diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/book.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/book.sgml index 5a05e624d2..3d478cbcb1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/book.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/book.sgml @@ -1,237 +1,241 @@ %man; %bookinfo; %freebsd; %chapters; %authors; %teams; %mailing-lists; %newsgroups; %trademarks; %txtfiles; %pgpkeys; ]> FreeBSD Handbook The FreeBSD Documentation Project February 1999 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 The FreeBSD Documentation Project &bookinfo.legalnotice; &tm-attrib.freebsd; &tm-attrib.3com; + &tm-attrib.3ware; + &tm-attrib.adaptec; &tm-attrib.adobe; &tm-attrib.apple; &tm-attrib.corel; &tm-attrib.creative; &tm-attrib.ibm; &tm-attrib.ieee; &tm-attrib.intel; &tm-attrib.intuit; &tm-attrib.linux; + &tm-attrib.lsilogic; + &tm-attrib.m-systems; &tm-attrib.macromedia; &tm-attrib.microsoft; &tm-attrib.netscape; &tm-attrib.opengroup; &tm-attrib.oracle; &tm-attrib.powerquest; &tm-attrib.realnetworks; &tm-attrib.redhat; &tm-attrib.sap; &tm-attrib.sun; &tm-attrib.symantec; &tm-attrib.waterloomaple; &tm-attrib.wolframresearch; &tm-attrib.general; Welcome to FreeBSD! This handbook covers the installation and day to day use of FreeBSD &rel2.current;-RELEASE and FreeBSD &rel.current;-RELEASE. This manual is a work in progress and is the work of many individuals. Many sections do not yet exist and some of those that do exist need to be updated. If you are interested in helping with this project, send email to the &a.doc;. The latest version of this document is always available from the FreeBSD web site. It may also be downloaded in a variety of formats and compression options from the FreeBSD FTP server or one of the numerous mirror sites. If you would prefer to have a hard copy of the handbook, you can purchase one at the FreeBSD Mall. You may also want to search the handbook. &chap.preface; Getting Started This part of the FreeBSD Handbook is for users and administrators who are new to FreeBSD. These chapters: Introduce you to FreeBSD. Guide you through the installation process. Teach you some &unix; basics. Show you how to install the wealth of third party applications available for FreeBSD. Introduce you to X, the &unix; windowing system, and detail how to configure a desktop environment that makes you more productive. We have tried to keep the number of forward references in the text to a minimum so that you can read this section of the Handbook from front to back with the minimum of page flipping required. System Administration The remaining chapters of the FreeBSD Handbook cover all aspects of FreeBSD system administration. Each chapter starts by describing what you will learn as a result of reading the chapter, and also details what you are expected to know before tackling the material. These chapters are designed to be read when you need the information. You do not have to read them in any particular order, nor do you need to read all of them before you can begin using FreeBSD. Appendices &chap.colophon; diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml index 55a5a6f1df..7285d61e79 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/boot/chapter.sgml @@ -1,799 +1,799 @@ The FreeBSD Booting Process Synopsis booting bootstrap The process of starting a computer and loading the operating system is referred to as the bootstrap process, or simply booting. FreeBSD's boot process provides a great deal of flexibility in customizing what happens when you start the system, allowing you to select from different operating systems installed on the same computer, or even different versions of the same operating system or installed kernel. This chapter details the configuration options you can set and how to customize the FreeBSD boot process. This includes everything that happens until the FreeBSD kernel has started, probed for devices, and started &man.init.8;. If you are not quite sure when this happens, it occurs when the text color changes from bright white to grey. After reading this chapter, you will know: What the components of the FreeBSD bootstrap system are, and how they interact. The options you can give to the components in the FreeBSD bootstrap to control the boot process. The basics of &man.device.hints.5;. x86 Only This chapter only describes the boot process for FreeBSD running on Intel x86 systems. The Booting Problem Turning on a computer and starting the operating system poses an interesting dilemma. By definition, the computer does not know how to do anything until the operating system is started. This includes running programs from the disk. So if the computer can not run a program from the disk without the operating system, and the operating system programs are on the disk, how is the operating system started? This problem parallels one in the book The Adventures of Baron Munchausen. A character had fallen part way down a manhole, and pulled himself out by grabbing his bootstraps, and lifting. In the early days of computing the term bootstrap was applied to the mechanism used to load the operating system, which has become shortened to booting. On x86 hardware the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is responsible for loading the operating system. To do this, the BIOS looks on the hard disk for the Master Boot Record (MBR), which must be located on a specific place on the disk. The BIOS has enough knowledge to load and run the MBR, and assumes that the MBR can then carry out the rest of the tasks involved in loading the operating system. BIOS Basic Input/Output System If you only have one operating system installed on your disks then the standard MBR will suffice. This MBR searches for the first bootable slice on the disk, and then runs the code on that slice to load the remainder of the operating system. If you have installed multiple operating systems on your disks then you can install a different MBR, one that can display a list of different operating systems, and allows you to choose the one to boot from. FreeBSD comes with one such MBR which can be installed, and other operating system vendors also provide alternative MBRs. The remainder of the FreeBSD bootstrap system is divided into three stages. The first stage is run by the MBR, which knows just enough to get the computer into a specific state and run the second stage. The second stage can do a little bit more, before running the third stage. The third stage finishes the task of loading the operating system. The work is split into these three stages because the PC standards put limits on the size of the programs that can be run at stages one and two. Chaining the tasks together allows FreeBSD to provide a more flexible loader. kernel init The kernel is then started and it begins to probe for devices and initialize them for use. Once the kernel boot process is finished, the kernel passes control to the user process &man.init.8;, which then makes sure the disks are in a usable state. &man.init.8; then starts the user-level resource configuration which mounts file systems, sets up network cards to communicate on the network, and generally starts all the processes that usually are run on a FreeBSD system at startup. The MBR, and Boot Stages One, Two, and Three MBR, <filename>/boot/boot0</filename> Master Boot Record (MBR) The FreeBSD MBR is located in /boot/boot0. This is a copy of the MBR, as the real MBR must be placed on a special part of the disk, outside the FreeBSD area. boot0 is very simple, since the program in the MBR can only be 512 bytes in size. If you have installed the FreeBSD MBR and have installed multiple operating systems on your hard disks then you will see a display similar to this one at boot time: <filename>boot0</filename> Screenshot F1 DOS F2 FreeBSD F3 Linux F4 ?? F5 Drive 1 Default: F2 - Other operating systems, in particular Windows 95, have been known + Other operating systems, in particular &windows; 95, have been known to overwrite an existing MBR with their own. If this happens to you, or you want to replace your existing MBR with the FreeBSD MBR then use the following command: &prompt.root; fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 device Where device is the device that you boot from, such as ad0 for the first IDE disk, ad2 for the first IDE disk on a second IDE controller, da0 for the first SCSI disk, and so on. If you are a Linux user, however, and prefer that LILO control the boot process, you can edit the /etc/lilo.conf file for FreeBSD, or select during the FreeBSD installation process. If you have installed the FreeBSD boot manager, you can boot back into Linux and modify the LILO configuration file /etc/lilo.conf and add the following option: other=/dev/hdXY table=/dev/hdb loader=/boot/chain.b label=FreeBSD which will permit the booting of FreeBSD and Linux via LILO. In our example, we use XY to determine drive number and partition. If you are using a SCSI drive, you will want to change /dev/hdXY to read something similar to /dev/sdXY, which again uses the XY syntax. The can be omitted if you have both operating systems on the same drive. You can now run /sbin/lilo -v to commit your new changes to the system, this should be verified with screen messages. Stage One, <filename>/boot/boot1</filename>, and Stage Two, <filename>/boot/boot2</filename> Conceptually the first and second stages are part of the same program, on the same area of the disk. Because of space constraints they have been split into two, but you would always install them together. They are found on the boot sector of the boot slice, which is where boot0, or any other program on the MBR expects to find the program to run to continue the boot process. The files in the /boot directory are copies of the real files, which are stored outside of the FreeBSD file system. boot1 is very simple, since it too can only be 512 bytes in size, and knows just enough about the FreeBSD disklabel, which stores information about the slice, to find and execute boot2. boot2 is slightly more sophisticated, and understands the FreeBSD file system enough to find files on it, and can provide a simple interface to choose the kernel or loader to run. Since the loader is much more sophisticated, and provides a nice easy-to-use boot configuration, boot2 usually runs it, but previously it was tasked to run the kernel directly. <filename>boot2</filename> Screenshot >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:ad(0,a)/kernel boot: If you ever need to replace the installed boot1 and boot2 use &man.disklabel.8;. &prompt.root; disklabel -B diskslice Where diskslice is the disk and slice you boot from, such as ad0s1 for the first slice on the first IDE disk. Dangerously Dedicated Mode If you use just the disk name, such as ad0, in the &man.disklabel.8; command you will create a dangerously dedicated disk, without slices. This is almost certainly not what you want to do, so make sure you double check the &man.disklabel.8; command before you press Return. Stage Three, <filename>/boot/loader</filename> boot-loader The loader is the final stage of the three-stage bootstrap, and is located on the file system, usually as /boot/loader. The loader is intended as a user-friendly method for configuration, using an easy-to-use built-in command set, backed up by a more powerful interpreter, with a more complex command set. Loader Program Flow During initialization, the loader will probe for a console and for disks, and figure out what disk it is booting from. It will set variables accordingly, and an interpreter is started where user commands can be passed from a script or interactively. loader loader configuration The loader will then read /boot/loader.rc, which by default reads in /boot/defaults/loader.conf which sets reasonable defaults for variables and reads /boot/loader.conf for local changes to those variables. loader.rc then acts on these variables, loading whichever modules and kernel are selected. Finally, by default, the loader issues a 10 second wait for key presses, and boots the kernel if it is not interrupted. If interrupted, the user is presented with a prompt which understands the easy-to-use command set, where the user may adjust variables, unload all modules, load modules, and then finally boot or reboot. Loader Built-In Commands These are the most commonly used loader commands. For a complete discussion of all available commands, please see &man.loader.8;. autoboot seconds Proceeds to boot the kernel if not interrupted within the time span given, in seconds. It displays a countdown, and the default time span is 10 seconds. boot -options kernelname Immediately proceeds to boot the kernel, with the given options, if any, and with the kernel name given, if it is. boot-conf Goes through the same automatic configuration of modules based on variables as what happens at boot. This only makes sense if you use unload first, and change some variables, most commonly kernel. help topic Shows help messages read from /boot/loader.help. If the topic given is index, then the list of available topics is given. include filename … Processes the file with the given filename. The file is read in, and interpreted line by line. An error immediately stops the include command. load type filename Loads the kernel, kernel module, or file of the type given, with the filename given. Any arguments after filename are passed to the file. ls path Displays a listing of files in the given path, or the root directory, if the path is not specified. If is specified, file sizes will be shown too. lsdev Lists all of the devices from which it may be possible to load modules. If is specified, more details are printed. lsmod Displays loaded modules. If is specified, more details are shown. more filename Displays the files specified, with a pause at each LINES displayed. reboot Immediately reboots the system. set variable set variable=value Sets the loader's environment variables. unload Removes all loaded modules. Loader Examples Here are some practical examples of loader usage: single-user mode To simply boot your usual kernel, but in single-user mode: boot -s To unload your usual kernel and modules, and then load just your old (or another) kernel: kernel.old unload load kernel.old You can use kernel.GENERIC to refer to the generic kernel that comes on the install disk, or kernel.old to refer to your previously installed kernel (when you have upgraded or configured your own kernel, for example). Use the following to load your usual modules with another kernel: unload set kernel="kernel.old" boot-conf To load a kernel configuration script (an automated script which does the things you would normally do in the kernel boot-time configurator): load -t userconfig_script /boot/kernel.conf Kernel Interaction During Boot kernel boot interaction Once the kernel is loaded by either loader (as usual) or boot2 (bypassing the loader), it examines its boot flags, if any, and adjusts its behavior as necessary. kernel bootflags Kernel Boot Flags Here are the more common boot flags: during kernel initialization, ask for the device to mount as the root file system. boot from CDROM. run UserConfig, the boot-time kernel configurator boot into single-user mode be more verbose during kernel startup There are other boot flags, read &man.boot.8; for more information on them. Tom Rhodes Contributed by device.hints Device Hints This is a FreeBSD 5.0 and later feature which does not exist in earlier versions. During initial system startup, the boot &man.loader.8; will read the &man.device.hints.5; file. This file stores kernel boot information known as variables, sometimes referred to as device hints. These device hints are used by device drivers for device configuration. Device hints may also be specified at the Stage 3 boot loader prompt. Variables can be added using set, removed with unset, and viewed with the show commands. Variables set in the /boot/device.hints file can be overridden here also. Device hints entered at the boot loader are not permanent and will be forgotten on the next reboot. Once the system is booted, the &man.kenv.1; command can be used to dump all of the variables. The syntax for the /boot/device.hints file is one variable per line, using the standard hash # as comment markers. Lines are constructed as follows: hint.driver.unit.keyword="value" The syntax for the Stage 3 boot loader is: set hint.driver.unit.keyword=value driver is the device driver name, unit is the device driver unit number, and keyword is the hint keyword. The keyword may consist of the following options: at: specifies the bus which the device is attached to. port: specifies the start address of the I/O to be used. irq: specifies the interrupt request number to be used. drq: specifies the DMA channel number. maddr: specifies the physical memory address occupied by the device. flags: sets various flag bits for the device. disabled: if set to 1 the device is disabled. Device drivers may accept (or require) more hints not listed here, viewing their manual page is recommended. For more information, consult the &man.device.hints.5;, &man.kenv.1;, &man.loader.conf.5;, and &man.loader.8; manual pages. init Init: Process Control Initialization Once the kernel has finished booting, it passes control to the user process &man.init.8;, which is located at /sbin/init, or the program path specified in the init_path variable in loader. Automatic Reboot Sequence The automatic reboot sequence makes sure that the file systems available on the system are consistent. If they are not, and &man.fsck.8; cannot fix the inconsistencies, &man.init.8; drops the system into single-user mode for the system administrator to take care of the problems directly. Single-User Mode single-user mode console This mode can be reached through the automatic reboot sequence, or by the user booting with the option or setting the boot_single variable in loader. It can also be reached by calling &man.shutdown.8; without the reboot () or halt () options, from multi-user mode. If the system console is set to insecure in /etc/ttys, then the system prompts for the root password before initiating single-user mode. An Insecure Console in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> # name getty type status comments # # If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password # when going to single-user mode. console none unknown off insecure An insecure console means that you consider your physical security to the console to be insecure, and want to make sure only someone who knows the root password may use single-user mode, and it does not mean that you want to run your console insecurely. Thus, if you want security, choose insecure, not secure. Multi-User Mode multi-user mode If &man.init.8; finds your file systems to be in order, or once the user has finished in single-user mode, the system enters multi-user mode, in which it starts the resource configuration of the system. rc files Resource Configuration (rc) The resource configuration system reads in configuration defaults from /etc/defaults/rc.conf, and system-specific details from /etc/rc.conf, and then proceeds to mount the system file systems mentioned in /etc/fstab, start up networking services, start up miscellaneous system daemons, and finally runs the startup scripts of locally installed packages. The &man.rc.8; manual page is a good reference to the resource configuration system, as is examining the scripts themselves. Shutdown Sequence shutdown Upon controlled shutdown, via &man.shutdown.8;, &man.init.8; will attempt to run the script /etc/rc.shutdown, and then proceed to send all processes the TERM signal, and subsequently the KILL signal to any that do not terminate timely. To power down a FreeBSD machine on architectures and systems that support power management, simply use the command shutdown -p now to turn the power off immediately. To just reboot a FreeBSD system, just use shutdown -r now. You need to be root or a member of operator group to run &man.shutdown.8;. The &man.halt.8; and &man.reboot.8; commands can also be used, please refer to their manual pages and to &man.shutdown.8;'s one for more informations. Power management requires &man.acpi.4; support in the kernel or loaded as module for FreeBSD 5.X and &man.apm.4; support for FreeBSD 4.X. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml index e1537030f6..6894c204d2 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/config/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2318 +1,2318 @@ Chern Lee Written by Mike Smith Based on a tutorial written by Matt Dillon Also based on tuning(7) written by Configuration and Tuning Synopsis system configuration system optimization One of the important aspects of FreeBSD is system configuration. Correct system configuration will help prevent headaches during future upgrades. This chapter will explain much of the FreeBSD configuration process, including some of the parameters which can be set to tune a FreeBSD system. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to efficiently work with file systems and swap partitions. The basics of rc.conf configuration and /usr/local/etc/rc.d startup systems. How to configure and test a network card. How to configure virtual hosts on your network devices. How to use the various configuration files in /etc. How to tune FreeBSD using sysctl variables. How to tune disk performance and modify kernel limitations. Before reading this chapter, you should: - Understand Unix and FreeBSD basics (Understand &unix; and FreeBSD basics (). Be familiar with keeping FreeBSD sources up to date (), and the basics of kernel configuration/compilation (). Initial Configuration Partition Layout partition layout /etc /var /usr Base Partitions When laying out file systems with &man.disklabel.8; or &man.sysinstall.8;, remember that hard drives transfer data faster from the outer tracks to the inner. Thus smaller and heavier-accessed file systems should be closer to the outside of the drive While larger partitions like /usr should be placed toward the inner. It is a good idea to create partitions in a similar order to: root, swap, /var, /usr. The size of /var reflects the intended machine usage. /var is used to hold mailboxes, log files, and printer spools. Mailboxes and log files can grow to unexpected sizes depending on how many users exist and how long log files are kept. Most users would never require a gigabyte, but remember that /var/tmp must be large enough to contain packages. The /usr partition holds much of the files required to support the system, the &man.ports.7; collection (recommended) and the source code (optional). Both of which are optional at install time. At least 2 gigabytes would be recommended for this partition. When selecting partition sizes, keep the space requirements in mind. Running out of space in one partition while barely using another can be a hassle. Some users have found that &man.sysinstall.8;'s Auto-defaults partition sizer will sometimes select smaller than adequate /var and / partitions. Partition wisely and generously. Swap Partition swap sizing swap partition As a rule of thumb, the swap partition should be about double the size of system memory (RAM). For example, if the machine has 128 megabytes of memory, the swap file should be 256 megabytes. Systems with less memory may perform better with more swap. Less than 256 megabytes of swap is not recommended and memory expansion should be considered. The kernel's VM paging algorithms are tuned to perform best when the swap partition is at least two times the size of main memory. Configuring too little swap can lead to inefficiencies in the VM page scanning code and might create issues later if more memory is added. On larger systems with multiple SCSI disks (or multiple IDE disks operating on different controllers), it is recommend that a swap is configured on each drive (up to four drives). The swap partitions should be approximately the same size. The kernel can handle arbitrary sizes but internal data structures scale to 4 times the largest swap partition. Keeping the swap partitions near the same size will allow the kernel to optimally stripe swap space across disks. Large swap sizes are fine, even if swap is not used much. It might be easier to recover from a runaway program before being forced to reboot. Why Partition? Several users think a single large partition will be fine, but there are several reasons why this is a bad idea. First, each partition has different operational characteristics and separating them allows the file system to tune accordingly. For example, the root and /usr partitions are read-mostly, without much writing. While a lot of reading and writing could occur in /var and /var/tmp. By properly partitioning a system, fragmentation introduced in the smaller write heavy partitions will not bleed over into the mostly-read partitions. Keeping the write-loaded partitions closer to the disk's edge, will increase I/O performance in the partitions where it occurs the most. Now while I/O performance in the larger partitions may be needed, shifting them more toward the edge of the disk will not lead to a significant performance improvement over moving /var to the edge. Finally, there are safety concerns. A smaller, neater root partition which is mostly read-only has a greater chance of surviving a bad crash. Core Configuration rc files rc.conf The principal location for system configuration information is within /etc/rc.conf. This file contains a wide range of configuration information, principally used at system startup to configure the system. Its name directly implies this; it is configuration information for the rc* files. An administrator should make entries in the rc.conf file to override the default settings from /etc/defaults/rc.conf. The defaults file should not be copied verbatim to /etc - it contains default values, not examples. All system-specific changes should be made in the rc.conf file itself. A number of strategies may be applied in clustered applications to separate site-wide configuration from system-specific configuration in order to keep administration overhead down. The recommended approach is to place site-wide configuration into another file, such as /etc/rc.conf.site, and then include this file into /etc/rc.conf, which will contain only system-specific information. As rc.conf is read by &man.sh.1; it is trivial to achieve this. For example: rc.conf: . rc.conf.site hostname="node15.example.com" network_interfaces="fxp0 lo0" ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1" rc.conf.site: defaultrouter="10.1.1.254" saver="daemon" blanktime="100" The rc.conf.site file can then be distributed to every system using rsync or a similar program, while the rc.conf file remains unique. Upgrading the system using &man.sysinstall.8; or make world will not overwrite the rc.conf file, so system configuration information will not be lost. Application Configuration Typically, installed applications have their own configuration files, with their own syntax, etc. It is important that these files be kept separate from the base system, so that they may be easily located and managed by the package management tools. /usr/local/etc Typically, these files are installed in /usr/local/etc. In the case where an application has a large number of configuration files, a subdirectory will be created to hold them. Normally, when a port or package is installed, sample configuration files are also installed. These are usually identified with a .default suffix. If there are no existing configuration files for the application, they will be created by copying the .default files. For example, consider the contents of the directory /usr/local/etc/apache: -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2184 May 20 1998 access.conf.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 9555 May 20 1998 httpd.conf.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 12205 May 20 1998 magic.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 2700 May 20 1998 mime.types.default -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7980 May 20 1998 srm.conf -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7933 May 20 1998 srm.conf.default The file sizes show that only the srm.conf file has been changed. A later update of the Apache port would not overwrite this changed file. Starting Services services It is common for a system to host a number of services. These may be started in several different fashions, each having different advantages. /usr/local/etc/rc.d Software installed from a port or the packages collection will often place a script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d which is invoked at system startup with a argument, and at system shutdown with a argument. This is the recommended way for starting system-wide services that are to be run as root, or that expect to be started as root. These scripts are registered as part of the installation of the package, and will be removed when the package is removed. A generic startup script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d looks like: #!/bin/sh echo -n ' FooBar' case "$1" in start) /usr/local/bin/foobar ;; stop) kill -9 `cat /var/run/foobar.pid` ;; *) echo "Usage: `basename $0` {start|stop}" >&2 exit 64 ;; esac exit 0 The startup scripts of FreeBSD will look in /usr/local/etc/rc.d for scripts that have an .sh extension and are executable by root. Those scripts that are found are called with an option at startup, and at shutdown to allow them to carry out their purpose. So if you wanted the above sample script to be picked up and run at the proper time during system startup, you should save it to a file called FooBar.sh in /usr/local/etc/rc.d and make sure it is executable. You can make a shell script executable with &man.chmod.1; as shown below: &prompt.root; chmod 755 FooBar.sh Some services expect to be invoked by &man.inetd.8; when a connection is received on a suitable port. This is common for mail reader servers (POP and IMAP, etc.). These services are enabled by editing the file /etc/inetd.conf. See &man.inetd.8; for details on editing this file. Some additional system services may not be covered by the toggles in /etc/rc.conf. These are traditionally enabled by placing the command(s) to invoke them in /etc/rc.local. As of FreeBSD 3.1 there is no default /etc/rc.local; if it is created by the administrator it will however be honored in the normal fashion. Note that rc.local is generally regarded as the location of last resort; if there is a better place to start a service, do it there. Do not place any commands in /etc/rc.conf. To start daemons, or run any commands at boot time, place a script in /usr/local/etc/rc.d instead. It is also possible to use the &man.cron.8; daemon to start system services. This approach has a number of advantages, not least being that because &man.cron.8; runs these processes as the owner of the crontab, services may be started and maintained by non-root users. This takes advantage of a feature of &man.cron.8;: the time specification may be replaced by @reboot, which will cause the job to be run when &man.cron.8; is started shortly after system boot. Tom Rhodes Contributed by Configuring the <command>cron</command> Utility cron configuration One of the most useful utilities in FreeBSD is &man.cron.8;. The cron utility runs in the background and constantly checks the /etc/crontab file. The cron utility also checks the /var/cron/tabs directory, in search of new crontab files. These crontab files store information about specific functions which cron is supposed to perform at certain times. Let us take a look at the /etc/crontab file: # /etc/crontab - root's crontab for FreeBSD # # $FreeBSD: src/etc/crontab,v 1.32 2002/11/22 16:13:39 tom Exp $ # # SHELL=/bin/sh PATH=/etc:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin HOME=/var/log # # #minute hour mday month wday who command # # */5 * * * * root /usr/libexec/atrun Like most &os; configuration files, the # character represents a comment. A comment can be placed in the file as a reminder of what and why a desired action is performed. Comments cannot be on the same line as a command or else they will be interpreted as part of the command; they must be on a new line. Blank lines are ignored. First, the environment must be defined. The equals (=) character is used to define any environment settings, as with this example where it is used for the SHELL, PATH, and HOME options. If the shell line is omitted, cron will use the default, which is sh. If the variable is omitted, no default will be used and file locations will need to be absolute. If is omitted, cron will use the invoking users home directory. This line defines a total of seven fields. Listed here are the values minute, hour, mday, month, wday, who, and command. These are almost all self explanatory. Minute is the time in minutes the command will be run. Hour is similar to the minute option, just in hours. Mday stands for day of the month. Month is similar to hour and minute, as it designates the month. The wday options stands for day of the week. All these fields must be numeric values, and follow the twenty-four hour clock. The who field is special, and only exists in the /etc/crontab file. This field specifies which user the command should be run as. When a user installs his or her crontab file, they will not have this option. Finally, the command option is listed. This is the last field, so naturally it should designate the command to be executed. This last line will define the values discussed above. Notice here we have a */5 listing, followed by several more * characters. These * characters mean first-last, and can be interpreted as every time. So, judging by this line, its apparent that the atrun command is to be invoked by root every five minutes regardless of what day or month it is. For more information on the atrun, see the &man.atrun.8; manual page. Commands can have any number of flags passed to them; however, commands which extend to multiple lines need to be broken with the backslash \ continuation character. This is the basic set up for every crontab file, although there is one thing different about this one. Field number six, where we specified the username, only exists in the system /etc/crontab file. This field should be omitted for individual user crontab files. Installing a Crontab To install your freshly written crontab, just use the crontab utility. The most common usage is: &prompt.root; crontab crontab There is also an option to list installed crontab files, just pass the to crontab and look over the output. Users who wish to begin their own crontab file from scratch, without the use of a template, the crontab -e option is available. This will invoke the selected editor with an empty file. When the file is saved, it will be automatically installed by the crontab command. Tom Rhodes Contributed by Using rc under FreeBSD 5.X rcNG FreeBSD has recently integrated the NetBSD rc.d system for system initialization. Users should notice the files listed in the /etc/rc.d directory. Many of these files are for basic services which can be controlled with the , , and options. For instance, &man.sshd.8; can be restarted with the following command: &prompt.root; /etc/rc.d/sshd restart This procedure is similar for other services. Of course, services are usually started automatically as specified in &man.rc.conf.5;. For example, enabling the Network Address Translation daemon at startup is as simple as adding the following line to /etc/rc.conf: natd_enable="YES" If a line is already present, then simply change the to . The rc scripts will automatically load any other dependent services during the next reboot, as described below. Since the rc.d system is primarily intended to start/stop services at system startup/shutdown time; the standard , and options will only perform their action if the appropriate /etc/rc.conf variables are set. For instance the above sshd restart command will only work if sshd_enable is set to in /etc/rc.conf. To , or a service regardless of the settings in /etc/rc.conf, the commands should be prefixed with force. For instance to restart sshd regardless of the current /etc/rc.conf setting, execute the following command: &prompt.root; /etc/rc.d/sshd forcerestart It's easy to check if a service is enabled in /etc/rc.conf by running the appropriate rc.d script with the option . Thus, an administrator can check that sshd is in fact enabled in /etc/rc.conf by running: &prompt.root; /etc/rc.d/sshd rcvar # sshd $sshd_enable=YES The second line (# sshd) is the output from the sshd command; not a root console. To determine if a service is running, a option is available. For instance to verify that sshd is actually started: &prompt.root; /etc/rc.d/sshd status sshd is running as pid 433. It is also possible to a service. This will attempt to send a signal to an individual service, forcing the service to reload its configuration files. In most cases this means sending the service a SIGHUP signal. The rcNG structure is not only used for network services, it also contributes to most of the system initialization. For instance, consider the bgfsck file. When this script is executed, it will print out the following message: Starting background file system checks in 60 seconds. Therefore this file is used for background file system checks, which are done only during system initialization. Many system services depend on other services to function properly. For example, NIS and other RPC-based services may fail to start until after the rpcbind (portmapper) service has started. To resolve this issue, information about dependencies and other meta-data is included in the comments at the top of each startup script. The &man.rcorder.8; program is then used to parse these comments during system initialization to determine the order in which system services should be invoked to satisfy the dependencies. The following words may be included at the top of each startup file: PROVIDE: Name of service REQUIRE: Name of services which may be required for this service to function BEFORE: What service should be run before this service KEYWORD: FreeBSD or NetBSD. This is used for *BSD dependent features. By using this method, an administrator can easily control system services without the hassle of runlevels like some other &unix; operating systems. Additional information about the &os; 5.X rc.d system can be found in the &man.rc.8; and &man.rc.subr.8; manual pages. Marc Fonvieille Contributed by Setting Up Network Interface Cards network card configuration Nowadays we can not think about a computer without thinking about a network connection. Adding and configuring a network card is a common task for any FreeBSD administrator. Locating the Correct Driver network card configuration locating the driver Before you begin, you should know the model of the card you have, the chip it uses, and whether it is a PCI or ISA card. FreeBSD supports a wide variety of both PCI and ISA cards. Check the Hardware Compatibility List for your release to see if your card is supported. Once you are sure your card is supported, you need to determine the proper driver for the card. The file /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT will give you the list of network interfaces drivers with some information about the supported chipsets/cards. If you have doubts about which driver is the correct one, read the manual page of the driver. The manual page will give you more information about the supported hardware and even the possible problems that could occur. If you own a common card, most of the time you will not have to look very hard for a driver. Drivers for common network cards are present in the GENERIC kernel, so your card should show up during boot, like so: dc0: <82c169 PNIC 10/100BaseTX> port 0xa000-0xa0ff mem 0xd3800000-0xd38 000ff irq 15 at device 11.0 on pci0 dc0: Ethernet address: 00:a0:cc:da:da:da miibus0: <MII bus> on dc0 ukphy0: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus0 ukphy0: 10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto dc1: <82c169 PNIC 10/100BaseTX> port 0x9800-0x98ff mem 0xd3000000-0xd30 000ff irq 11 at device 12.0 on pci0 dc1: Ethernet address: 00:a0:cc:da:da:db miibus1: <MII bus> on dc1 ukphy1: <Generic IEEE 802.3u media interface> on miibus1 ukphy1: 10baseT, 10baseT-FDX, 100baseTX, 100baseTX-FDX, auto In this example, we see that two cards using the &man.dc.4; driver are present on the system. To use your network card, you will need to load the proper driver. This may be accomplished in one of two ways. The easiest way is to simply load a kernel module for your network card with &man.kldload.8;. A module is not available for all network card drivers (ISA cards and cards using the &man.ed.4; driver, for example). Alternatively, you may statically compile the support for your card into your kernel. Check /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT and the manual page of the driver to know what to add in your kernel configuration file. For more information about recompiling your kernel, please see . If your card was detected at boot by your kernel (GENERIC) you do not have to build a new kernel. Configuring the Network Card Network card configuration configuration Once the right driver is loaded for the network card, the card needs to be configured. As with many other things, the network card may have been configured at installation time by sysinstall. To display the configuration for the network interfaces on your system, enter the following command: &prompt.user; ifconfig dc0: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 192.168.1.255 ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:da media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX <full-duplex>) status: active dc1: flags=8843<UP,BROADCAST,RUNNING,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 0xffffff00 broadcast 10.0.0.255 ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:db media: Ethernet 10baseT/UTP status: no carrier lp0: flags=8810<POINTOPOINT,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 lo0: flags=8049<UP,LOOPBACK,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 16384 inet 127.0.0.1 netmask 0xff000000 tun0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 Old versions of FreeBSD may require the option following &man.ifconfig.8;, for more details about the correct syntax of &man.ifconfig.8;, please refer to the manual page. Note also that entries concerning IPv6 (inet6 etc.) were omitted in this example. In this example, the following devices were displayed: dc0: The first Ethernet interface dc1: The second Ethernet interface lp0: The parallel port interface lo0: The loopback device tun0: The tunnel device used by ppp FreeBSD uses the driver name followed by the order in which one the card is detected at the kernel boot to name the network card. For example sis2 would be the third network card on the system using the &man.sis.4; driver. In this example, the dc0 device is up and running. The key indicators are: UP means that the card is configured and ready. The card has an Internet (inet) address (in this case 192.168.1.3). It has a valid subnet mask (netmask; 0xffffff00 is the same as 255.255.255.0). It has a valid broadcast address (in this case, 192.168.1.255). The MAC address of the card (ether) is 00:a0:cc:da:da:da The physical media selection is on autoselection mode (media: Ethernet autoselect (100baseTX <full-duplex>)). We see that dc1 was configured to run with 10baseT/UTP media. For more information on available media types for a driver, please refer to its manual page. The status of the link (status) is active, i.e. the carrier is detected. For dc1, we see status: no carrier. This is normal when an ethernet cable is not plugged into the card. If the &man.ifconfig.8; output had shown something similar to: dc0: flags=8843<BROADCAST,SIMPLEX,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 ether 00:a0:cc:da:da:da it would indicate the card has not been configured. To configure your card, you need root privileges. The network card configuration can be done from the command line with &man.ifconfig.8; but you would have to do it after each reboot of the system. The file /etc/rc.conf is where to add the network card's configuration. Open /etc/rc.conf in your favorite editor. You need to add a line for each network card present on the system, for example in our case, we added these lines: ifconfig_dc0="inet 192.168.