº¤¤¤åType1¡BType3¡BType4µ¥¦r§Î®æ¦¡¡A
³£¬OÄÝ©óOCF®æ¦¡¡C
OCF¦r§În§ì¨ú¦C¦L¤@ÓÂù¦ì¤¸¦r§Î®É¡A¥²¶·n¸g¹L½ÆÂøªº¹ïÀ³Ãö«Y¡A
¤~¯à¨ú±o¦r§Îªº¥~®Ø¸ê®Æ¥h¦C¦L¡A©Ò¥HType1¡BType3¡BType4µ¥OCF
¦r§ÎªºÀÉÀY(header)´yz³£«D±`½ÆÂø¡A
¦Ó¥B¨C¤@®a¦r§Î¼t°Ó³£¤£¤Ó¤@¼Ë¡C
CID¦r§Îªº¬[ºc¤ñOCF¦r§Î´N²³æ¦h¤F¡A
ª½±µ¥ÑCMapÀÉ®×¥h¹ïÀ³¦r§Î¥~®Ø¸ê®Æ¡A
©Ò¥H¸ÑĶ¾¹¯à§Ö³tªº¨ú±o¤Î¸ÑĶ¦r§Îªº¥~®Ø¸ê®Æ¤Î¦C¦L¡A
¦Ó¥B¤ñ¸û¸`¬Ù°O¾ÐÅ骺¨Ï¥Î¡C
Character Collection(¦r§Î¶°)¤ÎCMap File(¹ïÀ³ÀÉ)³o¤GªÌAdobe
¦³©w¸q¼Ð·Ç®æ¦¡¡A¦r§Î¼t°Ó¥i¥H¨Ï¥ÎAdobeªº¼Ð·Ç®æ¦¡¡A
¥HÁcÅ餤¤å¬°¨Ò¡AAdobe©w¸q¤@ÓCharacter Collection¡A
©M«Ü¦hÓªºCMap File¡A¦pAdobe-CNS1-0¡AB5-H¡AB5pc-H¡AETen-B5-H
µ¥¤£¦PªºCMap file¡C ¤£¦PªºCMap file¨Ï¥Î©ó¤£¦Pªº¤º½X¨t²Î¡A
¦pªG³o¨Ç¤º½X¨t²Îªº¦r½X¦³ÂX¥R®É¡A¥un¼W¥[·sªºCMap file¤ÎCID
¦r§Î§Y¥i¡A¥i¥H¤£¼vÅT¨ìì¨ÓªºCMap file¤ÎCID¦r§ÎÀÉ¡C
WWW:
cid faqs at arphic
WWW:
Fonts / Type / OpenType
¨Ï¥Î TrueType ¦r«¬·í§@¬O CID fonts
gs-cjk ¬O¤@ÓÅý Aladdin/Artifex/GNU ghostscript(gs)
¯à°÷¨Ï¥Î CJK ¥\¯àªºµo®ipµe¡C¦b³oÓºô¯¸¤¤¡A©Ò´£¨Ñªºµ{¦¡¶°¡A
¥]§tÅý gs ¯à°÷§â CJK ( Ác¡B²¤¤¤å¡A¤é¤å¡AÁú¤å )
ªº TrueType ¦r«¬·í§@ CID-Keyed ªº¦r«¬¨Ó³B²zªº¥²n׸ÉÀÉ®×( patch)¡A
¥H¤Î§ï¶i¦b gs CID-Keyed ¦r«¬ªºhandler¡C
¸Ópµe¤w¸g¾ã¦X¨ì ghostscript7
CID-Keyed font ¥Ñ CID font ©M CMap ©Ò²Õ¦¨¡A
¨Ï¥Î«e°O±o¦w¸Ë print/adobe-cmap
¡C
¨Ï¥Î ghostscript ¨Ó¦C¦L¤å¥ó¡G
&prompt.root; gs -sDEVICE=cdj550 -sOutputFile=/dev/lpt0 xx.ps
gs --help ·|¦³§ó¦hªº¿ï¶µ
¥H¦¹®M¥ó·f°t arphicttf ´N¥i¥HÅý¤j³¡¤Àªº³nÅé¥i¥H³z¹L
gs Ū¨ú ttf ¨Ó²£¥Í¥¿½Tªº gs ÀÉ¡C
- ¥H¤U¬O§Q¥Î ttfm ¨Ó±N arphicttf ªº¦r«¬¥[¤J gs-cjk ªº¦Cªí¡G
+ ¥H¤U¬O§Q¥Î chinese/ttfm ¨Ó±N arphicttf ªº¦r«¬¥[¤J gs-cjk ªº¦Cªí¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --add gs-cjk bkai00mp.ttf
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --add gs-cjk bsmi00lp.ttf
³o¼Ë·|¤À§O²£¥Í±`¥Îªº CID-Keyed¡GShanHeiSun-Light-Eten-B5-H ¥H¤Î
ZenKai-Medium-Eten-B5-H ¥H¨Ñ»Ýn¦C¦Lªº³nÅé¨Ï¥Î¡A¨Ò¦p
Mozilla¡BKDEµ¥¡C
WWW:
Ghostscript, Ghostview and GSview
WWW:
gs-cjk project
moefonts-cid - ¥Ñ Adobe ÂàĶªº MOE CID Font
CID-Keyed font ¥Ñ CID font ©M CMap ©Ò²Õ¦¨¡A
CMap ¥i¥H³z¹L¦w¸Ë
print/adobe-cmaps ¨Ó¹F¦¨¡A
¦Ó CID font «h¥²¶·¥t¥~¦w¸Ë¡C
¤¤¤å CID font(MOEKai ©M MOESung) ¬O±q±Ð¨|³¡¦Ó¨Óªº¡A
쥻¬° 48x48 ÂI°}¦r«¬¡A¥Ñ Adobe »s§@¦¨ CID font¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/moefonts-cid ¡C
¦Û¦æ¦w¸Ëªº¸Ü¡ACID-Keyed font ¥i¥H±q
ftp://ftp.oreilly.com/pub/examples/nutshell/cjkv/adobe/samples/
¨ú±o MOEKai-Regular MOESung-Regular ³o¨âÓ CIDFont¡A¨Ã¦b
ftp://ftp.oreilly.com/pub/examples/nutshell/cjkv/adobe/
¨ú±o ac14.tar.Z¡A¸Ì±¥]§t¤F Adobe-CNS1 ªº CMap ÀɮסC
¸Ë§¹«á´N¦³¦p¤Uªº CID-Keyed font ¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î¡G
MOEKai-Regular-ETen-B5-H
MOEKai-Regular-ETen-B5-V
MOESung-Regular-ETen-B5-H
MOESung-Regular-ETen-B5-V
¥H¤U¬O¤@Ó´ú¸Õªº½d¨Ò¡G
&prompt.user; cat cid.ps
/MOEKai-Regular-ETen-B5-H findfont 60 scalefont setfont
50 600 moveto (²³¸Ì´M¥L¤d¦Ê«×) show
50 520 moveto (ÅZµM¦^º) show
50 440 moveto (¨º¤H«o¦b¿O¤õÄæ¬À³B) show
showpage
quit
&prompt.user; gv -antialias cid.ps
&prompt.user; ps2ps cid.ps cid2.ps
&prompt.user; ps2pdf cid.ps
&prompt.user; ps2pdf cid2.ps
&prompt.user; xpdf cid.pdf (¥i¯à¤£¦æ)
&prompt.user; xpdf cid2.pdf
cid-gv snapshot
- ¥Ø«e¤w¸g¥i¥H¥Ñ ttfm ·f°t
+ ¥Ø«e¤w¸g¥i¥H¥Ñ chinese/ttfm ·f°t
gs-cjk
ªº¤è¦¡¨Ó¨ú¥N¡A¦Ó¥B®ÄªG§ó¦n¡C
¥H¤U¬O¥H MOESung-Regular ¬°¨Ò¤l¡A¨Ó¼W¥[²ÊÅé¡B±×Åé¡B²Ê±×Åé¤ä´©¡A
¦b¦w¸Ë®É¡A¥Ñ©ó¥²¶·ÃB¥~¦w¸Ë adobe-cmaps ¨Ó·f°t¡A
©Ò¥H·| DEPENDS print/adobe-cmaps¡C
¦A¨Ó¬O«Ø¥ß²ÊÅé¡A±×Åé¡A²Ê±×Åéµ¥¡A¦b¬Ý§¹ ttfm ªº gs-cjk ¼Ò²Õ«á¡A
¦³Ó·Qªk´N¬O gs-cjk ªº°µªk¬O¦b ttf ¤W±«Ø¥ß²ÊÅé¡A±×Åé¡A²Ê±×Åéµ¥¡A
³o¨Ç°µªk¬O¤£¬OÀ³¸Ó¤]¾A¥Î©ó moefonts-cid¡H
¦]¦¹´N«Ø¥ß¤F MOESung-Regular-Bold
%!PS-Adobe-3.0 Resource-CIDFont
%%BeginResource: CIDFont (MOESung-Regular-Bold)
/MOESung-Regular-Bold
/MOESung-Regular /CIDFont findresource
16 dict begin
/basecidfont exch def
/basefont-H /.basefont-H /Identity-H [ basecidfont ] composefont def
/basefont-V /.basefont-V /Identity-V [ basecidfont ] composefont def
/CIDFontName dup basecidfont exch get def
/CIDFontType 1 def
/CIDSystemInfo dup basecidfont exch get def
/FontInfo dup basecidfont exch get def
/FontMatrix [ 1 0 0 1 0 0 ] def
/FontBBox [
basecidfont /FontBBox get cvx exec
4 2 roll basecidfont /FontMatrix get transform
4 2 roll basecidfont /FontMatrix get transform
] def