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.0" ifconfig_dc1="inet 10.0.0.1 netmask 255.255.255.0 media 10baseT/UTP" You have to replace dc0, dc1, and so on, with the correct device for your cards, and the addresses with the proper ones. You should read the card driver and &man.ifconfig.8; manual pages for more details about the allowed options and also &man.rc.conf.5; manual page for more information on the syntax of /etc/rc.conf. If you configured the network during installation, some lines about the network card(s) may be already present. Double check /etc/rc.conf before adding any lines. You will also have to edit the file /etc/hosts to add the names and the IP addresses of various machines of the LAN, if they are not already there. For more information please refer to &man.hosts.5; and to /usr/share/examples/etc/hosts. Testing and Troubleshooting Once you have made the necessary changes in /etc/rc.conf, you should reboot your system. This will allow the change(s) to the interface(s) to be applied, and verify that the system restarts without any configuration errors. Once the system has been rebooted, you should test the network interfaces. Testing the Ethernet Card network card configuration testing the card To verify that an Ethernet card is configured correctly, you have to try two things. First, ping the interface itself, and then ping another machine on the LAN. First test the local interface: &prompt.user; ping -c5 192.168.1.3 PING 192.168.1.3 (192.168.1.3): 56 data bytes 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.082 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.074 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.076 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.108 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.3: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.076 ms --- 192.168.1.3 ping statistics --- 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 0.074/0.083/0.108/0.013 ms Now we have to ping another machine on the LAN: &prompt.user; ping -c5 192.168.1.2 PING 192.168.1.2 (192.168.1.2): 56 data bytes 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.726 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=1 ttl=64 time=0.766 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=2 ttl=64 time=0.700 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=3 ttl=64 time=0.747 ms 64 bytes from 192.168.1.2: icmp_seq=4 ttl=64 time=0.704 ms --- 192.168.1.2 ping statistics --- 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 0.700/0.729/0.766/0.025 ms You could also use the machine name instead of 192.168.1.2 if you have set up the /etc/hosts file. Troubleshooting network card configuration troubleshooting Troubleshooting hardware and software configurations is always a pain, and a pain which can be alleviated by checking the simple things first. Is your network cable plugged in? Have you properly configured the network services? Did you configure the firewall correctly? Is the card you are using supported by FreeBSD? Always check the hardware notes before sending off a bug report. Update your version of FreeBSD to the latest STABLE version. Check the mailing list archives, or perhaps search the Internet. If the card works, yet performance is poor, it would be worthwhile to read over the &man.tuning.7; manual page. You can also check the network configuration as incorrect network settings can cause slow connections. Some users experience one or two device timeouts, which is normal for some cards. If they continue, or are bothersome, you may wish to be sure the device is not conflicting with another device. Double check the cable connections. Perhaps you may just need to get another card. At times, users see a few watchdog timeout errors. The first thing to do here is to check your network cable. Many cards require a PCI slot which supports Bus Mastering. On some old motherboards, only one PCI slot allows it (usually slot 0). Check the network card and the motherboard documentation to determine if that may be the problem. No route to host messages occur if the system is unable to route a packet to the destination host. This can happen if no default route is specified, or if a cable is unplugged. Check the output of netstat -rn and make sure there is a valid route to the host you are trying to reach. If there is not, read on to . ping: sendto: Permission denied error messages are often caused by a misconfigured firewall. If ipfw is enabled in the kernel but no rules have been defined, then the default policy is to deny all traffic, even ping requests! Read on to for more information. Virtual Hosts virtual hosts IP aliases A very common use of FreeBSD is virtual site hosting, where one server appears to the network as many servers. This is achieved by assigning multiple network addresses to a single interface. A given network interface has one real address, and may have any number of alias addresses. These aliases are normally added by placing alias entries in /etc/rc.conf. An alias entry for the interface fxp0 looks like: ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx netmask xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx" Note that alias entries must start with alias0 and proceed upwards in order, (for example, _alias1, _alias2, and so on). The configuration process will stop at the first missing number. The calculation of alias netmasks is important, but fortunately quite simple. For a given interface, there must be one address which correctly represents the network's netmask. Any other addresses which fall within this network must have a netmask of all 1s. For example, consider the case where the fxp0 interface is connected to two networks, the 10.1.1.0 network with a netmask of 255.255.255.0 and the 202.0.75.16 network with a netmask of 255.255.255.240. We want the system to appear at 10.1.1.1 through 10.1.1.5 and at 202.0.75.17 through 202.0.75.20. The following entries configure the adapter correctly for this arrangement: ifconfig_fxp0="inet 10.1.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.0" ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="inet 10.1.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias1="inet 10.1.1.3 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias2="inet 10.1.1.4 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias3="inet 10.1.1.5 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias4="inet 202.0.75.17 netmask 255.255.255.240" ifconfig_fxp0_alias5="inet 202.0.75.18 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias6="inet 202.0.75.19 netmask 255.255.255.255" ifconfig_fxp0_alias7="inet 202.0.75.20 netmask 255.255.255.255" Configuration Files <filename>/etc</filename> Layout There are a number of directories in which configuration information is kept. These include: /etc Generic system configuration information; data here is system-specific. /etc/defaults Default versions of system configuration files. /etc/mail Extra &man.sendmail.8; configuration, other MTA configuration files. /etc/ppp Configuration for both user- and kernel-ppp programs. /etc/namedb Default location for &man.named.8; data. Normally named.conf and zone files are stored here. /usr/local/etc Configuration files for installed applications. May contain per-application subdirectories. /usr/local/etc/rc.d Start/stop scripts for installed applications. /var/db Automatically generated system-specific database files, such as the package database, the locate database, and so on Hostnames hostname DNS <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> resolv.conf /etc/resolv.conf dictates how FreeBSD's resolver accesses the Internet Domain Name System (DNS). The most common entries to resolv.conf are: nameserver The IP address of a name server the resolver should query. The servers are queried in the order listed with a maximum of three. search Search list for hostname lookup. This is normally determined by the domain of the local hostname. domain The local domain name. A typical resolv.conf: search example.com nameserver 147.11.1.11 nameserver 147.11.100.30 Only one of the search and domain options should be used. If you are using DHCP, &man.dhclient.8; usually rewrites resolv.conf with information received from the DHCP server. <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> hosts /etc/hosts is a simple text database reminiscent of the old Internet. It works in conjunction with DNS and NIS providing name to IP address mappings. Local computers connected via a LAN can be placed in here for simplistic naming purposes instead of setting up a &man.named.8; server. Additionally, /etc/hosts can be used to provide a local record of Internet names, reducing the need to query externally for commonly accessed names. # $FreeBSD$ # # Host Database # This file should contain the addresses and aliases # for local hosts that share this file. # In the presence of the domain name service or NIS, this file may # not be consulted at all; see /etc/nsswitch.conf for the resolution order. # # ::1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain 127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.my.domain myname.my.domain # # Imaginary network. #10.0.0.2 myname.my.domain myname #10.0.0.3 myfriend.my.domain myfriend # # According to RFC 1918, you can use the following IP networks for # private nets which will never be connected to the Internet: # # 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 # 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 # 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 # # In case you want to be able to connect to the Internet, you need # real official assigned numbers. PLEASE PLEASE PLEASE do not try # to invent your own network numbers but instead get one from your # network provider (if any) or from the Internet Registry (ftp to # rs.internic.net, directory `/templates'). # /etc/hosts takes on the simple format of: [Internet address] [official hostname] [alias1] [alias2] ... For example: 10.0.0.1 myRealHostname.example.com myRealHostname foobar1 foobar2 Consult &man.hosts.5; for more information. Log File Configuration log files <filename>syslog.conf</filename> syslog.conf syslog.conf is the configuration file for the &man.syslogd.8; program. It indicates which types of syslog messages are logged to particular log files. # $FreeBSD$ # # Spaces ARE valid field separators in this file. However, # other *nix-like systems still insist on using tabs as field # separators. If you are sharing this file between systems, you # may want to use only tabs as field separators here. # Consult the syslog.conf(5) manual page. *.err;kern.debug;auth.notice;mail.crit /dev/console *.notice;kern.debug;lpr.info;mail.crit;news.err /var/log/messages security.* /var/log/security mail.info /var/log/maillog lpr.info /var/log/lpd-errs cron.* /var/log/cron *.err root *.notice;news.err root *.alert root *.emerg * # uncomment this to log all writes to /dev/console to /var/log/console.log #console.info /var/log/console.log # uncomment this to enable logging of all log messages to /var/log/all.log #*.* /var/log/all.log # uncomment this to enable logging to a remote log host named loghost #*.* @loghost # uncomment these if you're running inn # news.crit /var/log/news/news.crit # news.err /var/log/news/news.err # news.notice /var/log/news/news.notice !startslip *.* /var/log/slip.log !ppp *.* /var/log/ppp.log Consult the &man.syslog.conf.5; manual page for more information. <filename>newsyslog.conf</filename> newsyslog.conf newsyslog.conf is the configuration file for &man.newsyslog.8;, a program that is normally scheduled to run by &man.cron.8;. &man.newsyslog.8; determines when log files require archiving or rearranging. logfile is moved to logfile.0, logfile.0 is moved to logfile.1, and so on. Alternatively, the log files may be archived in &man.gzip.1; format causing them to be named: logfile.0.gz, logfile.1.gz, and so on. newsyslog.conf indicates which log files are to be managed, how many are to be kept, and when they are to be touched. Log files can be rearranged and/or archived when they have either reached a certain size, or at a certain periodic time/date. # configuration file for newsyslog # $FreeBSD$ # # filename [owner:group] mode count size when [ZB] [/pid_file] [sig_num] /var/log/cron 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/amd.log 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/kerberos.log 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/lpd-errs 644 7 100 * Z /var/log/maillog 644 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/sendmail.st 644 10 * 168 B /var/log/messages 644 5 100 * Z /var/log/all.log 600 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/slip.log 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/ppp.log 600 3 100 * Z /var/log/security 600 10 100 * Z /var/log/wtmp 644 3 * @01T05 B /var/log/daily.log 640 7 * @T00 Z /var/log/weekly.log 640 5 1 $W6D0 Z /var/log/monthly.log 640 12 * $M1D0 Z /var/log/console.log 640 5 100 * Z Consult the &man.newsyslog.8; manual page for more information. <filename>sysctl.conf</filename> sysctl.conf sysctl sysctl.conf looks much like rc.conf. Values are set in a variable=value form. The specified values are set after the system goes into multi-user mode. Not all variables are settable in this mode. A sample sysctl.conf turning off logging of fatal signal exits and letting Linux programs know they are really running under FreeBSD: kern.logsigexit=0 # Do not log fatal signal exits (e.g. sig 11) compat.linux.osname=FreeBSD compat.linux.osrelease=4.3-STABLE Tuning with sysctl sysctl tuning with sysctl &man.sysctl.8; is an interface that allows you to make changes to a running FreeBSD system. This includes many advanced options of the TCP/IP stack and virtual memory system that can dramatically improve performance for an experienced system administrator. Over five hundred system variables can be read and set using &man.sysctl.8;. At its core, &man.sysctl.8; serves two functions: to read and to modify system settings. To view all readable variables: &prompt.user; sysctl -a To read a particular variable, for example, kern.maxproc: &prompt.user; sysctl kern.maxproc kern.maxproc: 1044 To set a particular variable, use the intuitive variable=value syntax: &prompt.root; sysctl kern.maxfiles=5000 kern.maxfiles: 2088 -> 5000 Settings of sysctl variables are usually either strings, numbers, or booleans (a boolean being 1 for yes or a 0 for no). Tom Rhodes Contributed by &man.sysctl.8; Read-only In some cases it may be desirable to modify read-only &man.sysctl.8; values. While this is not recommended, it is also sometimes unavoidable. For instance on some laptop models the &man.cardbus.4; device will not probe memory ranges, and fail with errors which look similar to: cbb0: Could not map register memory device_probe_and_attach: cbb0 attach returned 12 Cases like the one above usually require the modification of some default &man.sysctl.8; settings which are set read only. To overcome these situations a user can put &man.sysctl.8; OIDs in their local /boot/loader.conf.local. Default settings are located in the /boot/defaults/loader.conf file. Fixing the problem mentioned above would require a user to set in the aforementioned file. Now &man.cardbus.4; will work properly. Tuning Disks Sysctl Variables <varname>vfs.vmiodirenable</varname> vfs.vmiodirenable The vfs.vmiodirenable sysctl variable may be set to either 0 (off) or 1 (on); it is 1 by default. This variable controls how directories are cached by the system. Most directories are small, using just a single fragment (typically 1 K) in the file system and less (typically 512 bytes) in the buffer cache. However, when operating in the default mode the buffer cache will only cache a fixed number of directories even if you have a huge amount of memory. Turning on this sysctl allows the buffer cache to use the VM Page Cache to cache the directories, making all the memory available for caching directories. However, the minimum in-core memory used to cache a directory is the physical page size (typically 4 K) rather than 512 bytes. We recommend turning this option on if you are running any services which manipulate large numbers of files. Such services can include web caches, large mail systems, and news systems. Turning on this option will generally not reduce performance even with the wasted memory but you should experiment to find out. <varname>vfs.write_behind</varname> vfs.write_behind The vfs.write_behind sysctl variable defaults to 1 (on). This tells the file system to issue media writes as full clusters are collected, which typically occurs when writing large sequential files. The idea is to avoid saturating the buffer cache with dirty buffers when it would not benefit I/O performance. However, this may stall processes and under certain circumstances you may wish to turn it off. <varname>vfs.hirunningspace</varname> vfs.hirunningspace The vfs.hirunningspace sysctl variable determines how much outstanding write I/O may be queued to disk controllers system-wide at any given instance. The default is usually sufficient but on machines with lots of disks you may want to bump it up to four or five megabytes. Note that setting too high a value (exceeding the buffer cache's write threshold) can lead to extremely bad clustering performance. Do not set this value arbitrarily high! Higher write values may add latency to reads occurring at the same time. There are various other buffer-cache and VM page cache related sysctls. We do not recommend modifying these values. As of FreeBSD 4.3, the VM system does an extremely good job of automatically tuning itself. <varname>vm.swap_idle_enabled</varname> vm.swap_idle_enabled The vm.swap_idle_enabled sysctl variable is useful in large multi-user systems where you have lots of users entering and leaving the system and lots of idle processes. Such systems tend to generate a great deal of continuous pressure on free memory reserves. Turning this feature on and tweaking the swapout hysteresis (in idle seconds) via vm.swap_idle_threshold1 and vm.swap_idle_threshold2 allows you to depress the priority of memory pages associated with idle processes more quickly then the normal pageout algorithm. This gives a helping hand to the pageout daemon. Do not turn this option on unless you need it, because the tradeoff you are making is essentially pre-page memory sooner rather than later; thus eating more swap and disk bandwidth. In a small system this option will have a determinable effect but in a large system that is already doing moderate paging this option allows the VM system to stage whole processes into and out of memory easily. <varname>hw.ata.wc</varname> hw.ata.wc FreeBSD 4.3 flirted with turning off IDE write caching. This reduced write bandwidth to IDE disks but was considered necessary due to serious data consistency issues introduced by hard drive vendors. The problem is that IDE drives lie about when a write completes. With IDE write caching turned on, IDE hard drives not only write data to disk out of order, but will sometimes delay writing some blocks indefinitely when under heavy disk loads. A crash or power failure may cause serious file system corruption. FreeBSD's default was changed to be safe. Unfortunately, the result was such a huge performance loss that we changed write caching back to on by default after the release. You should check the default on your system by observing the hw.ata.wc sysctl variable. If IDE write caching is turned off, you can turn it back on by setting the kernel variable back to 1. This must be done from the boot loader at boot time. Attempting to do it after the kernel boots will have no effect. For more information, please see &man.ata.4;. <option>SCSI_DELAY</option> (<varname>kern.cam.scsi_delay</varname>) kern.cam.scsi_delay The kernel config may be used to reduce system boot times. The defaults are fairly high and can be responsible for 15+ seconds of delay in the boot process. Reducing it to 5 seconds usually works (especially with modern drives). Newer versions of FreeBSD (5.0+) should use the kern.cam.scsi_delay boot time tunable. The tunable, and kernel config option accept values in terms of milliseconds and not seconds. Soft Updates Soft Updates tunefs The &man.tunefs.8; program can be used to fine-tune a file system. This program has many different options, but for now we are only concerned with toggling Soft Updates on and off, which is done by: &prompt.root; tunefs -n enable /filesystem &prompt.root; tunefs -n disable /filesystem A filesystem cannot be modified with &man.tunefs.8; while it is mounted. A good time to enable Soft Updates is before any partitions have been mounted, in single-user mode. As of FreeBSD 4.5, it is possible to enable Soft Updates at filesystem creation time, through use of the -U option to &man.newfs.8;. Soft Updates drastically improves meta-data performance, mainly file creation and deletion, through the use of a memory cache. We recommend to use Soft Updates on all of your file systems. There are two downsides to Soft Updates that you should be aware of: First, Soft Updates guarantees filesystem consistency in the case of a crash but could very easily be several seconds (even a minute!) behind updating the physical disk. If your system crashes you may lose more work than otherwise. Secondly, Soft Updates delays the freeing of filesystem blocks. If you have a filesystem (such as the root filesystem) which is almost full, performing a major update, such as make installworld, can cause the filesystem to run out of space and the update to fail. More Details about Soft Updates Soft Updates details There are two traditional approaches to writing a file systems meta-data back to disk. (Meta-data updates are updates to non-content data like inodes or directories.) Historically, the default behavior was to write out meta-data updates synchronously. If a directory had been changed, the system waited until the change was actually written to disk. The file data buffers (file contents) were passed through the buffer cache and backed up to disk later on asynchronously. The advantage of this implementation is that it operates safely. If there is a failure during an update, the meta-data are always in a consistent state. A file is either created completely or not at all. If the data blocks of a file did not find their way out of the buffer cache onto the disk by the time of the crash, &man.fsck.8; is able to recognize this and repair the filesystem by setting the file length to 0. Additionally, the implementation is clear and simple. The disadvantage is that meta-data changes are slow. An rm -r, for instance, touches all the files in a directory sequentially, but each directory change (deletion of a file) will be written synchronously to the disk. This includes updates to the directory itself, to the inode table, and possibly to indirect blocks allocated by the file. Similar considerations apply for unrolling large hierarchies (tar -x). The second case is asynchronous meta-data updates. This is the default for Linux/ext2fs and mount -o async for *BSD ufs. All meta-data updates are simply being passed through the buffer cache too, that is, they will be intermixed with the updates of the file content data. The advantage of this implementation is there is no need to wait until each meta-data update has been written to disk, so all operations which cause huge amounts of meta-data updates work much faster than in the synchronous case. Also, the implementation is still clear and simple, so there is a low risk for bugs creeping into the code. The disadvantage is that there is no guarantee at all for a consistent state of the filesystem. If there is a failure during an operation that updated large amounts of meta-data (like a power failure, or someone pressing the reset button), the filesystem will be left in an unpredictable state. There is no opportunity to examine the state of the filesystem when the system comes up again; the data blocks of a file could already have been written to the disk while the updates of the inode table or the associated directory were not. It is actually impossible to implement a fsck which is able to clean up the resulting chaos (because the necessary information is not available on the disk). If the filesystem has been damaged beyond repair, the only choice is to use &man.newfs.8; on it and restore it from backup. The usual solution for this problem was to implement dirty region logging, which is also referred to as journaling, although that term is not used consistently and is occasionally applied to other forms of transaction logging as well. Meta-data updates are still written synchronously, but only into a small region of the disk. Later on they will be moved to their proper location. Because the logging area is a small, contiguous region on the disk, there are no long distances for the disk heads to move, even during heavy operations, so these operations are quicker than synchronous updates. Additionally the complexity of the implementation is fairly limited, so the risk of bugs being present is low. A disadvantage is that all meta-data are written twice (once into the logging region and once to the proper location) so for normal work, a performance pessimization might result. On the other hand, in case of a crash, all pending meta-data operations can be quickly either rolled-back or completed from the logging area after the system comes up again, resulting in a fast filesystem startup. Kirk McKusick, the developer of Berkeley FFS, solved this problem with Soft Updates: all pending meta-data updates are kept in memory and written out to disk in a sorted sequence (ordered meta-data updates). This has the effect that, in case of heavy meta-data operations, later updates to an item catch the earlier ones if the earlier ones are still in memory and have not already been written to disk. So all operations on, say, a directory are generally performed in memory before the update is written to disk (the data blocks are sorted according to their position so that they will not be on the disk ahead of their meta-data). If the system crashes, this causes an implicit log rewind: all operations which did not find their way to the disk appear as if they had never happened. A consistent filesystem state is maintained that appears to be the one of 30 to 60 seconds earlier. The algorithm used guarantees that all resources in use are marked as such in their appropriate bitmaps: blocks and inodes. After a crash, the only resource allocation error that occurs is that resources are marked as used which are actually free. &man.fsck.8; recognizes this situation, and frees the resources that are no longer used. It is safe to ignore the dirty state of the filesystem after a crash by forcibly mounting it with mount -f. In order to free resources that may be unused, &man.fsck.8; needs to be run at a later time. This is the idea behind the background fsck: at system startup time, only a snapshot of the filesystem is recorded. The fsck can be run later on. All file systems can then be mounted dirty, so the system startup proceeds in multiuser mode. Then, background fscks will be scheduled for all file systems where this is required, to free resources that may be unused. (File systems that do not use Soft Updates still need the usual foreground fsck though.) The advantage is that meta-data operations are nearly as fast as asynchronous updates (i.e. faster than with logging, which has to write the meta-data twice). The disadvantages are the complexity of the code (implying a higher risk for bugs in an area that is highly sensitive regarding loss of user data), and a higher memory consumption. Additionally there are some idiosyncrasies one has to get used to. After a crash, the state of the filesystem appears to be somewhat older. In situations where the standard synchronous approach would have caused some zero-length files to remain after the fsck, these files do not exist at all with a Soft Updates filesystem because neither the meta-data nor the file contents have ever been written to disk. Disk space is not released until the updates have been written to disk, which may take place some time after running rm. This may cause problems when installing large amounts of data on a filesystem that does not have enough free space to hold all the files twice. Tuning Kernel Limits tuning kernel limits File/Process Limits <varname>kern.maxfiles</varname> kern.maxfiles kern.maxfiles can be raised or lowered based upon your system requirements. This variable indicates the maximum number of file descriptors on your system. When the file descriptor table is full, file: table is full will show up repeatedly in the system message buffer, which can be viewed with the dmesg command. Each open file, socket, or fifo uses one file descriptor. A large-scale production server may easily require many thousands of file descriptors, depending on the kind and number of services running concurrently. kern.maxfile's default value is dictated by the option in your kernel configuration file. kern.maxfiles grows proportionally to the value of . When compiling a custom kernel, it is a good idea to set this kernel configuration option according to the uses of your system. From this number, the kernel is given most of its pre-defined limits. Even though a production machine may not actually have 256 users connected at once, the resources needed may be similar to a high-scale web server. As of FreeBSD 4.5, setting to 0 in your kernel configuration file will choose a reasonable default value based on the amount of RAM present in your system. <varname>kern.ipc.somaxconn</varname> kern.ipc.somaxconn The kern.ipc.somaxconn sysctl variable limits the size of the listen queue for accepting new TCP connections. The default value of 128 is typically too low for robust handling of new connections in a heavily loaded web server environment. For such environments, it is recommended to increase this value to 1024 or higher. The service daemon may itself limit the listen queue size (e.g. &man.sendmail.8;, or Apache) but will often have a directive in it's configuration file to adjust the queue size. Large listen queues also do a better job of avoiding Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. Network Limits The kernel configuration option dictates the amount of network Mbufs available to the system. A heavily-trafficked server with a low number of Mbufs will hinder FreeBSD's ability. Each cluster represents approximately 2 K of memory, so a value of 1024 represents 2 megabytes of kernel memory reserved for network buffers. A simple calculation can be done to figure out how many are needed. If you have a web server which maxes out at 1000 simultaneous connections, and each connection eats a 16 K receive and 16 K send buffer, you need approximately 32 MB worth of network buffers to cover the web server. A good rule of thumb is to multiply by 2, so 2x32 MB / 2 KB = 64 MB / 2 kB = 32768. We recommend values between 4096 and 32768 for machines with greater amounts of memory. Under no circumstances should you specify an arbitrarily high value for this parameter as it could lead to a boot time crash. The option to &man.netstat.1; may be used to observe network cluster use. kern.ipc.nmbclusters loader tunable should be used to tune this at boot time. Only older versions of FreeBSD will require you to use the kernel &man.config.8; option. For busy servers that make extensive use of the &man.sendfile.2; system call, it may be necessary to increase the number of &man.sendfile.2; buffers via the kernel configuration option or by setting its value in /boot/loader.conf (see &man.loader.8; for details). A common indicator that this parameter needs to be adjusted is when processes are seen in the sfbufa state. The sysctl variable kern.ipc.nsfbufs is a read-only glimpse at the kernel configured variable. This parameter nominally scales with kern.maxusers, however it may be necessary to tune accordingly. Even though a socket has been marked as non-blocking, calling &man.sendfile.2; on the non-blocking socket may result in the &man.sendfile.2; call blocking until enough struct sf_buf's are made available. <varname>net.inet.ip.portrange.*</varname> net.inet.ip.portrange.* The net.inet.ip.portrange.* sysctl variables control the port number ranges automatically bound to TCP and UDP sockets. There are three ranges: a low range, a default range, and a high range. Most network programs use the default range which is controlled by the net.inet.ip.portrange.first and net.inet.ip.portrange.last, which default to 1024 and 5000, respectively. Bound port ranges are used for outgoing connections, and it is possible to run the system out of ports under certain circumstances. This most commonly occurs when you are running a heavily loaded web proxy. The port range is not an issue when running servers which handle mainly incoming connections, such as a normal web server, or has a limited number of outgoing connections, such as a mail relay. For situations where you may run yourself out of ports, it is recommended to increase net.inet.ip.portrange.last modestly. A value of 10000, 20000 or 30000 may be reasonable. You should also consider firewall effects when changing the port range. Some firewalls may block large ranges of ports (usually low-numbered ports) and expect systems to use higher ranges of ports for outgoing connections — for this reason it is recommended that net.inet.ip.portrange.first be lowered. TCP Bandwidth Delay Product TCP Bandwidth Delay Product Limiting net.inet.tcp.inflight_enable The TCP Bandwidth Delay Product Limiting is similar to TCP/Vegas in NetBSD. It can be enabled by setting net.inet.tcp.inflight_enable sysctl variable to 1. The system will attempt to calculate the bandwidth delay product for each connection and limit the amount of data queued to the network to just the amount required to maintain optimum throughput. This feature is useful if you are serving data over modems, Gigabit Ethernet, or even high speed WAN links (or any other link with a high bandwidth delay product), especially if you are also using window scaling or have configured a large send window. If you enable this option, you should also be sure to set net.inet.tcp.inflight_debug to 0 (disable debugging), and for production use setting net.inet.tcp.inflight_min to at least 6144 may be beneficial. However, note that setting high minimums may effectively disable bandwidth limiting depending on the link. The limiting feature reduces the amount of data built up in intermediate route and switch packet queues as well as reduces the amount of data built up in the local host's interface queue. With fewer packets queued up, interactive connections, especially over slow modems, will also be able to operate with lower Round Trip Times. However, note that this feature only effects data transmission (uploading / server side). It has no effect on data reception (downloading). Adjusting net.inet.tcp.inflight_stab is not recommended. This parameter defaults to 20, representing 2 maximal packets added to the bandwidth delay product window calculation. The additional window is required to stabilize the algorithm and improve responsiveness to changing conditions, but it can also result in higher ping times over slow links (though still much lower than you would get without the inflight algorithm). In such cases, you may wish to try reducing this parameter to 15, 10, or 5; and may also have to reduce net.inet.tcp.inflight_min (for example, to 3500) to get the desired effect. Reducing these parameters should be done as a last resort only. Adding Swap Space No matter how well you plan, sometimes a system does not run as you expect. If you find you need more swap space, it is simple enough to add. You have three ways to increase swap space: adding a new hard drive, enabling swap over NFS, and creating a swap file on an existing partition. Swap on a New Hard Drive The best way to add swap, of course, is to use this as an excuse to add another hard drive. You can always use another hard drive, after all. If you can do this, go reread the discussion of swap space from the Initial Configuration section of the Handbook for some suggestions on how to best arrange your swap. Swapping over NFS Swapping over NFS is only recommended if you do not have a local hard disk to swap to. Swapping over NFS is slow and inefficient in versions of FreeBSD prior to 4.X. It is reasonably fast and efficient in 4.0-RELEASE and newer. Even with newer versions of FreeBSD, NFS swapping will be limited by the available network bandwidth and puts an additional burden on the NFS server. Swapfiles You can create a file of a specified size to use as a swap file. In our example here we will use a 64MB file called /usr/swap0. You can use any name you want, of course. Creating a Swapfile on FreeBSD 4.X Be certain that your kernel configuration includes the vnode driver. It is not in recent versions of GENERIC. pseudo-device vn 1 #Vnode driver (turns a file into a device) create a vn-device: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV vn0 create a swapfile (/usr/swap0): &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/swap0 bs=1024k count=64 set proper permissions on (/usr/swap0): &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /usr/swap0 enable the swap file in /etc/rc.conf: swapfile="/usr/swap0" # Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired. Reboot the machine or to enable the swap file immediately, type: &prompt.root; vnconfig -e /dev/vn0b /usr/swap0 swap Creating a Swapfile on FreeBSD 5.X Be certain that your kernel configuration includes the memory disk driver (&man.md.4;). It is default in GENERIC kernel. device md # Memory "disks" create a swapfile (/usr/swap0): &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/swap0 bs=1024k count=64 set proper permissions on (/usr/swap0): &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /usr/swap0 enable the swap file in /etc/rc.conf: swapfile="/usr/swap0" # Set to name of swapfile if aux swapfile desired. Reboot the machine or to enable the swap file immediately, type: &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /usr/swap0 -u 0 && swapon /dev/md0 Hiten Pandya Written by Tom Rhodes Power and Resource Management It is very important to utilize hardware resources in an efficient manner. Before ACPI was introduced, it was very difficult and inflexible for operating systems to manage the power usage and thermal properties of a system. The hardware was controlled by some sort of BIOS embedded interface, such as Plug and Play BIOS (PNPBIOS), or Advanced Power Management (APM) and so on. Power and Resource Management is one of the key components of a modern operating system. For example, you may want an operating system to monitor system limits (and possibly alert you) in case your system temperature increased unexpectedly. In this section of the FreeBSD Handbook, we will provide comprehensive information about ACPI. References will be provided for further reading at the end. Please be aware that ACPI is only available on FreeBSD 5.X and above. What Is ACPI? Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) is a standard written by an alliance of vendors to provide a standard interface for hardware resources and power management (hence the name). It is a key element in Operating System-directed configuration and Power Management, i.e.: it provides more control and flexibility to the operating system (OS). Modern systems stretched the limits of the current Plug and Play interfaces (such as APM, which is used in FreeBSD 4.X), prior to the introduction of ACPI. ACPI is the direct successor to APM (Advanced Power Management). Shortcomings of Advanced Power Management (APM) The Advanced Power Management (APM) facility control's the power usage of a system based on its activity. The APM BIOS is supplied by the (system) vendor and it is specific to the hardware platform. An APM driver in the OS mediates access to the APM Software Interface, which allows management of power levels. There are four major problems in APM. Firstly, power management is done by the (vendor-specific) BIOS, and the OS does not have any knowledge of it. One example of this, is when the user sets idle-time values for a hard drive in the APM BIOS, that when exceeded, it (BIOS) would spin down the hard drive, without the consent of the OS. Secondly, the APM logic is embedded in the BIOS, and it operates outside the scope of the OS. This means users can only fix problems in their APM BIOS by flashing a new one into the ROM; which, is a very dangerous procedure, and if it fails, it could leave the system in an unrecoverable state. Thirdly, APM is a vendor-specific technology, which, means that there is a lot or parity (duplication of efforts) and bugs found in one vendor's BIOS, may not be solved in others. Last but not the least, the APM BIOS did not have enough room to implement a sophisticated power policy, or one that can adapt very well to the purpose of the machine. Plug and Play BIOS (PNPBIOS) was unreliable in many situations. PNPBIOS is 16-bit technology, so the OS has to use 16-bit emulation in order to interface with PNPBIOS methods. The FreeBSD APM driver is documented in the &man.apm.4; manual page. Configuring <acronym>ACPI</acronym> The acpi.ko driver is loaded by default at start up by the &man.loader.8; and should not be compiled into the kernel. The reasoning behind this is that modules are easier to work with, say if switching to another acpi.ko without doing a kernel rebuild. This has the advantage of making testing easier. Another reason is that starting ACPI after a system has been brought up is not too useful, and in some cases can be fatal. In doubt, just disable ACPI all together. This driver should not and can not be unloaded because the system bus uses it for various hardware interactions. ACPI can be disabled with the &man.acpiconf.8; utility. In fact most of the interaction with ACPI can be done via &man.acpiconf.8;. Basically this means, if anything about ACPI is in the &man.dmesg.8; output, then most likely it is already running. ACPI and APM cannot coexist and should be used separately. The last one to load will terminate if the driver notices the other running. In the simplest form, ACPI can be used to put the system into a sleep mode with &man.acpiconf.8;, the flag, and a 1-5 option. Most users will only need 1. Option 5 will do a soft-off which is the same action as: &prompt.root; halt -p The other options are available. Check out the &man.acpiconf.8; manual page for more information. Debugging and Disabling <acronym>ACPI</acronym> Almost everything in ACPI is transparent, until it does not work. That is usually when you as a user will know there is something not working properly. The &man.acpi.4; driver supports many debugging options, it is even possible to selectively disable some parts of the ACPI system. For more information about debugging facilities, read the &man.acpi.4; manual page. Sometimes for various reasons, the acpi.ko module must be unloaded. This can only be done at boot time by the &man.loader.8;. You can type at &man.loader.8; prompt the command unset acpi_load each time you boot the system, or to stop the autoloading of the &man.acpi.4; driver add the following line to the /boot/loader.conf file: exec="unset acpi_load" &os; 5.1-RELEASE and later come with a boot-time menu that controls how &os; is booted. One of the proposed options is to turn off ACPI. So to disable ACPI just select 2. Boot &os; with ACPI disabled in the menu. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml index 03936128cf..c6a78b70fa 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3234 +1,3234 @@ Storage Synopsis This chapter covers the use of disks in FreeBSD. This includes memory-backed disks, network-attached disks, and standard SCSI/IDE storage devices. After reading this chapter, you will know: The terminology FreeBSD uses to describe the organization of data on a physical disk (partitions and slices). How to mount and unmount file systems. How to add additional hard disks to your system. How to setup virtual file systems, such as memory disks. How to use quotas to limit disk space usage. How to encrypt disks to secure them against attackers. How to create and burn CDs and DVDs on FreeBSD. The various storage media options for backups. How to use backup programs available under FreeBSD. How to backup to floppy disks. What snapshots are and how to use them efficiently. Device Names The following is a list of physical storage devices supported in FreeBSD, and the device names associated with them. Physical Disk Naming Conventions Drive type Drive device name IDE hard drives ad IDE CDROM drives acd SCSI hard drives and USB Mass storage devices da SCSI CDROM drives cd Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM The &man.matcd.4; driver has been removed in FreeBSD 4.X branch since October 5th, 2002 and does not exist in FreeBSD 5.0 and 5.1 releases. However this driver is back in the FreeBSD 5.X branch since June 16th, 2003. Floppy drives fd SCSI tape drives sa IDE tape drives ast Flash drives - fla for DiskOnChip Flash device + fla for &diskonchip; Flash device RAID drives - aacd for Adaptec AdvancedRAID, + aacd for &adaptec; AdvancedRAID, mlxd and mlyd - for Mylex, - amrd for AMI MegaRAID, + for &mylex;, + amrd for AMI &megaraid;, idad for Compaq Smart RAID, - twed for 3Ware RAID. + twed for &tm.3ware; RAID.