/cid 2 string def
/BuildGlyph {
gsave
exch begin
dup 256 idiv cid exch 0 exch put
256 mod cid exch 1 exch put
rootfont /WMode known { rootfont /WMode get 1 eq } { false } ifelse
{ basefont-V } { basefont-H } ifelse setfont
.03 setlinewidth 1 setlinejoin
newpath
0 0 moveto cid false charpath stroke
0 0 moveto cid show
currentpoint setcharwidth
end
grestore
} bind def
currentdict
end
/CIDFont defineresource pop
%%EndResource
%%EOF
¥H¤Î MOESung-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H.gsf
/MOESung-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H
/MOESung-Regular-Bold (MOESung-Regular-Bold)
/ETen-B5-H (CMap/ETen-B5-H)
1 index /CMap resourcestatus
{pop pop pop}
{runlibfile} ifelse
/CMap findresource
3 1 roll
1 index /CIDFont resourcestatus
{pop pop pop}
{runlibfile} ifelse
/CIDFont findresource
[ exch ] composefont pop
µ²ªGµo²{¦b´ú¸ÕÀÉ cid.ps
/MOESung-Regular-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 600 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOESung-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 560 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOESung-Regular-Italic-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 520 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOESung-Regular-BoldItalic-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 480 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOEKai-Regular-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 440 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOEKai-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 400 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOEKai-Regular-Italic-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 360 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
/MOEKai-Regular-BoldItalic-ETen-B5-H findfont 30 scalefont setfont
50 320 moveto (2000¦~5¤ë29¤é) show
showpage
quit
²ÊÅ骺³¡¤À¥X²{¤F¹w´Áªº®ÄªG¡A©Ò¥H´NÄ~Äò»s§@±×Åé»P²Ê±×Åé¡A
³o³¡¤À¥i¥H°Ñ¦Ò gs-cjk¡A±×Å骺¦WºÙ©w¬° MOESung-Regular-Italic¡A
¦Ó²Ê±×Åé«h¬O MOESung-Regular-BoldItalic¡C
³Ì«á¡A°O±o§â³o¨Ç .gsf ¼g¤J
/usr/local/share/ghostscript/7.05/lib/Fontmap.GS
¼gªk¬O¡G¦r«¬ (¦r«¬.gsf) ;
/MOESung-Regular-ETen-B5-H (MOESung-Regular-ETen-B5-H.gsf) ;
/MOESung-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H (MOESung-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H.gsf) ;
/MOESung-Regular-BoldItalic-ETen-B5-H (MOESung-Regular-BoldItalic-ETen-B5-H.gsf) ;
/MOESung-Regular-Italic-ETen-B5-H (MOESung-Regular-Italic-ETen-B5-H.gsf) ;
³Ì«áקï¤@¤U -H ¦¨ -V ¦A«½Æ¤W±ªº¹Lµ{§Y¥i¡A
¨ä¥Lªº¦r«¬¤]¬O´X¥G¤@¼Ëªº°µªk´N¥i¥H§¹¤u¤F¡A
¤£¹L¡A¯uªº¤ñ¤£¤W¥Î ttf °µ¥X¨Óªº§r
¦p¦¹«Ø¥ß§¹¡A´N·|¦³¤@°ï¥i¥Îªº CID-Keyed ¦r«¬
MOESung-Regular-ETen-B5-H
MOESung-Regular-Bold-ETen-B5-H
MOESung-Regular-BoldItalic-ETen-B5-H
MOESung-Regular-Italic-ETen-B5-H
³o¼Ë¤l¦b°t¦X¤å®Ñ³nÅé¤W¡AÀ³¸Ó·|§ó¦n¡A
§Ú·Q¤å®Ñ³nÅéºCºCªº¤]·|§â¦C¦Lªº³¡¤À¥Î
gs ©Ò´£¨Ñªº¦r«¬¨Ó¼ÒÀÀ¡A¹³¬O editors/Abiword ´N¬OӫܴΪº¨Ò¤l¡A
¦Ó kde2 «h¬O¦Û¤v°µ²ÊÅé¡A±×Åéµ¥ªº¼ÒÀÀ¡A
¤£¹L§ÚÁÙ¨S¥h´ú¸Õ¨ì²ÊÅé©M±×Å骺³¡¤À¡A
µ¥¦³ªÅ¶¢¤F¦A¥h¸Õ¸Õ¡C
moefonts-cid snapshot
¥H gs Æ[¬Ý¤£¤º´Oªº pdf ÀÉ
gs/gv ¦³Ó dirty hack¡A´N¬O¬Ý¨ì
name type emb sub uni object ID
------------------------------------ ------------ --- --- --- ---------
°ê¦r¼Ð·Ç§ºÅé CID TrueType no no no 22 0
³oºØÃþ«¬ªº¤£¤º´O¦r¡A´N¦Û¤v¨ì
/usr/local/share/ghostscript/7.05/lib/CIDFnmap
¤¤¥[¤W alias¡A¥H§Ú¦Ó¨¥·|¥[¤W¤å¹©¤W®ü§ºªº alias¡G
/°ê¦r¼Ð·Ç§ºÅé /ShanHeiSun-Light ;
§õªG¥¿ Edward G.J. Lee ¤]´£¥X¤ñ¸û¥¿¦¡ªº¸Ñªk¦p¤U¡G
¬Q¤Ñª±¤F¤@¤U gs¡Cµo²{¥i¯à¤£¥²³o»ò³Â·Ð¡A¦]¬° CJK-latex + dvipdfmix
»s§@¥X¨Óªº¤£¤º´O¤¤¤å PDF ÀÉ¡A»á¦X PDF-spec¡CÁöµM¡Apdffonts ¬Ý¨ìªº¬O¡G
name type emb sub uni object ID
------------------------------------ ------------ --- --- --- ---------
°ê¦r¼Ð·Ç§ºÅé CID TrueType no no no 22 0
¦ý¨ä¹ê PDF ÀɸÌÀY·|¼Ð°O¦¨ Adobe-CNS1¡A¤]´N¬O»¡·|¥h¨Ï¥Î PDF browser
Adobe-CNS1 ªº¹w³]¦r«¬¡A¨Ò¦p¡G
34 0 obj
<<
/Type/Font
/Subtype/CIDFontType2
/BaseFont/#b0#ea#a6r#bc#d0#b7#c7#a7#ba#c5#e9,Italic
/FontDescriptor 35 0 R
/CIDSystemInfo<<
/Registry(Adobe)
/Ordering(CNS1)
/Supplement 0
>>
>>
endobj
¥H¦¹ object ¬°¨Ò¡C¨ä¤¤ # ¬O¥Nªí hex notation¡A
¨º¤@°ï´N¬O¡y°ê¦r¼Ð·Ç§ºÅé¡z¡A
«á±·|¦³ /Registry(Adobe) /Ordering(CNS1)¡A¦]¦¹¡A¥un gs ªº
CIDFnmap ³]¦¨¡G
/Adobe-CNS1 /ShanHeiSun-Light ;
´N¥i¥H¤F¡A¤]´N¬O»¡¡A¤£ºÞ PDF ¨Ï¥Î¤°»ò¦r«¬¡A¦pªG§ä¤£¨ì¦¹¦r«¬¡A
´N·|¨Ï¥Î¹w³]ªº (Adobe-CNS1)ShanHeiSun-Light¡C
³o¼Ë´N¤£¥²¹J¨ì¨S¦³ªº¦r«¬´N±o¥h¥[¤J alias¡C
¦Ó acroread ¤]·|¥h§ä¥Lªº¹w³]¦r«¬ MHei-Medium ©Î MSung-Light
(µø acroread ¦p¦ó³]©w¡A³]¦¨ sans «h¨ú¥Î¶ÂÅé¡A³]¦¨ serif
«h¨ú¥Î§ºÅé)¡C¬°¨¾·N¥~¡A«Øij¥H¤U¨â¦æ¤]¥[¤J¡G
/Adobe-CNS1-Big5 /ShanHeiSun-Light ;
/Adobe-CNS1-Unicode /ShanHeiSun-Light ;
³o¼Ë¤@¨Ó¡A¦C¦Lªº°ÝÃD¤]¸Ñ¨M¤F¡Cpdf2ps(pswrite device) ®É gs ·|¥h¨ú¥Î
ShanHeiSun-Light¡C·íµM¡A«e´£¬O /usr/share/ghostscript/Resource n§â
ShanHeiSun-Light ¹w¥ý³]©w¦n¡C
TrueType - ¥þ¯u¦r«¬·§½×
TrueType¦r«¬®æ¦¡¬°¬ü°êApple (
http://www.apple.com )¤ÎMicrosoft (
http://www.microsoft.com
)©Ò¦@¦P¨î©w¡A³Ì¥ý¨Ï¥Î©óAppleªºMacintosh¨t¦C¤Î
Microsoft Windows 3.1¡A ¦Ó¥Ø«eAppleªºOS 8.0¤Î
Microsoft Windows 95/NT/2000/XP¤]³£¨Ï¥Î
TrueType§@¬°¦r«¬®æ¦¡¡C
°ò¥»¤WTrueType©MPostScript¤@¼Ë¡A³£¬O¨Ï¥Î¨©¯÷¦±½u(Bezier Curve)
¨Ó´yzªº¥~®Ø¦r¡C ¦r«¬¥i¥H§@¥ô·N¤Ø¤oªº©ñ¤jÁY¤p¡A
©Î§@¨ä¥LÄݩʪºÅܤơA¤£¹L¥Ñ©óApple¤ÎMicrosoft
ªº§@·~¨t²Î³£ª½±µ¤ä´©¦¹¦r«¬®æ¦¡¡A©Ò¥H¨Ã¤£»Ýn¦pPostScript
¤@¼Ë¡A¥~±¾(Adobe)Type Manager¤§Ãþªºµ{¦¡¡C
WWW:
Features of TrueType and OpenType
ttfm - TrueType ¦r«¬ºÞ²z¤u¨ã
¥Ø«e¦³³\¦hµ{¦¡³£·|n¨D¨Ï¥Î TTF ¦r«¬¡A©Ò¥H§Ú̳̦nÁÙ¬OÀ° X ¥[
¤W¤¤¤åªº TTF ¦r«¬¤ä´©¡C¥Ø«e¦w¸Ë¦r«¬©Ò»Ýªº
fonts.dir ¤w¸g¤£»Ýn
- ¨Ï¥Î¼É¤Oªº¤èªk²£¥Í¡A¨Ï¥Î ttfm
+ ¨Ï¥Î¼É¤Oªº¤èªk²£¥Í¡A¨Ï¥Î chinese/ttfm
´N¥i¥H«Ü¶¶§QªººÞ²z©Ò¦³ªº¤¤¤å¦r
- «¬¤F¡C¦Ó²{¦b¦b ports ¤¤ªº TrueType ¦r«¬¦³¤T®M¡A
+ «¬¤F¡C¦Ó²{¦b¦b ports ¤¤ªº TrueType ¦r«¬¦³¤C®M¡A
+ arnettf ¡B
arphicttf ¡B
+ dfsongsd ¡B
+ fireflyttf ¡B
+ mingunittf ¡B
moettf ¡B
- wangttf ¡C
+ wqy ¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/ttfm ¡C
¦w¸Ë«á¥]§t¤F¡G
ttfinfo¡G ¤@Ó¥i¥H¥Î¨ÓŪ¨ú ttf
¦r«¬®æ¦¡¸ê°Tªº¤pµ{¦¡¡A½d¨Ò¦p¤U¡G
&prompt.root; ttfinfo /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/bkai00mp.ttf
TTFINFO_FONT_FILE="/usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/bkai00mp.ttf"
TTFINFO_FONT_NAME="AR PL KaitiM Big5"
TTFINFO_FONT_PSNAME="ZenKai-Medium"
TTFINFO_FOUNDRY_NAME="Arphic"
TTFINFO_WEIGHT_NAME="medium"
TTFINFO_WIDTH="normal"
TTFINFO_NUMCMAP="2"
TTFINFO_CMAP0="1,0"
TTFINFO_CMAPNAME0="Apple,Roman"
TTFINFO_CMAP1="3,1"
TTFINFO_CMAPNAME1="Windows,Unicode"
TTFINFO_MAPNUM="1"
TTFINFO_FONTMAP1="-Arphic-AR PL KaitiM Big5-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-c-0-big5-0"
ttfinst.tk ¡G¹Ï§Î¤¶±ªº tk script¡A
¥i¥H¥Î¨Ó¦w¸Ë¦r«¬¡A¤£«Øij¨Ï¥Î¡C
ttfm.sh ¡Gshell script¡A¹w³Æ§@¬° ttf ¦r«¬Á`ºÞ¡C
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --help
True-Type Font Manager 0.9.3
Usage: /usr/local/bin/ttfm.sh [option]
--add [module] <file>... install ttf font
--remove [module] <file>... remove ttf font from the system
--list <module>... list all ttf fonts on the system
--modules list all ttf manager modules on the system
--initm <module>.. initialize modules
--help show this info
³oÓµ{¦¡·|¥h§Q¥Î¦ì©ó
/usr/share/fonts/install/ ©³¤U¥H
".ttfm" µ²§Àªº¥i°õ¦æÀɨӦw¸Ë¡B³]©w¦r«¬¡A
³o¨Ç .ttfm ÀɮקںÙ
¬° ttfm module¡A¥Ñ»Ýn¨Ï¥Î¨ì ttf ¦r«¬ªºµ{¦¡´£¨Ñ¡A³o¨Ç¼Ò²Õ¥²
¶·²Å¦X¥H¤Un¨D¡G
¥i¿W¥ß¨Ï¥Î¡A¤£¤@©w³z¹L ttfm.sh ©I¥s°õ¦æ¡C
¤£¹ï¨t²Î¦r«¬¥Ø¿ý¦³¥ô¦ó¹w³]¡A¥uºÞ²z¦Û¤v¼Ò²Õ¦r«¬¥Ø¿ý¤UªºÀɮסC
¹ï ttf Àɮצì¸m»Ý¨D¤£¦P©ó ttfm.sh
¤¤ªº¨t²Î¦r«¬¥Ø¿ý®É¡A¥H
link ¤è¦¡³B²z¡A¤£ copy ttf ÀɮסA²¾°£¦r«¬®É¤£§ó°Ê¨t²Î¦r«¬¥Ø
¿ý¤¤ªºÀɮסC
´£¨Ñ¦Ü¤Ö¤U±´XÓ°Ñ¼Æ¨Ñ ttfm.sh ¨Ï¥Î¡G
--name Åã¥Ü¼Ò²Õ¦WºÙ
--list ¦C¥X¼Ò²ÕºÞ²zªº²{¦³¦r«¬»P¹ïÀ³ªº¦WºÙ
--add <file> ¼W¥[¦r«¬¡Afile ¬°¤@¦r«¬ÀɮצWºÙ¡A¦p
/mnt/windows/fonts/mingliu.ttc
--remove <file> ²¾°£¦r«¬¡Afile ¬°¦r«¬ÀɮצWºÙ¡A¥i¥H¬O
fullpath¡B¥ç¥i¥H¬O³æ¯ÂÀɮצW¡A¦p
/usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/bkai00mp.ttf or bkai00mp.ttf
- ttfm ±Ä¥Î¼Ò²Õ¤Æªº³]p¡C
+ chinese/ttfm ±Ä¥Î¼Ò²Õ¤Æªº³]p¡C
¨C¤@Ó»Ýn¨Ï¥Î¨ì ttf ¦r«¬ªº
- µ{¦¡³£¥i¥H´£¨Ñ ttfm ªº¼Ò²Õ¡A
+ µ{¦¡³£¥i¥H´£¨Ñ chinese/ttfm ªº¼Ò²Õ¡A
µM«á«K¥i³z¹L ttfm.sh ¨Ó°µ¨ì
¦r«¬ªº¦w¸Ë¡A²¾°£¡A¦Cªí¡A³]©w¹w³]¦r«¬µ¥ºÞ²zªº°Ê§@¡C
- ¥Ø«e¤w¦³ªº ttfm ¼Ò²Õ¦³¡G
+ ¥Ø«e¤w¦³ªº chinese/ttfm ¼Ò²Õ¦³¡G
abiword µ¹ AbiWord 0.7.12 ©Î¬O¥H¤Wªºª©¥»¨Ï¥Î¡C
chitex ¦w¸Ë ChiTeX ¦r«¬ (by cwhuang)
gscjk µ¹ Aladdin Ghostscript ¨Ï¥Î¡C¥i¥HºÞ²z TrueType ¦r«¬
©M CID ¦r«¬¡AGhostscript ¥²¶·×¸É¥i¥H¨Ï¥Î TrueType ¦r«¬¡C
ttf2pk ¨Ñ freetype-contrib ªº ttf2tfm, ttf2pk ¨Ï¥Î (by cwhuang)
xfreetype µ¹ XFree86's freetype backend¡A¦b 3.x ¬O Xfsft¡A
¦b 4.x ¬O freetype ¼Ò²Õ¡C