David O'Brien Originally contributed by Adding Disks disks adding Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due to the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user root. After you have installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1 (if you are adding an IDE drive, the device name will be wd1 in pre-4.0 systems, or ad1 in most 4.X systems). partitions slices fdisk Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live within one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e. Using &man.sysinstall.8; sysinstall adding disks su Navigating <application>Sysinstall</application> You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. Within the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Fdisk option. <application>fdisk</application> Partition Editor Once inside fdisk, we can type A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor by typing q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None. Disk Label Editor BSD partitions Next, you need to exit sysinstall and start it again. Follow the directions above, although this time choose the Label option. This will enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. Within the Label editor, create a single file system by typing C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and type in a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify is not important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by typing W. Ignore any errors from sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and sysinstall completely. Finish The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. Using Command Line Utilities Using Slices This setup will allow your disk to work correctly with other operating systems that might be installed on your computer and will not confuse other operating systems' fdisk utilities. It is recommended to use this method for new disk installs. Only use dedicated mode if you have a good reason to do so! &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; fdisk -BI da1 #Initialize your new disk &prompt.root; disklabel -B -w -r da1s1 auto #Label it. &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1s1 # Edit the disklabel just created and add any partitions. &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1s1e # Repeat this for every partition you created. &prompt.root; mount /dev/da1s1e /1 # Mount the partition(s) &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # Add the appropriate entry/entries to your /etc/fstab. If you have an IDE disk, substitute ad for da. On pre-4.X systems use wd. Dedicated OS/2 If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage - will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will + will be done by them. IBM's &os2; however, will appropriate any partition it finds which it does not understand. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition &prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 An alternate method is: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/da1 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/da1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin &prompt.root; newfs /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the examples above the option should be removed with &man.bsdlabel.8;. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. RAID Software RAID Christopher Shumway Original work by Jim Brown Revised by RAIDsoftware RAIDCCD Concatenated Disk Driver (CCD) Configuration When choosing a mass storage solution the most important factors to consider are speed, reliability, and cost. It is rare to have all three in balance; normally a fast, reliable mass storage device is expensive, and to cut back on cost either speed or reliability must be sacrificed. In designing the system described below, cost was chosen as the most important factor, followed by speed, then reliability. Data transfer speed for this system is ultimately constrained by the network. And while reliability is very important, the CCD drive described below serves online data that is already fully backed up on CD-R's and can easily be replaced. Defining your own requirements is the first step in choosing a mass storage solution. If your requirements prefer speed or reliability over cost, your solution will differ from the system described in this section. Installing the Hardware In addition to the IDE system disk, three Western Digital 30GB, 5400 RPM IDE disks form the core of the CCD disk described below providing approximately 90GB of online storage. Ideally, each IDE disk would have its own IDE controller and cable, but to minimize cost, additional IDE controllers were not used. Instead the disks were configured with jumpers so that each IDE controller has one master, and one slave. Upon reboot, the system BIOS was configured to automatically detect the disks attached. More importantly, FreeBSD detected them on reboot: ad0: 19574MB <WDC WD205BA> [39770/16/63] at ata0-master UDMA33 ad1: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata0-slave UDMA33 ad2: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-master UDMA33 ad3: 29333MB <WDC WD307AA> [59598/16/63] at ata1-slave UDMA33 If FreeBSD does not detect all the disks, ensure that you have jumpered them correctly. Most IDE drives also have a Cable Select jumper. This is not the jumper for the master/slave relationship. Consult the drive documentation for help in identifying the correct jumper. Next, consider how to attach them as part of the file system. You should research both &man.vinum.8; () and &man.ccd.4;. In this particular configuration, &man.ccd.4; was chosen. Setting Up the CCD The driver &man.ccd.4; allows you to take several identical disks and concatenate them into one logical file system. In order to use &man.ccd.4;, you need a kernel with &man.ccd.4; support built in. Add this line to your kernel configuration file, rebuild, and reinstall the kernel: pseudo-device ccd 4 On 5.X systems, you have to use instead the following line: device ccd In FreeBSD 5.X, it is not necessary to specify a number of &man.ccd.4; devices, as the &man.ccd.4; device driver is now self-cloning — new device instances will automatically be created on demand. The &man.ccd.4; support can also be loaded as a kernel loadable module in FreeBSD 3.0 or later. To set up &man.ccd.4;, you must first use &man.disklabel.8; to label the disks: disklabel -r -w ad1 auto disklabel -r -w ad2 auto disklabel -r -w ad3 auto This creates a disklabel for ad1c, ad2c and ad3c that spans the entire disk. Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the examples above the option should be removed. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. The next step is to change the disk label type. You can use &man.disklabel.8; to edit the disks: disklabel -e ad1 disklabel -e ad2 disklabel -e ad3 This opens up the current disk label on each disk with the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, typically &man.vi.1;. An unmodified disk label will look something like this: 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) Add a new e partition for &man.ccd.4; to use. This can usually be copied from the c partition, but the must be 4.2BSD. The disk label should now look something like this: 8 partitions: # size offset fstype [fsize bsize bps/cpg] c: 60074784 0 unused 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) e: 60074784 0 4.2BSD 0 0 0 # (Cyl. 0 - 59597) Building the File System The device node for ccd0c may not exist yet, so to create it, perform the following commands: cd /dev sh MAKEDEV ccd0 In FreeBSD 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically manage device nodes in /dev, so use of MAKEDEV is not necessary. Now that you have all of the disks labeled, you must build the &man.ccd.4;. To do that, use &man.ccdconfig.8;, with options similar to the following: ccdconfig ccd0 32 0 /dev/ad1e /dev/ad2e /dev/ad3e The use and meaning of each option is shown below: The first argument is the device to configure, in this case, /dev/ccd0c. The /dev/ portion is optional. The interleave for the file system. The interleave defines the size of a stripe in disk blocks, each normally 512 bytes. So, an interleave of 32 would be 16,384 bytes. Flags for &man.ccdconfig.8;. If you want to enable drive mirroring, you can specify a flag here. This configuration does not provide mirroring for &man.ccd.4;, so it is set at 0 (zero). The final arguments to &man.ccdconfig.8; are the devices to place into the array. Use the complete pathname for each device. After running &man.ccdconfig.8; the &man.ccd.4; is configured. A file system can be installed. Refer to &man.newfs.8; for options, or simply run: newfs /dev/ccd0c Making it All Automatic Generally, you will want to mount the &man.ccd.4; upon each reboot. To do this, you must configure it first. Write out your current configuration to /etc/ccd.conf using the following command: ccdconfig -g > /etc/ccd.conf During reboot, the script /etc/rc runs ccdconfig -C if /etc/ccd.conf exists. This automatically configures the &man.ccd.4; so it can be mounted. If you are booting into single user mode, before you can &man.mount.8; the &man.ccd.4;, you need to issue the following command to configure the array: ccdconfig -C To automatically mount the &man.ccd.4;, place an entry for the &man.ccd.4; in /etc/fstab so it will be mounted at boot time: /dev/ccd0c /media ufs rw 2 2 The Vinum Volume Manager RAIDsoftware RAID Vinum The Vinum Volume Manager is a block device driver which implements virtual disk drives. It isolates disk hardware from the block device interface and maps data in ways which result in an increase in flexibility, performance and reliability compared to the traditional slice view of disk storage. &man.vinum.8; implements the RAID-0, RAID-1 and RAID-5 models, both individually and in combination. See for more information about &man.vinum.8;. Hardware RAID RAID hardware FreeBSD also supports a variety of hardware RAID controllers. These devices control a RAID subsystem without the need for FreeBSD specific software to manage the array. Using an on-card BIOS, the card controls most of the disk operations itself. The following is a brief setup description using a Promise IDE RAID controller. When this card is installed and the system is started up, it displays a prompt requesting information. Follow the instructions to enter the card's setup screen. From here, you have the ability to combine all the attached drives. After doing so, the disk(s) will look like a single drive to FreeBSD. Other RAID levels can be set up accordingly. Rebuilding ATA RAID1 Arrays FreeBSD allows you to hot-replace a failed disk in an array. This requires that you catch it before you reboot. You will probably see something like the following in /var/log/messages or in the &man.dmesg.8; output: ad6 on monster1 suffered a hard error. ad6: READ command timeout tag=0 serv=0 - resetting ad6: trying fallback to PIO mode ata3: resetting devices .. done ad6: hard error reading fsbn 1116119 of 0-7 (ad6 bn 1116119; cn 1107 tn 4 sn 11) status=59 error=40 ar0: WARNING - mirror lost Using &man.atacontrol.8;, check for further information: &prompt.root; atacontrol list ATA channel 0: Master: no device present Slave: acd0 <HL-DT-ST CD-ROM GCR-8520B/1.00> ATA/ATAPI rev 0 ATA channel 1: Master: no device present Slave: no device present ATA channel 2: Master: ad4 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5 Slave: no device present ATA channel 3: Master: ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5 Slave: no device present &prompt.root; atacontrol status ar0 ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: DEGRADED You will first need to detach the disk from the array so that you can safely remove it: &prompt.root; atacontrol detach 3 Replace the disk. Reattach the disk as a spare: &prompt.root; atacontrol attach 3 Master: ad6 <MAXTOR 6L080J4/A93.0500> ATA/ATAPI rev 5 Slave: no device present Rebuild the array: &prompt.root; atacontrol rebuild ar0 The rebuild command hangs until complete. However, it is possible to open another terminal (using Alt Fn) and check on the progress by issuing the following command: &prompt.root; dmesg | tail -10 [output removed] ad6: removed from configuration ad6: deleted from ar0 disk1 ad6: inserted into ar0 disk1 as spare &prompt.root; atacontrol status ar0 ar0: ATA RAID1 subdisks: ad4 ad6 status: REBUILDING 0% completed Wait until this operation completes. Mike Meyer Contributed by Creating and Using Optical Media (CDs & DVDs) CDROMs creating Introduction CDs have a number of features that differentiate them from conventional disks. Initially, they were not writable by the user. They are designed so that they can be read continuously without delays to move the head between tracks. They are also much easier to transport between systems than similarly sized media were at the time. CDs do have tracks, but this refers to a section of data to be read continuously and not a physical property of the disk. To produce a CD on FreeBSD, you prepare the data files that are going to make up the tracks on the CD, then write the tracks to the CD. ISO 9660 file systems ISO 9660 The ISO 9660 file system was designed to deal with these differences. It unfortunately codifies file system limits that were common then. Fortunately, it provides an extension mechanism that allows properly written CDs to exceed those limits while still working with systems that do not support those extensions. sysutils/mkisofs The sysutils/mkisofs program is used to produce a data file containing an ISO 9660 file system. It has options that support various extensions, and is described below. You can install it with the sysutils/mkisofs port. CD burner ATAPI Which tool to use to burn the CD depends on whether your CD burner is ATAPI or something else. ATAPI CD burners use the burncd program that is part of the base system. SCSI and USB CD burners should use cdrecord from the sysutils/cdrtools port. burncd has a limited number of supported drives. To find out if a drive is supported, see the CD-R/RW supported drives list. CD burner ATAPI/CAM driver If you run &os; 5.X, &os; 4.8-RELEASE version or higher, it will be possible to use cdrecord and other tools for SCSI drives on an ATAPI hardware with the ATAPI/CAM module. mkisofs sysutils/mkisofs produces an ISO 9660 file system - that is an image of a directory tree in the Unix file system name + that is an image of a directory tree in the &unix; file system name space. The simplest usage is: &prompt.root; mkisofs -o imagefile.iso /path/to/tree file systems ISO 9660 This command will create an imagefile.iso containing an ISO 9660 file system that is a copy of the tree at /path/to/tree. In the process, it will map the file names to names that fit the limitations of the standard ISO 9660 file system, and will exclude files that have names uncharacteristic of ISO file systems. file systems HFS file systems Joliet A number of options are available to overcome those restrictions. In particular, enables the - Rock Ridge extensions common to Unix systems, + Rock Ridge extensions common to &unix; systems, enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems, and can be used to create HFS file systems used - by MacOS. + by &macos;. For CDs that are going to be used only on FreeBSD systems, can be used to disable all filename restrictions. When used with , it produces a file system image that is identical to the FreeBSD tree you started from, though it may violate the ISO 9660 standard in a number of ways. CDROMs creating bootable The last option of general use is . This is used to specify the location of the boot image for use in producing an El Torito bootable CD. This option takes an argument which is the path to a boot image from the top of the tree being written to the CD. So, given that /tmp/myboot holds a bootable FreeBSD system with the boot image in /tmp/myboot/boot/cdboot, you could produce the image of an ISO 9660 file system in /tmp/bootable.iso like so: &prompt.root; mkisofs -U -R -b boot/cdboot -o /tmp/bootable.iso /tmp/myboot Having done that, if you have vn (FreeBSD 4.X), or md (FreeBSD 5.X) configured in your kernel, you can mount the file system with: &prompt.root; vnconfig -e vn0c /tmp/bootable.iso &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt for FreeBSD 4.X, and for FreeBSD 5.X: &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /tmp/bootable.iso -u 0 &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt At which point you can verify that /mnt and /tmp/myboot are identical. There are many other options you can use with sysutils/mkisofs to fine-tune its behavior. In particular: modifications to an ISO 9660 layout and the creation of Joliet and HFS discs. See the &man.mkisofs.8; manual page for details. burncd CDROMs burning If you have an ATAPI CD burner, you can use the burncd command to burn an ISO image onto a CD. burncd is part of the base system, installed as /usr/sbin/burncd. Usage is very simple, as it has few options: &prompt.root; burncd -f cddevice data imagefile.iso fixate Will burn a copy of imagefile.iso on cddevice. The default device is /dev/acd0c. See &man.burncd.8; for options to set the write speed, eject the CD after burning, and write audio data. cdrecord If you do not have an ATAPI CD burner, you will have to use cdrecord to burn your CDs. cdrecord is not part of the base system; you must install it from either the port at sysutils/cdrtools or the appropriate package. Changes to the base system can cause binary versions of this program to fail, possibly resulting in a coaster. You should therefore either upgrade the port when you upgrade your system, or if you are tracking -STABLE, upgrade the port when a new version becomes available. While cdrecord has many options, basic usage is even simpler than burncd. Burning an ISO 9660 image is done with: &prompt.root; cdrecord dev=device imagefile.iso The tricky part of using cdrecord is finding the to use. To find the proper setting, use the flag of cdrecord, which might produce results like this: CDROMs burning &prompt.root; cdrecord -scanbus Cdrecord 1.9 (i386-unknown-freebsd4.2) Copyright (C) 1995-2000 Jörg Schilling Using libscg version 'schily-0.1' scsibus0: 0,0,0 0) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39236LW ' '0004' Disk 0,1,0 1) 'SEAGATE ' 'ST39173W ' '5958' Disk 0,2,0 2) * 0,3,0 3) 'iomega ' 'jaz 1GB ' 'J.86' Removable Disk 0,4,0 4) 'NEC ' 'CD-ROM DRIVE:466' '1.26' Removable CD-ROM 0,5,0 5) * 0,6,0 6) * 0,7,0 7) * scsibus1: 1,0,0 100) * 1,1,0 101) * 1,2,0 102) * 1,3,0 103) * 1,4,0 104) * 1,5,0 105) 'YAMAHA ' 'CRW4260 ' '1.0q' Removable CD-ROM 1,6,0 106) 'ARTEC ' 'AM12S ' '1.06' Scanner 1,7,0 107) * This lists the appropriate value for the devices on the list. Locate your CD burner, and use the three numbers separated by commas as the value for . In this case, the CRW device is 1,5,0, so the appropriate input would be . There are easier ways to specify this value; see &man.cdrecord.1; for details. That is also the place to look for information on writing audio tracks, controlling the speed, and other things. Duplicating Audio CDs You can duplicate an audio CD by extracting the audio data from the CD to a series of files, and then writing these files to a blank CD. The process is slightly different for ATAPI and SCSI drives. SCSI Drives Use cdda2wav to extract the audio. &prompt.user; cdda2wav -v255 -D2,0 -B -Owav Use cdrecord to write the .wav files. &prompt.user; cdrecord -v dev=2,0 -dao -useinfo *.wav Make sure that 2.0 is set appropriately, as described in . ATAPI Drives The ATAPI CD driver makes each track available as /dev/acddtnn, where d is the drive number, and nn is the track number written with two decimal digits, prefixed with zero as needed. So the first track on the first disk is /dev/acd0t01, the second is /dev/acd0t02, the third is /dev/acd0t03, and so on. Make sure the appropriate files exist in /dev. &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0t99 In FreeBSD 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically create and manage entries in /dev for you, so it is not necessary to use MAKEDEV. Extract each track using &man.dd.1;. You must also use a specific block size when extracting the files. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0t01 of=track1.cdr bs=2352 &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0t02 of=track2.cdr bs=2352 ... Burn the extracted files to disk using burncd. You must specify that these are audio files, and that burncd should fixate the disk when finished. &prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd0c audio track1.cdr track2.cdr ... fixate Duplicating Data CDs You can copy a data CD to a image file that is functionally equivalent to the image file created with sysutils/mkisofs, and you can use it to duplicate any data CD. The example given here assumes that your CDROM device is acd0. Substitute your correct CDROM device. A c must be appended to the end of the device name to indicate the entire partition or, in the case of CDROMs, the entire disc. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/acd0c of=file.iso bs=2048 Now that you have an image, you can burn it to CD as described above. Using Data CDs Now that you have created a standard data CDROM, you probably want to mount it and read the data on it. By default, &man.mount.8; assumes that a file system is of type ufs. If you try something like: &prompt.root; mount /dev/cd0c /mnt you will get a complaint about Incorrect super block, and no mount. The CDROM is not a UFS file system, so attempts to mount it as such will fail. You just need to tell &man.mount.8; that the file system is of type ISO9660, and everything will work. You do this by specifying the option &man.mount.8;. For example, if you want to mount the CDROM device, /dev/cd0c, under /mnt, you would execute: &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt Note that your device name (/dev/cd0c in this example) could be different, depending on the interface your CDROM uses. Also, the option just executes &man.mount.cd9660.8;. The above example could be shortened to: &prompt.root; mount_cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt You can generally use data CDROMs from any vendor in this way. Disks with certain ISO 9660 extensions might behave oddly, however. For example, Joliet disks store all filenames in two-byte Unicode characters. The FreeBSD kernel does not speak Unicode (yet!), so non-English characters show up as question marks. (If you are running FreeBSD 4.3 or later, the CD9660 driver includes hooks to load an appropriate Unicode conversion table on the fly. Modules for some of the common encodings are available via the sysutils/cd9660_unicode port.) Occasionally, you might get Device not configured when trying to mount a CDROM. This usually means that the CDROM drive thinks that there is no disk in the tray, or that the drive is not visible on the bus. It can take a couple of seconds for a CDROM drive to realize that it has been fed, so be patient. Sometimes, a SCSI CDROM may be missed because it didn't have enough time to answer the bus reset. If you have a SCSI CDROM please add the following option to your kernel configuration and rebuild your kernel. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 This tells your SCSI bus to pause 15 seconds during boot, to give your CDROM drive every possible chance to answer the bus reset. Burning Raw Data CDs You can choose to burn a file directly to CD, without creating an ISO 9660 file system. Some people do this for backup purposes. This runs more quickly than burning a standard CD: &prompt.root; burncd -f /dev/acd1c -s 12 data archive.tar.gz fixate In order to retrieve the data burned to such a CD, you must read data from the raw device node: &prompt.root; tar xzvf /dev/acd1c You cannot mount this disk as you would a normal CDROM. Such a CDROM cannot be read under any operating system except FreeBSD. If you want to be able to mount the CD, or share data with another operating system, you must use sysutils/mkisofs as described above. CD burner ATAPI/CAM driver Using the ATAPI/CAM Driver This driver allows ATAPI devices (CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD drives etc...) to be accessed through the SCSI subsystem, and so allows the use of applications like sysutils/cdrdao or &man.cdrecord.1;. To use this driver, you will need to add the following lines to your kernel configuration file: device atapicam device scbus device cd device pass You also need the following lines in your kernel configuration file: device ata device atapicd Both of which should already be present. Then rebuild, install your new kernel, and reboot your machine. During the boot process, your burner should show up, like so: acd0: CD-RW <MATSHITA CD-RW/DVD-ROM UJDA740> at ata1-master PIO4 cd0 at ata1 bus 0 target 0 lun 0 cd0: <MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> Removable CD-ROM SCSI-0 device cd0: 16.000MB/s transfers cd0: Attempt to query device size failed: NOT READY, Medium not present - tray closed The drive could now be accessed via the /dev/cd0 device name, for example to mount a CD-ROM on /mnt, just type the following: &prompt.root; mount -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt As root, you can run the following command to get the SCSI address of the burner: &prompt.root; camcontrol devlist <MATSHITA CDRW/DVD UJDA740 1.00> at scbus1 target 0 lun 0 (pass0,cd0) So 1,0,0 will be the SCSI address to use with &man.cdrecord.1; and other SCSI application. For more information about ATAPI/CAM and SCSI system, refer to the &man.atapicam.4; and &man.cam.4; manual pages. Julio Merino Original work by Martin Karlsson Rewritten by Creating and Using Floppy Disks Storing data on floppy disks is sometimes useful, for example when one does not have any other removable storage media or when one needs to transfer small amounts of data to another computer. This section will explain how to use floppy disks in FreeBSD. It will primarily cover formatting and usage of 3.5inch DOS floppies, but the concepts are similar for other floppy disk formats. Formatting Floppies The Device Floppy disks are accessed through entries in /dev, just like other devices. To access the raw floppy disk in 4.X and earlier releases, one uses /dev/fdN, where N stands for the drive number, usually 0, or /dev/fdNX, where X stands for a letter. In 5.0 or newer releases, simply use /dev/fdN. The Disk Size in 4.X and Earlier Releases There are also /dev/fdN.size devices, where size is a floppy disk size in kilobytes. These entries are used at low-level format time to determine the disk size. 1440kB is the size that will be used in the following examples. Sometimes the entries under /dev will have to be (re)created. To do that, issue: &prompt.root; cd /dev && ./MAKEDEV "fd*" The Disk Size in 5.0 and Newer Releases In 5.0, &man.devfs.5; will automatically manage device nodes in /dev, so use of MAKEDEV is not necessary. The desired disk size is passed to &man.fdformat.1; through the flag. Supported sizes are listed in &man.fdcontrol.8;, but be advised that 1440kB is what works best. Formatting A floppy disk needs to be low-level formated before it can be used. This is usually done by the vendor, but formatting is a good way to check media integrity. Although it is possible to force larger (or smaller) disk sizes, 1440kB is what most floppy disks are designed for. To low-level format the floppy disk you need to use &man.fdformat.1;. This utility expects the device name as an argument. Make note of any error messages, as these can help determine if the disk is good or bad. Formatting in 4.X and Earlier Releases Use the /dev/fdN.size devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat /dev/fd0.1440 Formatting in 5.0 and Newer Releases Use the /dev/fdN devices to format the floppy. Insert a new 3.5inch floppy disk in your drive and issue: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/fdformat -f 1440 /dev/fd0 The Disk Label After low-level formatting the disk, you will need to place a disk label on it. This disk label will be destroyed later, but it is needed by the system to determine the size of the disk and its geometry later. The new disk label will take over the whole disk, and will contain all the proper information about the geometry of the floppy. The geometry values for the disk label are listed in /etc/disktab. You can run now &man.disklabel.8; like so: &prompt.root; /sbin/disklabel -B -r -w /dev/fd0 fd1440 Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the example above the option should be removed. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. The File System Now the floppy is ready to be high-level formated. This will place a new file system on it, which will let FreeBSD read and write to the disk. After creating the new file system, the disk label is destroyed, so if you want to reformat the disk, you will have to recreate the disk label. The floppy's file system can be either UFS or FAT. FAT is generally a better choice for floppies. To put a new file system on the floppy, issue: &prompt.root; /sbin/newfs_msdos /dev/fd0 The disk is now ready for use. Using the Floppy To use the floppy, mount it with &man.mount.msdos.8; (in 4.X and earlier releases) or &man.mount.msdosfs.8; (in 5.0 or newer releases). One can also use emulators/mtools from the ports collection. Creating and Using Data Tapes tape media The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT. 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage) tape media DDS (4mm) tapes tape media QIC tapes 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data throughput on these drives starts ~150 kB/s, peaking at ~500 kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12 GB (or 24 GB compressed). 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. 8mm (Exabyte) tape media Exabyte (8mm) tapes 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an Exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data throughput ranges from ~250 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. The Exabyte Mammoth model supports 12 GB on one tape (24 GB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. QIC tape media QIC-150 QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive serious backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). Mini-cartridges, which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available. Data throughput ranges from ~150 kB/s to ~500 kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. XXX* Mini-Cartridge DLT tape media DLT DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to hook the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data throughput is approximately 1.5 MB/s, three times the throughput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10 GB to 20 GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50 GB to 9 TB of storage. With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70 GB capacity. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. AIT tape media AIT AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50 GB (with compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries, communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the contents on screen, determine what files were backed up to which tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the tape. Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a little out of the hobbyist market. Using a New Tape for the First Time The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and dump data to the tape. dump will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96. rewind the tape using: mt rewind. Subsequent tape operations are successful. Backups to Floppies Can I Use Floppies for Backing Up My Data? backup floppies floppy disks Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for making backups as: The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of time. Backing up and restoring is very slow. They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since passed). However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then floppy disks are better than no backup at all. If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a reputable manufacturer. So How Do I Backup My Data to Floppies? The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use &man.tar.1; with the (multi volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple floppies. To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory use this (as root): &prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/fd0 * When the first floppy is full &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert the next volume (because &man.tar.1; is media independent it refers to volumes; in this context it means floppy disk). Prepare volume #2 for /dev/fd0 and hit return: This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all the specified files have been archived. Can I Compress My Backups? tar gzip compression Unfortunately, &man.tar.1; will not allow the option to be used for multi-volume archives. You could, of course, &man.gzip.1; all the files, &man.tar.1; them to the floppies, then &man.gunzip.1; the files again! How Do I Restore My Backups? To restore the entire archive use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 There are two ways that you can use to restore only specific files. First, you can start with the first floppy and use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/fd0 filename The utility &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it finds the required file. Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the previous one then &man.tar.1; will warn you that it cannot restore it, even if you have not asked it to! Backup Basics The three major backup programs are &man.dump.8;, &man.tar.1;, and &man.cpio.1;. Dump and Restore backup software dump / restore dump restore - The traditional Unix backup programs are + The traditional &unix; backup programs are dump and restore. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the file systems. dump backs up an entire file system on a device. It is unable to backup only part of a file system or a directory tree that spans more than one file system. dump does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the raw data blocks that comprise files and directories. If you use dump on your root directory, you would not back up /home, /usr or many other directories since these are typically mount points for other file systems or symbolic links into those file systems. dump has quirks that remain from its early days in - Version 6 of AT&T Unix (circa 1975). The default + Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. .rhosts It is also possible to backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer with rdump and rrestore. Both programs rely upon rcmd and ruserok to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must be listed in the .rhosts file on the remote computer. The arguments to rdump and rrestore must be suitable to use on the remote computer. When rdumping from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: &prompt.root; /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nsa8 /dev/da0a 2>&1 Beware: there are security implications to allowing .rhosts authentication. Evaluate your situation carefully. It is also possible to use dump and restore in a more secure fashion over ssh. Using <command>dump</command> over <application>ssh</application> &prompt.root; /sbin/dump -0uan -f - /usr | gzip -2 | ssh1 -c blowfish \ targetuser@targetmachine.example.com dd of=/mybigfiles/dump-usr-l0.gz <command>tar</command> backup software tar - &man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T Unix + &man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of AT&T UNIX (circa 1975). tar operates in cooperation with the file system; tar writes files and directories to tape. tar does not support the full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but tar does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio uses. tar Most versions of tar do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of tar, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as rdump. To tar to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: &prompt.root; /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nsa8 . 2>&1 For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b If you are worried about the security of backing up over a network you should use the ssh command instead of rsh. <command>cpio</command> backup software cpio - &man.cpio.1; is the original Unix file interchange tape + &man.cpio.1; is the original &unix; file interchange tape program for magnetic media. cpio has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archive formats, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes cpio an excellent choice for installation media. cpio does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided through stdin. cpio cpio does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and rsh to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; for f in directory_list; do find $f >> backup.list done &prompt.root; cpio -v -o --format=newc < backup.list | ssh user@host "cat > backup_device" Where directory_list is the list of directories you want to back up, user@host is the user/hostname combination that will be performing the backups, and backup_device is where the backups should be written to (e.g., /dev/nsa0). <command>pax</command> backup software pax pax POSIX IEEE - &man.pax.1; is IEEE/POSIX's answer to + &man.pax.1; is IEEE/&posix;'s answer to tar and cpio. Over the years the various versions of tar and cpio have gotten slightly incompatible. So - rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX + rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, &posix; created a new archive utility. pax attempts to read and write many of the various cpio and tar formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles cpio than tar. <application>Amanda</application> backup software Amanda Amanda Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and a network connection to the Amanda server. A common problem at sites with a number of large disks is that the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a holding disk to backup several file systems at the same time. Amanda creates archive sets: a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the file systems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The archive set also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the file systems. Restoring a damaged file system requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control of backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. Do Nothing Do nothing is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your - computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within + computer. But beware, &unix; is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. Do nothing is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that - comprise the HTML or PostScript version of this Handbook. + comprise the HTML or &postscript; version of this Handbook. These document formats have been created from SGML input - files. Creating backups of the HTML or PostScript files is + files. Creating backups of the HTML or &postscript; files is not necessary. The SGML files are backed up regularly. Which Backup Program Is Best? LISA &man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear - choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of Unix + choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of &unix; file systems is dump. Elizabeth created file systems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by doing a backup and restore of those file systems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs. Emergency Restore Procedure Before the Disaster There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur. disklabel First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your file system table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. fix-it floppies Second, determine that the boot and fix-it floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which have a kernel that can mount all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: fdisk, disklabel, newfs, mount, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use dump, the floppy must contain restore. Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/sa0, you might accidentally type tar cvf /dev/sa0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. A Script for Creating a Bootable Floppy /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV da0 ./MAKEDEV da1 ./MAKEDEV da2 ./MAKEDEV sa0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum file system table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd < After the Disaster The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software. If the hardware has been damaged, the parts should be replaced before attempting to use the computer. If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph. If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy. option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand. Recover each file system separately. mount root partition disklabel newfs Try to mount (e.g. mount /dev/da0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use disklabel to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that you printed and saved. Use newfs to re-create the file systems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this file system (e.g. restore vrf /dev/sa0). Unmount the file system (e.g. umount /mnt). Repeat for each file system that was damaged. Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. Another hour spent now may save you from further distress later. * I Did Not Prepare for the Disaster, What Now? ]]> Marc Fonvieille Reorganized and enhanced by Network, Memory, and File-Backed File Systems virtual disks disks virtual Aside from the disks you physically insert into your computer: floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth; other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks. NFS Coda disks memory These include network file systems such as the Network File System and Coda, memory-based file systems and file-backed file systems. According to the FreeBSD version you run, you will have to use different tools for creation and use of file-backed and memory-based file systems. The FreeBSD 4.X users will have to use &man.MAKEDEV.8; to create the required devices. FreeBSD 5.0 and later use &man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently for the user. File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 4.X disks file-backed (4.X) The utility &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo-disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that &man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a file system. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To use &man.vnconfig.8;, you need &man.vn.4; support in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device vn To mount an existing file system image: Using vnconfig to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 4.X &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt To create a new file system image with &man.vnconfig.8;: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with <command>vnconfig</command> &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto &prompt.root; newfs vn0c Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated /dev/vn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors 5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g) super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32 &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt File-Backed File System under FreeBSD 5.X disks file-backed (5.X) The utility &man.mdconfig.8; is used to configure and enable memory disks, &man.md.4;, under FreeBSD 5.X. To use &man.mdconfig.8;, you have to load &man.md.4; module or to add the support in your kernel configuration file: device md The &man.mdconfig.8; command supports three kinds of memory backed virtual disks: memory disks allocated with &man.malloc.9;, memory disks using a file or swap space as backing. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To mount an existing file system image: Using <command>mdconfig</command> to Mount an Existing File System Image under FreeBSD 5.X &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f diskimage -u 0 &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt To create a new file system image with &man.mdconfig.8;: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with <command>mdconfig</command> &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f newimage -u 0 &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w md0 auto &prompt.root; newfs md0c /dev/md0c: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048 using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes. super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32, 2624, 5216, 7808 &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt If you do not specify the unit number with the option, &man.mdconfig.8; will use the &man.md.4; automatic allocation to select an unused device. The name of the allocated unit will be output on stdout like md4. For more details about &man.mdconfig.8;, please refer to the manual page. Since &os; 5.1-RELEASE, the &man.bsdlabel.8; utility replaces the old &man.disklabel.8; program. With &man.bsdlabel.8; a number of obsolete options and parameters have been retired; in the example above the option should be removed. For more information, please refer to the &man.bsdlabel.8; manual page. The utility &man.mdconfig.8; is very useful, however it asks many command lines to create a file-backed file system. FreeBSD 5.0 also comes with a tool called &man.mdmfs.8;, this program configures a &man.md.4; disk using &man.mdconfig.8;, puts a UFS file system on it using &man.newfs.8;, and mounts it using &man.mount.8;. For example, if you want to create and mount the same file system image as above, simply type the following: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mdmfs -F newimage -s 5m md0 /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt If you use the option without unit number, &man.mdmfs.8; will use &man.md.4; auto-unit feature to automatically select an unused device. For more details about &man.mdmfs.8;, please refer to the manual page. Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 4.X disks memory file system (4.X) The &man.md.4; driver is a simple, efficient means to create memory file systems under FreeBSD 4.X. &man.malloc.9; is used to allocate the memory. Simply take a file system you have prepared with, for example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and: md Memory Disk under FreeBSD 4.X &prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt For more details, please refer to &man.md.4; manual page. Memory-Based File System under FreeBSD 5.X disks memory file system (5.X) The same tools are used for memory-based and file-backed file systems: &man.mdconfig.8; or &man.mdmfs.8;. The storage for memory-based file system is allocated with &man.malloc.9;. Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with <command>mdconfig</command> &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t malloc -s 5m -u 1 &prompt.root; newfs -U md1 /dev/md1: 5.0MB (10240 sectors) block size 16384, fragment size 2048 using 4 cylinder groups of 1.27MB, 81 blks, 256 inodes. with soft updates super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32, 2624, 5216, 7808 &prompt.root; mount /dev/md1 /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md1 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt Creating a New Memory-Based Disk with <command>mdmfs</command> &prompt.root; mdmfs -M -s 5m md2 /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md2 4846 2 4458 0% /mnt Instead of using a &man.malloc.9; backed file system, it is possible to use swap, for that just replace with in the command line of &man.mdconfig.8;. The &man.mdmfs.8; utility by default (without ) creates a swap-based disk. For more details, please refer to &man.mdconfig.8; and &man.mdmfs.8; manual pages. Detaching a Memory Disk from the System disks detaching a memory disk When a memory-based or file-based file system is not used, you should release all resources to the system. The first thing to do is to unmount the file system, then use &man.mdconfig.8; to detach the disk from the system and release the resources. For example to detach and free all resources used by /dev/md4: &prompt.root; mdconfig -d -u 4 It is possible to list information about configured &man.md.4; devices in using the command mdconfig -l. For FreeBSD 4.X, &man.vnconfig.8; is used to detach the device. For example to detach and free all resources used by /dev/vn4: &prompt.root; vnconfig -u vn4 Tom Rhodes Contributed by File System Snapshots file systems snapshots FreeBSD 5.0 offers a new feature in conjunction with Soft Updates: File system snapshots. Snapshots allow a user to create images of specified file systems, and treat them as a file. Snapshot files must be created in the file system that the action is performed on, and a user may create no more than 20 snapshots per file system. Active snapshots are recorded in the superblock so they are persistent across unmount and remount operations along with system reboots. When a snapshot is no longer required, it can be removed with the standard &man.rm.1; command. Snapshots may be removed in any order, however all the used space may not be acquired because another snapshot will possibly claim some of the released blocks. During initial creation, the flag (see the &man.chflags.1; manual page) is set to ensure that even root cannot write to the snapshot. The &man.unlink.1; command makes an exception for snapshot files since it allows them to be removed with the flag set, so it is not necessary to clear the flag before removing a snapshot file. Snapshots are created with the &man.mount.8; command. To place a snapshot of /var in the file /var/snapshot/snap use the following command: &prompt.root; mount -u -o snapshot /var/snapshot/snap /var Once a snapshot has been created, they have several uses: Some administrators will use a snapshot file for backup purposes, because the snapshot can be transfered to CDs or tape. File integrity, &man.fsck.8; may be ran on the snapshot. Assuming that the file system was clean when it was mounted, you should always get a clean (and unchanging) result. This is essentially what the background &man.fsck.8; process does. Run the &man.dump.8; utility on the snapshot. A dump will be returned that is consistent with the file system and the timestamp of the snapshot. &man.dump.8; can also take a snapshot, create a dump image and then remove the snapshot in one command using the flag. &man.mount.8; the snapshot as a frozen image of the file system. To &man.mount.8; the snapshot /var/snapshot/snap run: &prompt.root; mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /var/snapshot/snap -u 4 &prompt.root; mount -r /dev/md4 /mnt You can now walk the hierarchy of your frozen /var file system mounted at /mnt. Everything will be in the same state it was during the snapshot creation time. The only exception is that any earlier snapshots will appear as zero length files. When the use of a snapshot has delimited, it can be unmounted with: &prompt.root; umount /mnt &prompt.root; mdconfig -d -u 4 For more information about and file system snapshots, including technical papers, you can visit Marshall Kirk McKusick's website at http://www.mckusick.com. File System Quotas accounting disk space disk quotas Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user or members of a group may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user or group of users from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas, it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line: enable_quotas="YES" disk quotas checking For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the &man.quotacheck.8; program. The &man.quotacheck.8; facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable in /etc/rc.conf is made available for the purpose: check_quotas="NO" If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf: check_quotas="YES" Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the option instead of . To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default, the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See &man.fstab.5; for more information. Even though the &man.fstab.5; manual page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the &man.quotacheck.8;, &man.quotaon.8;, or &man.quotaoff.8; commands manually. However, you may want to read their manual pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits disk quotas limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run: &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the &man.edquota.8; command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories: hard and soft limits. hard limit A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches his hard limit he may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. soft limit Soft limits, on the other hand, can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than the grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run the &man.edquota.8; command. When the &man.edquota.8; command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this user's block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of UIDs. This can be done by use of the option on the &man.edquota.8; command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for UIDs 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 For more information see &man.edquota.8; manual page. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage disk quotas checking You can use either the &man.quota.1; or the &man.repquota.8; commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The &man.quota.1; command can be used to check individual user or group quotas and disk usage. A user may only examine his own quota, and the quota of a group he is a member of. Only the super-user may view all user and group quotas. The &man.repquota.8; command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 grace period On the /usr file system in the above example, this user is currently 15 blocks over the soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of the grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over his quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the &man.quota.1; command, even if he has a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. Quotas over NFS NFS Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics. Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so: rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad Now restart inetd: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` Lucky Green Contributed by