xttfm-tcl µ¹ XFree86 3.3.x X-TrueType server¡C
xttfm ¦w¸Ëµ¹ X window ¥Îªº font.dir, font.alias (by ¤p¦ä)
¤@¨Ç¨Ï¥Î½d¨Ò¡G
1. ¥[¤J¦r«¬¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --add <path>/bsmi00lp.ttf
(xttfm ·|¥O xfs «·s¸ü¤J¦r«¬¦WºÙ¡C¦pªG±z¤£¬O¨Ï¥Î xfs¡A
±zn¦Û¤v¤U xset fp rehash
¥O·sªº¦r«¬¦WºÙ¥Í®Ä¡A©ÎªÌ«·s±Ò°Ê X Window )
2. ¦C¥X¦r«¬¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --list xttfm
·|¦C¥X xttfm ¼Ò²Õ©Ò¦³¦w¸Ëªº¦r«¬¡C
±z²{¦b¥i¥H¥Î xlsfonts ¬Ý¨ì³o¨Ç¦r«¬¦WºÙ¡C
¨Ã¥i¥Î xfd -fn <¦r«¬¦WºÙ>
¸Õ¸Õ¯à§_¬Ý¨ì¦r«¬¡C
3. ²¾°£¦r«¬¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --remove bsmi00lp.ttf
³o¤£»Ý¦h°µ¸ÑÄÀ§a¡H
4. ³]©w¹w³]¦r«¬¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --setdefault xttfm bkai00mp.ttf
±N xttfm ¼Ò²Õªº¹w³]¦r«¬§ó§ï¬°
- bkai00mp.ttf ³o©Î³\¬O ttfm
+ bkai00mp.ttf ³o©Î³\¬O chinese/ttfm
³Ì powerful ªº¥\¯à¤§¤@¤F¡C
±z¥iµo²{ X Window ¹w³]ªº¤¤¤å¦r«¬³q³qÅܦ¨·¢Å骺¡C
ª`·N¹w³]¦r«¬¬O¸ò encoding ¦³Ãöªº¡C±z¥i¥H¹ï¤£¦Pªº
- encoding ¤À§Oµ¹©w¹w³]¦r«¬¡Cttfm
+ encoding ¤À§Oµ¹©w¹w³]¦r«¬¡Cchinese/ttfm
·|¦Û°Ê®Ú¾Ú©Òµ¹©w
ttf ¦Û°Ê§PÂ_À³³]©w¨ººØ encoding ªº¹w³]¦r«¬¡C
¨Ò¦p ttfm.sh --setdefault xttfm gkai00mp.ttf
·|³]©w GB ªº¹w³]¦r«¬¬°·¢Åé¡C
5. ¼Ò²Õªºªì©l¤Æ¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --initm <module name>...
³oÓ¥\¯à¬O¥Î¨Ó¦b¦w¸Ë¤@¼Ò²Õ®É¡A±N¨t²Î¤w¦³ªº
ttf ¦r«¬³q³q¦w¸Ë¨ì¸Ó¼Ò²Õ¤¤¡C
¦pªG¤U:
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --initm all
·|¥O©Ò¦³¤w¦w¸Ëªº¼Ò²Õ³£°µªì©l¤Æªº°Ê§@¡C
(¤]´N¬O±N©Ò¦³¦r«¬¦w¸Ë¨ì©Ò¦³ªº¼Ò²Õ¤¤)
¦pªG±z¼¶¼g¤F¤@Ó ttfm ªº¼Ò²Õ¡A½Ð°O±o¦b¦w¸Ë®É
°õ¦æ ttfm.sh --initm <±zªº¼Ò²Õ¦WºÙ>
Ãö©ó TrueType ¦r«¬ªº³]©w¡A¦b±Ò°Ê±zªº X ¤§«e¡A
°O±oÀˬd /etc/XFree86 ¤U±¦³¨S¦³
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType"
©Î¬O¦b ~/.xinitrc ¤¤¥[¤W
xset +fp /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType/ ¡C
&prompt.root; cvs -d :pserver:anonymous@cle.linux.org.tw:/var/lib/CVSROOT login
(Logging in to anonymous@cle.linux.org.tw)
CVS password:
&prompt.root; cvs -d :pserver:anonymous@cle.linux.org.tw:/var/lib/CVSROOT checkout ttfm
WWW:
ttfm project
mingliu - ·L³n²Ó©úÅé TrueType ¦r«¬
Contributed by EricCheng
Last Update: 2003¦~ 9¤ë21¤é ©P¤é 21®É13¤À54¬í CST
mingliu ¬O·L³n¦VµØ±dÁʶRªº¤¤¤åÁcÅé¦r«¬¡A
¤]¬O Windows ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ³Ì²ßºDªº¹q¸£¦r¡C
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/outta-port/mingliu
&prompt.root; make install clean
mingliu.ttc ¦³¨âÓ faces¡A²Ä¹sÓ face ¬O
²Ó©úÅé(MingLiU)¡A^¤å¦r«¬¬Oµ¥¼eªº¡A
²Ä¤@Ó¬O·s²Ó©úÅé(PMingLiU)¡A¤£µ¥¼eªº^¤å¦r«¬¡A
¹w³]·|¨Ï¥Î²Ä¹sÓ¡A¦pªGn¨Ï¥Î·s²Ó©úÅ骺¸Ü¡A¥²¶·¥t¥~³]©w¡C
²Ó©úÅé¦b 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 20 ÂIªº¤j¤p¦³¯S§O°µ¤º´OªºÂI°}¦r¡A
´«¥y¸Ü»¡¡A¥Ñ©ó¤¤¤å¦rªº hinting ¤£©ö¡A¦³®ÉÂI°}¦r·|¤ñ¸û¦³®Ä¡C
¤S¦]¬°·s²Ó©úÅé¨Ï¥Î¤F bytecode ¨Ó²Õ¦Xµ§¹º¡A
¨S¦³½s¶i bytecode interpreter ªº freetype ª©¥»¦b render ªº®ÉÔ¡A
´N·|¸H±¼¡C
¦b¥Ø«e ports/print/freetype2 ¤¤¡A¹w³]·|§Q¥Î
files/patch-include::freetype::config::ftoption.h ±N
TT_CONFIG_OPTION_BYTECODE_INTERPRETER ¥´¶}¡C
³]©wÅý²Ó©úÅé¦b³o¨Ç¤j¤p®É¡AÅã¥Ü¤º«ØªºÂI°}¦r¦Ó¤£n¥Î anti-aliased¡A
¦b ~/.fonts.conf ¥[¤J¡G
<match target="font">
<test name="family"><string>MingLiU</string></test>
<edit name="antialias"><bool>true</bool></edit>
<edit name="hinting"><bool>true</bool></edit>
<edit name="autohint"><bool>false</bool></edit>
</match>
<match target="font">
<test name="family"><string>MingLiU</string></test>
<test name="size" compare="less_eq"><int>12</int></test>
<edit name="antialias" mode="assign"><bool>false</bool></edit>
<edit name="hinting" mode="assign"><bool>true</bool></edit>
</match>
¦]¬° MingLiU «ÅºÙ¦Û¤v¬O monospaced ¦r«¬¡A
¦ý¹ê»Ú¤W¥¦¦³¨âºØ©T©w¼e«×¡G¤¤¤åªº¥þ§Î¥H¤Î^¤åªº¥b§Î¡A
³y¦¨ freetype »~§P©Ò¦³¦r³£¬O¸ò¤¤¤åªº¥þ§Î¤@¼Ë¼e¡A
¨Ï±o^¤å¦r©M¤¤¤å¦r·|µ¥¼e¡C
¥i¥Hקï freetype ªº globaladvance flag ©Î¬O spacing¡A
0 ¬O proportional ªº spacing¡A100 ¬O mono¡A110 ¬O charcell¡G
<match target="font">
<test name="family"><string>MingLiU</string></test>
<edit name="globaladvance"><bool>false</bool></edit>
</match>
<match target="font">
<test name="family"><string>MingLiU</string></test>
<edit name="spacing"><int>0</int></edit>
</match>
°O±o¦b ~/.fonts.conf ªºÀY§À¥[¤W
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd">
<fontconfig>
...
</fontconfig>
¦b X11 Core Font ¤W¡A«h¬O§Q¥Î xtt ªº¥\¯à¨Ó¿ï¨ú Face 1 ªº
PMingLiU ¨ÓÅã¥Ü¡A¤]´N¬O¦b³Ì«e±¥[¤W fn=1¡A¨ÃÀˬd
Spacing Äæ¦ì¬O§_¬° p¡AMingLiU ªº Spacing Äæ¦ì¬O m¡C
¦pªG¦w¸Ë chinese/ttfm ·|¦Û°Ê¥[¤J¨âÓ face¡C
mingliu.ttc -DynaLab-MingLiU-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-m-0-iso8859-1
fn=1:mingliu.ttc -DynaLab-PMingLiU-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1
WWW:
EricCheng Fontconfig
simsun - ·L³n§ºÅé TrueType ¦r«¬
simsun ¬O·L³n¦V ZHONGYI Electronic Co. ÁʶRªº¤¤¤å²Åé¦r«¬¡A
¤]¬O Windows ¨Ï¥ÎªÌ³Ì²ßºDªº¹q¸£¦r¡C
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/outta-port/simsun
&prompt.root; make install clean
simsun.ttc ¦³¨âÓ faces¡A²Ä¹sÓ face ¬O
SimSun¡A^¤å¦r«¬¬O¤£µ¥¼eªº¡A
²Ä¤@Ó¬ONSimSun¡Aµ¥¼eªº^¤å¦r«¬¡A
¹w³]·|¨Ï¥Î²Ä¹sÓ¡A¦pªGn¨Ï¥ÎNSimSunªº¸Ü¡A¥²¶·¥t¥~³]©w¡C
¦]¬° NSimSun «ÅºÙ¦Û¤v¬O monospaced ¦r«¬¡A
¦ý¹ê»Ú¤W¥¦¦³¨âºØ©T©w¼e«×¡G¤¤¤åªº¥þ§Î¥H¤Î^¤åªº¥b§Î¡A
³y¦¨ freetype »~§P©Ò¦³¦r³£¬O¸ò¤¤¤åªº¥þ§Î¤@¼Ë¼e¡A
¨Ï±o^¤å¦r©M¤¤¤å¦r·|µ¥¼e¡C
¥i¥Hקï freetype ªº globaladvance flag ©Î¬O spacing¡A
0 ¬O proportional ªº spacing¡A100 ¬O mono¡A110 ¬O charcell¡G
<match target="font">
<test name="family"><string>NSimSun</string></test>
<edit name="globaladvance"><bool>false</bool></edit>
</match>
<match target="font">
<test name="family"><string>NSimSun</string></test>
<edit name="spacing"><int>0</int></edit>
</match>
°O±o¦b ~/.fonts.conf ªºÀY§À¥[¤W
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd">
<fontconfig>
...
</fontconfig>
Yn¨Ï¥Îµ¥¼eªº NSimSun¡A¦b X11 Core Font ¤W¡A
«h¬O xtt ªº¥\¯à¨Ó¿ï¨ú Face 1 ªº
NSimSun ¨ÓÅã¥Ü¡A¤]´N¬O¦b³Ì«e±¥[¤W fn=1¡A¨ÃÀˬd
Spacing Äæ¦ì¬O§_¬° m¡ASimSun ªº Spacing Äæ¦ì¬O p¡C
¦pªG¦w¸Ë chinese/ttfm ·|¦Û°Ê¥[¤J¨âÓ face¡C
simsun.ttc -misc-SimSun-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-p-0-iso8859-1
fn=1:simsun.ttc -misc-NSimSun-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-m-0-iso8859-1
mingunittf - »´ä¸É¼W¦r²Å¶°2001
mingunittf ¥]§t¤F»´ä¸É¼W¦r²Å¶°2001ªº©Ò¦³¦r¡C
mingunittf ªº¦w¸Ë:
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/outta-port/mingunittf
&prompt.root; make install clean
¥Ñ©ó·f°t ttfm ªº xttfm ¼Ò²Õ¡A¦]¦¹¦b XF86Config
¸Ì±¤@©wn Load "xtt" ¤~¦æ¡C
moettf - ¥xÆW±Ð¨|³¡¼Ð·Ç TrueType ¦r«¬
moettf ¥xÆW±Ð¨|³¡¼Ð·Ç·¢®Ñ¡B§ºÅé
ttf ¦r§ÎÀÉ¡A²{¦b¤S¥[¤F¨âÓ¦r«¬
moe_sungext.ttf ©M
moe_sungsym.ttf ¡AÁöµM¦r«¬¬O BIG5 ½s½X¡A
¦r¤¸©M²Å¸¹¦b CNS ¤¤ÁÙ¬O°¸¦Ó·|¥Î¨ì¡C
¦w¸Ë chinese/moettf ¡C
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http://bbs.ee.ntu.edu.tw/boards/Linux/7/8/4.html
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2059101 edustd-15.exe ±Ð¨|³¡Áõ®Ñ¦r§ÎÀÉ[µù1]
1971355 edustds1.exe ±Ð¨|³¡¼Ð§ºÅé¼W¸É½s¦r§ÎÀÉ[µù2]
139950 edustds2.exe ±Ð¨|³¡¼Ð§ºÅé¼W¸É½s¦r§ÎÀÉ[µù2]
9194491 moe_kai.ttf °ê¦r¼Ð·Ç¦rÅé·¢®Ñ¥À½Z[µù3]
8647174 moe_sung.ttf °ê¦r¼Ð·Ç¦rÅ駺Åé¥À½Z[µù3]
[µù1] http://www.edu.tw/mandr/allbook/lishu/lishu.htm
[µù2] http://www.edu.tw/mandr/result/5879/5879.html
[µù3] http://www.edu.tw/mandr/bbs/1-4-2/ksf.html
¦ý¬O¦b±Ð¨|³¡·¢®Ñ¦r§ÎÀÉ[µù4]¡A¬Ý¨ì¤TÓ¤£¦Pªº·¢®Ñ¦r«¬¡H
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13837924 kai-linux.ttf Linux ª©(92.2) Linux§@·~Àô¹Ò¾A¥Î
9300584 ct.sit MAC ª©(92.2) APPLE¹q¸£¾A¥Î
[µù4] http://www.edu.tw/mandr/bbs/1-4-2/kai.htm
moettf snapshot
WWW:
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¥H¤Uªí®æ¦¡¾ã²z¹L«áªº¤å¹©¦rÅé³t¬dªí¡A
·|¦³¨âÓ Font Family ¬O¦]¬°^¤åªº¬O
Microsoft,Unicode,English - United States
ªº¸ê°T¡A±`¥Î©ó gtk2 µ¥¦r«¬³]©w¡A
¤¤¤åªº«h¬O Microsoft,Unicode,Chinese - Taiwan
ªº¸ê°T¡A³q±`¬O utf8 ½s½X¡A±`¥Î©ó openoffice ªº¦r«¬³]©w¡A
Font Family, Unique subfamily identification, Full name
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PostScript name
Font Family
Font Family
bkai00mp
ZenKai-Medium
AR PL KaitiM Big5
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bsmi00lp
ShanHeiSun-Light
AR PL Mingti2L Big5
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BousungEG-Light-GB
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arphicttf snapshot
WWW: ¤å¹©¬ì§Þ
wangttf - ¤ýº~©v±Ð±Â TrueType ¦r«¬
wangttf ¥Ñ
Dr. Hann-Tzong Wang ´£¨Ñªº¦r«¬¡A¥i¥H¬Ý¬Ý
wangttf.txt ±o¨ì§ó¸Ô²Óªº¸ê°T¡A
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¦w¸Ë chinese/wangttf ¡C
wangttf snapshot
ntuttf - ¥x¤j¦r«¬
Date: Thu, 17 Mar 94 14:18:18 CST
From: Lin YawJen <f1506015@csman.csie.ntu.edu.tw>
HISTORY: I had written a program to convert fonts from
large bitmap into TrueTypefor MS-Windows. For Mac, see
ifcss.org:/software/fonts/mac/ the bitmaps came
from DYNAFONT (Hua2 Kang1) and ETen..