shamrock@cypherpunks.to
 Encrypting Disk Partitions disks encrypting FreeBSD offers excellent online protections against unauthorized data access. File permissions and Mandatory Access Control (MAC) (see ) help prevent unauthorized third-parties from accessing data while the operating system is active and the computer is powered up. However, the permissions enforced by the operating system are irrelevant if an attacker has physical access to a computer and can simply move the computer's hard drive to another system to copy and analyze the sensitive data. Regardless of how an attacker may have come into possession of a hard drive or powered-down computer, GEOM Based Disk Encryption (gbde) can protect the data on the computer's file systems against even highly-motivated attackers with significant resources. Unlike cumbersome encryption methods that encrypt only individual files, gbde transparently encrypts entire file systems. No cleartext ever touches the hard drive's platter. Enabling gbde in the Kernel Become <username>root</username> Configuring gbde requires super-user privileges. &prompt.user; su - Password: Verify the Operating System Version &man.gbde.4; requires FreeBSD 5.0 or higher. &prompt.root; uname -r 5.0-RELEASE Add &man.gbde.4; Support to the Kernel Configuration File Using your favorite text editor, add the following line to your kernel configuration file: options GEOM_BDE Configure, recompile, and install the FreeBSD kernel. This process is described in . Reboot into the new kernel. Preparing the Encrypted Hard Drive The following example assumes that you are adding a new hard drive to your system that will hold a single encrypted partition. This partition will be mounted as /private. gbde can also be used to encrypt /home and /var/mail, but this requires more complex instructions which exceed the scope of this introduction. Add the New Hard Drive Install the new drive to the system as explained in . For the purposes of this example, a new hard drive partition has been added as /dev/ad4s1c. The /dev/ad0s1* devices represent existing standard FreeBSD partitions on the example system. &prompt.root; ls /dev/ad* /dev/ad0 /dev/ad0s1b /dev/ad0s1e /dev/ad4s1 /dev/ad0s1 /dev/ad0s1c /dev/ad0s1f /dev/ad4s1c /dev/ad0s1a /dev/ad0s1d /dev/ad4 Create a Directory to Hold gbde Lock Files &prompt.root; mkdir /etc/gbde The gbde lock file contains information that gbde requires to access encrypted partitions. Without access to the lock file, gbde will not be able to decrypt the data contained in the encrypted partition without significant manual intervention which is not supported by the software. Each encrypted partition uses a separate lock file. Initialize the gbde Partition A gbde partition must be initialized before it can be used. This initialization needs to be performed only once: &prompt.root; gbde init /dev/ad4s1c -i -L /etc/gbde/ad4s1c &man.gbde.8; will open your editor, permitting you to set various configuration options in a template. For use with UFS1 or UFS2, set the sector_size to 2048: $FreeBSD: src/sbin/gbde/template.txt,v 1.1 2002/10/20 11:16:13 phk Exp $ # # Sector size is the smallest unit of data which can be read or written. # Making it too small decreases performance and decreases available space. # Making it too large may prevent filesystems from working. 512 is the # minimum and always safe. For UFS, use the fragment size # sector_size = 2048 [...] &man.gbde.8; will ask you twice to type the passphrase that should be used to secure the data. The passphrase must be the same both times. gbde's ability to protect your data depends entirely on the quality of the passphrase that you choose. For tips on how to select a secure passphrase that is easy to remember, see the Diceware Passphrase website. The gbde init command creates a lock file for your gbde partition that in this example is stored as /etc/gbde/ad4s1c. gbde lock files must be backed up together with the contents of any encrypted partitions. While deleting a lock file alone cannot prevent a determined attacker from decrypting a gbde partition, without the lock file, the legitimate owner will be unable to access the data on the encrypted partition without a significant amount of work that is totally unsupported by &man.gbde.8; and its designer. Attach the Encrypted Partition to the Kernel &prompt.root; gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you selected during the initialization of the encrypted partition. The new encrypted device will show up in /dev as /dev/device_name.bde: &prompt.root; ls /dev/ad* /dev/ad0 /dev/ad0s1b /dev/ad0s1e /dev/ad4s1 /dev/ad0s1 /dev/ad0s1c /dev/ad0s1f /dev/ad4s1c /dev/ad0s1a /dev/ad0s1d /dev/ad4 /dev/ad4s1c.bde Create a File System on the Encrypted Device Once the encrypted device has been attached to the kernel, you can create a file system on the device. To create a file system on the encrypted device, use &man.newfs.8;. Since it is much faster to initialize a new UFS2 file system than it is to initialize the old UFS1 file system, using &man.newfs.8; with the option is recommended. The option is the default with &os; 5.1-RELEASE and later. &prompt.root; newfs -U -O2 /dev/ad4s1c.bde The &man.newfs.8; command must be performed on an attached gbde partition which is identified by a *.bde extension to the device name. Mount the Encrypted Partition Create a mount point for the encrypted file system. &prompt.root; mkdir /private Mount the encrypted file system. &prompt.root; mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private Verify That the Encrypted File System is Available The encrypted file system should now be visible to &man.df.1; and be available for use. &prompt.user; df -H Filesystem Size Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/ad0s1a 1037M 72M 883M 8% / /devfs 1.0K 1.0K 0B 100% /dev /dev/ad0s1f 8.1G 55K 7.5G 0% /home /dev/ad0s1e 1037M 1.1M 953M 0% /tmp /dev/ad0s1d 6.1G 1.9G 3.7G 35% /usr /dev/ad4s1c.bde 150G 4.1K 138G 0% /private Mounting Existing Encrypted File Systems After each boot, any encrypted file systems must be re-attached to the kernel, checked for errors, and mounted, before the file systems can be used. The required commands must be executed as user root. Attach the gbde Partition to the Kernel &prompt.root; gbde attach /dev/ad4s1c -l /etc/gbde/ad4s1c You will be asked to provide the passphrase that you selected during initialization of the encrypted gbde partition. Check the File System for Errors Since encrypted file systems cannot yet be listed in /etc/fstab for automatic mounting, the file systems must be checked for errors by running &man.fsck.8; manually before mounting. &prompt.root; fsck -p -t ffs /dev/ad4s1c.bde Mount the Encrypted File System &prompt.root; mount /dev/ad4s1c.bde /private The encrypted file system is now available for use. Automatically Mounting Encrypted Partitions It is possible to create a script to automatically attach, check, and mount an encrypted partition, but for security reasons the script should not contain the &man.gbde.8; password. Instead, it is recommended that such scripts be run manually while providing the password via the console or &man.ssh.1;. Cryptographic Protections Employed by gbde &man.gbde.8; encrypts the sector payload using 128-bit AES in CBC mode. Each sector on the disk is encrypted with a different AES key. For more information on gbde's cryptographic design, including how the sector keys are derived from the user-supplied passphrase, see &man.gbde.4;. Compatibility Issues &man.sysinstall.8; is incompatible with gbde-encrypted devices. All *.bde devices must be detached from the kernel before starting &man.sysinstall.8; or it will crash during its initial probing for devices. To detach the encrypted device used in our example, use the following command: &prompt.root; gbde detach /dev/ad4s1c Also note that, as &man.vinum.4; does not use the &man.geom.4; subsystem, you cannot use gbde with vinum volumes. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml index 722dcc6389..cc90295aa6 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1554 +1,1554 @@ Jim Mock Updated and restructured by Jake Hamby Originally contributed by Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Synopsis kernel building a custom kernel The kernel is the core of the &os; operating system. It is responsible for managing memory, enforcing security controls, networking, disk access, and much more. While more and more of &os; becomes dynamically configurable it is still occasionally necessary to reconfigure and recompile your kernel. After reading this chapter, you will know: Why you might need to build a custom kernel. How to write a kernel configuration file, or alter an existing configuration file. How to use the kernel configuration file to create and build a new kernel. How to install the new kernel. How to create any entries in /dev that may be required. How to troubleshoot if things go wrong. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Traditionally, &os; has had what is called a monolithic kernel. This means that the kernel was one large program, supported a fixed list of devices, and if you wanted to change the kernel's behavior then you had to compile a new kernel, and then reboot your computer with the new kernel. Today, &os; is rapidly moving to a model where much of the kernel's functionality is contained in modules which can be dynamically loaded and unloaded from the kernel as necessary. This allows the kernel to adapt to new hardware suddenly becoming available (such as PCMCIA cards in a laptop), or for new functionality to be brought into the kernel that was not necessary when the kernel was originally compiled. This is known as a modular kernel. Colloquially these are called KLDs. Despite this, it is still necessary to carry out some static kernel configuration. In some cases this is because the functionality is so tied to the kernel that it can not be made dynamically loadable. In others it may simply be because no one has yet taken the time to write a dynamic loadable kernel module for that functionality yet. Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of - passage nearly every Unix user must endure. This process, while + passage nearly every &unix; user must endure. This process, while time consuming, will provide many benefits to your &os; system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a wide range of hardware, a custom kernel only contains support for your PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits, such as: Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the hardware you have on your system, the time it takes your system to boot will decrease dramatically. Less memory usage. A custom kernel often uses less memory than the GENERIC kernel, which is important because the kernel must always be present in real memory. For this reason, a custom kernel is especially useful on a system with a small amount of RAM. Additional hardware support. A custom kernel allows you to add in support for devices such as sound cards, which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Building and Installing a Custom Kernel kernel building / installing First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are arch/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and compile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. arch represents either i386, alpha, or pc98 (an alternative development branch of PC hardware, popular in Japan). Everything inside a particular architecture's directory deals with that architecture only; the rest of the code is common to all platforms to which &os; could potentially be ported. Notice the logical organization of the directory structure, with each supported device, file system, and option in its own subdirectory. &os; 5.X and up has support for sparc64, and a few other architectures under development. If there is not a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been installed. The easiest way to do this is by running /stand/sysinstall as root, choosing Configure, then Distributions, then src, then sys. If you have an aversion to sysinstall and you have access to an official &os; CDROM, then you can also install the source from the command line: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/src/sys &prompt.root; ln -s /usr/src/sys /sys &prompt.root; cat /cdrom/src/ssys.[a-d]* | tar -xzvf - Next, move to the arch/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple &os; machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. Storing your kernel config file directly under /usr/src can be a bad idea. If you are experiencing problems it can be tempting to just delete /usr/src and start again. Five seconds after you do that you realize that you have deleted your custom kernel config file. Do not edit GENERIC directly, as it may get overwritten the next time you update your source tree, and your kernel modifications will be lost. You might want to keep your kernel config file elsewhere, and then create a symbolic link to the file in the i386 directory. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; mkdir /root/kernels &prompt.root; cp GENERIC /root/kernels/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; ln -s /root/kernels/MYKERNEL You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get permission denied errors. Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the bibliography. However, &os; does offer an easier editor called ee which, if you are a beginner, should be your editor of choice. Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. SunOS - If you have built a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD + If you have built a kernel under &sunos; or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the Configuration File section slowly and carefully. Be sure to always check the file /usr/src/UPDATING, before you perform any update steps, in the case you sync your source tree with the latest sources of the &os; project. In this file all important issues with updating &os; are typed out. /usr/src/UPDATING always fits your version of the &os; source, and is therefore more accurate for new information than the handbook. You must now compile the source code for the kernel. There are two procedures you can use to do this, and the one you will use depends on why you are rebuilding the kernel, and the version of &os; you are running. If you have installed only the kernel source code, use procedure 1. If you are running a &os; version prior to 4.0, and you are not upgrading to &os; 4.0 or higher using the make world procedure, use procedure 1. If you are building a new kernel without updating the source code (perhaps just to add a new option, such as IPFIREWALL) you can use either procedure. If you are rebuilding the kernel as part of a make world process, use procedure 2. Procedure 1. Building a Kernel the <quote>Traditional</quote> Way Run &man.config.8; to generate the kernel source code. &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL Change into the build directory. This is printed out after running the aforementioned command. &prompt.root; cd ../compile/MYKERNEL For &os; version prior to 5.0, use instead: &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL Compile the kernel. &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make Install the new kernel. &prompt.root; make install Procedure 2. Building a Kernel the <quote>New</quote> Way Change to the /usr/src directory. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src Compile the kernel. &prompt.root; make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL Install the new kernel. &prompt.root; make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL In &os; 4.2 and older you must replace KERNCONF= with KERNEL=. 4.2-STABLE that was fetched before Feb 2nd, 2001 does not recognize KERNCONF=. cvsup anonymous CVS CTM CVS anonymous If you have not upgraded your source tree in any way (you have not run CVSup, CTM, or used anoncvs), then you should use the config, make depend, make, make install sequence. kernel.old The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old kernel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your new kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some troubleshooting instructions at the end of this chapter. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel does not boot. As of &os; 5.0, kernels are installed along with their modules in /boot/kernel, and old kernels will be backed up in /boot/kernel.old. Other files relating to the boot process, such as the boot &man.loader.8; and configuration are also stored in /boot. Third party or custom modules may be placed in /boot/modules, although users should be aware that keeping modules in sync with the compiled kernel is very important. Modules not intended to run with the compiled kernel may result in instability or incorrectness. If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) and you are running &os; 4.X or previous versions, you may have to add some device nodes to your /dev directory before you can use them. For more information, take a look at Making Device Nodes section later on in this chapter. The Configuration File kernel LINT LINT kernel config file The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. In &os; 5.X and above the LINT is non-existent. See the NOTES file for architecture dependent options. Some options, mainly architecture independent ones, are stored in the /usr/src/sys/conf/NOTES file. It's advisable to review the options in here also. kernel example config file The following is an example GENERIC kernel configuration file with various additional comments where needed for clarity. This example should match your copy in /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC fairly closely. For details of all the possible kernel options, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. # # GENERIC -- Generic kernel configuration file for &os;/i386 # # For more information on this file, please read the handbook section on # Kernel Configuration Files: # # http://www.&os;.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig-config.html # # The handbook is also available locally in /usr/share/doc/handbook # if you've installed the doc distribution, otherwise always see the # &os; World Wide Web server (http://www.FreeBSD.org/) for the # latest information. # # An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the # device lines is also present in the ../../conf/NOTES and NOTES files. # If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first # in NOTES. # # $FreeBSD: src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC,v 1.380 2003/03/29 13:36:41 mdodd Exp $ The following are the mandatory keywords required in every kernel you build: kernel options machine machine i386 This is the machine architecture. It must be either i386, pc98, sparc64, alpha, ia64, amd64, or powerpc. kernel options cpu cpu I486_CPU cpu I586_CPU cpu I686_CPU The above option specifies the type of CPU you have in your system. You may have multiple instances of the CPU line (i.e., you are not sure whether you should use I586_CPU or I686_CPU), however, for a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the CPU you have. If you are unsure of your CPU type, you can check the /var/run/dmesg.boot file to view your boot up messages. kernel options cpu type Support for I386_CPU is still provided in the source of &os;, but it is disabled by default in both -STABLE and -CURRENT. This means that to install &os; with a 386-class cpu, you now have the following options: Install an older &os; release and rebuild from source as described in . Build the userland and kernel on a newer machine and install on the 386 using the precompiled /usr/obj files (see for details). Roll your own release of FreeBSD which includes I386_CPU support in the kernels of the installation CD-ROM. The first of these options is probably the easiest of all, but you will need a lot of disk space on a 386-class machine which may be difficult to find. kernel options ident ident GENERIC This is the identification of the kernel. You should change this to whatever you named your kernel, i.e. MYKERNEL if you have followed the instructions of the previous examples. The value you put in the ident string will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give the new kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (i.e. you want to build an experimental kernel). kernel options maxusers maxusers n The maxusers option sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to have on your machine. Starting with &os; 4.5, the system will auto-tune this setting for you if you explicitly set it to 0 The auto-tuning algorithm sets maxuser equal to the amount of memory in the system, with a minimum of 32, and a maximum of 384.. In &os;-5.x, maxusers will default to 0 if not specified. If you are using an version of &os; earlier than 4.5, or you want to manage it yourself you will want to set maxusers to at least 4, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to 1, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a manual page will start up nine processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting maxusers to 64 will allow you to have up to 1044 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for nearly all uses. If, however, you see the dreaded proc table full error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like ftp.FreeBSD.org), you can always increase the number and rebuild. maxusers does not limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which does limit the number of simultaneous remote logins and X terminal windows is pseudo-device pty 16. # Floating point support - do not disable. device npx0 at nexus? port IO_NPX irq 13 npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in &os;, which is either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. This is not optional. # Pseudo devices - the number indicates how many units to allocate. pseudo-device loop # Network loopback This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to localhost (a.k.a., 127.0.0.1) it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. This is mandatory. Everything that follows is more or less optional. See the notes underneath or next to each option for more information. #To statically compile in device wiring instead of /boot/device.hints #hints "GENERIC.hints" #Default places to look for devices. In &os; 5.x and newer versions the &man.device.hints.5; is used to configure options of the device drivers. The default location that &man.loader.8; will check at boot time is /boot/device.hints. Using the hints option you can compile these hints statically into your kernel. Then there is no need to create a device.hints file in /boot. #makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols The normal build process of the &os; does not include debugging information when building the kernel and strips most symbols after the resulting kernel is linked, to save some space at the install location. If you are going to do tests of kernels in the -CURRENT branch or develop changes of your own for the &os; kernel, you might want to uncomment this line. It will enable the use of the option which enables debugging information when passed to &man.gcc.1;. The same can be accomplished by the &man.config.8; option, if you're using the old procedure of building your kernels (config; make depend; etc.). options MATH_EMULATE #Support for x87 emulation This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX (with a separate 387 or 487 chip), or - higher (Pentium, Pentium II, etc.), you can comment this line + higher (&pentium;, &pentium; II, etc.), you can comment this line out. The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with &os; are not very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accuracy, it is recommended that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATE to use the GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. In &os; 5.0, math emulation is disabled by default, as older CPUs that do not have native floating point math support are far less common, and in many cases not supported by the GENERIC kernel without other additional options. options INET #InterNETworking Networking support. Leave this in, even if you do not plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback networking (i.e., making network connections within your PC), so this is essentially mandatory. options INET6 #IPv6 communications protocols This enables the IPv6 communication protocols. options FFS #Berkeley Fast Filesystem options FFS_ROOT #FFS usable as root device [keep this!] This is the basic hard drive Filesystem. Leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. In &os; 5.0, FFS_ROOT is no longer required. options UFS_ACL #Support for access control lists This option, present only in &os; 5.0, enables kernel support for access control lists. This relies on the use of extended attributes and UFS2, and the feature is described in detail in the . ACLs are enabled by default, and should not be disabled in the kernel if they have been used previously on a file system, as this will remove the access control lists changing the way files are protected in unpredictable ways. options UFS_DIRHASH #Improve performance on big directories This option includes functionality to speed up disk operations on large directories, at the expense of using additional memory. You would normally keep this for a large server, or interactive workstation, and remove it if you are using &os; on a smaller system where memory is at a premium and disk access speed is less important, such as a firewall. options SOFTUPDATES #Enable FFS Soft Updates support This option enables Soft Updates in the kernel, this will help speed up write access on the disks. Even when this functionality is provided by the kernel, it must be turned on for specific disks. Review the output from &man.mount.8; to see if SoftUpdates is enabled for your system disks. If you do not see the soft-updates option then you will need to activate it using the &man.tunefs.8; (for existing filesystems) or &man.newfs.8; (for new filesystems) commands. options MFS #Memory Filesystem options MD_ROOT #MD is a potential root device This is the memory-mapped Filesystem. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab: /dev/ad1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 Now you simply need to either reboot, or run the command mount /tmp. In &os; 5.0, &man.md.4;-backed UFS file systems are used for memory file systems rather than MFS. Information on configuring MD-backed file systems may be found in the man pages for &man.mdconfig.8; and &man.mdmfs.8;. As a result, the MFS option is no longer supported. kernel options NFS kernel options NFS_ROOT options NFS #Network Filesystem options NFS_ROOT #NFS usable as root device, NFS required The network Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions - from a Unix file server over TCP/IP, you can comment these + from a &unix; file server over TCP/IP, you can comment these out. kernel options MSDOSFS options MSDOSFS #MSDOS Filesystem - The MS-DOS Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted + The &ms-dos; Filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options CD9660 #ISO 9660 Filesystem options CD9660_ROOT #CD-ROM usable as root, CD9660 required The ISO 9660 Filesystem for CDROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CDROM drive or only mount data CDs occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CDs do not need this Filesystem. options PROCFS #Process filesystem The process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like &man.ps.1; to give you more information on what processes are running. In &os; 5.0, use of PROCFS is not required under most circumstances, as most debugging and monitoring tools have been adapted to run without PROCFS. In addition, 5.0-CURRENT kernels making use of PROCFS must now also include support for PSEUDOFS: options PSEUDOFS #Pseudo-filesystem framework PSEUDOFS is not available in &os; 4.X. Unlike in &os; 4.X, new installs of &os; 5.0 will not mount the process file system by default. options COMPAT_43 #Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!] Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options COMPAT_FREEBSD4 #Compatible with &os;4 - This option is required on &os; 5.0 i386 and alpha systems + This option is required on &os; 5.0 &i386; and alpha systems to support applications compiled on older versions of &os; that use older system call interfaces. It is recommended that - this option be used on all i386 and alpha systems that may + this option be used on all &i386; and alpha systems that may run older applications; platforms that gained support only in - 5.0, such as ia64 and sparc64, do not require this option. + 5.0, such as ia64 and &sparc64;, do not require this option. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 #Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI This causes the kernel to pause for 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course, if you do this, and &os; has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. options UCONSOLE #Allow users to grab the console Allow users to grab the console, which is useful for X users. For example, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any &man.write.1;, &man.talk.1;, and any other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. In &os; 5.0, UCONSOLE is no longer required. options USERCONFIG #boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the configuration editor from the boot menu. options VISUAL_USERCONFIG #visual boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the visual configuration editor from the boot menu. From &os; versions 5.0 and later, the USERCONFIG options has been depreciated in favor of the new &man.device.hints.5; method. For more information on &man.device.hints.5; please visit . options KTRACE #ktrace(1) support This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in debugging. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use X, you will definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. The &man.ipcs.1; command will list any processes using each of these System V facilities. options P1003_1B #Posix P1003_1B real-time extensions options _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING - Real-time extensions added in the 1993 POSIX. Certain + Real-time extensions added in the 1993 &posix;. Certain applications in the ports collection use these (such as StarOffice). In &os; 5.0, all of this functionality is now provided by the _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING option, and P1003_1B is no longer required. kernel options ICMP_BANDLIM Denial of Service (DoS) options ICMP_BANDLIM #Rate limit bad replies This option enables ICMP error response bandwidth limiting. You typically want this option as it will help protect the machine from denial of service packet attacks. In &os; 5.0, this feature is enabled by default and the ICMP_BANDLIM option is not required. kernel options SMP # To make an SMP kernel, the next two are needed #options SMP # Symmetric MultiProcessor Kernel #options APIC_IO # Symmetric (APIC) I/O The above are both required for SMP support. device isa All PCs supported by &os; have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), &os; provides some limited support at this time. For more information about the MCA support, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. device eisa Include this if you have an EISA motherboard. This enables auto-detection and configuration support for all devices on the EISA bus. device pci Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to ISA bus. device agp Include this if you have an AGP card in the system. This will enable support for AGP, and AGP GART for boards which have these features. # Floppy drives device fdc0 at isa? port IO_FD1 irq 6 drq 2 device fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 device fd1 at fdc0 drive 1 This is the floppy drive controller. fd0 is the A: floppy drive, and fd1 is the B: drive. device ata This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices. You only need one device ata line for the kernel to detect all PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines. device atadisk # ATA disk drives This is needed along with device ata for ATA disk drives. device atapicd # ATAPI CDROM drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI CDROM drives. device atapifd # ATAPI floppy drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI floppy drives. device atapist # ATAPI tape drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI tape drives. options ATA_STATIC_ID #Static device numbering This makes the controller number static (like the old driver) or else the device numbers are dynamically allocated. # ATA and ATAPI devices device ata0 at isa? port IO_WD1 irq 14 device ata1 at isa? port IO_WD2 irq 15 Use the above for older, non-PCI systems. # SCSI Controllers device ahb # EISA AHA1742 family device ahc # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices device amd # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T)) device dpt # DPT Smartcache - See LINT for options! device isp # Qlogic family device ncr # NCR/Symbios Logic device sym # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets) device adv0 at isa? device adw device bt0 at isa? device aha0 at isa? device aic0 at isa? SCSI controllers. Comment out any you do not have in your system. If you have an IDE only system, you can remove these altogether. # SCSI peripherals device scbus # SCSI bus (required) device da # Direct Access (disks) device sa # Sequential Access (tape etc) device cd # CD device pass # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access) SCSI peripherals. Again, comment out any you do not have, or if you have only IDE hardware, you can remove them completely. # RAID controllers device ida # Compaq Smart RAID device amr # AMI MegaRAID device mlx # Mylex DAC960 family Supported RAID controllers. If you do not have any of these, you can comment them out or remove them. # atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse device atkbdc0 at isa? port IO_KBD The keyboard controller (atkbdc) provides I/O services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing devices. This controller is required by the keyboard driver (atkbd) and the PS/2 pointing device driver (psm). device atkbd0 at atkbdc? irq 1 The atkbd driver, together with atkbdc controller, provides access to the AT 84 keyboard or the AT enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT keyboard controller. device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12 Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. device vga0 at isa? The video card driver. # splash screen/screen saver pseudo-device splash Splash screen at start up! Screen savers require this too. # syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console device sc0 at isa? sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles a SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a terminal database library like termcap, it should not matter whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to scoansi if full-screen programs have trouble running under this console. # Enable this and PCVT_FREEBSD for pcvt vt220 compatible console driver #device vt0 at isa? #options XSERVER # support for X server on a vt console #options FAT_CURSOR # start with block cursor # If you have a ThinkPAD, uncomment this along with the rest of the PCVT lines #options PCVT_SCANSET=2 # IBM keyboards are non-std This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also set your TERM variable to vt100 or vt220 when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where termcap or terminfo entries for the sc0 device are often not available — vt100 should be available on virtually any platform. # Power management support (see LINT for more options) device apm0 at nexus? disable flags 0x20 # Advanced Power Management Advanced Power Management support. Useful for laptops. # PCCARD (PCMCIA) support device card device pcic0 at isa? irq 10 port 0x3e0 iomem 0xd0000 device pcic1 at isa? irq 11 port 0x3e2 iomem 0xd4000 disable PCMCIA support. You want this if you are using a laptop. # Serial (COM) ports device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? disable port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? disable port IO_COM4 irq 9 These are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 - in the MS-DOS/Windows world. + in the &ms-dos/&windows; world. If you have an internal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2, you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons, IRQ2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from &os;. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for &man.sio.4; for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses in the form of 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. # Parallel port device ppc0 at isa? irq 7 This is the ISA-bus parallel port interface. device ppbus # Parallel port bus (required) Provides support for the parallel port bus. device lpt # Printer Support for parallel port printers. All three of the above are required to enable parallel printer support. device plip # TCP/IP over parallel This is the driver for the parallel network interface. device ppi # Parallel port interface device The general-purpose I/O (geek port) + IEEE1284 I/O. #device vpo # Requires scbus and da zip drive This is for an Iomega Zip drive. It requires scbus and da support. Best performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode. # PCI Ethernet NICs. device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (Tulip) device fxp # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558) device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 EPIC) device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (Vortex) device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (Wiseman) Various PCI network card drivers. Comment out or remove any of these not present in your system. # PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code. device miibus # MII bus support MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 Ethernet NICs, namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or implement transceiver control interfaces that operate like an MII. Adding device miibus to the kernel config pulls in support for the generic miibus API and all of the PHY drivers, including a generic one for PHYs that are not specifically handled by an individual driver. device dc # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes device rl # RealTek 8129/8139 device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (Starfire) device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016 device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX) device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II device wb # Winbond W89C840F device xl # 3Com 3c90x (Boomerang, Cyclone) Drivers that use the MII bus controller code. # ISA Ethernet NICs. device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 device ex device ep # WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the WaveLAN/IEEE really # exists only as a PCMCIA device, so there is no ISA attachment needed # and resources will always be dynamically assigned by the pccard code. device wi # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the declaration below will # work for PCMCIA and PCI cards, as well as ISA cards set to ISA PnP # mode (the factory default). If you set the switches on your ISA # card for a manually chosen I/O address and IRQ, you must specify # those parameters here. device an # The probe order of these is presently determined by i386/isa/isa_compat.c. device ie0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 device fe0 at isa? port 0x300 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 device lnc0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 drq 0 device cs0 at isa? port 0x300 device sn0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 # requires PCCARD (PCMCIA) support to be activated #device xe0 at isa? ISA Ethernet drivers. See /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT for which cards are supported by which driver. pseudo-device ether # Ethernet support ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card. It includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl 1 # Kernel SLIP sl is for SLIP support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connection, and more powerful. The number after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. pseudo-device ppp 1 # Kernel PPP This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections. There is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland application that uses tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. The number after ppp specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun # Packet tunnel. This is used by the userland PPP software. A number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the PPP section of this book for more information. pseudo-device pty # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc) This is a pseudo-terminal or simulated login port. It is used by incoming telnet and rlogin sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as Emacs. A number after pty indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than the default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 256. pseudo-device md # Memory disks Memory disk pseudo-devices. pseudo-device gif or pseudo-device gif 4 # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6 tunneling. Beginning with &os; 4.4 the gif device is auto-cloning, and you should use the first example (without the number after gif). Earlier versions of &os; require the number. pseudo-device faith 1 # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation) This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon. # The `bpf' pseudo-device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter. # Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this! pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley packet filter This is the Berkeley Packet Filter. This pseudo-device allows network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g., an Ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and or examined with the &man.tcpdump.1; program. The bpf pseudo-device is also used by &man.dhclient.8; to obtain the IP address of the default router (gateway) and so on. If you use DHCP, leave this uncommented. # USB support #device uhci # UHCI PCI->USB interface #device ohci # OHCI PCI->USB interface #device usb # USB Bus (required) #device ugen # Generic #device uhid # Human Interface Devices #device ukbd # Keyboard #device ulpt # Printer #device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da #device ums # Mouse # USB Ethernet, requires mii #device aue # ADMtek USB ethernet #device cue # CATC USB ethernet #device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB ethernet Support for various USB devices. For more information and additional devices supported by &os;, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. Making Device Nodes device nodes MAKEDEV If you are running &os; 5.0 or later you can safely skip this section. These versions use &man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently for the user. Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding node entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create all of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: device acd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with acd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as c, or preceded by the letter r, which means a raw device. It turns out that those files are not there, so you must change to the /dev directory and type: MAKEDEV &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now acd0c and racd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the following command creates the appropriate entries: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See &man.fbtab.5; for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. If Something Goes Wrong There are five categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel. They are: config fails: If the &man.config.8; command fails when you give it your kernel description, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately, &man.config.8; will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error You can skip to the problem in vi by typing 17G in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. make fails: If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but not severe enough for &man.config.8; to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. Installing the new kernel fails: If the kernel compiled fine, but failed to install (the make install or make installkernel command failed), the first thing to check is if your system is running at securelevel 1 or higher (see &man.init.8;). The kernel installation tries to remove the immutable flag from your kernel and set the immutable flag on the new one. Since securelevel 1 or higher prevents unsetting the immutable flag for any files on the system, the kernel installation needs to be performed at securelevel 0 or lower. The kernel does not boot: If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, &os; has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply choose the kernel you want to boot from at the &os; boot loader. You can access this when the system counts down from 10. Hit any key except for the Enter key, type unload and then type boot kernel.old, or the filename of any other kernel that will boot properly. When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the &man.dmesg.8; command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on kernel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper kernel location or commands such as &man.ps.1; will not work properly. The proper command to unlock the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: &prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel If you find you cannot do this, you are probably running at a &man.securelevel.8; greater than zero. Edit kern_securelevel in /etc/rc.conf and set it to -1, then reboot. You can change it back to its previous setting when you are happy with your new kernel. And, if you want to lock your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: &prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel In &os; 5.0, kernels are not installed with the system immutable flag, so this is unlikely to be the source of the problem you're experiencing. The kernel works, but &man.ps.1; does not work any more: If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, a 4.X kernel on a 3.X system, many system-status commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating system. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml index d0c0c7342e..0c3f254859 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4891 +1,4891 @@ Sean Kelly Contributed by Jim Mock Restructured and updated by Printing Synopsis LPD spooling system printing FreeBSD can be used to print to a wide variety of printers, from the oldest impact printer to the latest laser printers, and everything in between, allowing you to produce high quality printed output from the applications you run. FreeBSD can also be configured to act as a print server on a network; in this capacity FreeBSD can receive print jobs from a variety - of other computers, including other FreeBSD computers, Windows and MacOS + of other computers, including other FreeBSD computers, &windows; and &macos; hosts. FreeBSD will ensure that one job at a time is printed, and can keep statistics on which users and machines are doing the most printing, produce banner pages showing who's printout is who's, and more. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to configure the FreeBSD print spooler. How to install print filters, to handle special print jobs differently, including converting incoming documents to print formats that your printers understand. How to enable header, or banner pages on your printout. How to print to printers connected to other computers. How to print to printers connected directly to the network. How to control printer restrictions, including limiting the size of print jobs, and preventing certain users from printing. How to keep printer statistics, and account for printer usage. How to troubleshoot printing problems. Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to configure and install a new kernel (). Introduction In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through its configuration. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system. LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. print jobs It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to a LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since: LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. &tex; LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a &tex; DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Basic Setup To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap). If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interfaces. Although this section is called Simple Printer Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup. Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: printers serial Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. printers parallel Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. centronics parallel printers Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports and printers can communicate in both directions under FreeBSD when a IEEE1284 compliant cable is used. PostScript Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with - the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript - printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are + the printer is if the printer speaks &postscript;. &postscript; + printers can be very verbose. In fact, &postscript; jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. - PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the - computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript + &postscript; also uses two-way communication to tell the + computer about problems, such as errors in the &postscript; program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective - accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way + accounting with a &postscript; printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/ppc0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/ppc1, and so on. The printer device name uses the same scheme: /dev/lpt0 for the printer on the first parallel ports etc. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. If you are unsure what the proper serial cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DCE cable. null-modem cable A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null-modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. baud rate parity flow control protocol You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type: &prompt.root; grep sioN /var/run/dmesg.boot Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: sio2 at port 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type: &prompt.root; grep ppcN /var/run/dmesg.boot Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: ppc0: <Parallel port> at port 0x378-0x37f irq 7 on isa0 ppc0: SMC-like chipset (ECP/EPP/PS2/NIBBLE) in COMPATIBLE mode ppc0: FIFO with 16/16/8 bytes threshold then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports FreeBSD 5.0 includes the devfs filesystem which automatically creates device nodes as needed. If you are running a version of FreeBSD with devfs enabled then you can safely skip this section. Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the &man.su.1; command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type: &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the printer on the first parallel port, lpt1 for the printer on the second port, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type: &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The generic printer device driver (&man.lpt.4;) on FreeBSD 4.X and 5.X uses the &man.ppbus.4; system, which controls the port chipset with the &man.ppc.4; driver. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is usually somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. Some newer HP printers are claimed not to work correctly in interrupt mode, apparently due to some (not yet exactly understood) timing problem. These printers need polled mode. You should use whichever one works. Some printers will work in both modes, but are painfully slow in interrupt mode. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the &man.lptcontrol.8; program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for an ppc0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use ppc1 instead. Use ppc2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, for FreeBSD 4.X add the irq specifier: device ppc0 at isa? irq N Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. For FreeBSD 5.X, edit the following line: hint.ppc.0.irq="N" in the /boot/device.hints file and replace N with the right IRQ number. The kernel configuration file must also contain the &man.ppc.4; driver: device ppc If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: For FreeBSD 4.X, use the following line in your kernel configuration file: device ppc0 at isa? For FreeBSD 5.X, simply remove in your /boot/device.hints file, the following line: hint.ppc.0.irq="N" In some cases, this is not enough to put the port in polled mode under FreeBSD 5.X. Most of time it comes from &man.acpi.4; driver, this latter is able to probe and attach devices, and therefore, control the access mode to the printer port. You should check your &man.acpi.4; configuration to correct this problem. Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details. To set the communications mode with &man.lptcontrol.8;: Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -d /dev/lptN to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -d /dev/lptN to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See &man.lptcontrol.8; for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program &man.lptest.1; is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. PostScript - For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we - will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript + For a &postscript; (or other language-based) printer, we + will need a more sophisticated test. A small &postscript; program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage - The above PostScript code can be placed into a file and + The above &postscript; code can be placed into a file and used as shown in the examples appearing in the following sections. PCL When this document refers to a printer language, it is - assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett + assuming a language like &postscript;, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. - PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the + &postscript; cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer printers parallel This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. - If the printer understands PostScript or other + If the printer understands &postscript; or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type: &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer printers serial This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity bits-per-second serial port parity Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with &man.tip.1;. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.user; $lptest - If the printer understands PostScript or other + If the printer understands &postscript; or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it - received the whole program. For PostScript + received the whole program. For &postscript; printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.user; >file Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After &man.tip.1; sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. Enabling the Spooler: the <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. printers capabilities The format of the &man.printcap.5; file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the &man.cgetent.3;. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming. header pages Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the ms# capability which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details. Test the setup by printing something with the &man.lpr.1; command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections. - Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, + Language-based printers, such as &postscript; printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an - automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) + automatic plain-text-to-&postscript; (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain - Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do + Text Jobs on &postscript; Printers tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number of aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers - (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript + (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 &postscript; laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages printing header pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory printer spool print jobs The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running &man.mkdir.1;. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters printers serial For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since: It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, 38400, 57600, or 115200 bits-per-second. ms#stty-mode Sets the options for the terminal device after opening the device. &man.stty.1; explains the available options. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it sets the characteristics of the device to those specified with the ms# capability. Of particular interest will be the parenb, parodd, cs5, cs6, cs7, cs8, cstopb, crtscts, and ixon modes, which are explained in the &man.stty.1; manual page. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the mode, we will set no parity with -parenb, 8-bit characters with cs8, no modem control with clocal and hardware flow control with crtscts: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts: Installing the Text Filter printing filters We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section. For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter. First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Turn on <application>LPD</application> &man.lpd.8; is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line: lpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run &man.lpd.8;. &prompt.root; lpd Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command &man.lpr.1;, which submits a job for printing. You can combine &man.lpr.1; with the &man.lptest.1; program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type &man.lpr.1; without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects - PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead + &postscript;, send a &postscript; program in that language instead of using &man.lptest.1;. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. - For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of + For a &postscript; printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using &man.lptest.1;, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running &man.lptest.1; with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters printing filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD Ports Collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by - default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other + default. This presents a problem for &postscript; (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating - Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you + Plain Text Jobs on &postscript; Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. You should read this - section if you have a PostScript printer. + section if you have a &postscript; printer. - PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even - some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But - PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on - Non-PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify - a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a - non-PostScript printer. You should read - this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. + &postscript; is a popular output format for many programs. Even + some people (myself included) write &postscript; code directly. But + &postscript; printers are expensive. Section Simulating &postscript; on + Non &postscript; Printers tells how you can further modify + a printer's text filter to accept and print &postscript; data on a + non &postscript; printer. You should read + this section if you do not have a &postscript; printer. Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print &tex; DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). troff Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the &man.lpr.1; command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job is submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. printing filters A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. - Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers + Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on &postscript; Printers print jobs - If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or + If you are the only user of your computer and &postscript; (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. - But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text + But, if you would like to send both &postscript; and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job - is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with + is plain text or &postscript;. All &postscript; jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, - we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If + we have &postscript;, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter - will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. + will convert the text into &postscript; and print the result. How do we do this? printers serial If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a - PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with + &postscript; printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with - lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses + lprps) to convert it to &postscript;. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial - PostScript printer's entry in + &postscript; printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. - If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot + If you have a parallel &postscript; printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # IFS="" read -r first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we - installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can - use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD Ports + installed separately to convert plain text to &postscript;. You can + use any text-to-&postscript; program you wish. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) - includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called + includes a full featured text-to-&postscript; program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. - Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers + Simulating &postscript; on Non &postscript; Printers PostScript emulating Ghostscript - PostScript is the de facto standard for - high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an + &postscript; is the de facto standard for + high quality typesetting and printing. &postscript; is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Aladdin - Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called + Enterprises has a free &postscript; work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. - Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their + Ghostscript can read most &postscript; files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your - non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. + non &postscript; printer act like a real &postscript; printer. Ghostscript is in the FreeBSD Ports Collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. - To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is - printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass + To simulate &postscript;, we have the text filter detect if it is + printing a &postscript; file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/ifhp # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # IFS="" read -r first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it. # # Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs, # and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will # mess up the printed output. So, we redirect stdout to stderr # and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript # write its output there. Exercise for the clever reader: # capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to # the user originating the print job. # exec 3>&1 1>&2 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \ -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form feed # at the end to eject the last page. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? &tex; printing dvi files Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the &tex; - typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time + typesetting system, and we have a &postscript; printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from &tex;, we cannot print it directly until - we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence + we convert the DVI file into &postscript;. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff tf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. FORTRAN Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that lpr -g mean print Printerleaf files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job - to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter + to print. It then starts the &postscript; printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain - Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments + Text Jobs on &postscript; Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data - from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named + from the groff typesetting system for the &postscript; printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD Ports Collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 Automated Conversion: an Alternative to Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the &man.lpr.1; command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. apsfilter printing filters apsfilter The FreeBSD Ports Collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can - detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper + detect plain text, &postscript;, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then: LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. page accounting accounting printer In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage. Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. banner pages header pages header pages Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print - plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an + plain text. If you have a &postscript; printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on - PostScript Printers. + &postscript; Printers. Enabling Header Pages In the Simple Printer Setup section, we turned off header pages by specifying sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See the Output Filters section for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see the Header Page Options section for more &man.lpr.1; options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can: Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. - Header Pages on PostScript Printers + Header Pages on &postscript; Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page - suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly + suitable for many printers. Of course, &postscript; cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a - simple PostScript header page: + simple &postscript; header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the - LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the + LPD-generated header page and produces a &postscript; version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send - the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. + the appropriate header page &postscript; code to the printer. - If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make + If you have a &postscript; printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing printers network network printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in the Simple Printer Setup section. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers). printers network network printing If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon:daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to - PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on + &postscript; (since bamboo is a &postscript; printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts. The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage printers restricting access to This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to &man.lpr.1; by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo is a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running &man.lpr.1; multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. Restricting Access to Printers - You can control who can print to what printers by using the Unix + You can control who can print to what printers by using the &unix; group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted print jobs If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. print jobs controlling LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since - those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them + those artists' &postscript; files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the &man.ruserok.3; protocol, and affects programs like &man.rsh.1; and &man.rcp.1;, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, the job will be refused. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:ms#-parenb cs8 clocal crtscts:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bamboo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your computer resources, you can give them token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage accounting printer So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters. Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and &man.pac.8;, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. An easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the &man.pac.8; program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments &man.pac.8; expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that &man.pac.8; produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, &man.pac.8; uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run &man.pac.8; with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run &man.pac.8; again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem is not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? - Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you + Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-&postscript; conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or - a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this + a network connection. Nearly all &postscript; printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Using Printers printers usage This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: &man.lpr.1; Print jobs &man.lpq.1; Check printer queues &man.lprm.1; Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, &man.lpc.8;, described in the section Administering the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands &man.lpr.1;, &man.lprm.1;, and &man.lpq.1; accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type: &prompt.user; lpr filename ... printing This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, &man.lpr.1; reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type: &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the &man.lpr.1; command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The &man.lpr.1; command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options. Checking Jobs print jobs When you print with &man.lpr.1;, the data you wish to print is put together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type &man.lpq.1;. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the &man.lpr.1; command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the &man.lpr.1; command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the file she is trying to print is too long to fit, so the &man.lpq.1; command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from &man.lpq.1; is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The &man.lpq.1; command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the &man.lprm.1; command. Often, you can even use &man.lprm.1; to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use &man.lpq.1; to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The &man.lprm.1; command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, &man.lprm.1; removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, &man.lprm.1; will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The &man.lpr.1; command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following &man.lpr.1; options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the &man.pr.1; utility. &tex; For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the &tex; typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with &man.pr.1; before printing. See &man.pr.1; for more information. Use title on the &man.pr.1; header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the &man.ls.1; manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The &man.zcat.1; command uncompresses the source of the &man.ls.1; manual page and passes it to the &man.troff.1; command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to &man.lpr.1;, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to &man.lpr.1;, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to &man.lpr.1; tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies. This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to &man.lpr.1; adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details. Administering Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the &man.lpc.8; command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With &man.lpc.8;, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the &man.lpc.8; command. Ordinary users can use the &man.lpc.8; command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the &man.lpc.8; commands. Most of the commands take a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue is enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer is running, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with &man.lpq.1; or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. &man.lpc.8; accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, &man.lpc.8; enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: What other spooling systems are out there (and work with FreeBSD)? LPRng LPRng LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is . Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with &man.lptest.1;, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 MS-DOS OS/2 ASCII You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of - what characters should indicate a new line. Unix-style + what characters should indicate a new line. &unix; style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the - line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of + line feed (LF). &ms-dos;, &os2;, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code - 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS + 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the &ms-dos; convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, use the ms# capability and set the onlcr mode in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. PCL Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Ejects the page when done. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the ixon mode in the ms# capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the crtscts mode in the ms# capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity setting in the ms# capability; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index ca5612eaea..a7f5dc9f70 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4558 +1,4558 @@ Matthew Dillon Much of this chapter has been taken from the security(7) manual page by Security security Synopsis This chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics under FreeBSD. A lot of the topics covered here can be applied to system and Internet security in general as well. The Internet is no longer a friendly place in which everyone wants to be your kind neighbor. Securing your system is imperative to protect your data, intellectual property, time, and much more from the hands of hackers and the like. FreeBSD provides an array of utilities and mechanisms to ensure the integrity and security of your system and network. After reading this chapter, you will know: Basic system security concepts, in respect to FreeBSD. About the various crypt mechanisms available in FreeBSD, such as DES and MD5. How to set up one-time password authentication. How to set up Kerberos, another alternative authentication system. How to create firewalls using IPFW. How to configure IPsec and create a VPN between - FreeBSD/Windows machines. + FreeBSD/&windows; machines. How to configure and use OpenSSH, FreeBSD's SSH implementation. How to configure and load access control extension modules using the TrustedBSD MAC Framework. What file system ACLs are and how to use them. Before reading this chapter, you should: Understand basic FreeBSD and Internet concepts. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system - administrator. While all BSD Unix multi-user systems have some + administrator. While all BSD &unix; multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns - are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. Unix + are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. &unix; systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an even bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interfere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents an attacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the attacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash, or otherwise make a system unusable, but do not attempt to compromise the root account (break root). Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. DoS attacks Denial of Service (DoS) security DoS attacks Denial of Service (DoS) Denial of Service (DoS) A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, DoS attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some DoS attacks try to take advantage of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop, short of cutting your system off from the Internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can saturate your Internet connection. security account compromises A user account compromise is even more common than a DoS attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more than mess with the user's files, or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. security backdoors System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in a suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install a backdoor. Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the attacker to cleanup after himself, so most attackers install backdoors. A backdoor provides the attacker with a way to easily regain root access to the system, but it also gives the smart system administrator a convenient way to detect the intrusion. Making it impossible for an attacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security, because it will not close off the hole the attacker found to break in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. Securing FreeBSD security securing FreeBSD Command vs. Protocol Throughout this document, we will use bold text to refer to a command or application. This is used for instances such as ssh, since it is a protocol as well as command. The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the <username>root</username> Account and Staff Accounts su First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being insecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. You can do this by editing your /etc/ssh/sshd_config file, and making sure that PermitRootLogin is set to NO. Consider every access method – services such as FTP often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. wheel Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as Kerberos, to use Kerberos' .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better than having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure staff accounts, and ultimately root access is to use an alternative login access method and do what is known as starring out the encrypted password for the staff accounts. Using the &man.vipw.8; command, one can replace each instance of an encrypted password with a single * character. This command will update the /etc/master.passwd file and user/password database to disable password-authenticated logins. A staff account entry such as: foobar:R9DT/Fa1/LV9U:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh Should be changed to this: foobar:*:1000:1000::0:0:Foo Bar:/home/foobar:/usr/local/bin/tcsh This change will prevent normal logins from occurring, since the encrypted password will never match *. With this done, staff members must use another mechanism to authenticate themselves such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a public/private key pair. When using something like Kerberos, one generally must secure the machines which run the Kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When using a public/private key pair with ssh, one must generally secure the machine used to login from (typically one's workstation). An additional layer of protection can be added to the key pair by password protecting the key pair when creating it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to star out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have set up. This forces all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions, which closes an important hole used by many intruders: sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider, but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. Kerberos Using something like Kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place, and have it immediately effect all the machines on which the staff member may have an account. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with Kerberos: not only can a Kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the Kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries ntalk comsat finger sandboxes sshd telnetd rshd rlogind The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox is not perfect, unless you go through a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. /etc/defaults/rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run named in a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. sendmail There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work than you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root holes in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe than sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries, that only staff should run, to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary, the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the encrypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and star out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control, then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and Kerberos for user accounts is more problematic, due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or Kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the encrypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see the Checking file integrity section below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems do not have the need for the bpf device compiled in. sysctl But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have /dev/mem and /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device, or other sniffing device, on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files – everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too Draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive, because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker, rather than stop him, in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential attackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh key-pairs to allow the limited-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method – allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub, or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limited-access box, at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found, relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather than NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh client on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over insecure links, but it is also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space, it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. You should probably scan them anyway, at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which might help as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files, and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features, as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective attacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks Denial of Service (DoS) This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DoS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DoS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory, until the machine dies. inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down, it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option, which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter, when you start sendmail, high enough to handle your expected load, but not so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want real-time delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., firewall everything except ports A, B, C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other Internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way – as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good chance that you will forget to close a couple of services, or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall, to allow permissive-like operation, without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding, via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. For example, you might use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block off everything under 4000 in your firewall (except for certain specific Internet-accessible ports, of course). ICMP_BANDLIM Another common DoS attack is called a springboard attack – to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which overloads the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less than rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the Internet via a T3 or better, it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH ssh Kerberos There are a few issues with both Kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol, but there are bugs in the kerberized telnet and rlogin applications that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default Kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an insecure machine, your keys are usable. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login, and if an attacker has broken root on the insecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with Kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with Kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via Kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that Kerberos is unsuited to do). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only usable to entities logging in from specific machines. Bill Swingle Parts rewritten and updated by DES, MD5, and Crypt security crypt crypt DES MD5 - Every user on a Unix system has a password associated with + Every user on a &unix; system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when - Unix came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption + &unix; came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This was not such a problem for users resident in the US, but since the source code for DES could not be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with - US law and retain compatibility with all the other Unix + US law and retain compatibility with all the other &unix; variants that still used DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing Your Crypt Mechanism Before FreeBSD 4.4 libcrypt.a was a symbolic link pointing to the library which was used for encryption. FreeBSD 4.4 changed libcrypt.a to provide a configurable password authentication hash library. Currently the library supports DES, MD5 and Blowfish hash functions. By default FreeBSD uses MD5 to encrypt passwords. It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. Passwords starting with $2$ are encrypted with the Blowfish hash function. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The password format used for new passwords is controlled by the passwd_format login capability in /etc/login.conf, which takes values of des, md5 or blf. See the &man.login.conf.5; manual page for more information about login capabilities. One-time Passwords one-time passwords security one-time passwords S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. From version 5.0 of FreeBSD, S/Key has been replaced with the functionally equivalent OPIE (One-time Passwords In Everything). OPIE uses the MD5 hash by default. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will discuss - below. The first is your usual Unix-style or - Kerberos password; we will call this a Unix password. + below. The first is your usual &unix; style or + Kerberos password; we will call this a &unix; password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program or the OPIE &man.opiekey.1; program and accepted by the keyinit or &man.opiepasswd.1; programs and the login prompt; we will call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key/opiekey programs (and sometimes the keyinit/opiepasswd programs) which it uses to generate one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password or just unqualified password. - The secret password does not have anything to do with your Unix + The secret password does not have anything to do with your &unix; password; they can be the same but this is not recommended. S/Key and OPIE secret passwords are not limited to 8 characters like old - Unix passwordsUnder &os; the standard login + &unix; passwordsUnder &os; the standard login password may be up to 128 characters in length., they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the - S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the Unix + S/Key or OPIE system operates completely independently of the &unix; password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key and OPIE. One is what is known as the seed or key, consisting of two letters and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration count, a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4/MD5 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The authentication system (primarily PAM) keeps track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a successfully used password is captured; the iteration count is decremented after each successful login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1, S/Key and OPIE must be reinitialized. There are three programs involved in each system which we will discuss below. The key and opiekey programs accept an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generate a one-time password or a consecutive list of one-time passwords. The keyinit and opiepasswd programs are used to initialize S/Key and OPIE respectively, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; they take either a secret passphrase, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo and opieinfo programs examine the relevant credentials files (/etc/skeykeys or /etc/opiekeys) and print out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using keyinit or opiepasswd over a secure connection to set up one-time-passwords for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using keyinit or opiepasswd over an insecure connection, in conjunction with key or opiekey over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using key/opiekey to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using key or opiekey to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure Connection Initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT For OPIE, opiepasswd is used instead: &prompt.user; opiepasswd -c [grimreaper] ~ $ opiepasswd -f -c Adding unfurl: Only use this method from the console; NEVER from remote. If you are using telnet, xterm, or a dial-in, type ^C now or exit with no password. Then run opiepasswd without the -c parameter. Using MD5 to compute responses. Enter new secret pass phrase: Again new secret pass phrase: ID unfurl OTP key is 499 to4268 MOS MALL GOAT ARM AVID COED At the Enter new secret pass phrase: or Enter secret password: prompts, you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular instance: your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure Connection Initialization To initialize or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run key or opiekey; this might be in the form of a - desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you + desk accessory on a &macintosh;, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 English words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE For OPIE, you need to use opiepasswd: &prompt.user; opiepasswd Updating unfurl: You need the response from an OTP generator. Old secret pass phrase: otp-md5 498 to4268 ext Response: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT New secret pass phrase: otp-md5 499 to4269 Response: LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY ID mark OTP key is 499 gr4269 LINE PAP MILK NELL BUOY TROY To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press Return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated over to the relevant program. Generating a Single One-time Password Once you have initialized S/Key or OPIE, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> otp-md5 498 gr4269 ext Password: As a side note, the S/Key and OPIE prompts have a useful feature (not shown here): if you press Return at the password prompt, the prompter will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in a password by hand, such as from a printout. MS-DOS Windows MacOS At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run key or opiekey on. (There are versions of these for DOS, - Windows and MacOS as well.) They need both the iteration count and + &windows; and &macos; as well.) They need both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG For OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey 498 to4268 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: GAME GAG WELT OUT DOWN CHAT Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... Generating Multiple One-time Passwords Sometimes you have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key and opiekey commands to generate a number of one-time passwords beforehand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK Or for OPIE: &prompt.user; opiekey -n 5 30 zz99999 Using the MD5 algorithm to compute response. Reminder: Don't use opiekey from telnet or dial-in sessions. Enter secret pass phrase: <secret password> 26: JOAN BORE FOSS DES NAY QUIT 27: LATE BIAS SLAY FOLK MUCH TRIG 28: SALT TIN ANTI LOON NEAL USE 29: RIO ODIN GO BYE FURY TIC 30: GREW JIVE SAN GIRD BOIL PHI The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. - Restricting Use of Unix Passwords + Restricting Use of &unix; Passwords - S/Key can place restrictions on the use of Unix passwords based + S/Key can place restrictions on the use of &unix; passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more information on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the default on FreeBSD 4.X systems), then all users will - be allowed to use Unix passwords. If the file exists, however, + be allowed to use &unix; passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the - skey.access file. In all cases, Unix + skey.access file. In all cases, &unix; passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample skey.access configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) - matches the specified value and mask, to use Unix passwords. This + matches the specified value and mask, to use &unix; passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use - Unix passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only + &unix; passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all - users logging in on the specified terminal line to use Unix + users logging in on the specified terminal line to use &unix; passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. - OPIE can restrict the use of Unix passwords based on the IP + OPIE can restrict the use of &unix; passwords based on the IP address of a login session just like S/Key does. The relevant file is /etc/opieaccess, which is present by default on FreeBSD 5.0 and newer systems. Please check &man.opieaccess.5; for more information on this file and which security considerations you should be aware of when using it. Here is a sample opieaccess file: permit 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 This line allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, - to use Unix passwords at any time. + to use &unix; passwords at any time. If no rules in opieaccess are matched, the default is to deny non-OPIE logins. Mark Murray Contributed by Mark Dapoz Based on a contribution by Kerberos Kerberos Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. Installing Kerberos MIT Kerberos installing Kerberos is an optional component of FreeBSD. The easiest way to install this software is by selecting the krb4 or krb5 distribution in sysinstall during the initial installation of FreeBSD. This will install the eBones (KerberosIV) or Heimdal (Kerberos5) implementation of Kerberos. These implementations are included because they are developed outside the USA/Canada and were thus available to system owners outside those countries during the era of restrictive export controls on cryptographic code from the USA. Alternatively, the MIT implementation of Kerberos is available from the ports collection as security/krb5. Creating the Initial Database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, or if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be EXAMPLE.COM and the server is grunt.example.com. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf EXAMPLE.COM EXAMPLE.COM grunt.example.com admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a key distribution center. The words admin server following a host's name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos manual pages. Now we have to add grunt.example.com to the EXAMPLE.COM realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .example.com domain in the EXAMPLE.COM realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.example.com EXAMPLE.COM .example.com EXAMPLE.COM .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Center). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: EXAMPLE.COM You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this: &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making It All Run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd. These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like &man.rcp.1;, &man.rlogin.1; and &man.rsh.1;. Now let us add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the Server File We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the servers can pick it up. Use the &man.mv.1; command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the Database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let us create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing It All Out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. Note that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automatically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: EXAMPLE.COM &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the ID jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@EXAMPLE.COM Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM Now try changing the password using &man.passwd.1; to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm EXAMPLE.COM Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> Privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate &man.su.1; password. We could now add an ID which is authorized to &man.su.1; to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Now try doing the &man.su.1;: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.EXAMPLE.COM@EXAMPLE.COM Using Other Commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to &man.su.1; to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@EXAMPLE.COM Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@EXAMPLE.COM jack@EXAMPLE.COM This allows anyone in the EXAMPLE.COM realm who has authenticated themselves as jane or jack (via kinit, see above) to access to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via &man.rlogin.1;, &man.rsh.1; or &man.rcp.1;. For example, jane now logs into another system using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Password: &prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or jack logs into jane's account on the same machine (jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance): &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.example.com) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Gary Palmer Contributed by Alex Nash Firewalls firewall security firewalls Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly set up firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What Is a Firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router. This type of firewall utilizes a multi-homed machine and a set of rules to determine whether to forward or block individual packets. A multi-homed machine is simply a device with multiple network interfaces. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this section. Packet Filtering Routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router is programmed to compare each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software includes packet filtering functionality that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the firewall looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of the packet's headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule chain. The packet-matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy Servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers, as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password expires immediately after the first use. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers. Most will also allow the administrator to specify which users can talk to which destination machines. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What Does IPFW Allow Me to Do? ipfw IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section performs packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which tracks usage of the router, based on rules similar to those used in the firewall section. This allows the administrator to monitor how much traffic the router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW traffic it is forwarding, for example. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD ipfw enabling As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See "Reconfiguring your Kernel" () for more details on how to recompile your kernel. IPFW defaults to a policy of deny ip from any to any. If you do not add other rules during startup to allow access, you will lock yourself out of the server upon rebooting into a firewall-enabled kernel. We suggest that you set firewall_type=open in your /etc/rc.conf file when first enabling this feature, then refining the firewall rules in /etc/rc.firewall after you have tested that the new kernel feature works properly. To be on the safe side, you may wish to consider performing the initial firewall configuration from the local console rather than via ssh. Another option is to build a kernel using both the IPFIREWALL and IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT options. This will change the default rule of IPFW to allow ip from any to any and avoid the possibility of a lockout. There are currently four kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. options IPFIREWALL_DEFAULT_TO_ACCEPT This changes the default rule action from deny to allow. This avoids the possibility of locking yourself out if you happen to boot a kernel with IPFIREWALL support but have not configured your firewall yet. It is also very useful if you often use &man.ipfw.8; as a filter for specific problems as they arise. Use with care though, as this opens up the firewall and changes the way it works. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW ipfw configuring The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW Rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it is used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass, permit, and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The keyword any may be used to specify any IP address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (time stamp). The absence of a particular option may be specified with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW Rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -c -d -e -t -N -S list There are seven valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -c List rules in compact form. -d Show dynamic rules in addition to static rules. -e If was specified, also show expired dynamic rules. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. -S Show the set each rule belongs to. If this flag is not specified, disabled rules will not be listed. Flushing the IPFW Rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules; the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW Packet Counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example Commands for <application>ipfw</application> This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a Packet Filtering Firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and we cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, it is strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, be aware that it can generate large amounts of log data. One log entry will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large FTP/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd will also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated manual page explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is, is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you will have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at As stated above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. We cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. IPFW Overhead and Optimization Many people want to know how much overhead IPFW adds to a system. The answer to this depends mostly on your rule set and processor speed. For most applications dealing with Ethernet and small rule sets, the answer is negligible. For those of you that need actual measurements to satisfy your curiosity, read on. The following measurements were made using 2.2.5-STABLE on a 486-66. (While IPFW has changed slightly in later releases of FreeBSD, it still performs with similar speed.) IPFW was modified to measure the time spent within the ip_fw_chk routine, displaying the results to the console every 1000 packets. Two rule sets, each with 1000 rules, were tested. The first set was designed to demonstrate a worst case scenario by repeating the rule: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to any 55555 This demonstrates a worst case scenario by causing most of IPFW's packet check routine to be executed before finally deciding that the packet does not match the rule (by virtue of the port number). Following the 999th iteration of this rule was an allow ip from any to any. The second set of rules were designed to abort the rule check quickly: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny ip from 1.2.3.4 to 1.2.3.4 The non-matching source IP address for the above rule causes these rules to be skipped very quickly. As before, the 1000th rule was an allow ip from any to any. The per-packet processing overhead in the former case was approximately 2.703 ms/packet, or roughly 2.7 microseconds per rule. Thus the theoretical packet processing limit with these rules is around 370 packets per second. Assuming 10 Mbps Ethernet and a ~1500 byte packet size, we would only be able to achieve 55.5% bandwidth utilization. For the latter case each packet was processed in approximately 1.172 ms, or roughly 1.2 microseconds per rule. The theoretical packet processing limit here would be about 853 packets per second, which could consume 10 Mbps Ethernet bandwidth. The excessive number of rules tested and the nature of those rules do not provide a real-world scenario -- they were used only to generate the timing information presented here. Here are a few things to keep in mind when building an efficient rule set: Place an established rule early on to handle the majority of TCP traffic. Do not put any allow tcp statements before this rule. Place heavily triggered rules earlier in the rule set than those rarely used (without changing the permissiveness of the firewall, of course). You can see which rules are used most often by examining the packet counting statistics with ipfw -a l. OpenSSL security OpenSSL OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, one of the algorithms (specifically IDEA) included in OpenSSL is protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and is not available for unrestricted use. IDEA is included in the OpenSSL sources in FreeBSD, but it is not built by default. If you wish to use it, and you comply with the license terms, enable the MAKE_IDEA switch in /etc/make.conf and rebuild your sources using make world. Today, the RSA algorithm is free for use in USA and other countries. In the past it was protected by a patent. OpenSSL install Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-secure CVSup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. Nik Clayton
nik@FreeBSD.org
 Written by VPN over IPsec Creating a VPN between two networks, separated by the Internet, using FreeBSD gateways. Hiten M. Pandya
hmp@FreeBSD.org
 Written by Understanding IPsec This section will guide you through the process of setting up IPsec, and to use it in an environment which consists of - FreeBSD and Microsoft Windows 2000/XP + FreeBSD and µsoft.windows; 2000/XP machines, to make them communicate securely. In order to set up IPsec, it is necessary that you are familiar with the concepts of building a custom kernel (see ). IPsec is a protocol which sits on top of the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. It allows two or more hosts to communicate in a secure manner (hence the name). The FreeBSD IPsec network stack is based on the KAME implementation, which has support for both protocol families, IPv4 and IPv6. FreeBSD 5.0 contains a hardware accelerated IPsec stack, known as Fast IPsec, that was obtained from OpenBSD. It employs cryptographic hardware (whenever possible) via the &man.crypto.4; subsystem to optimize the performance of IPsec. This subsystem is new, and does not support all the features that are available in the KAME version of IPsec. However, in order to enable hardware-accelerated IPsec, the following kernel option has to be added to your kernel configuration file: options FAST_IPSEC # new IPsec (cannot define w/ IPSEC) Note, that it is not currently possible to use the Fast IPsec subsystem in lue with the KAME implementation of IPsec. Consult the &man.fast.ipsec.4; manual page for more information. IPsec consists of two sub-protocols: Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP), protects the IP packet data from third party interference, by encrypting the contents using symmetric cryptography algorithms (like Blowfish, 3DES). Authentication Header (AH), protects the IP packet header from third party interference and spoofing, by computing a cryptographic checksum and hashing the IP packet header fields with a secure hashing function. This is then followed by an additional header that contains the hash, to allow the information in the packet to be authenticated. ESP and AH can either be used together or seperately, depending on the environment. IPsec can either be used to directly encrypt the traffic between two hosts (known as Transport Mode); or to build virtual tunnels between two subnets, which could be used for secure communication between two corporate networks (known as Tunnel Mode). The latter is more commonly known as a Virtual Private Network (VPN). The &man.ipsec.4; manual page should be consulted for detailed information on the IPsec subsystem in FreeBSD. To add IPsec support to your kernel, add the following options to your kernel configuration file: options IPSEC #IP security options IPSEC_ESP #IP security (crypto; define w/ IPSEC) If IPsec debugging support is desired, the following kernel option should also be added: options IPSEC_DEBUG #debug for IP security The Problem There's no standard for what constitutes a VPN. VPNs can be implemented using a number of different technologies, each of which have their own strengths and weaknesses. This article presents a number of scenarios, and strategies for implementing a VPN for each scenario. Scenario #1: Two networks, connected to the Internet, to behave as one This is the scenario that caused me to first investigating VPNs. The premise is as follows: You have at least two sites Both sites are using IP internally Both sites are connected to the Internet, through a gateway that is running FreeBSD. The gateway on each network has at least one public IP address. The internal addresses of the two networks can be public or private IP addresses, it doesn't matter. You can be running NAT on the gateway machine if necessary. The internal IP addresses of the two networks do not collide. While I expect it is theoretically possible to use a combination of VPN technology and NAT to get this to work, I expect it to be a configuration nightmare. If you find that you are trying to connect two networks, both of which, internally, use the same private IP address range (e.g., both of them use 192.168.1.x), then one of the networks will have to be renumbered. The network topology might look something like this: Network #1 [ Internal Hosts ] Private Net, 192.168.1.2-254 [ Win9x/NT/2K ] - [ Unix ] + [ UNIX ] | | .---[fxp1]---. Private IP, 192.168.1.1 | FreeBSD | `---[fxp0]---' Public IP, A.B.C.D | | -=-=- Internet -=-=- | | .---[fxp0]---. Public IP, W.X.Y.Z | FreeBSD | `---[fxp1]---' Private IP, 192.168.2.1 | | Network #2 [ Internal Hosts ] [ Win9x/NT/2K ] Private Net, 192.168.2.2-254 - [ Unix ] + [ UNIX ] Notice the two public IP addresses. I'll use the letters to refer to them in the rest of this article. Anywhere you see those letters in this article, replace them with your own public IP addresses. Note also that that internally, the two gateway machines have .1 IP addresses, and that the two networks have different private IP address (192.168.1.x and 192.168.2.x respectively). All the machines on the private networks have been configured to use the .1 machine as their default gateway. The intention is that, from a network point of view, each network should view the machines on the other network as though they were directly attached the same router -- albeit a slightly slow router with an occasional tendency to drop packets. This means that (for example), machine 192.168.1.20 should be able to run ping 192.168.2.34 - and have it work, transparently. Windows machines should + and have it work, transparently. &windows; machines should be able to see the machines on the other network, browse file shares, and so on, in exactly the same way that they can browse machines on the local network. And the whole thing has to be secure. This means that traffic between the two networks has to be encrypted. Creating a VPN between these two networks is a multi-step process. The stages are as follows: Create a virtual network link between the two networks, across the Internet. Test it, using tools like &man.ping.8;, to make sure it works. Apply security policies to ensure that traffic between the two networks is transparently encrypted and decrypted as necessary. Test this, using tools like &man.tcpdump.1;, to ensure that traffic is encrypted. Configure additional software on the FreeBSD gateways, - to allow Windows machines to see one another across the + to allow &windows; machines to see one another across the VPN. Step 1: Creating and testing a <quote>virtual</quote> network link Suppose that you were logged in to the gateway machine on network #1 (with public IP address A.B.C.D, private IP address 192.168.1.1), and you ran ping 192.168.2.1, which is the private address of the machine with IP address W.X.Y.Z. What needs to happen in order for this to work? The gateway machine needs to know how to reach 192.168.2.1. In other words, it needs to have a route to 192.168.2.1. Private IP addresses, such as those in the 192.168.x range are not supposed to appear on the Internet at large. Instead, each packet you send to 192.168.2.1 will need to be wrapped up inside another packet. This packet will need to appear to be from A.B.C.D, and it will have to be sent to W.X.Y.Z. This process is called encapsulation. Once this packet arrives at W.X.Y.Z it will need to unencapsulated, and delivered to 192.168.2.1. You can think of this as requiring a tunnel between the two networks. The two tunnel mouths are the IP addresses A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z, and the tunnel must be told the addresses of the private IP addresses that will be allowed to pass through it. The tunnel is used to transfer traffic with private IP addresses across the public Internet. This tunnel is created by using the generic interface, or gif devices on FreeBSD. As you can imagine, the gif interface on each gateway host must be configured with four IP addresses; two for the public IP addresses, and two for the private IP addresses. Support for the gif device must be compiled in to the FreeBSD kernel on both machines. You can do this by adding the line: pseudo-device gif to the kernel configuration files on both machines, and then compile, install, and reboot as normal. Configuring the tunnel is a two step process. First the tunnel must be told what the outside (or public) IP addresses are, using &man.gifconfig.8;. Then the private IP addresses must be configured using &man.ifconfig.8;. On the gateway machine on network #1 you would run the following two commands to configure the tunnel. gifconfig gif0 A.B.C.D W.X.Y.Z ifconfig gif0 inet 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff On the other gateway machine you run the same commands, but with the order of the IP addresses reversed. gifconfig gif0 W.X.Y.Z A.B.C.D ifconfig gif0 inet 192.168.2.1 192.168.1.1 netmask 0xffffffff You can then run: gifconfig gif0 to see the configuration. For example, on the network #1 gateway, you would see this: &prompt.root; gifconfig gif0 gif0: flags=8011<UP,POINTTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1280 inet 192.168.1.1 --> 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff physical address inet A.B.C.D --> W.X.Y.Z As you can see, a tunnel has been created between the physical addresses A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z, and the traffic allowed through the tunnel is that between 192.168.1.1 and 192.168.2.1. This will also have added an entry to the routing table on both machines, which you can examine with the command netstat -rn. This output is from the gateway host on network #1. &prompt.root; netstat -rn Routing tables Internet: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire ... 192.168.2.1 192.168.1.1 UH 0 0 gif0 ... As the Flags value indicates, this is a host route, which means that each gateway knows how to reach the other gateway, but they do not know how to reach the rest of their respective networks. That problem will be fixed shortly. It is likely that you are running a firewall on both machines. This will need to be circumvented for your VPN traffic. You might want to allow all traffic between both networks, or you might want to include firewall rules that protect both ends of the VPN from one another. It greatly simplifies testing if you configure the firewall to allow all traffic through the VPN. You can always tighten things up later. If you are using &man.ipfw.8; on the gateway machines then a command like ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any via gif0 will allow all traffic between the two end points of the VPN, without affecting your other firewall rules. Obviously you will need to run this command on both gateway hosts. This is sufficient to allow each gateway machine to ping the other. On 192.168.1.1, you should be able to run ping 192.168.2.1 and get a response, and you should be able to do the same thing on the other gateway machine. However, you will not be able to reach internal machines on either network yet. This is because of the routing -- although the gateway machines know how to reach one another, they do not know how to reach the network behind each one. To solve this problem you must add a static route on each gateway machine. The command to do this on the first gateway would be: route add 192.168.2.0 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffff00 This says In order to reach the hosts on the network 192.168.2.0, send the packets to the host 192.168.2.1. You will need to run a similar command on the other gateway, but with the 192.168.1.x addresses instead. IP traffic from hosts on one network will now be able to reach hosts on the other network. That has now created two thirds of a VPN between the two networks, in as much as it's virtual and it's a network. It's not private yet. You can test this using &man.ping.8; and &man.tcpdump.1;. Log in to the gateway host and run tcpdump dst host 192.168.2.1 In another log in session on the same host run ping 192.168.2.1 You will see output that looks something like this. 16:10:24.018080 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request 16:10:24.018109 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply 16:10:25.018814 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request 16:10:25.018847 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply 16:10:26.028896 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo request 16:10:26.029112 192.168.1.1 > 192.168.2.1: icmp: echo reply As you can see, the ICMP messages are going back and forth unencrypted. If you had used the parameter to &man.tcpdump.1; to grab more bytes of data from the packets you would see more information. Obviously this is unacceptable. The next section will discuss securing the link between the two networks so that it all traffic is automatically encrypted. Summary: Configure both kernels with pseudo-device gif Edit /etc/rc.conf on gateway host #1 and add the following lines (replacing IP addresses as necessary). gifconfig_gif0="A.B.C.D W.X.Y.Z" ifconfig_gif0="inet 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffffff" static_routes="vpn" route_vpn="192.168.2.0 192.168.2.1 netmask 0xffffff00" Edit your firewall script (/etc/rc.firewall, or similar) on both hosts, and add ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any via gif0 Make similar changes to /etc/rc.conf on gateway host #2, reversing the order of IP addresses. Step 2: Securing the link To secure the link we will be using IPsec. IPsec provides a mechanism for two hosts to agree on an encryption key, and to then use this key in order to encrypt data between the two hosts. The are two areas of configuration to be considered here. There must be a mechanism for two hosts to agree on the encryption mechanism to use. Once two hosts have agreed on this mechanism there is said to be a security association between them. There must be a mechanism for specifying which traffic should be encrypted. Obviously, you don't want to encrypt all your outgoing traffic -- you only want to encrypt the traffic that is part of the VPN. The rules that you put in place to determine what traffic will be encrypted are called security policies. Security associations and security policies are both maintained by the kernel, and can be modified by userland programs. However, before you can do this you must configure the kernel to support IPsec and the Encapsulated Security Payload (ESP) protocol. This is done by configuring a kernel with: options IPSEC options IPSEC_ESP and recompiling, reinstalling, and rebooting. As before you will need to do this to the kernels on both of the gateway hosts. You have two choices when it comes to setting up security associations. You can configure them by hand between two hosts, which entails choosing the encryption algorithm, encryption keys, and so forth, or you can use daemons that implement the Internet Key Exchange protocol (IKE) to do this for you. I recommend the latter. Apart from anything else, it's easier to set up. Editing and displaying security policies is carried out using &man.setkey.8;. By analogy, setkey is to the kernel's security policy tables as &man.route.8; is to the kernel's routing tables. setkey can also display the current security associations, and to continue the analogy further, is akin to netstat -r in that respect. There are a number of choices for daemons to manage security associations with FreeBSD. This article will describe how to use one of these, racoon. racoon is in the FreeBSD ports collection, in the security/ category, and is installed in the usual way. racoon must be run on both gateway hosts. On each host it is configured with the IP address of the other end of the VPN, and a secret key (which you choose, and must be the same on both gateways). The two daemons then contact one another, confirm that they are who they say they are (by using the secret key that you configured). The daemons then generate a new secret key, and use this to encrypt the traffic over the VPN. They periodically change this secret, so that even if an attacker were to crack one of the keys (which is as theoretically close to unfeasible as it gets) it won't do them much good -- by the time they've cracked the key the two daemons have chosen another one. racoon's configuration is stored in ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon. You should find a configuration file there, which should not need to be changed too much. The other component of racoon's configuration, which you will need to change, is the pre-shared key. The default racoon configuration expects to find this in the file ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon/psk.txt. It is important to note that the pre-shared key is not the key that will be used to encrypt your traffic across the VPN link, it is simply a token that allows the key management daemons to trust one another. psk.txt contains a line for each remote site you are dealing with. In this example, where there are two sites, each psk.txt file will contain one line (because each end of the VPN is only dealing with one other end). On gateway host #1 this line should look like this: W.X.Y.Z secret That is, the public IP address of the remote end, whitespace, and a text string that provides the secret. Obviously, you shouldn't use secret as your key -- the normal rules for choosing a password apply. On gateway host #2 the line would look like this A.B.C.D secret That is, the public IP address of the remote end, and the same secret key. psk.txt must be mode 0600 (i.e., only read/write to root) before racoon will run. You must run racoon on both gateway machines. You will also need to add some firewall rules to allow the IKE traffic, which is carried over UDP to the isakmp (kmp == key management protocol) port. Again, this should be fairly early in your firewall ruleset. ipfw add 1 allow udp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z isakmp ipfw add 1 allow udp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D isakmp Once racoon is running you can try pinging one gateway host from the other. The connection is still not encrypted, but racoon will then set up the security associations between the two hosts -- this might take a moment, and you may see this as a short delay before the ping commands start responding. Once the security association has been set up you can view it using &man.setkey.8;. Run setkey -D on either host to view the security association information. That's one half of the problem. They other half is setting your security policies. To create a sensible security policy, let's review what's been set up so far. This discussions hold for both ends of the link. Each IP packet that you send out has a header that contains data about the packet. The header includes the IP addresses of both the source and destination. As we already know, private IP addresses, such as the 192.168.x.y range are not supposed to appear on the public Internet. Instead, they must first be encapsulated inside another packet. This packet must have the public source and destination IP addresses substituted for the private addresses. So if your outgoing packet started looking like this: .----------------------. | Src: 192.168.1.1 | | Dst: 192.168.2.1 | | <other header info> | +----------------------+ | <packet data> | `----------------------' Then it will be encapsulated inside another packet, looking something like this: .--------------------------. | Src: A.B.C.D | | Dst: W.X.Y.Z | | <other header info> | +--------------------------+ | .----------------------. | | | Src: 192.168.1.1 | | | | Dst: 192.168.2.1 | | | | <other header info> | | | +----------------------+ | | | <packet data> | | | `----------------------' | `--------------------------' This encapsulation is carried out by the gif device. As you can see, the packet now has real IP addresses on the outside, and our original packet has been wrapped up as data inside the packet that will be put out on the Internet. Obviously, we want all traffic between the VPNs to be encrypted. You might try putting this in to words, as: If a packet leaves from A.B.C.D, and it is destined for W.X.Y.Z, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations. If a packet arrives from W.X.Y.Z, and it is destined for A.B.C.D, then decrypt it, using the necessary security associations. That's close, but not quite right. If you did this, all traffic to and from W.X.Y.Z, even traffic that was not part of the VPN, would be encrypted. That's not quite what you want. The correct policy is as follows If a packet leaves from A.B.C.D, and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined for W.X.Y.Z, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations. If a packet arrives from W.X.Y.Z, and that packet is encapsulating another packet, and it is destined for A.B.C.D, then encrypt it, using the necessary security associations. A subtle change, but a necessary one. Security policies are also set using &man.setkey.8;. &man.setkey.8; features a configuration language for defining the policy. You can either enter configuration instructions via stdin, or you can use the option to specify a filename that contains configuration instructions. The configuration on gateway host #1 (which has the public IP address A.B.C.D) to force all outbound traffic to W.X.Y.Z to be encrypted is: spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; Put these commands in a file (e.g., /etc/ipsec.conf) and then run &prompt.root; setkey -f /etc/ipsec.conf tells &man.setkey.8; that we want to add a rule to the secure policy database. The rest of this line specifies which packets will match this policy. A.B.C.D/32 and W.X.Y.Z/32 are the IP addresses and netmasks that identify the network or hosts that this policy will apply to. In this case, we want it to apply to traffic between these two hosts. tells the kernel that this policy should only apply to packets that encapsulate other packets. says that this policy applies to outgoing packets, and says that the packet will be secured. The second line specifies how this packet will be encrypted. is the protocol that will be used, while indicates that the packet will be further encapsulated in an IPsec packet. The repeated use of A.B.C.D and W.X.Y.Z is used to select the security association to use, and the final mandates that packets must be encrypted if they match this rule. This rule only matches outgoing packets. You will need a similar rule to match incoming packets. spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; Note the instead of in this case, and the necessary reversal of the IP addresses. The other gateway host (which has the public IP address W.X.Y.Z) will need similar rules. spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; Finally, you need to add firewall rules to allow ESP and IPENCAP packets back and forth. These rules will need to be added to both hosts. ipfw add 1 allow esp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow esp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D Because the rules are symmetric you can use the same rules on each gateway host. Outgoing packets will now look something like this: .------------------------------. --------------------------. | Src: A.B.C.D | | | Dst: W.X.Y.Z | | | <other header info> | | Encrypted +------------------------------+ | packet. | .--------------------------. | -------------. | contents | | Src: A.B.C.D | | | | are | | Dst: W.X.Y.Z | | | | completely | | <other header info> | | | |- secure | +--------------------------+ | | Encap'd | from third | | .