This is the critical point of this product.
Font styles includes:
kai: ·¢®Ñ
br: ²Ê¶ê
fs_m: ¥é§º±`¥Î
li_m:Áõ®Ñ±`¥Î
mb: ¤¤¶Â
mm:¤¤©ú
mr:¤¤¶ê
tw: ·¥²Ó
COPYRIGHT: These fonts are created by Mr. Lin Yaw-JenAll Right reserved.
These fonts must not be used for any commercial activities.
Lab of OA Network
Home: 4F, No. 12-2 Alley 2 Lane 250 Sec 5 Nanking East Rd.
Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering
Taipei Taiwan R.O.C National Taiwan University
Tel: 886-2-7641236 Taipei Taiwan R.O.C
Fax: 886-2-760184 Email: f1506015@csman.csie.ntu.edu.tw
¦w¸Ë chinese/ntuttf ¡C
ntuttf snapshot
WWW:
ntu ctlg
oto - Open Type Organizer µ{¦¡
Joe Man post ¨ì zh-l10n ªº¤å³¹¤¤¸`¿ý³¡¤À¦p¤U:
Open Type Organizer(oto) ³oÓ¤p¤pµ{¦¡µw¬On±o¡I
¥¦¥i¥H±N쥻¥u¦³ big5 ©Î gb ½s½Xªº TrueType ¦r¦A¥[¤J¤@Ó
unicode ½s½X¡A¦ýµ´¹ï¤£·|ÅͶÃ쥻ªº¦r«¬¡C[big5 ³¡¥÷¬O¥Ñ§Ú×¥¿ªº¡A
½Ð¤j®aÀ°¦£´ú¸Õ :)] ³oÓ¤è®×ÁÙ¦³¤@Ó¦n³B... ¦] OpenOffice ¥u»{
Unicode ½s½Xªº TrueType ¦r¡A¤Þ¦Ü«Ü¦h Big5 ½s½Xªº¦r¤£¯à¥Î¡C
²{¦b¥un±NÂàÅܫ᪺¦r§Û¨ì OpenOffice ¤Uªº share/fonts/truetype/
´N¥i¥H¥Î¤F¡C¦n¡I §Ú¤w¸g´ú¸Õ¤F´XÓ¤ýº~©v±Ð±Âªº¦r«¬¡A
(½T«Yè°)¡I---¼sªF¸Ü :)
¦w¸Ë chinese/oto ¡C
wangttf ªº¦r«¬¥u¦³ Big5 ½s½X¡A©Ò¥H§ÚÌÀ°¦o¥[¤W
Unicode ½s½X¡C
&prompt.root; oto wcl-01.ttf wcl-01-unicode.ttf
&prompt.root; ttfinfo wcl-01.ttf
TTFINFO_FONT_FILE="wcl-01.ttf"
TTFINFO_FONT_NAME="unknown"
TTFINFO_FONT_PSNAME="unknown"
TTFINFO_FOUNDRY_NAME="misc"
TTFINFO_WEIGHT_NAME="medium"
TTFINFO_WIDTH="normal"
TTFINFO_NUMCMAP="1"
TTFINFO_CMAP0="3,4"
TTFINFO_CMAPNAME0="Windows,Big 5"
TTFINFO_MAPNUM="1"
TTFINFO_FONTMAP1="-misc-unknown-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-c-0-big5-0"
&prompt.root; ttfinfo wcl-01-unicode.ttf
TTFINFO_FONT_FILE="wcl-01-2.ttf"
TTFINFO_FONT_NAME="unknown"
TTFINFO_FONT_PSNAME="unknown"
TTFINFO_FOUNDRY_NAME="misc"
TTFINFO_WEIGHT_NAME="medium"
TTFINFO_WIDTH="normal"
TTFINFO_NUMCMAP="2"
TTFINFO_CMAP0="3,1"
TTFINFO_CMAPNAME0="Windows,Unicode"
TTFINFO_CMAP1="3,4"
TTFINFO_CMAPNAME1="Windows,Big 5"
TTFINFO_MAPNUM="1"
TTFINFO_FONTMAP1="-misc-unknown-medium-r-normal--0-0-0-0-c-0-big5-0"
oto ¥t¥~¤@Ó¦n¥Îªº¥\¯à´N¬O¯àקï¦r«¬ªºÄÝ©Ê¡G
&prompt.user; oto NTU_KAI.TTF > test
&prompt.user; iconv -f utf-8 -t big5 test > test.big5
&prompt.user; vi test.big5
&prompt.user; iconv -f big5 -t utf-8 test.big5 > test.utf-8
&prompt.user; oto NTU_KAI.TTF ntu-kai-new.ttf --names test.utf-8
½s¿è test.big5 §â
(Microsoft,Unicode,Chinese - Taiwan) .... at ...:
§ï¦¨±z·QnÅã¥Üªº¦r¡A¨Ï¥Î iconv ¥i¯ànª`·N¨Ã«D¾ãÓÀɳ£¬O utf-8 ½s½Xªº¡A
¤j·§§â Unicode ¨º¨Ç°Ï¬q¦Û¤v§ä¥X¨ÓÂন big5 ½s¿è«á¦A¼g¦^¥h¡A
³Ì«á¦A·f°t --names ¨Ó§âÄݩʧﱼ¡C
¥H¤U¬O Edward G.J. Lee¡]§õªG¥¿¡^ ©Ò°^Ämªº¡C
Pfaedit ¤]¬O¥i¥Hקï¦r«¬ªºÄÝ©Ê
#!/usr/bin/env pfaedit
# Reencoding a font to Unicode TTF.
# By Edward G.J. Lee, this code is public domain.
# $1: your TTF name.
if ($argc != 2)
Print("usage: ", $0, " your.tt[fc]")
Quit(1)
endif
Print("Loading ", $1, "...")
Open($1)
SetFontNames("myfont","myfont","myfont")
Reencode("iso10646-1")
ClearHints()
Print("Generating fonts...")
Generate($1 + ".ttf")
Close()
Quit(0)
chmod +x unifont.pe ´N¥i¥H°õ¦æ¤F(Unix-like ¨t²Î/Àô¹Ò)¡C³oÓ script
·|§â¤£¬O Unicode ªº TTF Âন Unicode TTF¡C¨ä¤¤ ps name ªº³¡¥÷½Ð¦Û
¦æ§ó§ï¡A§Ú³o¸Ì¬O¨Ï¥Î myfont¡C
./unifont.pe your.ttf
´N¥i¥H¤F¡A·|²£¥Í your.ttf.ttf¡A¦A¦Û¦æ§ó§ïÀɦW¡C
WWW:
oto project
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/stepbystep.sgml b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/stepbystep.sgml
index e086bb2877..e435a6ffd4 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/stepbystep.sgml
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/chapters/stepbystep.sgml
@@ -1,318 +1,313 @@
¥H FreeBSD «Ø¥ß¤¤¤å Desktop ªº¦w¸Ë«ü«n
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FreeBSD ®à±¨t²Îªº¦w¸Ë¬O¥i¥H¦b¤T¤Q¤ÀÄÁ¤º§¹¦¨ªº¡C
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µ§ªÌ³q±`³]©w setenv PACKAGEROOT ftp://ftp.tw.freebsd.org ¡A
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©³¤U´M§ä®M¥ó¡A¦Ó¥B§A¤£»Ýnª¾¹Dª©¥»¡A¥unª¾¹D®M¥ó¦WºÙ§Y¥i¡A
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ENV['PACKAGEROOT'] = 'ftp://ftp.tw.FreeBSD.org' ¡A
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-PP ¨Ó§Q¥Î packages ¦w¸Ë¡C
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&prompt.root; setenv PACKAGEROOT ftp://ftp.tw.freebsd.org
¦b¤j³°³]©w¬° ftp://ftp.freebsdchina.org ¡C
½Õ¾ã®É°Ï¡A¨Ã¹ï®É¡C
&prompt.root; tzsetup /usr/share/zoneinfo/Asia/Taipei
&prompt.root; ntpdate time.stdtime.gov.tw
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ®É°Ïªº³]©w ¤@¸`¡C
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x11/wrapper ¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r XFree86
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r wrapper
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¤¤¤å X Window ¤@¸`³]©w
XF86Config ¡C
¦w¸Ë x11/gnome2
Window Manager¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnome2
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&prompt.root; echo exec gnome-session > ~/.xinitrc
¤§«á´N¥i¥H¥Î startx ¨Ó±Ò°Ê X ¤F¡C
&prompt.root; startx
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À³¥Îµ{§Ç -> ®à±º¿ï¶µ -> ¦rÅé ¡A
À³¥Îµ{§Ç¦rÅé: Bitstream Vera Sans ¡A
®à±¦rÅé: Bitstream Vera Serif ¡A
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&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-arphicttf
±µµÛ½s¿è /etc/XF86Config ¡A
¦b Section "Module" °Ï¬q¡A
¥[¤J Load "xtt" ¡C
Section "Module"
:
Load "xtt"
EndSection
¦b Section "Files" °Ï¬q¡A
¥[¤J FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType/"
»P FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/local/" ¡C
Section "Files"
:
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType/"
FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/local/"
EndSection
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¿é¥X¦r«¬ ¤@¸`¡C
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&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-auto-tw-l10n
¦w¸Ë§¹¡A¦b /usr/local/share/skel/zh_TW.Big5/
¥Ø¿ý©³¤U·|¦³³\¦hªº°Ñ¦Ò³]©w¡C²Å餤¤å½Ð¥t¥~³]©w¡C
&prompt.root; cat /usr/local/share/skel/zh_TW.Big5/dot.cshrc >> ~/.cshrc
&prompt.root; cat /usr/local/share/skel/zh_TW.Big5/dot.Xdefaults >> ~/.Xdefaults
&prompt.root; cat /usr/local/share/skel/zh_TW.Big5/dot.gtkrc >> ~/.gtkrc.mine
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¤¤¤å locale ªº³]©w ¤@¸`¡C
¤¤¤åÁcÅé¿é¤J¦w¸Ë xcin25 ¡A
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&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-xcin
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-fcitx
±µµÛ½s¿è ~/.cshrc ¡A
¥[¤J setenv XMODIFIERS "@im=xcin" ©Î¬O
setenv XMODIFIERS "@im=fcitx" ¡A
Åý¤j³¡¥÷³nÅé³£¥i¥Hª¾¹D±z¦³¦w¸Ë¤F XIM¡C
¨Ã¥B§Ú·|קï xcinrc ªº³¡¥÷³]©w¡A
¥ý chmod 644 /usr/X11R6/etc/xcin «á¡A
קï¨ä¤º®e¡A§â DEFAULT_IM §ï¦¨
chewing ¡A¨Ã¥B§â¹w³]ªº¦r«¬¤j¤p 24 §ï¦¨ 16¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¤¤¤åªºÅã¥Ü»P¿é¤J ¤@¸`¡C
ÂsÄý¾¹´N¸Ë www/mozilla-gtk2 ¡C
¦pªG¦w¸Ë GNOME2
¨º»ò³oÓ¤]¬O¹w³]·|¦w¸Ëªº¤@³¡¤À¡C¶}±Ò«á¨Ó§ï¦r«¬¡G
Edit -> Preferences -> Appearance -> Fonts ¡A
Fonts for: Simplified Chinese ¡A
Serif: Bitstream Vera Serif ¡A
Sans-serif: Bitstream Vera Sans ¡A
Cursive: Bitstream Vera Serif ¡A
Fantasy: Bitstream Vera Serif ¡A
Monospace: Bitstream Vera Sans Mono ¡A
Minimum font size: 12 ¡C
¨Ã¥B¨ì
http://themes.mozdev.org/ ¤U¸ü ORbit 3+1
¡A
http://themes.mozdev.org/themes/orbit.html ªººô¶¤¤¡A
¥i¥H¿ï¾Ü¦w¸Ë¼Ò¦¡©Î¬OÀÉ®×¼Ò¦¡¡A¦w¸Ë¼Ò¦¡´N¬O¦b
Mozilla ©³¤UÂI¿ï´N¥i¥H¦w¸Ë¡A
ÀÉ®×¼Ò¦¡¥i¥H¦Û¦æ¤U¸ü«á¡A¦b³z¹L Mozilla
ªº¥\¯à¨Ó¶×¤J¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò Mozilla ÁcÅ餤¤å»y¨¥¥] ¤@¸`¡C
ÁöµM¹w³]ªº ls ¯à¬Ý¨ì¤¤¤å©M±m¦â¡A¤£¹L§ÚÁÙ¬O°¾¦n¨Ï¥Î
misc/gnuls ¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnuls
¦w¸Ë§¹«á¡A¦b ~/.cshrc ¼W¥[¤@¦æ
alias ls 'gnuls --color=auto --show-control-chars' ¡A
Åý gnuls ªºÃC¦â©M¤¤¤å¥\¯à±Ò°Ê¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò gnuls - ¯S®í¤¤¤åÀɦW©M¥Ø¿ýªºÅã¥Ü ¤@¸`¡C
·í»Ýn»·ºÝ telnet ¿é¤J¤¤¤å®É¡A´N·|»Ýn
chinese/telnet ³o¼Ë¤lªº³nÅé¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-telnet
µM«á¦b ~/.cshrc ¸Ì±¥[¤W
alias telnet zh-telnet ¡C
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò telnet ªº¤¤¤å°ÝÃD ¤@¸`¡C
MP3 ¼·©ñ¾¹´N¥Î chinese/xmms ¡A
¤¤¤åªº¦±¦W³£¥i¥H¬Ý¨ì¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-xmms
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò xmms - mp3 ¼½©ñ¾¹ ¤@¸`¡C