----------------------. | | -. | packet | party | | | Src: 192.168.1.1 | | | | Original |- with real | snooping | | | Dst: 192.168.2.1 | | | | packet, | IP addr | | | | <other header info> | | | |- private | | | | +----------------------+ | | | IP addr | | | | | <packet data> | | | | | | | | `----------------------' | | -' | | | `--------------------------' | -------------' | `------------------------------' --------------------------' When they are received by the far end of the VPN they will first be decrypted (using the security associations that have been negotiated by racoon). Then they will enter the gif interface, which will unwrap the second layer, until you are left with the innermost packet, which can then travel in to the inner network. You can check the security using the same &man.ping.8; test from earlier. First, log in to the A.B.C.D gateway machine, and run: tcpdump dst host 192.168.2.1 In another log in session on the same host run ping 192.168.2.1 This time you should see output like the following: XXX tcpdump output Now, as you can see, &man.tcpdump.1; shows the ESP packets. If you try and examine them with the option you will see (apparently) gibberish, because of the encryption. Congratulations. You have just set up a VPN between two remote sites. Summary Configure both kernels with: options IPSEC options IPSEC_ESP Install security/racoon. Edit ${PREFIX}/etc/racoon/psk.txt on both gateway hosts, adding an entry for the remote host's IP address and a secret key that they both know. Make sure this file is mode 0600. Add the following lines to /etc/rc.conf on each host: ipsec_enable="YES" ipsec_file="/etc/ipsec.conf" Create an /etc/ipsec.conf on each host that contains the necessary spdadd lines. On gateway host #1 this would be: spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; On gateway host #2 this would be: spdadd W.X.Y.Z/32 A.B.C.D/32 ipencap -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/W.X.Y.Z-A.B.C.D/require; spdadd A.B.C.D/32 W.X.Y.Z/32 ipencap -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/A.B.C.D-W.X.Y.Z/require; Add firewall rules to allow IKE, ESP, and IPENCAP traffic to both hosts: ipfw add 1 allow udp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z isakmp ipfw add 1 allow udp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D isakmp ipfw add 1 allow esp from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow esp from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from A.B.C.D to W.X.Y.Z ipfw add 1 allow ipencap from W.X.Y.Z to A.B.C.D The previous two steps should suffice to get the VPN up and running. Machines on each network will be able to refer to one another using IP addresses, and all traffic across the link will be automatically and securely encrypted. Chern Lee Contributed by OpenSSH OpenSSH security OpenSSH OpenSSH is a set of network connectivity tools used to access remote machines securely. It can be used as a direct replacement for rlogin, rsh, rcp, and telnet. Additionally, any other TCP/IP connections can be tunneled/forwarded securely through SSH. OpenSSH encrypts all traffic to effectively eliminate eavesdropping, connection hijacking, and other network-level attacks. OpenSSH is maintained by the OpenBSD project, and is based upon SSH v1.2.12 with all the recent bug fixes and updates. It is compatible with both SSH protocols 1 and 2. OpenSSH has been in the base system since FreeBSD 4.0. Advantages of Using OpenSSH Normally, when using &man.telnet.1; or &man.rlogin.1;, data is sent over the network in an clear, un-encrypted form. Network sniffers anywhere in between the client and server can steal your user/password information or data transferred in your session. OpenSSH offers a variety of authentication and encryption methods to prevent this from happening. Enabling sshd OpenSSH enabling Be sure to make the following addition to your rc.conf file: sshd_enable="YES" This will load &man.sshd.8;, the daemon program for OpenSSH, the next time your system initializes. Alternatively, you can simply run directly the sshd daemon by typing sshd on the command line. SSH Client OpenSSH client The &man.ssh.1; utility works similarly to &man.rlogin.1;. &prompt.root; ssh user@example.com Host key not found from the list of known hosts. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes Host 'example.com' added to the list of known hosts. user@example.com's password: ******* The login will continue just as it would have if a session was created using rlogin or telnet. SSH utilizes a key fingerprint system for verifying the authenticity of the server when the client connects. The user is prompted to enter yes only when connecting for the first time. Future attempts to login are all verified against the saved fingerprint key. The SSH client will alert you if the saved fingerprint differs from the received fingerprint on future login attempts. The fingerprints are saved in ~/.ssh/known_hosts, or ~/.ssh/known_hosts2 for SSH v2 fingerprints. By default, OpenSSH servers are configured to accept both SSH v1 and SSH v2 connections. The client, however, can choose between the two. Version 2 is known to be more robust and secure than its predecessor. The &man.ssh.1; command can be forced to use either protocol by passing it the or argument for v1 and v2, respectively. Secure Copy OpenSSH secure copy scp The &man.scp.1; command works similarly to &man.rcp.1;; it copies a file to or from a remote machine, except in a secure fashion. &prompt.root; scp user@example.com:/COPYRIGHT COPYRIGHT user@example.com's password: ******* COPYRIGHT 100% |*****************************| 4735 00:00 &prompt.root; Since the fingerprint was already saved for this host in the previous example, it is verified when using &man.scp.1; here. The arguments passed to &man.scp.1; are similar to &man.cp.1;, with the file or files in the first argument, and the destination in the second. Since the file is fetched over the network, through SSH, one or more of the file arguments takes on the form . Configuration OpenSSH configuration The system-wide configuration files for both the OpenSSH daemon and client reside within the /etc/ssh directory. ssh_config configures the client settings, while sshd_config configures the daemon. Additionally, the (/usr/sbin/sshd by default), and rc.conf options can provide more levels of configuration. ssh-keygen Instead of using passwords, &man.ssh-keygen.1; can be used to generate RSA keys to authenticate a user: &prompt.user; ssh-keygen -t rsa1 Initializing random number generator... Generating p: .++ (distance 66) Generating q: ..............................++ (distance 498) Computing the keys... Key generation complete. Enter file in which to save the key (/home/user/.ssh/identity): Enter passphrase: Enter the same passphrase again: Your identification has been saved in /home/user/.ssh/identity. ... &man.ssh-keygen.1; will create a public and private key pair for use in authentication. The private key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity, whereas the public key is stored in ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The public key must be placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys of the remote machine in order for the setup to work. This will allow connection to the remote machine based upon RSA authentication instead of passwords. The option will create RSA keys for use by SSH protocol version 1. If you want to use RSA keys with the SSH protocol version 2, you have to use the command . If a passphrase is used in &man.ssh-keygen.1;, the user will be prompted for a password each time in order to use the private key. A SSH protocol version 2 DSA key can be created for the same purpose by using the ssh-keygen -t dsa command. This will create a public/private DSA key for use in SSH protocol version 2 sessions only. The public key is stored in ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub, while the private key is in ~/.ssh/id_dsa. DSA public keys are also placed in ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the remote machine. &man.ssh-agent.1; and &man.ssh-add.1; are utilities used in managing multiple passworded private keys. The various options and files can be different according to the OpenSSH version you have on your system, to avoid problems you should consult the &man.ssh-keygen.1; manual page. SSH Tunneling OpenSSH tunneling OpenSSH has the ability to create a tunnel to encapsulate another protocol in an encrypted session. The following command tells &man.ssh.1; to create a tunnel for telnet: &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5023:localhost:23 user@foo.example.com &prompt.user; The ssh command is used with the following options: Forces ssh to use version 2 of the protocol. (Do not use if you are working with older SSH servers) Indicates no command, or tunnel only. If omitted, ssh would initiate a normal session. Forces ssh to run in the background. Indicates a local tunnel in localport:remotehost:remoteport fashion. The remote SSH server. An SSH tunnel works by creating a listen socket on localhost on the specified port. It then forwards any connection received on the local host/port via the SSH connection to the specified remote host and port. In the example, port 5023 on localhost is being forwarded to port 23 on localhost of the remote machine. Since 23 is telnet, this would create a secure telnet session through an SSH tunnel. This can be used to wrap any number of insecure TCP protocols such as SMTP, POP3, FTP, etc. Using SSH to Create a Secure Tunnel for SMTP &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 5025:localhost:25 user@mailserver.example.com user@mailserver.example.com's password: ***** &prompt.user; telnet localhost 5025 Trying 127.0.0.1... Connected to localhost. Escape character is '^]'. 220 mailserver.example.com ESMTP This can be used in conjunction with an &man.ssh-keygen.1; and additional user accounts to create a more seamless/hassle-free SSH tunneling environment. Keys can be used in place of typing a password, and the tunnels can be run as a separate user. Practical SSH Tunneling Examples Secure Access of a POP3 Server At work, there is an SSH server that accepts connections from the outside. On the same office network resides a mail server running a POP3 server. The network, or network path between your home and office may or may not be completely trustable. Because of this, you need to check your e-mail in a secure manner. The solution is to create an SSH connection to your office's SSH server, and tunnel through to the mail server. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 2110:mail.example.com:110 user@ssh-server.example.com user@ssh-server.example.com's password: ****** When the tunnel is up and running, you can point your mail client to send POP3 requests to localhost port 2110. A connection here will be forwarded securely across the tunnel to mail.example.com. Bypassing a Draconian Firewall Some network administrators impose extremely draconian firewall rules, filtering not only incoming connections, but outgoing connections. You may be only given access to contact remote machines on ports 22 and 80 for SSH and web surfing. You may wish to access another (perhaps non-work related) service, such as an Ogg Vorbis server to stream music. If this Ogg Vorbis server is streaming on some other port than 22 or 80, you will not be able to access it. The solution is to create an SSH connection to a machine outside of your network's firewall, and use it to tunnel to the Ogg Vorbis server. &prompt.user; ssh -2 -N -f -L 8888:music.example.com:8000 user@unfirewalled-system.example.org user@unfirewalled-system.example.org's password: ******* Your streaming client can now be pointed to localhost port 8888, which will be forwarded over to music.example.com port 8000, successfully evading the firewall. Further Reading OpenSSH &man.ssh.1; &man.scp.1; &man.ssh-keygen.1; &man.ssh-agent.1; &man.ssh-add.1; &man.sshd.8; &man.sftp-server.8; Robert Watson Sponsored by DARPA and Network Associates Laboratories. Contributed by MAC Mandatory Access Control (MAC) FreeBSD 5.0 includes a new kernel security framework, the TrustedBSD MAC Framework. The MAC Framework permits compile-time, boot-time, and run-time extension of the kernel access control policy, and can be used to load support for Mandatory Access Control (MAC), and custom security modules such as hardening modules. The MAC Framework is currently considered to be an experimental feature, and should not yet be used in production environments without careful consideration. It is anticipated that the MAC Framework will be appropriate for more widespread production use by FreeBSD 5.2. When configured into a kernel, the MAC Framework permits security modules to augment the existing kernel access control model, restricting access to system services and objects. For example, the &man.mac.bsdextended.4; module augments file system access control, permitting administrators to provide a firewall-like ruleset constraining access to file system objects based on user ids and group membership. Some modules require little or no configuration, such as &man.mac.seeotheruids.4, whereas others perform ubiquitous object labeling, such as &man.mac.biba.4; and &man.mac.mls.4;, and require extensive configuration. To enable the MAC Framework in your system kernel, you must add the following entry to your kernel configuration: options MAC Security policy modules shipped with the base system may be loaded using &man.kldload.8; or in the boot &man.loader.8; They may also be compiled directly into the kernel using the following options, if the use of modules is not desired. Different MAC policies may be configured in different ways; frequently, MAC policy modules export configuration parameters using the &man.sysctl.8; MIB using the security.mac namespace. Policies relying on file system or other labels may require a configuration step that involves assigning initial labels to system objects or creating a policy configuration file. For information on how to configure and use each policy module, see its man page. A variety of tools are available to configure the MAC Framework and labels maintained by various policies. Extensions have been made to the login and credential management mechanisms (&man.setusercontext.3;) to support initial user labeling using &man.login.conf.5;. In addition, modifications have been made to &man.su.1;, &man.ps.1;, &man.ls.1;, and &man.ifconfig.8; to inspect and set labels on processes, files, and interfaces. In addition, several new tools have been added to manage labels on objects, including &man.getfmac.8;, &man.setfmac.8;, and &man.setfsmac.8; to manage labels on files, and &man.getpmac.8; and &man.setpmac.8;. What follows is a list of policy modules shipped with FreeBSD 5.0. Biba Integrity Policy (mac_biba) Biba Integrity Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_biba.ko Kernel option: MAC_BIBA TCB The Biba Integrity Policy (&man.mac.biba.4;) provides for hierarchical and non-hierarchical labeling of all system objects with integrity data, and the strict enforcement of an information flow policy to prevent corruption of high integrity subjects and data by low-integrity subjects. Integrity is enforced by preventing high integrity subjects (generally processes) from reading low integrity objects (often files), and preventing low integrity subjects from writing to high integrity objects. This security policy is frequently used in commercial trusted systems to provide strong protection for the Trusted Code Base (TCB). Because it provides ubiquitous labeling, the Biba integrity policy must be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. File System Firewall Policy (mac_bsdextended) File System Firewall Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_bsdextended.ko Kernel option: MAC_BSDEXTENDED The File System Firewall Policy (&man.mac.bsdextended.4;) provides an extension to the BSD file system permission model, permitting the administrator to define a set of firewall-like rules for limiting access to file system objects owned by other users and groups. Managed using &man.ugidfw.8;, rules may limit access to files and directories based on the uid and gids of the process attempting the access, and the owner and group of the target of the access attempt. All rules are restrictive, so they may be placed in any order. This policy requires no prior configuration or labeling, and may be appropriate in multi-user environments where mandatory limits on inter-user data exchange are required. Caution should be exercised in limiting access to files owned by the super-user or other system user ids, as many useful programs and directories are owned by these users. As with a network firewall, improper application of file system firewall rules may render the system unusable. New tools to manage the rule set may be easily written using the &man.libugidfw.3; library. Interface Silencing Policy (mac_ifoff) Interface Silencing Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_ifoff.ko Kernel option: MAC_IFOFF The interface silencing policy (&man.mac.ifoff.4;) prohibits the use of network interfaces during the boot until explicitly enabled, preventing spurious stack output stack response to incoming packets. This is appropriate for use in environments where the monitoring of packets is required, but no traffic may be generated. Low-Watermark Mandatory Access Control (LOMAC) (mac_lomac) MAC Low-Watermark LOMAC Vendor: Network Associates Laboratories Module name: mac_lomac.ko Kernel option: MAC_LOMAC Similar to the Biba Integrity Policy, the LOMAC policy (&man.mac.lomac.4;) relies on the ubiquitous labeling of all system objects with integrity labels. Unlike Biba, LOMAC permits high integrity subjects to read from low integrity objects, but then downgrades the label on the subject to prevent future writes to high integrity objects. This policy may provide for greater compatibility, as well as require less initial configuration than Biba. However, as with Biba, it ubiquitously labels objects and must therefore be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. Multi-Level Security Policy (MLS) (mac_mls) Multi-Level Security Policy MAC Multi-Level Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_mls.ko Kernel option: MAC_MLS Multi-Level Security (MLS) (&man.mac.mls.4;) provides for hierarchical and non-hierarchical labeling of all system objects with sensitivity data, and the strict enforcement of an information flow policy to prevent the leakage of confidential data to untrusted parties. The logical conjugate of the Biba Integrity Policy, MLS is frequently shipped in commercial trusted operating systems to protect data secrecy in multi-user environments. Hierarchal labels provide support for the notion of clearances and classifications in traditional parlance; non-hierarchical labels provide support for need-to-know. As with Biba, ubiquitous labeling of objects occurs, and it must therefore be compiled into the kernel or loaded at boot. As with Biba, extensive initial configuration may be required. MAC Stub Policy (mac_none) MAC Stub Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_none.ko Kernel option: MAC_NONE The None policy (&man.mac.none.4;) provides a stub sample policy for developers, implementing all entry points, but not changing the system access control policy. Running this on a production system would not be highly beneficial. Process Partition Policy (mac_partition) Process Partition Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_partition.ko Kernel option: MAC_PARTITION The Partition policy (&man.mac.partition.4;) provides for a simple process visibility limitation, assigning labels to processes identifying what numeric system partition they are present in. If none, all other processes are visible using standard monitoring tools; if a partition identifier is present, then only other processes in the same partition are visible. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time. See Other Uids Policy (mac_seeotheruids) See Other Uids Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_seeotheruids.ko Kernel option: MAC_SEEOTHERUIDS The See Other Uids policy (&man.mac.seeotheruids.4;) implements a similar process visibility model to mac_partition, except that it relies on process credentials to control visibility of processes, rather than partition labels. This policy may be configured to exempt certain users and groups, including permitting system operators to view all processes without special privilege. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time. MAC Framework Test Policy (mac_test) MAC Framework Test Policy Vendor: TrustedBSD Project Module name: mac_test.ko Kernel option: MAC_TEST The Test policy (&man.mac.test.4;) provides a regression test environment for the MAC Framework, and will cause a fail-stop in the event that internal MAC Framework assertions about proper data labeling fail. This module can be used to detect failures to properly label system objects in the kernel implementation. This policy may be compiled into the kernel, loaded at boot, or loaded at run-time. Tom Rhodes Contributed by ACL File System Access Control Lists In conjunction with file system enhancements like snapshots, FreeBSD 5.0 and later offers the security of File System Access Control Lists (ACLs). - Access Control Lists extend the standard UNIX - permission model in a highly compatible (POSIX.1e) way. This feature + Access Control Lists extend the standard &unix; + permission model in a highly compatible (&posix;.1e) way. This feature permits an administrator to make use of and take advantage of a more sophisticated security model. To enable ACL support for UFS file systems, the following: options UFS_ACL must be compiled into the kernel. If this option has not been compiled in, a warning message will be displayed when attempting to mount a file system supporting ACLs. This option is included in the GENERIC kernel. ACLs rely on extended attributes being enabled on the file system. Extended attributes are natively supported in the next generation - UNIX file system, UFS2. + &unix; file system, UFS2. A higher level of administrative overhead is required to configure extended attributes on UFS1 than on UFS2. The performance of extended attributes on UFS2 is also substantially higher. As a result, UFS2 is generally recommended in preference to UFS1 for use with access control lists. ACLs are enabled by the mount-time administrative flag, , which may be added to /etc/fstab. The mount-time flag can also be automatically set in a persistent manner using &man.tunefs.8; to modify a superblock ACLs flag in the file system header. In general, it is preferred to use the superblock flag for several reasons: The mount-time ACLs flag cannot be changed by a remount (&man.mount.8; ), only by means of a complete &man.umount.8; and fresh &man.mount.8;. This means that ACLs cannot be enabled on the root file system after boot. It also means that you cannot change the disposition of a file system once it is in use. Setting the superblock flag will cause the file system to always be mounted with ACLs enabled even if there is not an fstab entry or if the devices re-order. This prevents accidental mounting of the file system without ACLs enabled, which can result in ACLs being improperly enforced, and hence security problems. We may change the ACLs behavior to allow the flag to be enabled without a complete fresh &man.mount.8;, but we consider it desirable to discourage accidental mounting without ACLs enabled, because you can shoot your feet quite nastily if you enable ACLs, then disable them, then re-enable them without flushing the extended attributes. In general, once you have enabled ACLs on a file system, they should not be disabled, as the resulting file protections may not be compatible with those intended by the users of the system, and re-enabling ACLs may re-attach the previous ACLs to files that have since had their permissions changed, resulting in other unpredictable behavior. File systems with ACLs enabled will show a + (plus) sign in their permission settings when viewed. For example: drwx------ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 27 11:54 private drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 23 10:57 directory1 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 22 10:20 directory2 drwxrwx---+ 2 robert robert 512 Dec 27 11:57 directory3 drwxr-xr-x 2 robert robert 512 Nov 10 11:54 public_html Here we see that the directory1, directory2, and directory3 directories are all taking advantage of ACLs. The public_html directory is not. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml index 5d154d3ce4..bb6e31b60f 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/users/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1067 +1,1067 @@ Neil Blakey-Milner Contributed by Users and Basic Account Management Synopsis FreeBSD allows multiple users to use the computer at the same time. Obviously, only one of those users can be sitting in front of the screen and keyboard at any one time Well, unless you hook up multiple terminals, but we will save that for . , but any number of users can log in through the network to get their work done. To use the system every user must have an account. After reading this chapter, you will know: The differences between the various user accounts on a FreeBSD system. How to add user accounts. How to remove user accounts. How to change account details, such as the user's full name, or preferred shell. How to set limits on a per-account basis, to control the resources such as memory and CPU time that accounts and groups of accounts are allowed to access. How to use groups to make account management easier. Before reading this chapter, you should: - Understand the basics of Unix and FreeBSD (Understand the basics of &unix; and FreeBSD (). Introduction All access to the system is achieved via accounts, and all processes are run by users, so user and account management are of integral importance on FreeBSD systems. Every account on a FreeBSD system has certain information associated with it to identify the account. User name The user name as it would be typed at the login: prompt. User names must be unique across the computer; you may not have two users with the same user name. There are a number of rules for creating valid user names, documented in &man.passwd.5;; you would typically use user names that consist of eight or fewer all lower case characters. Password Each account has a password associated with it. The password may be blank, in which case no password will be required to access the system. This is normally a very bad idea; every account should have a password. User ID (UID) The UID is a number from 0 to 65536 used to uniquely identify the user to the system. Internally, FreeBSD uses the UID to identify users—any FreeBSD commands that allow you to specify a user name will convert it to the UID before working with it. This means that you can have several accounts with different user names but the same UID. As far as FreeBSD is concerned these accounts are one user. It is unlikely you will ever need to do this. Group ID (GID) The GID is a number from 0 to 65536 used to uniquely identify the primary group that the user belongs to. Groups are a mechanism for controlling access to resources based on a user's GID rather than their UID. This can significantly reduce the size of some configuration files. A user may also be in more than one group. Login class Login classes are an extension to the group mechanism that provide additional flexibility when tailoring the system to different users. Password change time By default FreeBSD does not force users to change their passwords periodically. You can enforce this on a per-user basis, forcing some or all of your users to change their passwords after a certain amount of time has elapsed. Account expiry time By default FreeBSD does not expire accounts. If you are creating accounts that you know have a limited lifespan, for example, in a school where you have accounts for the students, then you can specify when the account expires. After the expiry time has elapsed the account cannot be used to log in to the system, although the account's directories and files will remain. User's full name The user name uniquely identifies the account to FreeBSD, but does not necessarily reflect the user's real name. This information can be associated with the account. Home directory The home directory is the full path to a directory on the system in which the user will start when logging on to the system. A common convention is to put all user home directories under /home/username or /usr/home/username. The user would store their personal files in their home directory, and any directories they may create in there. User shell The shell provides the default environment users use to interact with the system. There are many different kinds of shells, and experienced users will have their own preferences, which can be reflected in their account settings. There are three main types of accounts: the Superuser, system users, and user accounts. The Superuser account, usually called root, is used to manage the system with no limitations on privileges. System users run services. Finally, user accounts are used by real people, who log on, read mail, and so forth. The Superuser Account accounts superuser (root) The superuser account, usually called root, comes preconfigured to facilitate system administration, and should not be used for day-to-day tasks like sending and receiving mail, general exploration of the system, or programming. This is because the superuser, unlike normal user accounts, can operate without limits, and misuse of the superuser account may result in spectacular disasters. User accounts are unable to destroy the system by mistake, so it is generally best to use normal user accounts whenever possible, unless you especially need the extra privilege. You should always double and triple-check commands you issue as the superuser, since an extra space or missing character can mean irreparable data loss. So, the first thing you should do after reading this chapter is to create an unprivileged user account for yourself for general usage if you have not already. This applies equally whether you are running a multi-user or single-user machine. Later in this chapter, we discuss how to create additional accounts, and how to change between the normal user and superuser. System Accounts accounts system System users are those used to run services such as DNS, mail, web servers, and so forth. The reason for this is security; if all services ran as the superuser, they could act without restriction. accounts daemon accounts operator Examples of system users are daemon, operator, bind (for the Domain Name Service), and news. Often sysadmins create httpd to run web servers they install. accounts nobody nobody is the generic unprivileged system user. However, it is important to keep in mind that the more services that use nobody, the more files and processes that user will become associated with, and hence the more privileged that user becomes. User Accounts accounts user User accounts are the primary means of access for real people to the system, and these accounts insulate the user and the environment, preventing the users from damaging the system or other users, and allowing users to customize their environment without affecting others. Every person accessing your system should have a unique user account. This allows you to find out who is doing what, prevent people from clobbering each others' settings or reading each others' mail, and so forth. Each user can set up their own environment to accommodate their use of the system, by using alternate shells, editors, key bindings, and language. Modifying Accounts accounts modifying There are a variety of different commands available in the - Unix environment to manipulate user accounts. The most common + &unix; environment to manipulate user accounts. The most common commands are summarized below, followed by more detailed examples of their usage. Command Summary &man.adduser.8; The recommended command-line application for adding new users. &man.rmuser.8; The recommended command-line application for removing users. &man.chpass.1; A flexible tool to change user database information. &man.passwd.1; The simple command-line tool to change user passwords. &man.pw.8; A powerful and flexible tool to modify all aspects of user accounts. <command>adduser</command> accounts adding adduser /usr/share/skel skeleton directory &man.adduser.8; is a simple program for adding new users. It creates entries in the system passwd and group files. It will also create a home directory for the new user, copy in the default configuration files (dotfiles) from /usr/share/skel, and can optionally mail the new user a welcome message. To create the initial configuration file, use adduser -s -config_create. The makes &man.adduser.8; default to quiet. We use later when we want to change defaults. Next, we configure &man.adduser.8; defaults, and create our first user account, since using root for normal usage is evil and nasty. Configuring <command>adduser</command> &prompt.root; adduser -v Use option ``-silent'' if you don't want to see all warnings and questions. Check /etc/shells Check /etc/master.passwd Check /etc/group Enter your default shell: csh date no sh tcsh zsh [sh]: zsh Your default shell is: zsh -> /usr/local/bin/zsh Enter your default HOME partition: [/home]: Copy dotfiles from: /usr/share/skel no [/usr/share/skel]: Send message from file: /etc/adduser.message no [/etc/adduser.message]: no Do not send message Use passwords (y/n) [y]: y Write your changes to /etc/adduser.conf? (y/n) [n]: y Ok, let's go. Don't worry about mistakes. I will give you the chance later to correct any input. Enter username [a-z0-9_-]: jru Enter full name []: J. Random User Enter shell csh date no sh tcsh zsh [zsh]: Enter home directory (full path) [/home/jru]: Uid [1001]: Enter login class: default []: Login group jru [jru]: Login group is ``jru''. Invite jru into other groups: guest no [no]: wheel Enter password []: Enter password again []: Name: jru Password: **** Fullname: J. Random User Uid: 1001 Gid: 1001 (jru) Class: Groups: jru wheel HOME: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh OK? (y/n) [y]: y Added user ``jru'' Copy files from /usr/share/skel to /home/jru Add another user? (y/n) [y]: n Goodbye! &prompt.root; In summary, we changed the default shell to zsh (an additional shell found in the Ports Collection), and turned off the sending of a welcome mail to added users. We then saved the configuration, created an account for jru, and made sure jru is in wheel group (so that she may assume the role of root with the &man.su.1; command.) The password you type in is not echoed, nor are asterisks displayed. Make sure you do not mistype the password twice. Just use &man.adduser.8; without arguments from now on, and you will not have to go through changing the defaults. If the program asks you to change the defaults, exit the program, and try the option. <command>rmuser</command> rmuser accounts removing You can use &man.rmuser.8; to completely remove a user from the system. &man.rmuser.8; performs the following steps: Removes the user's &man.crontab.1; entry (if any). Removes any &man.at.1; jobs belonging to the user. Kills all processes owned by the user. Removes the user from the system's local password file. Removes the user's home directory (if it is owned by the user). Removes the incoming mail files belonging to the user from /var/mail. Removes all files owned by the user from temporary file storage areas such as /tmp. Finally, removes the username from all groups to which it belongs in /etc/group. If a group becomes empty and the group name is the same as the username, the group is removed; this complements the per-user unique groups created by &man.adduser.8;. &man.rmuser.8; cannot be used to remove superuser accounts, since that is almost always an indication of massive destruction. By default, an interactive mode is used, which attempts to make sure you know what you are doing. <command>rmuser</command> Interactive Account Removal &prompt.root; rmuser jru Matching password entry: jru:*:1001:1001::0:0:J. Random User:/home/jru:/usr/local/bin/zsh Is this the entry you wish to remove? y Remove user's home directory (/home/jru)? y Updating password file, updating databases, done. Updating group file: trusted (removing group jru -- personal group is empty) done. Removing user's incoming mail file /var/mail/jru: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp: done. Removing files belonging to jru from /var/tmp/vi.recover: done. &prompt.root; <command>chpass</command> chpass &man.chpass.1; changes user database information such as passwords, shells, and personal information. Only system administrators, as the superuser, may change other users' information and passwords with &man.chpass.1;. When passed no options, aside from an optional username, &man.chpass.1; displays an editor containing user information. When the user exists from the editor, the user database is updated with the new information. Interactive <command>chpass</command> by Superuser #Changing user database information for jru. Login: jru Password: * Uid [#]: 1001 Gid [# or name]: 1001 Change [month day year]: Expire [month day year]: Class: Home directory: /home/jru Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: The normal user can change only a small subset of this information, and only for themselves. Interactive <command>chpass</command> by Normal User #Changing user database information for jru. Shell: /usr/local/bin/zsh Full Name: J. Random User Office Location: Office Phone: Home Phone: Other information: &man.chfn.1; and &man.chsh.1; are just links to &man.chpass.1;, as are &man.ypchpass.1;, &man.ypchfn.1;, and &man.ypchsh.1;. NIS support is automatic, so specifying the yp before the command is not necessary. If this is confusing to you, do not worry, NIS will be covered in . <command>passwd</command> passwd accounts changing password &man.passwd.1; is the usual way to change your own password as a user, or another user's password as the superuser. Users must type in their original password before changing their password, to prevent an unauthorized person from changing their password when the user is away from their console. Changing Your Password &prompt.user; passwd Changing local password for jru. Old password: New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done Changing Another User's Password as the Superuser &prompt.root; passwd jru Changing local password for jru. New password: Retype new password: passwd: updating the database... passwd: done As with &man.chpass.1;, &man.yppasswd.1; is just a link to &man.passwd.1;, so NIS works with either command. <command>pw</command> pw &man.pw.8; is a command line utility to create, remove, modify, and display users and groups. It functions as a front end to the system user and group files. &man.pw.8; has a very powerful set of command line options that make it suitable for use in shell scripts, but new users may find it more complicated than the other commands presented here. Limiting Users limiting users accounts limiting If you have users, the ability to limit their system use may have come to mind. FreeBSD provides several ways an administrator can limit the amount of system resources an individual may use. These limits are divided into two sections: disk quotas, and other resource limits. quotas limiting users quotas disk quotas Disk quotas limit disk usage to users, and they provide a way to quickly check that usage without calculating it every time. Quotas are discussed in . The other resource limits include ways to limit the amount of CPU, memory, and other resources a user may consume. These are defined using login classes and are discussed here. /etc/login.conf Login classes are defined in /etc/login.conf. The precise semantics are beyond the scope of this section, but are described in detail in the &man.login.conf.5; manual page. It is sufficient to say that each user is assigned to a login class (default by default), and that each login class has a set of login capabilities associated with it. A login capability is a name=value pair, where name is a well-known identifier and value is an arbitrary string processed accordingly depending on the name. Setting up login classes and capabilities is rather straight-forward and is also described in &man.login.conf.5;. Resource limits are different from plain vanilla login capabilities in two ways. First, for every limit, there is a soft (current) and hard limit. A soft limit may be adjusted by the user or application, but may be no higher than the hard limit. The latter may be lowered by the user, but never raised. Second, most resource limits apply per process to a specific user, not the user as a whole. Note, however, that these differences are mandated by the specific handling of the limits, not by the implementation of the login capability framework (i.e., they are not really a special case of login capabilities). And so, without further ado, below are the most commonly used resource limits (the rest, along with all the other login capabilities, may be found in &man.login.conf.5;). coredumpsize coredumpsize limiting users coredumpsize The limit on the size of a core file generated by a program is, for obvious reasons, subordinate to other limits on disk usage (e.g., filesize, or disk quotas). Nevertheless, it is often used as a less-severe method of controlling disk space consumption: since users do not generate core files themselves, and often do not delete them, setting this may save them from running out of disk space should a large program (e.g., emacs) crash. cputime cputime limiting users cputime This is the maximum amount of CPU time a user's process may consume. Offending processes will be killed by the kernel. This is a limit on CPU time consumed, not percentage of the CPU as displayed in some fields by &man.top.1; and &man.ps.1;. A limit on the latter is, at the time of this writing, not possible, and would be rather useless: a compiler—probably a legitimate task—can easily use almost 100% of a CPU for some time. filesize filesize limiting users filesize This is the maximum size of a file the user may possess. Unlike disk quotas, this limit is enforced on individual files, not the set of all files a user owns. maxproc maxproc limiting users maxproc This is the maximum number of processes a user may be running. This includes foreground and background processes alike. For obvious reasons, this may not be larger than the system limit specified by the kern.maxproc &man.sysctl.8;. Also note that setting this too small may hinder a user's productivity: it is often useful to be logged in multiple times or execute pipelines. Some tasks, such as compiling a large program, also spawn multiple processes (e.g., &man.make.1;, &man.cc.1;, and other intermediate preprocessors). memorylocked memorylocked limiting users memorylocked This is the maximum amount a memory a process may have requested to be locked into main memory (e.g., see &man.mlock.2;). Some system-critical programs, such as &man.amd.8;, lock into main memory such that in the event of being swapped out, they do not contribute to a system's trashing in time of trouble. memoryuse memoryuse limiting users memoryuse This is the maximum amount of memory a process may consume at any given time. It includes both core memory and swap usage. This is not a catch-all limit for restricting memory consumption, but it is a good start. openfiles openfiles limiting users openfiles This is the maximum amount of files a process may have open. In FreeBSD, files are also used to represent sockets and IPC channels; thus, be careful not to set this too low. The system-wide limit for this is defined by the kern.maxfiles &man.sysctl.8;. sbsize sbsize limiting users sbsize This is the limit on the amount of network memory, and thus mbufs, a user may consume. This originated as a response to an old DoS attack by creating a lot of sockets, but can be generally used to limit network communications. stacksize stacksize limiting users stacksize This is the maximum size a process' stack may grow to. This alone is not sufficient to limit the amount of memory a program may use; consequently, it should be used in conjunction with other limits. There are a few other things to remember when setting resource limits. Following are some general tips, suggestions, and miscellaneous comments. Processes started at system startup by /etc/rc are assigned to the daemon login class. Although the /etc/login.conf that comes with the system is a good source of reasonable values for most limits, only you, the administrator, can know what is appropriate for your system. Setting a limit too high may open your system up to abuse, while setting it too low may put a strain on productivity. Users of the X Window System (X11) should probably be granted more resources than other users. X11 by itself takes a lot of resources, but it also encourages users to run more programs simultaneously. Remember that many limits apply to individual processes, not the user as a whole. For example, setting openfiles to 50 means that each process the user runs may open up to 50 files. Thus, the gross amount of files a user may open is the value of openfiles multiplied by the value of maxproc. This also applies to memory consumption. For further information on resource limits and login classes and capabilities in general, please consult the relevant manual pages: &man.cap.mkdb.1;, &man.getrlimit.2;, &man.login.conf.5;. Personalizing Users Localization is an environment set up by the system administrator or user to accommodate different languages, character sets, date and time standards, and so on. This is discussed in the localization chapter. Groups groups /etc/groups accounts groups A group is simply a list of users. Groups are identified by - their group name and GID (Group ID). In FreeBSD (and most other Unix + their group name and GID (Group ID). In FreeBSD (and most other &unix; like systems), the two factors the kernel uses to decide whether a process is allowed to do something is its user ID and list of groups it belongs to. Unlike a user ID, a process has a list of groups associated with it. You may hear some things refer to the group ID of a user or process; most of the time, this just means the first group in the list. The group name to group ID map is in /etc/group. This is a plain text file with four colon-delimited fields. The first field is the group name, the second is the encrypted password, the third the group ID, and the fourth the comma-delimited list of members. It can safely be edited by hand (assuming, of course, that you do not make any syntax errors!). For a more complete description of the syntax, see the &man.group.5; manual page. If you do not want to edit /etc/group manually, you can use the &man.pw.8; command to add and edit groups. For example, to add a group called teamtwo and then confirm that it exists you can use: Adding a Group Using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupadd teamtwo &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100: The number 1100 above is the group ID of the group teamtwo. Right now, teamtwo has no members, and is thus rather useless. Let's change that by inviting jru to the teamtwo group. Adding Somebody to a Group Using &man.pw.8; &prompt.root; pw groupmod teamtwo -M jru &prompt.root; pw groupshow teamtwo teamtwo:*:1100:jru The argument to the option is a comma-delimited list of users who are members of the group. From the preceding sections, we know that the password file also contains a group for each user. The latter (the user) is automatically added to the group list by the system; the user will not show up as a member when using the command to &man.pw.8;, but will show up when the information is queried via &man.id.1; or similar tool. In other words, &man.pw.8; only manipulates the /etc/group file; it will never attempt to read additionally data from /etc/passwd. Using &man.id.1; to Determine Group Membership &prompt.user; id jru uid=1001(jru) gid=1001(jru) groups=1001(jru), 1100(teamtwo) As you can see, jru is a member of the groups jru and teamtwo. For more information about &man.pw.8;, see its manual page, and for more information on the format of /etc/group, consult the &man.group.5; manual page. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml index d74d4a602e..1af18da813 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1660 +1,1660 @@ The X Window System Synopsis FreeBSD uses XFree86 to provide users with a powerful graphical user interface. XFree86 is an open-source implementation of the X Window System. This chapter will cover installation and configuration of XFree86 on a FreeBSD system. For more information on XFree86 and video hardware that it supports, check the XFree86 web site. After reading this chapter, you will know: The various components of the X Window System, and how they interoperate. How to install and configure XFree86. How to install and use different window managers. - How to use TrueType fonts in + How to use &truetype; fonts in XFree86. How to setup your system for graphical logins (XDM). Before reading this chapter, you should: Know how to install additional third-party software (). Understanding X Using X for the first time can be somewhat of a shock to someone - familiar with other graphical environments, such as Microsoft Windows or - MacOS. + familiar with other graphical environments, such as µsoft.windows; or + &macos;. It is not necessary to understand all of the details of various X components and how they interact; however, some basic knowledge makes it possible to take advantage of X's strengths. Why X? - X is not the first window system written for Unix, but it is the + X is not the first window system written for &unix;, but it is the most popular. X's original development team had worked on another window system before writing X. That system's name was W (for Window). X is just the next letter in the Roman alphabet. X can be called X, X Window System, X11, and other terms. Calling X11 X Windows can offend some people; see &man.X.7; for a bit more insight on this. The X Client/Server Model X was designed from the beginning to be network-centric, and adopts a client-server model. In the X model, the X server runs on the computer that has the keyboard, monitor, and mouse attached. The server is responsible for managing the display, handling input from the keyboard and mouse, and so on. Each X application (such as XTerm, or - Netscape) is a client. A + &netscape;) is a client. A client sends messages to the server such as Please draw a window at these coordinates, and the server sends back messages such as The user just clicked on the OK button. If there is only one computer involved, such as in a home or small office environment, the X server and the X clients will be running on the same computer. However, it is perfectly possible to run the X server on a less powerful desktop computer, and run X applications (the clients) on, say, the powerful and expensive machine that serves the office. In this scenario the communication between the X client and server takes place over the network. This confuses some people, because the X terminology is exactly backward to what they expect. They expect the X server to be the big powerful machine down the hall, and the X client to be the machine on their desk. Remember that the X server is the machine with the monitor and keyboard, and the X clients are the programs that display the windows. There is nothing in the protocol that forces the client and server machines to be running the same operating system, or even to be running on the same type of computer. It is certainly possible to - run an X server on Microsoft Windows or Apple's MacOS, and there are + run an X server on µsoft.windows; or Apple's &macos;, and there are various free and commercial applications available that do exactly that. The X server that ships with FreeBSD is called XFree86, and is available for free, under a license very similar to the FreeBSD license. Commercial X servers for FreeBSD are also available. The Window Manager - The X design philosophy is much like the Unix design philosophy, + The X design philosophy is much like the &unix; design philosophy, tools, not policy. This means that X does not try to dictate how a task is to be accomplished. Instead, tools are provided to the user, and it is the user's responsibility to decide how to use those tools. This philosophy extends to X not dictating what windows should look like on screen, how to move them around with the mouse, what keystrokes should be used to move between windows (i.e., Alt Tab - , in the case of Microsoft Windows), what the title bars + , in the case of µsoft.windows;), what the title bars on each window should look like, whether or not they have close buttons on them, and so on. Instead, X delegates this responsibility to an application called a Window Manager. There are dozens of window managers available for X: AfterStep, Blackbox, ctwm, Enlightenment, fvwm, Sawfish, twm, Window Maker, and more. Each of these window managers provides a different look and feel; some of them support virtual desktops; some of them allow customized keystrokes to manage the desktop; some have a Start button or similar device; some are themeable, allowing a complete change of look-and-feel by applying a new theme. These window managers, and many more, are available in the x11-wm category of the Ports Collection. In addition, the KDE and GNOME desktop environments both have their own window managers which integrate with the desktop. Each window manager also has a different configuration mechanism; some expect configuration file written by hand, others feature GUI tools for most of the configuration tasks; at least one (sawfish) has a configuration file written in a dialect of the Lisp language. Focus Policy Another feature the window manager is responsible for is the mouse focus policy. Every windowing system needs some means of choosing a window to be actively receiving keystrokes, and should visibly indicate which window is active as well. A familiar focus policy is called click-to-focus. - This is the model utilized by Microsoft Windows, in which a window + This is the model utilized by µsoft.windows;, in which a window becomes active upon receiving a mouse click. X does not support any particular focus policy. Instead, the window manager controls which window has the focus at any one time. Different window managers will support different focus methods. All of them support click to focus, and the majority of them support several others. The most popular focus policies are: focus-follows-mouse The window that is under the mouse pointer is the window that has the focus. This may not necessarily be the window that is on top of all the other windows. The focus is changed by pointing at another window, there is no need to click in it as well. sloppy-focus This policy is a small extension to focus-follows-mouse. With focus-follows-mouse, if the mouse is moved over the root window (or background) then no window has the focus, and keystrokes are simply lost. With sloppy-focus, focus is only changed when the cursor enters a new window, and not when exiting the current window. click-to-focus The active window is selected by mouse click. The window may then be raised, and appear in front of all other windows. All keystrokes will now be directed to this window, even if the cursor is moved to another window. Many window managers support other policies, as well as variations on these. Be sure to consult the documentation for the window manager itself. Widgets The X approach of providing tools and not policy extends to the widgets that seen on screen in each application. Widget is a term for all the items in the user interface that can be clicked or manipulated in some way; buttons, - check boxes, radio buttons, icons, lists, and so on. Microsoft - Windows calls these controls. + check boxes, radio buttons, icons, lists, and so on. µsoft.windows; + calls these controls. - Microsoft Windows and Apple's MacOS both have a very rigid widget + µsoft.windows; and Apple's &macos; both have a very rigid widget policy. Application developers are supposed to ensure that their applications share a common look and feel. With X, it was not considered sensible to mandate a particular graphical style, or set of widgets to adhere to. As a result, do not expect X applications to have a common look and feel. There are several popular widget sets and variations, including the original Athena widget set from MIT, - Motif (on which the widget set in - Microsoft Windows was modeled, all bevelled edges and three shades of + &motif; (on which the widget set in + µsoft.windows; was modeled, all bevelled edges and three shades of grey), OpenLook, and others. Most newer X applications today will use a modern-looking widget set, either Qt, used by KDE, or GTK, used by the GNOME project. In this respect, there is some convergence in - look-and-feel of the Unix desktop, which certainly makes things + look-and-feel of the &unix; desktop, which certainly makes things easier for the novice user. Installing XFree86 Before installing XFree86, decide on which version to run. XFree86 3.X is a maintenance branch of XFree86 development. It is very stable, and it supports a huge number of graphics cards. However, no new development is being done on the software. XFree86 4.X is a complete redesign of the system with many new features such as better support for fonts and anti-aliasing. Unfortunately this new architecture requires that the video drivers be rewritten, and some of the older cards that were supported in 3.X are not yet supported in 4.X. As all new developments and support for new graphics cards are done on that branch, XFree86 4.X is now the default version of the X Window System on FreeBSD. The FreeBSD setup program offers users the opportunity to install and configure XFree86 4.X during installation (covered in ). To install and run XFree86 3.X, wait until after the base FreeBSD system is installed, and then install XFree86. For example, to build and install XFree86 3.X from the ports collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 &prompt.root; make all install clean Alternatively, either version of XFree86 can be installed directly from the FreeBSD binaries provided on the XFree86 web site. A binary package to use with &man.pkg.add.1; tool is also available for XFree86 4.X. When the remote fetching feature of &man.pkg.add.1; is used, the version number of the package must be removed. &man.pkg.add.1; will automatically fetch the latest version of the application. So to fetch and install the package of XFree86 4.X, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r XFree86 You can also use the ports collection to install XFree86 4.X, for that you simply need to type the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/XFree86-4 &prompt.root; make install clean The examples above will install the complete XFree86 distribution including the servers, clients, fonts etc. Separate packages and ports for different parts of XFree86 4.X are also available. The rest of this chapter will explain how to configure XFree86, and how to setup a productive desktop environment. Christopher Shumway Contributed by XFree86 Configuration XFree86 4.X XFree86 Before Starting Before configuration of XFree86 4.X, the following information about the target system is needed: Monitor specifications Video Adapter chipset Video Adapter memory horizontal scan rate vertical scan rate The specifications for the monitor are used by XFree86 to determine the resolution and refresh rate to run at. These specifications can usually be obtained from the documentation that came with the monitor or from the manufacturer's website. There are two ranges of numbers that are needed, the horizontal scan rate and the vertical synchronization rate. The video adapter's chipset defines what driver module XFree86 uses to talk to the graphics hardware. With most chipsets, this can be automatically determined, but it is still useful to know in case the automatic detection does not work correctly. Video memory on the graphic adapter determines the resolution and color depth which the system can run at. This is important to know so the user knows the limitations of the system. Configuring XFree86 4.X Configuration of XFree86 4.X is a multi-step process. The first step is to build an initial configuration file with the option to XFree86. As the super user, simply run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -configure This will generate a skeleton XFree86 configuration file in the /root directory called XF86Config.new (in fact the directory used is the one covered by the environment variable $HOME, and it will depend from the way you got the superuser rights). The XFree86 program will attempt to probe the graphics hardware on the system and will write a configuration file to load the proper drivers for the detected hardware on the target system. The next step is to test the existing configuration to verify that XFree86 can work with the graphics hardware on the target system. To perform this task, the user needs to run: &prompt.root; XFree86 -xf86config XF86Config.new If a black and grey grid and an X mouse cursor appear, the configuration was successful. To exit the test, just press Ctrl Alt Backspace simultaneously. If the mouse does not work, be sure the device has been configured. See in the &os; install chapter. XFree86 4 Tuning Next, tune the XF86Config.new configuration file to taste. Open the file in a text editor such as &man.emacs.1; or &man.ee.1;. First, add the frequencies for the target system's monitor. These are usually expressed as a horizontal and vertical synchronization rate. These values are added to the XF86Config.new file under the "Monitor" section: Section "Monitor" Identifier "Monitor0" VendorName "Monitor Vendor" ModelName "Monitor Model" HorizSync 30-107 VertRefresh 48-120 EndSection The HorizSync and VertRefresh keywords may not exist in the configuration file. If they do not, they need to be added, with the correct horizontal synchronization rate placed after the Horizsync keyword and the vertical synchronization rate after the VertRefresh keyword. In the example above the target monitor's rates were entered. X allows DPMS (Energy Star) features to be used with capable monitors. The &man.xset.1; program controls the time-outs and can force standby, suspend, or off modes. If you wish to enable DPMS features for your monitor, you must add the following line to the monitor section: Option "DPMS" XF86Config While the XF86Config.new configuration file is still open in an editor, select the default resolution and color depth desired. This is defined in the "Screen" section: Section "Screen" Identifier "Screen0" Device "Card0" Monitor "Monitor0" DefaultDepth 24 SubSection "Display" Depth 24 Modes "1024x768" EndSubSection EndSection The DefaultDepth keyword describes the color depth to run at by default. This can be overridden with the -bpp command line switch to &man.XFree86.1;. The Modes keyword describes the resolution to run at for the given color depth. Note that only VESA standard modes are supported as defined by the target system's graphics hardware. In the example above, the default color depth is twenty-four bits per pixel. At this color depth, the accepted resolution is one thousand twenty-four pixels by seven hundred and sixty-eight pixels. Finally, write the configuration file and test it using the test mode given above. If all is well, the configuration file needs to be installed in a common location where &man.XFree86.1; can find it. This is typically /etc/X11/XF86Config or /usr/X11R6/etc/X11/XF86Config. &prompt.root; cp XF86Config.new /etc/X11/XF86Config Once the configuration file has been placed in a common location, configuration is complete. In order to start XFree86 4.X with &man.startx.1;, install the x11/wrapper port. XFree86 4.X can also be started with &man.xdm.1;. There is also a graphical tool for configuration, &man.xf86cfg.1;, that comes with the XFree86 4.X distribution. It allows to interactively define your configuration by choosing the appropiate drivers and settings. This program can be used under console as well, just use the command xf86cfg -textmode. For more details, refer to the &man.xf86cfg.1; manual page. Advanced Configuration Topics - Configuration with Intel i810 Graphics Chipsets + Configuration with &intel; i810 Graphics Chipsets Intel i810 graphic chipset - Configuration with Intel i810 integrated chipsets + Configuration with &intel; i810 integrated chipsets requires the agpgart AGP programming interface for XFree86 to drive the card. The &man.agp.4; driver is in the GENERIC kernel since releases 4.8-RELEASE and 5.0-RELEASE. On prior releases, you will have to add the following line: device agp in your kernel configuration file and rebuild a new kernel. Instead, you may want to load the agp.ko kernel module automatically with the &man.loader.8; at boot time. For that, simply add this line to /boot/loader.conf: agp_load="YES" Next, if you are running FreeBSD 4.X or earlier, a device node needs to be created for the programming interface. To create the AGP device node, run &man.MAKEDEV.8; in the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV agpgart FreeBSD 5.X or later will use &man.devfs.5; to allocate device nodes transparently, therefore the &man.MAKEDEV.8; step is not required. This will allow configuration of the hardware as any other graphics board. Note on systems without the &man.agp.4; driver compiled in the kernel, trying to load the module with &man.kldload.8; will not work. This driver has to be in the kernel at boot time through being compiled in or using /boot/loader.conf. If you are using XFree86 4.1.0 (or later) and messages about unresolved symbols like fbPictureInit appear, try adding the following line after Driver "i810" in the XFree86 configuration file: Option "NoDDC" Murray Stokely Contributed by Using Fonts in XFree86 Type1 Fonts The default fonts that ship with XFree86 are less than ideal for typical desktop publishing applications. Large presentation fonts show up jagged and unprofessional looking, and small fonts in - Netscape are almost completely unintelligible. - However, there are several free, high quality Type1 (PostScript) fonts + &netscape; are almost completely unintelligible. + However, there are several free, high quality Type1 (&postscript;) fonts available which can be readily used with XFree86, either version 3.X or version 4.X. For instance, the URW font collection (x11-fonts/urwfonts) includes high quality versions of standard type1 fonts (Times Roman, Helvetica, Palatino and others). The Freefonts collection (x11-fonts/freefonts) includes many more fonts, but most of them are intended for use in graphics software such as the Gimp, and are not complete enough to serve as screen fonts. In addition, XFree86 can be configured to use - TrueType fonts with a minimum of effort: see the - section on TrueType fonts later. + &truetype; fonts with a minimum of effort: see the + section on &truetype; fonts later. To install the above Type1 font collections from the ports collection, run the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-fonts/urwfonts &prompt.root; make install clean And likewise with the freefont or other collections. To tell the X server that these fonts exist, add an appropriate line to the XF86Config file (in /etc/ for XFree86 version 3, or in /etc/X11/ for version 4), which reads: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW/" Alternatively, at the command line in the X session run: &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/URW &prompt.user; xset fp rehash This will work but will be lost when the X session is closed, unless it is added to the startup file (~/.xinitrc for a normal startx session, or ~/.xsession when logging in through a graphical login manager like XDM). A third way is to use the new XftConfig file: see the section on anti-aliasing. - TrueType Fonts + &truetype; Fonts TrueType Fonts fonts TrueType XFree86 4.X has built in support - for rendering TrueType fonts. There are two different modules + for rendering &truetype; fonts. There are two different modules that can enable this functionality. The freetype module is used in this example because it is more consistent with the other font rendering back-ends. To enable the freetype module just add the following line to the "Module" section of the /etc/X11/XF86Config file. Load "freetype" For XFree86 3.3.X, a separate - TrueType font server is needed. + &truetype; font server is needed. Xfstt is commonly used for this purpose. To install Xfstt, simply install the port x11-servers/Xfstt. - Now make a directory for the TrueType fonts (for example, + Now make a directory for the &truetype; fonts (for example, /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType) - and copy all of the TrueType fonts into this directory. Keep in - mind that TrueType fonts cannot be directly taken from a - Macintosh; they must be in Unix/DOS/Windows format for use by + and copy all of the &truetype; fonts into this directory. Keep in + mind that &truetype; fonts cannot be directly taken from a + &macintosh;; they must be in &unix;/DOS/&windows; format for use by XFree86. Once the files have been copied into this directory, use ttmkfdir to create a fonts.dir file, so that the X font renderer knows that these new files have been installed. ttmkfdir is available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection as x11-fonts/ttmkfdir. &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.root; ttmkfdir > fonts.dir - Now add the TrueType directory to the font + Now add the &truetype; directory to the font path. This is just the same as described above for Type1 fonts, that is, use &prompt.user; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/TrueType &prompt.user; xset fp rehash or add a line to the XF86Config file. - That's it. Now Netscape, + That's it. Now &netscape;, Gimp, - StarOffice, and all of the other X - applications should now recognize the installed TrueType + &staroffice;, and all of the other X + applications should now recognize the installed &truetype; fonts. Extremely small fonts (as with text in a high resolution display on a web page) and extremely large fonts (within StarOffice) will look much better now. Joe Marcus Clarke Updated for XFree86 4.3 by Anti-Aliased Fonts anti-aliased fonts fonts anti-aliased Anti-aliasing has been available in XFree86 since 4.0.2. However, font configuration was cumbersome before the introduction of XFree86 4.3.0. Starting in version 4.3.0, all fonts in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/ and ~/.fonts/ are automatically made available for anti-aliasing to Xft-aware applications. Not all applications are Xft-aware yet, but many have received Xft support. Examples of Xft-aware applications include Qt 2.3 and higher (the toolkit for the KDE desktop), Gtk+ 2.0 and higher (the toolkit for the GNOME desktop), and Mozilla 1.2 and higher. In order to control which fonts are anti-aliased, or to configure anti-aliasing properties, create (or edit, if it already exists) the file /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf. Several advanced features of the Xft font system can be tuned using this file; this section describes only some simple possibilities. For more details, please see &man.fonts-conf.5;. XML This file must be in XML format. Pay careful attention to case, and make sure all tags are properly closed. The file begins with the usual XML header followed by a DOCTYPE definition, and then the <fontconfig> tag: <?xml version="1.0"?> <!DOCTYPE fontconfig SYSTEM "fonts.dtd"> <fontconfig> As previously stated, all fonts in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/ as well as ~/.fonts/ are already made available to Xft-aware applications. If you wish to add another directory outside of these two directory trees, add a line similar to the following to /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf: <dir>/path/to/my/fonts</dir> After adding new fonts, and especially new font directories, you should run the following command to rebuild the font caches: &prompt.root; fc-cache -f Anti-aliasing makes borders slightly fuzzy, which makes very small text more readable and removes staircases from large text, but can cause eyestrain if applied to normal text. To exclude point sizes smaller than 14 point from anti-aliasing, include these lines: <match target="font"> <test name="size" compare="less"> <double>14</double> </test> <edit name="antialias" mode="assign"> <bool>false</bool> </edit> </match> fonts spacing Spacing for some monospaced fonts may also be inappropriate with anti-aliasing. This seems to be an issue with KDE, in particular. One possible fix for this is to force the spacing for such fonts to be 100. Add the following lines: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>fixed</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>mono</string> </edit> </match> <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>console</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>mono</string> </edit> </match> (this aliases the other common names for fixed fonts as "mono"), and then add: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>mono</string> </test> <edit name="spacing" mode="assign"> <int>100</int> </edit> </match> Certain fonts, such as Helvetica, may have a problem when anti-aliased. Usually this manifests itself as a font that seems cut in half vertically. At worst, it may cause applications such as Mozilla to crash. To avoid this, consider adding the following to local.conf: <match target="pattern" name="family"> <test qual="any" name="family"> <string>Helvetica</string> </test> <edit name="family" mode="assign"> <string>sans-serif</string> </edit> </match> Once you have finished editing local.conf make sure you end the file with the </fontconfig> tag. Not doing this will cause your changes to be ignored. The default font set that comes with XFree86 is not very desirable when it comes to anti-aliasing. A much better set of default fonts can be found in the x11-fonts/bitstream-vera port. This port will install a /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf file if one does not exist already. If the file does exist, the port will create a /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf-vera file. Merge the contents of this file into /usr/X11R6/etc/fonts/local.conf, and the Bitstream fonts will automatically replace the default XFree86 Serif, Sans Serif, and Monospaced fonts. Finally, users can add their own settings via their personal .fonts.conf files. To do this, each user should simply create a ~/.fonts.conf. This file must also be in XML format. LCD screen Fonts LCD screen One last point: with an LCD screen, sub-pixel sampling may be desired. This basically treats the (horizontally separated) red, green and blue components separately to improve the horizontal resolution; the results can be dramatic. To enable this, add the line somewhere in the local.conf file: <match target="font"> <test qual="all" name="rgba"> <const>unknown</const> </test> <edit name="rgba" mode="assign"> <const>rgb</const> </edit> </match> Depending on the sort of display, rgb may need to be changed to bgr, vrgb or vbgr: experiment and see which works best. Mozilla web browsers Mozilla Mozilla Anti-aliasing should be enabled the next time the X server is started. However, programs must know how to take advantage of it. At present, the Qt toolkit does, so the entire KDE environment can use anti-aliased fonts (see on KDE for details). Gtk+ and GNOME can also be made to use anti-aliasing via the Font capplet (see for details). By default, Mozilla 1.2 and greater will automatically use anti-aliasing. To disable this, rebuild Mozilla with the -DWITHOUT_XFT flag. Seth Kingsley Contributed by The X Display Manager Overview X Display Manager The X Display Manager (XDM) is an optional part of the X Window System that is used for login session management. This is useful for several types of situations, including minimal X Terminals, desktops, and large network display servers. Since the X Window System is network and protocol independent, there are a wide variety of possible configurations for running X clients and servers on different machines connected by a network. XDM provides a graphical interface for choosing which display server to connect to, and entering authorization information such as a login and password combination. Think of XDM as providing the same functionality to the user as the &man.getty.8; utility (see for details). That is, it performs system logins to the display being connected to and then runs a session manager on behalf of the user (usually an X window manager). XDM then waits for this program to exit, signaling that the user is done and should be logged out of the display. At this point, XDM can display the login and display chooser screens for the next user to login. Using XDM The XDM daemon program is located in /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm. This program can be run at any time as root and it will start managing the X display on the local machine. If XDM is to be run every time the machine boots up, a convenient way to do this is by adding an entry to /etc/ttys. For more information about the format and usage of this file, see . There is a line in the default /etc/ttys file for running the XDM daemon on a virtual terminal: ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure By default this entry is disabled; in order to enable it change field 5 from off to on and restart &man.init.8; using the directions in . The first field, the name of the terminal this program will manage, is ttyv8. This means that XDM will start running on the 9th virtual terminal. Configuring XDM The XDM configuration directory is located in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm. In this directory there are several files used to change the behavior and appearance of XDM. Typically these files will be found: File Description Xaccess Client authorization ruleset. Xresources Default X resource values. Xservers List of remote and local displays to manage. Xsession Default session script for logins. Xsetup_* Script to launch applications before the login interface. xdm-config Global configuration for all displays running on this machine. xdm-errors Errors generated by the server program. xdm-pid The process ID of the currently running XDM. Also in this directory are a few scripts and programs used to setup the desktop when XDM is running. The purpose of each of these files will be briefly described. The exact syntax and usage of all of these files is described in &man.xdm.1;. The default configuration is a simple rectangular login window with the hostname of the machine displayed at the top in a large font and Login: and Password: prompts below. This is a good starting point for changing the look and feel of XDM screens. Xaccess The protocol for connecting to XDM controlled displays is called the X Display Manager Connection Protocol (XDMCP). This file is a ruleset for controlling XDMCP connections from remote machines. By default, it allows any client to connect, but that does not matter unless the xdm-config is changed to listen for remote connections. Xresources This is an application-defaults file for the display chooser and the login screens. This is where the appearance of the login program can be modified. The format is identical to the app-defaults file described in the XFree86 documentation. Xservers This is a list of the remote displays the chooser should provide as choices. Xsession This is the default session script for XDM to run after a user has logged in. Normally each user will have a customized session script in ~/.xsession that overrides this script. Xsetup_* These will be run automatically before displaying the chooser or login interfaces. There is a script for each display being used, named Xsetup_ followed by the local display number (for instance Xsetup_0). Typically these scripts will run one or two programs in the background such as xconsole. xdm-config This contains settings in the form of app-defaults that are applicable to every display that this installation manages. xdm-errors This contains the output of the X servers that XDM is trying to run. If a display that XDM is trying to start hangs for some reason, this is a good place to look for error messages. These messages are also written to the user's ~/.xsession-errors file on a per-session basis. Running a Network Display Server In order for other clients to connect to the display server, edit the access control rules, and enable the connection listener. By default these are set to conservative values. To make XDM listen for connections, first comment out a line in the xdm-config file: ! SECURITY: do not listen for XDMCP or Chooser requests ! Comment out this line if you want to manage X terminals with xdm DisplayManager.requestPort: 0 and then restart XDM. Remember that comments in app-defaults files begin with a ! character, not the usual #. More strict access controls may be desired. Look at the example entries in Xaccess, and refer to the &man.xdm.1; manual page. Replacements for XDM Several replacements for the default XDM program exist. One of them, KDM (bundled with KDE) is described later in this chapter. KDM offers many visual improvements and cosmetic frills, as well as the functionality to allow users to choose their window manager of choice at login time. Valentino Vaschetto Contributed by Desktop Environments This section describes the different desktop environments available for X on FreeBSD. A desktop environment can mean anything ranging from a simple window manager to a complete suite of desktop applications, such as KDE or GNOME. GNOME About GNOME GNOME GNOME is a user-friendly desktop environment that enables users to easily use and configure their computers. GNOME includes a panel (for starting applications and displaying status), a desktop (where data and applications can be placed), a set of standard desktop tools and applications, and a set of conventions that make it easy for applications to cooperate and be consistent with each other. Users of other operating systems or environments should feel right at home using the powerful graphics-driven environment that GNOME provides. More information regarding GNOME on FreeBSD can be found on the FreeBSD GNOME Project's web site. Installing GNOME The easiest way to install GNOME is through the Desktop Configuration menu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in of Chapter 2. It can also be easily installed from a package or the ports collection: To install the GNOME package from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r gnome2 To build GNOME from source, use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/gnome2 &prompt.root; make install clean Once GNOME is installed, the X server must be told to start GNOME instead of a default window manager. If a custom .xinitrc is already in place, simply replace the line that starts the current window manager with one that starts /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session instead. If nothing special has been done to configuration file, then it is enough to simply type: &prompt.user; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" > ~/.xinitrc Next, type startx, and the GNOME desktop environment will be started. If a display manager, like XDM, is being used, this will not work. Instead, create an executable .xsession file with the same command in it. To do this, edit the file and replace the existing window manager command with /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session: &prompt.user; echo "#!/bin/sh" > ~/.xsession &prompt.user; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session" >> ~/.xsession &prompt.user; chmod +x ~/.xsession Another option is to configure the display manager to allow choosing the window manager at login time; the section on KDE details explains how to do this for kdm, the display manager of KDE. Anti-aliased Fonts with GNOME GNOME anti-aliased fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliasing via its RENDER extension. Gtk+ 2.0 and greater (the toolkit used by GNOME) can make use of this functionality. Configuring anti-aliasing is described in . So, with up-to-date software, anti-aliasing is possible within the GNOME desktop. Just go to Applications Desktop Preferences Font, and select either Best shapes, Best contrast, or Subpixel smoothing (LCDs). For a Gtk+ application that is not part of the GNOME desktop, set the environment variable GDK_USE_XFT to 1 before launching the program. KDE KDE About KDE KDE is an easy to use contemporary desktop environment. Some of the things that KDE brings to the user are: A beautiful contemporary desktop A desktop exhibiting complete network transparency An integrated help system allowing for convenient, consistent access to help on the use of the KDE desktop and its applications Consistent look and feel of all KDE applications Standardized menu and toolbars, keybindings, color-schemes, etc. Internationalization: KDE is available in more than 40 languages Centralized consisted dialog driven desktop configuration A great number of useful KDE applications KDE has an office application suite based on KDE's KParts technology consisting of a spread-sheet, a presentation application, an organizer, a news client and more. KDE also comes with a web browser called Konqueror, which represents - a solid competitor to other existing web browsers on Unix + a solid competitor to other existing web browsers on &unix; systems. More information on KDE can be found on the KDE website. For FreeBSD specific informations and resources on KDE, consult the FreeBSD-KDE team's website. Installing KDE Just as with GNOME or any other desktop environment, the easiest way to install KDE is through the Desktop Configuration menu during the FreeBSD installation process as described in of Chapter 2. Once again, the software can be easily installed from a package or from the ports collection: To install the KDE package from the network, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r kde &man.pkg.add.1; will automatically fetch the latest version of the application. To build KDE from source, use the ports tree: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11/kde3 &prompt.root; make install clean After KDE has been installed, the X server must be told to launch this application instead of the default window manager. This is accomplished by editing the .xinitrc file: &prompt.user; echo "exec startkde" > ~/.xinitrc Now, whenever the X Window System is invoked with startx, KDE will be the desktop. If a display manager such as xdm is being used, the configuration is slightly different. Edit the .xsession file instead. Instructions for kdm are described later in this chapter. More Details on KDE Now that KDE is installed on the system, most things can be discovered through the help pages, or just by pointing and clicking at various menus. - Windows or Mac users will feel quite at home. + &windows; or &mac; users will feel quite at home. The best reference for KDE is the on-line documentation. KDE comes with its own web browser, Konqueror, dozens of useful applications, and extensive documentation. The remainder of this section discusses the technical items that are difficult to learn by random exploration. The KDE Display Manager KDE display manager An administrator of a multi-user system may wish to have a graphical login screen to welcome users. xdm can be used, as described earlier. However, KDE includes an alternative, kdm, which is designed to look more attractive and include more login-time options. In particular, users can easily choose (via a menu) which desktop environment (KDE, GNOME, or something else) to run after logging on. To begin with, run the KDE control panel, kcontrol, as root. It is generally considered unsafe to run the entire X environment as root. Instead, run the window manager as a normal user, open a terminal window (such as xterm or KDE's konsole), become root with su (the user must be in the wheel group in /etc/group for this), and then type kcontrol. Click on the icon on the left marked System, then on Login manager. On the right there are various configurable options, which the KDE manual will explain in greater detail. Click on sessions on the right. Click New type to add various window managers and desktop environments. These are just labels, so they can say KDE and GNOME rather than startkde or gnome-session. Include a label failsafe. Play with the other menus as well, they are mainly cosmetic and self-explanatory. When you are done, click on Apply at the bottom, and quit the control center. To make sure kdm understands what the labels (KDE, GNOME etc) mean, edit the files used by xdm. In KDE 2.2 this has changed: kdm now uses its own configuration files. Please see the KDE 2.2 documentation for details. In a terminal window, as root, edit the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsession. There is a section in the middle like this: case $# in 1) case $1 in failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac A few lines need to be added to this section. Assuming the labels from used were KDE and GNOME, use the following: case $# in 1) case $1 in kde) exec /usr/local/bin/startkde ;; GNOME) exec /usr/X11R6/bin/gnome-session ;; failsafe) exec xterm -geometry 80x24-0-0 ;; esac esac For the KDE login-time desktop background to be honored, the following line needs to be added to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/xdm/Xsetup_0: /usr/local/bin/kdmdesktop Now, make sure kdm is listed in /etc/ttys to be started at the next bootup. To do this, simply follow the instructions from the previous section on xdm and replace references to the /usr/X11R6/bin/xdm program with /usr/local/bin/kdm. Anti-aliased Fonts KDE anti-aliased fonts Starting with version 4.0.2, XFree86 supports anti-aliasing via its RENDER extension, and starting with version 2.3, Qt (the toolkit used by KDE) supports this extension. Configuring this is described in on antialiasing X11 fonts. So, with up-to-date software, anti-aliasing is possible on a KDE desktop. Just go to the KDE menu, go to Preferences Look and Feel Fonts, and click on the check box Use Anti-Aliasing for Fonts and Icons. For a Qt application which is not part of KDE, the environment variable QT_XFT needs to be set to true before starting the program. XFce About XFce XFce is a desktop environment based on the GTK toolkit used by GNOME, but is much more lightweight and meant for those who want a simple, efficient desktop which is nevertheless easy to use and configure. Visually, it looks very much like - CDE, found on commercial Unix + CDE, found on commercial &unix; systems. Some of XFce's features are: A simple, easy-to-handle desktop Fully configurable via mouse, with drag and drop, etc Main panel similar to CDE, with menus, applets and app launchers Integrated window manager, file manager, sound manager, GNOME compliance module, and other things Themeable (since it uses GTK) Fast, light and efficient: ideal for older/slower machines or machines with memory limitations More information on XFce can be found on the XFce website. Installing XFce A binary package for XFce exists (at the time of writing). To install, simply type: &prompt.root; pkg_add -r xfce Alternatively, to build from source, use the ports collection: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/x11-wm/xfce &prompt.root; make install clean Now, tell the X server to launch XFce the next time X is started. Simply type this: &prompt.user; echo "/usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce" > ~/.xinitrc The next time X is started, XFce will be the desktop. As before, if a display manager like xdm is being used, create an .xsession, as described in the section on GNOME, but with the /usr/X11R6/bin/startxfce command; or, configure the display manager to allow choosing a desktop at login time, as explained in the section on kdm. diff --git a/share/sgml/trademarks.ent b/share/sgml/trademarks.ent index faa130408e..af8b4c7ea9 100644 --- a/share/sgml/trademarks.ent +++ b/share/sgml/trademarks.ent @@ -1,213 +1,244 @@ 3Com and HomeConnect are registered trademarks of 3Com Corporation."> 3Com"> +3ware and Escalade are registered + trademarks of 3ware Inc."> +3ware"> +Escalade"> + Adobe, Acrobat, Acrobat Reader, and PostScript are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Adobe Systems Incorporated in the United States and/or other countries."> Acrobat"> Acrobat Reader"> PostScript"> -Apple, FireWire, Macintosh, Mac OS, + +Adaptec is registered trademark of + Adaptec, Inc."> +Adaptec"> + +Apple, FireWire, Mac, Macintosh, Mac OS, Quicktime, and TrueType are trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc., registered in the United States and other countries."> FireWire"> +Mac"> Macintosh"> Mac OS"> TrueType"> Check Point, Firewall-1, and VPN-1 are trademarks of Check Point Software Technologies Ltd.."> Corel and WordPerfect are trademarks or registered trademarks of Corel Corporation and/or its subsidiaries in Canada, the United States and/or other countries."> Sound Blaster is a trademark of Creative Technology Ltd. in the United States and/or other countries."> SoundBlaster"> + +Dell, Dell Precision, Latitude, + Optiplex, PowerEdge are trademarks or registered trademarks of Dell + Computer Corporation"> + FreeBSD is a registered trademark of Wind River Systems, Inc. This is expected to change soon."> IBM, AIX, OS/2, PowerPC, and S/390 are trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both."> AIX"> OS/2"> PowerPC"> S/390"> IEEE, POSIX, and 802 are registered trademarks of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. in the United States."> POSIX"> Intel, Celeron, EtherExpress, i386, i486, Itanium, Pentium, and Xeon are trademarks or registered trademarks of Intel Corporation or its subsidiaries in the United States and other countries."> Celeron"> EtherExpress"> i386"> i486"> Intel"> Itanium"> Pentium"> Xeon"> Intuit and Quicken are registered trademarks and/or registered service marks of Intuit Inc., or one of its subsidiaries, in the United States and other countries."> Iomega, Zip, and Jaz are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Iomega Corporation in the United States and/or other countries."> Zip"> Jaz"> Linux is a registered trademarks of Linus Torvalds in the United States."> + +LSI Logic, AcceleRAID, eXtremeRAID, + MegaRAID and Mylex are trademarks or registered trademarks of LSI + Logic Corp."> +MegaRAID"> +Mylex"> + Macromedia and Flash are trademarks or registered trademarks of Macromedia, Inc. in the United States and/or other countries."> Microsoft, FrontPage, MS-DOS, Outlook, Windows, Windows Media, and Windows NT are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries."> Microsoft"> MS-DOS"> Outlook"> Windows"> Windows NT"> MIPS and R4000 are registered trademarks of MIPS Technologies, Inc. in the United States and other countries."> MIPS"> + +M-Systems and, DiskOnChip are + trademarks or registered trademarks of M-Systems Flash Disk + Pioneers, Ltd."> +DiskOnChip"> + Netscape and the Netscape Navigator are registered trademarks of Netscape Communications Corporation in the U.S. and other countries."> Netscape"> Netscape Navigator"> NetWare, NetWare Loadable Module, and NLM are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Novell, Inc. in the United States and other countries."> Motif, OSF/1, and UNIX are registered trademarks and IT DialTone and The Open Group are trademarks of The Open Group in the United States and other countries."> UNIX"> Motif"> Oracle is a registered trademark is a of Oracle Corporation."> Oracle"> PowerQuest and PartitionMagic are registered trademarks of PowerQuest Corporation in the United States and/or other countries."> PartitionMagic"> RealNetworks, RealPlayer, and RealAudio are the registered trademarks of RealNetworks, Inc."> Red Hat, RPM, are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc. in the United States and other countries."> SAP, R/3, and mySAP are trademarks or registered trademarks of SAP AG in Germany and in several other countries all over the world."> +SAP + R/3"> Silicon Graphics, SGI, and OpenGL are registered trademarks of Silicon Graphics, Inc., in the United States and/or other countries worldwide."> OpenGL"> Sparc, Sparc64, SPARCEngine, and UltraSPARC are trademarks of SPARC International, Inc in the United States and other countries. Products bearing SPARC trademarks are based upon architecture developed by Sun Microsystems, Inc."> Sparc"> Sparc64"> UltraSPARC"> Sun, Sun Microsystems, StarOffice, SunOS, Solaris, and Java are trademarks or registered trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the United States and other countries."> Java"> Java Virtual Machine"> JDK"> JVM"> StarOffice"> Solaris"> SunOS"> Symantec and Ghost are registered trademarks of Symantec Corporation in the United States and other countries."> MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc."> MATLAB"> QUALCOMM and Eudora are registered trademarks of QUALCOMM Incorporated."> Eudora"> Waterloo Maple and Maple are trademarks or registered trademarks of Waterloo Maple Inc."> Mathematica is a registered trademark of Wolfram Research, Inc."> Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this document, and the FreeBSD Project was aware of the trademark claim, the designations have been followed by the ™ or the ® symbol.">