Media Player¡A¤ä´© vcd dvd DivX¡A¦w¸Ë
multimedia/mplayer ¡A
¤¤¤å¦r¹õ³£¤ä´©¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r mplayer
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò mplayer ¤@¸`¡C
PDF Reader ¦w¸Ë chinese/xpdf ¡A
³]©w¤@¤U¤¤¤å¨ú¥N¦r«¬¡A´N¥i¥H¬Ý¨ì¤j³¡¤Àªº¤¤¤å PDF¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r zh-xpdf
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò ¤¤¤å PDF ªºÅã¥Ü ¤@¸`¡C
§Ú±`¥Îªº¦³ FTP Client ¦³ fetch ¡A
ftp/wget ¡A
ftp/ncftp3 ¡A
ftp/IglooFTP ¡A
«e¤TÓ¬O¤å¦r¤¶±¨Ï¥Îªº¡A³Ì«á¤@Ó¦b X ©³¤U¡A¥H¤U¬O¦w¸Ë¡G
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r wget
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r ncftp3
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r IglooFTP
¥Ñ©ó wget ªº¤¤¤å¦³ÂI°ÝÃD¡A
©Ò¥H¥Ø«e³£¥Î outta-port ¦b¦w¸Ë¡C
MSN Messeger §Ú¨Ï¥Î net/gaim
¨Ó·í§@§ÚºD¥Îªº MSN Messenger¡C
&prompt.root; pkg_add -r gaim
½Ð°Ñ¦Ò gaim - ICQ, MSN clone ¤@¸`¡C
¨Ï¥Î¨ä¥L¦r«¬§@¬°¹w³]¦r«¬
Last Update: 2003¦~ 1¤ë25¤é ©P¤» 12®É54¤À03¬í CST
¤£±o¤£©Ó»{²{¦bªº¤å¹©¦r«¬¤£¦p²Ó©úÅé¡A
¥D¦]¬O¨t©úÅ骺¤º´O¤p¦r¬Ý°_¨Ó¯uªºµÎªA«Ü¦h¡A
¥H¤U¤¶²Ð±N¹w³]¦r«¬³]©w¦¨²Ó©úÅ骺¤è¦¡¡C
º¥ýn¦³ mingliu.ttc ¡A
±N¸Ó¦r«¬«þ¨©¨ì /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/
¤U¡AµM«á¥Î ttfm ¦w¸Ë¸Ó¦r«¬¡G
&prompt.root; ttfm.sh --add xttfm /usr/local/share/fonts/TrueType/mingliu.ttc
&prompt.root; fc-cache -f -v /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType/
±µµÛ¬O®Ú¾Ú¨CÓ³nÅé¨Óקï¡A¦b gtk1 ¨t¦Cªº³nÅé¡A¥i¥Hקï
~/.gtkrc ¡A
¦b^¤å¦r«¬«á¡A²Ä¤@Ó¥[¤W
-DynaLab-MingLiU-medium-r-normal--16-*-*-*-c-*-big5-0,
´N¥i¥H¤F¡C
gtk2 ¨t¦Cªº§ï ~/.fonts.conf ¡C
<alias>
<family>serif</family>
<prefer>
<family>Bitstream Vera Serif</family>
<family>PMingLiU</family>
</prefer>
</alias>
<alias>
<family>sans-serif</family>
<prefer>
<family>Bitstream Vera Sans</family>
<family>PMingLiU</family>
</prefer>
</alias>
<alias>
<family>monospace</family>
<prefer>
<family>Bitstream Vera Sans Mono</family>
<family>PMingLiU</family>
</prefer>
</alias>
WindowMaker «h¬Oקï
~/GNUstep/Defaults/WindowMaker ¡A
§â©Ò¦³¥]§t Font ªº³]©w¥[¤W
,-DynaLab-MingLiU-medium-r-normal--16-*-*-*-c-*-big5-0
¡A³oÃ䪺 16 n®Ú¾Ú«e± Font ªº¦r«¬¤j¤p³]©w¡A³]©w§¹«á¡A
«¶} X ´N¥i¥H¤F¡C
Mozilla-gtk2 קï¦r«¬¥i¥H¶i¤J¿ï³æ«áקï¡A
Edit -> Preference -> Appearance -> Fonts¡A
Fonts for: ¿ï¾Ü
Traditional Chinese ¡AµM«á§â¦r«¬³£¿ï¾Ü¦¨
PMingLiU ´N¥i¥H¤F¡C
xpdf «h¬Oקï /usr/X11R6/etc/xpdfrc ¡A
displayCIDFontX Adobe-CNS1 "-dynalab-mingliu-medium-r-normal--%s-*-*-*-c-*-iso10646-1" UCS-2 ´N¥i¥H¤F¡C
«O«ù³Ì·sªº Ports Tree
- Last Update: 2003¦~ 1¤ë27¤é ©P¤@ 04®É50¤À10¬í CST
+ Last Update: 2006¦~ 3¤ë13¤é ©P¤@ 01®É47¤À34¬í CST
Contributed by &a.gslin;
¦b¦w¸Ë³nÅé«e¡A³Ì¦n¥ý§ó·s Ports Tree¡A
«Øij¥ý¥Ñ¦w¸Ë¥úºÐ¤¤¿ï¾Ü Ports Collection ¥ý¦w¸Ë¦n«á¡A
¦A¨Ó§ó·s Ports Tree¡A³o¼Ë¤l§ó·sªº®É¶¡·|¤ñ¸ûµu¡C
±µµÛ³]©w¦n /etc/make.conf
(Y¨S¦³«h¦Û¦æ«Ø¥ß)¡C
SUP_UPDATE= yes
SUP= /usr/local/bin/cvsup
SUPFLAGS= -g -L 2
#
# SUPHOST ¥Nªín¨ìþ¥x CVSup¡A½Ð§ï¦¨Â÷±z¤ñ¸ûªñªº Server¡C
-# cvsup[1-9].tw.FreeBSD.org
+# cvsup[1-13].tw.FreeBSD.org
SUPHOST= cvsup.tw.FreeBSD.org
+
#
-# ¦pªG±z¬O¥Î -stable¡A½Ð¥Î stable-supfile (¥Ø«eªº -stable ¬O 4.3)
-# ¦pªG±z¬O¥Î -current¡A½Ð¥Î standard-supfile (¥Ø«eªº -current ¬O 5.0)
+# ¦pªG±z¬O¥Î -STABLE¡A½Ð¥Î stable-supfile (¥Ø«eªº 4.X -STABLE ¬O 4.11¡A5.X -STABLE ¬O 5.4¡A6.X -STABLE ¬O 6.0)
+# ¦pªG±z¬O¥Î -CURRENT¡A½Ð¥Î standard-supfile (¥Ø«eªº -CURRENT ¬O 7.0)
SUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/stable-supfile
PORTSSUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/ports-supfile
DOCSUPFILE= /usr/share/examples/cvsup/doc-supfile
+
# °ê¤º¥Dnªº FreeBSD distfiles mirror ¯¸¥x
MASTER_SITE_BACKUP?= \
- ftp://ftp.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp2.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp3.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp4.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp5.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp7.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp8.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
- ftp://ftp9.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/
+ ftp://cvsup.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
+ ftp://cvsup10.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
+ ftp://cvsup13.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/\
+ ftp://cvsup2.tw.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/distfiles/${DIST_SUBDIR}/
MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE?= ${MASTER_SITE_BACKUP}
¥i¥H¦w¸Ë sysutils/fastest_cvsup
- ¨ÓÀ˹¤@Ó cvsup ³Ì¾A¦X±z¡A¦w¸Ë§¹«áקï
- /usr/local/bin/fastest_cvsup ¡A
- §â¥xÆWªºÓ¼Æ 'tw' => 3, # Taiwan §ï¦¨
- 'tw' => 13, # Taiwan ¡A
- µM«á°õ¦æ fastest_cvsup -c tw ¡C
+ ¨ÓÀ˹¤@Ó cvsup ³Ì¾A¦X±z¡A¦w¸Ë§¹«á°õ¦æ fastest_cvsup -c tw ¡C
+
¦w¸Ë¦n°ò¥»ªº Ports Tree «á¡A¦w¸Ë
net/cvsup-without-gui ¡C
±µµÛ´N¥i¥H¶i¦æ§ó·s¤F¡G
&prompt.root; cd /usr/ports
&prompt.root; make update
WWW:
¦p¦ó¥Î CVSup ¥h§ó·s±zªº source ¥H¤Î ports
diff --git a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/freebsd.dsl b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/freebsd.dsl
index e8c608aa91..52d3a442b9 100644
--- a/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/freebsd.dsl
+++ b/zh_TW.Big5/books/zh-tut/freebsd.dsl
@@ -1,24 +1,24 @@
+
]>
(define %html-header-tags% '(("META" ("HTTP-EQUIV" "Content-Type") ("CONTENT" "text/html; charset=Big5"))))